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diff --git a/40156-8.txt b/40156-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fa0753f..0000000 --- a/40156-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19781 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 14, Slice 3, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 3 - "Ichthyology" to "Independence" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: July 7, 2012 [EBook #40156] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 14 SL 3 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE ICHTHYOLOGY: "Within it in Neoceratodus are a number of - longitudinal rows of pocket valves." 'longitudinal' amended from - 'longtitudinal'. - - ARTICLE IDEALISM: "... the systems of impious and profane persons - which exclude all freedom, intelligence, and design from the - formation of things, and instead thereof make a self-existent ..." - 'freedom' amended from 'freeedom'. - - ARTICLE ILLINOIS: "An anti-trust law of 1893 exempted from the - definition of trust combinations those formed by producers of - agricultural products and live stock, but the United States Supreme - Court in 1902 declared the statute unconstitutional as class - legislation." 'United' amended from 'Untied'. - - ARTICLE IMAM: "... Juynboll's De Mohammedanische Wet, 316 seq. ..." - 'Mohammedanische' amended from 'Mohammedaanische'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XIV, SLICE III - - Ichthyology to Independence - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - ICHTHYOLOGY ILLUSTRES - ICHTHYOPHAGI ILLYRIA - ICHTHYOSAURUS ILMENAU - ICHTHYOSIS ILMENITE - ICKNIELD STREET ILOILO - ICON ILSENBURG - ICONIUM IMAGE - ICONOCLASTS IMAGE WORSHIP - ICONOSTASIS IMAGINATION - ICOSAHEDRON IMAM - ICTERUS IMBECILE - ICTINUS IMBREX - IDA IMBROS - IDAHO IMERETIA - IDAR IMIDAZOLES - IDAS IMITATION - IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD NORTHCOTE IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE - IDEA IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE - IDEALISM IMMANENCE - IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON - IDENTIFICATION IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT - IDEOGRAPH IMMERSION - IDIOBLAST IMMIGRATION - IDIOM IMMORTALITY - IDIOSYNCRASY IMMUNITY - IDOLATRY IMOLA - IDOMENEUS IMP - IDRIA IMPATIENS - IDRIALIN IMPEACHMENT - IDRISI IMPERIAL CHAMBER - IDUMAEA IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS - IDUN IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH - IDYL IMPHAL - IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM IMPLEMENT - IGLAU IMPLUVIUM - IGLESIAS IMPOSITION - IGNATIEV, NICHOLAS PAVLOVICH IMPOST - IGNATIUS IMPOTENCE - IGNORAMUS IMPRESSIONISM - IGNORANCE IMPRESSMENT - IGNORANTINES IMPROMPTU - IGUALADA IMPROVISATORE - IGUANA IN-ANTIS - IGUANODON INAUDI, JACQUES - IGUVIUM INCANTATION - IJOLITE INCE, WILLIAM - IKI INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD - ILAGAN INCENDIARISM - ILCHESTER INCENSE - ÎLE-DE-FRANCE INCEST - ILETSK INCH - ILFELD INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH - ILFORD INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN - ILFRACOMBE INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN - ILHAVO INCLINOMETER - ILI INCLOSURE - ILION IN COENA DOMINI - ILKESTON INCOME TAX - ILKLEY INCORPORATION - ILL INCUBATION and INCUBATORS - ILLAWARRA INCUBUS - ILLE-ET-VILAINE INCUMBENT - ILLEGITIMACY INCUNABULA - ILLER INDABA - ILLINOIS INDAZOLES - ILLORIN INDEMNITY - ILLUMINATED MSS. INDENE - ILLUMINATI INDENTURE - ILLUMINATION INDEPENDENCE - ILLUSTRATION - - - - -ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: ichthys], fish, and [Greek: logos], -doctrine or treatise), the branch of zoology which treats of the -internal and external structure of fishes, their mode of life, and their -distribution in space and time. According to the views now generally -adopted, all those vertebrate animals are referred to the class of -fishes which combine the following characteristics: they live in water, -and by means of gills or branchiae breathe air dissolved in water; the -heart consists of a single ventricle and single atrium; the limbs, if -present, are modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired median fins; -and the skin is either naked or covered with scales or with osseous -plates or bucklers. With few exceptions fishes are oviparous. There are, -however, not a few members of this class which show a modification of -one or more of these characteristics, and which, nevertheless, cannot be -separated from it. - - -I. HISTORY AND LITERATURE DOWN TO 1880 - -The commencement of the history of ichthyology coincides with that of -zoology generally. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had a perfect knowledge of -the general structure of fishes, which he clearly discriminates both -from the aquatic animals with lungs and mammae, i.e. Cetaceans, and from -the various groups of aquatic invertebrates. According to him: "the -special characteristics of the true fishes consist in the branchiae and -fins, the majority having four fins, but those of an elongate form, as -the eels, having two only. Some, as the _Muraena_, lack the fins -altogether. The rays swim with their whole body, which is spread out. -The branchiae are sometimes furnished with an operculum, sometimes they -are without one, as in the cartilaginous fishes.... No fish has hairs or -feathers; most are covered with scales, but some have only a rough or a -smooth skin. The tongue is hard, often toothed, and sometimes so much -adherent that it seems to be wanting. The eyes have no lids, nor are any -ears or nostrils visible, for what takes the place of nostrils is a -blind cavity; nevertheless they have the senses of tasting, smelling and -hearing. All have blood. All scaly fishes are oviparous, but the -cartilaginous fishes (with the exception of the sea-devil, which -Aristotle places along with them) are viviparous. All have a heart, -liver and gall-bladder; but kidneys and urinary bladder are absent. They -vary much in the structure of their intestines: for, whilst the mullet -has a fleshy stomach like a bird, others have no stomachic dilatation. -Pyloric caeca are close to the stomach, and vary in number; there are -even some, like the majority of the cartilaginous fishes, which have -none whatever. Two bodies are situated along the spine, which have the -function of testicles; they open towards the vent, and are much enlarged -in the spawning season. The scales become harder with age. Not being -provided with lungs, fishes have no voice, but several can emit grunting -sounds. They sleep like other animals. In most cases the females exceed -the males in size; and in the rays and sharks the male is distinguished -by an appendage on each side of the vent." - -Aristotle's information on the habits of fishes, their migrations, mode -and time of propagation, and economic uses is, so far as it has been -tested, surprisingly correct. Unfortunately, we too often lack the means -of recognizing the species of which he gives a description. His ideas of -specific distinction were as vague as those of the fishermen whose -nomenclature he adopted; it never occurred to him that vernacular names -are subject to change, or may be entirely lost in course of time, and -the difficulty of identifying his species is further increased by the -circumstance that sometimes several popular names are applied by him to -the same fish, or different stages of growth are designated by distinct -names. The number of fishes known to Aristotle seems to have been about -one hundred and fifteen, all of which are inhabitants of the Aegean Sea. - -That one man should have laid so sure a basis for future progress in -zoology is less surprising than that for about eighteen centuries a -science which seemed to offer particular attractions to men gifted with -power of observation was no further advanced. Yet such is the case. -Aristotle's successors remained satisfied to be his copiers or -commentators, and to collect fabulous stories or vague notions. With few -exceptions (such as Ausonius, who wrote a small poem, in which he -describes from his own observations the fishes of the Moselle) authors -abstained from original research; and it was not until about the middle -of the 16th century that ichthyology made a new step in advance by the -appearance of Belon, Rondelet and Salviani, who almost simultaneously -published their great works, by which the idea of species was -established. - - - Belon. - -P. Belon travelled in the countries bordering on the eastern part of the -Mediterranean in the years 1547-1550; he collected rich stores of -positive knowledge, which he embodied in several works. The one most -important for the progress of ichthyology is that entitled _De -aquatilibus libri duo_ (Paris, 1553). Belon knew about one hundred and -ten fishes, of which he gives rude but generally recognizable figures. -Although Belon rarely gives definitions of the terms used by him, it is -not generally very difficult to ascertain the limits which he intended -to assign to each division of aquatic animals. He very properly divides -them into such as are provided with blood and those without it--two -divisions corresponding in modern language to vertebrate and -invertebrate aquatic animals. The former are classified by him according -to size, the further sub-divisions being based on the structure of the -skeleton, mode of propagation, number of limbs, form of the body and -physical character of the habitat. - - - Salviani. - -The work of the Roman ichthyologist H. Salviani (1514-1572), bears -evidence of the high social position which the author held as physician -to three popes. Its title is _Aquatilium animalium historia_ (Rome, -1554-1557, fol.). It treats exclusively of the fishes of Italy. -Ninety-two species are figured on seventy-six plates, which, as regards -artistic execution, are masterpieces of that period, although those -specific characteristics which nowadays constitute the value of a -zoological drawing were overlooked by the author or artist. No attempt -is made at a natural classification, but the allied forms are generally -placed in close proximity. The descriptions are equal to those given by -Belon, entering much into the details of the economy and uses of the -several species, and were evidently composed with the view of collecting -in a readable form all that might prove of interest to the class of -society in which the author moved. Salviani's work is of a high order. -It could not fail to render ichthyology popular in the country to the -fauna of which it was devoted, but it was not fitted to advance -ichthyology as a science generally; in this respect Salviani is not to -be compared with Rondelet or Belon. - - - Rondelet. - -G. Rondelet (1507-1557) had the great advantage over Belon of having -received a medical education at Paris, and especially of having gone -through a complete course of instruction in anatomy as a pupil of -Guentherus of Andernach. This is conspicuous throughout his -works--_Libri de piscibus marinis_ (Lyons, 1554); and _Universae -aquatilium historiae pars altera_ (Lyons, 1555). Nevertheless they -cannot be regarded as more than considerably enlarged editions of -Belon's work. For, although he worked independently of the latter, the -system adopted by him is characterized by the same absence of the true -principles of classification. His work is almost entirely limited to -European and chiefly to Mediterranean forms, and comprises no fewer than -one hundred and ninety-seven marine and forty-seven fresh-water fishes. -His descriptions are more complete and his figures much more accurate -than those of Belon; and the specific account is preceded by -introductory chapters, in which he treats in a general manner of the -distinctions, the external and internal parts, and the economy of -fishes. Like Belon, he had no conception of the various categories of -classification--confounding throughout his work the terms "genus" and -"species," but he had an intuitive notion of what his successors called -a "species," and his principal object was to give as much information as -possible regarding such species. - -For nearly a century the works of Belon and Rondelet continued to be the -standard works on ichthyology; but the science did not remain stationary -during that period. The attention of naturalists was now directed to the -fauna of foreign countries, especially of the Spanish and Dutch -possessions in the New World; and in Europe the establishment of -anatomical schools and academies led to careful investigation of the -internal anatomy of the most remarkable European forms. Limited as these -efforts were as to their scope, they were sufficiently numerous to -enlarge the views of naturalists, and to destroy that fatal dependence -on preceding authorities which had kept in bonds even Rondelet and -Belon. The most noteworthy of those engaged in these inquiries in -tropical countries were W. Piso and G. Marcgrave, who accompanied as -physicians the Dutch governor, Count Maurice of Nassau, to Brazil -(1630-1644). - -Of the men who left records of their anatomical researches, we may -mention Borelli (1608-1679), who wrote a work _De motu animalium_ (Rome, -1680, 4to), in which he explained the mechanism of swimming and the -function of the air-bladder; M. Malpighi (1628-1694), who examined the -optic nerve of the sword-fish; the celebrated J. Swammerdam (1637-1680), -who described the intestines of numerous fishes; and J. Duverney -(1648-1730), who investigated in detail the organs of respiration. - -A new era in the history of ichthyology commences with Ray, Willughby -and Artedi, who were the first to recognize the true principles by which -the natural affinities of animals should be determined. Their labours -stand in so intimate a connexion with each other that they represent but -one great step in the progress of this science. - - - Ray and Willughby. - -J. Ray (1628-1705) was the friend and guide of F. Willughby (1635-1672). -They found that a thorough reform in the method of treating the -vegetable and animal kingdoms had become necessary; that the only way of -bringing order into the existing chaos was by arranging the various -forms according to their structure. They therefore substituted facts for -speculation, and one of the first results of this change, perhaps the -most important, was that, having recognized "species" as such, they -defined the term and fixed it as the starting-point of all sound -zoological knowledge. - -Although they had divided their work so that Ray attended to the plants -principally, and Willughby to the animals, the _Historia piscium_ (Oxf., -1686), which bears Willughby's name on the title-page and was edited by -Ray, is their joint production. A great part of the observations -contained in it were collected during the journeys they made together in -Great Britain and in the various countries of Europe. - -By the definition of fishes as animals with blood, breathing by gills, -provided with a single ventricle of the heart, and either covered with -scales or naked, the Cetaceans are excluded. The fishes proper are -arranged primarily according to the cartilaginous or the osseous nature -of the skeleton, and then subdivided according to the general form of -the body, the presence or the absence of ventral fins, the soft or the -spinous structure of the dorsal rays, the number of dorsal fins, &c. No -fewer than four hundred and twenty species are thus arranged and -described, of which about one hundred and eighty were known to the -authors from personal examination--a comparatively small proportion, -but descriptions and figures still formed in great measure the -substitute for our modern collections and museums. With the increasing -accumulation of forms, the want of a fixed nomenclature had become more -and more felt. - - - Artedi. - -Peter Artedi (1705-1734) would have been a great ichthyologist if Ray or -Willughby had not preceded him. But he was fully conscious of the fact -that both had prepared the way for him, and therefore he did not fail to -reap every possible advantage from their labours. His work, edited by -Linnaeus, is divided as follows:-- - - (1) In the _Bibliotheca ichthyologica_ Artedi gives a very complete - list of all preceding authors who had written on fishes, with a - critical analysis of their works. (2) The _Philosophia ichthyologica_ - is devoted to a description of the external and internal parts of - fishes; Artedi fixes a precise terminology for all the various - modifications of the organs, distinguishing between those characters - which determine a genus and such as indicate a species or merely a - variety; in fact he establishes the method and principles which - subsequently have guided every systematic ichthyologist. (3) The - _Genera piscium_ contains well-defined diagnoses of forty-five genera, - for which he has fixed an unchangeable nomenclature. (4) In the - _Species piscium_ descriptions of seventy-two species, examined by - himself, are given--descriptions which even now are models of - exactitude and method. (5) Finally, in the _Synonymia piscium_ - references to all previous authors are arranged for every species, - very much in the manner which is adopted in the systematic works of - the present day. - - - Linnaeus. - -Artedi has been justly called the father of ichthyology. So admirable -was his treatment of the subject, that even Linnaeus could only modify -and add to it. Indeed, so far as ichthyology is concerned, Linnaeus has -scarcely done anything beyond applying binominal terms to the species -properly described and classified by Artedi. His classification of the -genera appears in the 12th edition of the _Systema_ thus:-- - - A. _Amphibia nantia._--_Spiraculis compositis._--Petromyzon, Raía, - Squalus, Chimaera. _Spiraculis solitariis._--Lophius, Acipenser, - Cyclopterus, Balistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, - Syngnathus, Pegasus. - - B. _Pisces apodes._--Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas, - Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias. - - C. _Pisces jugulares._--Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Gadus, - Blennius. - - D. _Pisces thoracici._--Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius, Cottus, - Scorpaena, Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Sparus, Labrus, Sciaena, - Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla. - - E. _Pisces abdominales._--Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Teuthis, Loricaria, - Salmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, Argentina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, - Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus. - -Two contemporaries of Linnaeus, L. T. Gronow and J. T. Klein, attempted -a systematic arrangement of fishes. - -The works of Artedi and Linnaeus led to an activity of research, -especially in Scandinavia, Holland, Germany and England, such as has -never been equalled in the history of biological science. Whilst some of -the pupils and followers of Linnaeus devoted themselves to the -examination and study of the fauna of their native countries, others -proceeded on voyages of discovery to foreign and distant lands. Of these -latter the following may be especially mentioned: O. Fabricius worked -out the fauna of Greenland; Peter Kalm collected in North America, F. -Hasselquist in Egypt and Palestine, M. T. Brünnich in the Mediterranean, -Osbeck in Java and China, K. P. Thunberg in Japan; Forskål examined and -described the fishes of the Red Sea; G. W. Steller, P. S. Pallas, S. G. -Gmelin, and A. J. Güldenstädt traversed nearly the whole of the Russian -empire in Europe and Asia. Others attached themselves as naturalists to -celebrated navigators, such as the two Forsters (father and son) and -Solander, who accompanied Cook; P. Commerson, who travelled with -Bougainville; and Pierre Sonnerat. Of those who studied the fishes of -their native countries, the most celebrated were Pennant (Great -Britain), O. F. Müller (Denmark), Duhamel du Monceau (France), C. von -Meidinger (Austria), J. Cornide (Spain), and A. Parra (Cuba). - -The mass of materials brought together was so great that, not long after -the death of Linnaeus, the necessity made itself felt for collecting -them in a compendious form. Several compilers undertook this task; they -embodied the recent discoveries in new editions of the classical works -of Artedi and Linnaeus, but, they only succeeded in burying those noble -monuments under a chaotic mass of rubbish. For ichthyology it was -fortunate that two men at least, Bloch and Lacepède, made it a subject -of prolonged original research. - - - Bloch. - -Mark Eliezer Bloch (1723-1799), a physician of Berlin, had reached the -age of fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects. His -work consists of two divisions:-- (1) _Öconomische Naturgeschichte der -Fische Deutschlands_ (Berl., 1782-1784); (2) _Naturgeschichte der -ausländischen Fische_ (Berl., 1785-1795). The first division, which is -devoted to a description of the fishes of Germany, is entirely original. -His descriptions as well as figures were made from nature, and are, with -few exceptions, still serviceable; indeed many continue to be the best -existing in literature. Bloch was less fortunate, and is much less -trustworthy, in his natural history of foreign fishes. For many of the -species he had to trust to more or less incorrect drawings and -descriptions by travellers; frequently, also, he was deceived as to the -origin of specimens which he purchased. Hence his accounts contain -numerous errors, which it would have been difficult to correct had not -nearly the whole of the materials on which his work is based been -preserved in the collections at Berlin. - -After the completion of his great work Bloch prepared a general system -of fishes, in which he arranged not only those previously described, but -also those with which he had afterwards become acquainted. The work was -ably edited and published after Bloch's death by a philologist, J. G. -Schneider, under the title _M. E. Blochii Systema ichthyologiae iconibus -cx. illustratum_ (Berl., 1801). The number of species enumerated amounts -to 1519. The system is based upon the number of the fins, the various -orders being termed _Hendecapterygii_, _Decapterygii_, &c. An artificial -method like this led to the most unnatural combinations and -distinctions. - -Bloch's _Naturgeschichte_ remained for many years the standard work. But -as regards originality of thought Bloch was far surpassed by his -contemporary, B. G. E. de Lacepède, born at Agen, in France, in 1756, -who became professor at the museum of natural history in Paris, where he -died in 1825. - - - Lacepède. - -Lacepède had to contend with great difficulties in the preparations of -his _Histoire des poissons_ (Paris, 1798-1803, 5 vols.), which was -written during the most disturbed period of the French Revolution. A -great part of it was composed whilst the author was separated from -collections and books, and had to rely on his notes and manuscripts -only. Even the works of Bloch and other contemporaneous authors remained -unknown or inaccessible to him for a long time. His work, therefore, -abounds in the kind of errors into which a compiler is liable to fall. -Thus the influence of Lacepède on the progress of ichthyology was vastly -less than that of his fellow-labourer; and the labour laid on his -successors in correcting numerous errors probably outweighed the -assistance which they derived from his work. - -The work of the principal students of ichthyology in the period between -Ray and Lacepède was chiefly systematizing and describing; but the -internal organization of fishes also received attention from more than -one great anatomist. Albrecht von Haller, Peter Camper and John Hunter -examined the nervous system and the organs of sense; and Alexander -Monro, _secundus_, published a classical work, _The Structure and -Physiology of Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and other -Animals_ (Edin., 1785). The electric organs of fishes (_Torpedo_ and -_Gymnotus_) were examined by Réaumur, J. N. S. Allamand, E. Bancroft, -John Walsh, and still more exactly by J. Hunter. The mystery of the -propagation of the eel called forth a large number of essays, and even -the artificial propagation of _Salmonidae_ was known and practised by J. -G. Gleditsch (1764). - -Bloch and Lacepède's works were almost immediately succeeded by the -labours of Cuvier, but his early publications were tentative, -preliminary and fragmentary, so that some little time elapsed before the -spirit infused into ichthyology by this great anatomist could exercise -its influence on all the workers in this field. - - The _Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes collected at - Vizagapatam on the Coast of Coromandel_ (Lond., 1803, 2 vols.) by - Patrick Russel, and _An Account of the Fishes found in the River - Ganges and its Branches_ (Edin., 1822, 2 vols.) by F. Hamilton - (formerly Buchanan), were works distinguished by greater accuracy of - the drawings (especially the latter) than was ever attained before. A - _Natural History of British Fishes_ was published by E. Donovan - (Lond., 1802-1808); and the Mediterranean fauna formed the study of - the lifetime of A. Risso, _Ichthyologie de Nice_ (Paris, 1810); and - _Histoire naturelle de l'Europe méridionale_ (Paris, 1827). A slight - beginning in the description of the fishes of the United States was - made by Samuel Latham Mitchell (1764-1831), who published, besides - various papers, a _Memoir on the Ichthyology of New York_, in 1815. - - - Cuvier. - - Valenciennes. - -G. Cuvier (1769-1832) devoted himself to the study of fishes with -particular predilection. The investigation of their anatomy, and -especially their skeleton, was continued until he had succeeded in -completing so perfect a framework of the system of the whole class that -his immediate successors required only to fill up those details for -which their master had had no leisure. He ascertained the natural -affinities of the infinite variety of forms, and accurately defined the -divisions, orders, families and genera of the class, as they appear in -the various editions of the _Règne Animal_. His industry equalled his -genius; he formed connections with almost every accessible part of the -globe; and for many years the museum of the Jardin des Plantes was the -centre where all ichthyological treasures were deposited. Thus Cuvier -brought together a collection which, as it contains all the materials on -which his labours were based, must still be considered as the most -important. Soon after the year 1820, Cuvier, assisted by one of his -pupils, A. Valenciennes, commenced his great work on fishes, _Historie -naturelle des Poissons_, of which the first volume appeared in 1828. -After Cuvier's death in 1832 the work was left entirely in the hands of -Valenciennes, whose energy and interest gradually slackened, rising to -their former pitch in some parts only, as, for instance, in the -treatise, on the herring. He left the work unfinished with the -twenty-second volume (1848), which treats of the Salmonoids. Yet, -incomplete as it is, it is indispensable to the student. - -The system finally adopted by Cuvier is the following:-- - - A. POISSONS OSSEUX. - - I. A BRANCHIES EN PEIGNES OU EN LAMES. - - 1. _A Mâchoire Supérieure Libre._ - - a. Acanthoptérygiens. - - Percoïdes. Sparoïdes. Branchies labyrinthiques. - Polynèmes. Chétodonoïdes. Lophioïdes. - Mulles. Scombéroïdes. Gobioïdes. - Joues cuirassées. Muges. Labroïdes. - Sciénoïdes. - - b. Malacoptérygiens. - - _Abdominaux._ _Subbrachiens._ _Apodes._ - --- --- --- - Cyprinoïdes. Gadoïdes. Murénoïdes. - Siluroïdes. Pleuronectes. - Salmonoïdes. Discoboles. - Clupéoïdes. - Lucioïdes. - - 2. _A Mâchoire Supérieure Fixée._ - - Selérodermes. Gymnodontes. - - II. A BRANCHIES EN FORME DE HOUPPES. - - Lophobranches. - - B. CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTÉRYGIENS. - - Sturioniens. Plagiostomes. Cyclostomes. - -We have only to compare this system with that of Linnaeus if we wish to -measure the gigantic stride made by ichthyology during the intervening -period of seventy years. The various characters employed for -classification have been examined throughout the whole class, and their -relative importance has been duly weighed and understood. The important -category of "family" appears now in Cuvier's system fully established as -intermediate between genus and order. Important changes in Cuvier's -system have been made and proposed by his successors, but in the main it -is still that of the present day. - -Cuvier had extended his researches beyond the living forms, into the -field of palaeontology; he was the first to observe the close -resemblance of the scales of the fossil _Palaeoniscus_ to those of the -living _Polypterus_ and _Lepidosteus_, the prolongation and identity of -structure of the upper caudal lobe in _Palaeoniscus_ and the sturgeons, -the presence of peculiar "fulcra" on the anterior margin of the dorsal -fin in _Palaeoniscus_ and _Lepidosteus_, and inferred from these facts -that the fossil genus was allied either to the sturgeons or to -_Lepidosteus_. But it did not occur to him that there was a close -relationship between those recent fishes. _Lepidosteus_ and, with it, -the fossil genus remained in his system a member of the order of -_Malacopterygii abdominales_. - - - Agassiz. - -It was left to L. Agassiz (1807-1873) to point out the importance of the -structure of the scales as a characteristic, and to open a path towards -the knowledge of a whole new subclass of fishes, the _Ganoidei_. -Impressed with the fact that the peculiar scales of _Polypterus_ and -_Lepidosteus_ are common to all fossil osseous fishes down to the Chalk, -he takes the structure of the scales generally as the base for an -ichthyological system, and distinguishes four orders:-- - - 1. _Placoids._--Without scales proper, but with scales of enamel, - sometimes large, sometimes small, and reduced to mere points (Rays, - Sharks and Cyclostomi, with the fossil Hybodontes). 2. - _Ganoids._--With angular bony scales, covered with a thick stratum of - enamel: to this order belong the fossil Lepidoides, Sauroides, - Pycnodontes and Coelacanthi; the recent Polypterus, Lepidosteus, - Sclerodermi, Gymnodontes, Lophobranches and Siluroides; also the - Sturgeons. 3. _Ctenoids._--With rough scales, which have their free - margins denticulated: Chaetodontidae, Pleuronectidae, Percidae, - Polyacanthi, Sciaenidae, Sparidae, Scorpaenidae, Aulostomi. 4. - _Cycloids._--With smooth scales, the hind margin of which lacks - denticulation: Labridae, Mugilidae, Scombridae, Gadoidei, Gobiidae, - Muraenidae, Lucioidei, Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Cyprinidae. - -If Agassiz had had an opportunity of acquiring a more extensive and -intimate knowledge of existing fishes before his energies were absorbed -in the study of fossil remains, he would doubtless have recognized the -artificial character of his classification. The distinctions between -cycloid and ctenoid scales, between placoid and ganoid fishes, are -vague, and can hardly be maintained. So far as the living and -post-Cretacean forms are concerned, he abandoned the vantage-ground -gained by Cuvier; and therefore his system could never supersede that of -his predecessor, and finally shared the fate of every classification -based on the modifications of one organ only. But Agassiz opened an -immense new field of research by his study of the infinite variety of -fossil forms. In his principal work, _Recherches sur les poissons -fossiles_, Neuchâtel, 1833-1843, 4to, atlas in fol., he placed them -before the world arranged in a methodical manner, with excellent -descriptions and illustrations. His power of discernment and penetration -in determining even the most fragmentary remains is astonishing; and, if -his order of Ganoids is an assemblage of forms very different from what -is now understood by that term, he was the first who recognized that -such an order of fishes exists. - -The discoverer of the _Ganoidei_ was succeeded by their explorer -Johannes Müller (1801-1858). In his classical memoir _Über den Bau und -die Grenzen der Ganoiden_ (Berl., 1846) he showed that the Ganoids -differ from all the other osseous fishes, and agree with the -Plagiostomes, in the structure of the heart. By this primary character, -all heterogeneous elements, as Siluroids, _Osteoglossidae_, &c., were -eliminated from the order as understood by Agassiz. On the other hand, -he did not recognize the affinity of _Lepidosiren_ to the Ganoids, but -established for it a distinct subclass, _Dipnoi_, which he placed at the -opposite end of the system. By his researches into the anatomy of the -lampreys and _Amphioxus_, their typical distinctness from other -cartilaginous fishes was proved; they became the types of two other -subclasses, _Cyclostomi_ and _Leptocardii_. - -Müller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian system; -and, although all cannot be maintained as the most natural arrangements, -yet his researches have given us a much more complete knowledge of the -organization of the Teleostean fishes, and later inquiries have shown -that, on the whole, the combinations proposed by him require only some -further modification and another definition to render them perfectly -natural. - -The discovery (in the year 1871) of a living representative of a genus -hitherto believed to be long extinct, _Ceratodus_, threw a new light on -the affinities of fishes. The writer of the present article, who had the -good fortune to examine this fish, was enabled to show that, on the one -hand, it was a form most closely allied to _Lepidosiren_, and, on the -other, that it could not be separated from the Ganoid fishes, and -therefore that _Lepidosiren_ also was a Ganoid,--a relation already -indicated by Huxley in a previous paper on "Devonian Fishes." - -Having followed the development of the ichthyological system down to -this period, we now enumerate the most important contributions to -ichthyology which appeared contemporaneously with or subsequently to the -publication of the great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes. For the sake -of convenience we may arrange these works under two heads. - - - I. VOYAGES, CONTAINING GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS - - A. _French._--1. _Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes de S. M. - l'Uranie et la Physicienne, sous le commandement de M. Freycinet_, - "Zoologie--Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1824). 2. _Voyage de - la Coquille_, "Zoologie," par Lesson (Paris, 1826-1830). 3. _Voyage de - l'Astrolabe, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont d'Urville_, - "Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1834). 4. _Voyage au Pôle Sud - par M. J. Dumont d'Urville_, "Poissons," par Hombron et Jacquinot - (Paris, 1853-1854). - - B. _English._--1. _Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur_, "Fishes," by J. - Richardson (Lond., 1844-1845). 2. _Voyage of H.M.SS. Erebus and - Terror_, "Fishes," by J. Richardson (Lond., 1846). 3. _Voyage of - H.M.S. Beagle_, "Fishes," by L. Jenyns (Lond., 1842). - - _C. German._--1. _Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara_, - "Fische," von R. Kner (Vienna, 1865). - - - II. FAUNAE - - A. _Great Britain._--1. R. Parnell, _The Natural History of the Fishes - of the Firth of Forth_ (Edin., 1838). 2. W. Yarrell, _A History of - British Fishes_ (3rd ed., Lond., 1859). 3. J. Couch, _History of the - Fishes of the British Islands_ (Lond., 1862-1865). - - B. _Denmark and Scandinavia._--1. H. Kröyer, _Danmark's Fiske_ - (Copenhagen, 1838-1853). 2. S. Nilsson, _Skandinavisk Fauna_, vol. iv. - "Fiskarna" (Lund, 1855). 3. Fries och Ekström, _Skandinaviens Fiskar_ - (Stockh., 1836). - - C. _Russia._--1. Nordmann, "Ichthyologie pontique," in Demidoff's - _Voyage dans la Russie méridionale_, tome iii. (Paris, 1840). - - D. _Germany._--1. Heckel und Kner, _Die Süsswasserfische der - österreichischen Monarchie_ (Leipz., 1858). 2. C. T. E. Siebold, _Die - Süsswasserfische von Mitteleuropa_ (Leipz., 1863). - - E. _Italy and Mediterranean._--1. Bonaparte, _Iconografia della fauna - italica_, tom iii., "Pesci" (Rome, 1832-1841). 2. Costa, _Fauna del - regno di Napoli_, "Pesci" (Naples, about 1850). - - F. _France._--1. E. Blanchard, _Les Poissons des eaux douces de la - France_ (Paris, 1866). - - G. _Spanish Peninsula._--The fresh-water fish fauna of Spain and - Portugal was almost unknown, until F. Steindachner paid some visits to - those countries for the purpose of exploring the principal rivers. His - discoveries are described in several papers in the _Sitzungsberichte - der Akademie zu Wien_. B. du Bocage and F. de B. Capello made - contributions to our knowledge of the marine fishes on the coast of - Portugal (_Jorn. Scienc. Acad. Lisb._). - - H. _North America._--1. J. Richardson, _Fauna Bareali-Americana_, part - iii., "Fishes" (Lond., 1836). The species described in this work are - nearly all from the British possessions in the north. 2. Dekay, - _Zoology of New York_, part iv., "Fishes" (New York, 1842). 3. - _Reports of the U.S. Comm. of Fish and Fisheries_ (5 vols., - Washington, 1873-1879) and _Reports_ and special publications of the - U.S. Bureau of Fisheries contain valuable information. Numerous - descriptions of North American fresh-water fishes have been published - in the reports of the various U.S. Government expeditions, and in - North American scientific journals, by D. H. Storer, S. F. Baird, C. - Girard, W. O. Ayres, E. D. Cope, D. S. Jordan, G. Brown Goode, &c. - - I. _Japan._--1. _Fauna Japonica_, "Poissons," par H. Schlegel, - (Leiden, 1850). - - J. _East Indies; Tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans._--1. - E. Rüppell, _Atlas zu der Reise im nördlichen Afrika_ (Frankf., 1828). - 2. E. Rüppell, _Neue Wirbelthiere_, "Fische" (Frankf., 1837). 3. R. L. - Playfair and A. Günther, _The Fishes of Zanzibar_ (Lond., 1876). 4. C. - B. Klunzinger, _Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meers_ (Vienna, - 1870-1871). 5. F. Day, _The Fishes of India_ (Lond., 1865, 4to) - contains an account of the fresh-water and marine species. 6. A. - Günther, _Die Fische der Südsee_ (Hamburg, 4to), from 1873 (in - progress). 7. Unsurpassed in activity, as regards the exploration of - the fish fauna of the East Indian archipelago, is P. Bleeker - (1819-1878), a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East Indian - Government, who, from the year 1840, for nearly thirty years, amassed - immense collections of the fishes of the various islands, and - described them in extremely numerous papers, published chiefly in the - journals of the Batavian Society. Soon after his return to Europe - (1860) Bleeker commenced to collect the final results of his labours - in a grand work, illustrated by coloured plates, _Atlas ichthyologique - des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises_ (Amsterd., fol., 1862), the - publication of which was interrupted by the author's death in 1878. - - K. _Africa._--1. A. Günther, "The Fishes of the Nile," in Petherick's - _Travels in Central Africa_ (Lond., 1869). 2. W. Peters, - _Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique_, iv., "Flussfische" - (Berl., 1868, 4to). - - L. _West Indies and South America._--1. L. Agassiz, _Selecta genera et - species piscium, quae in itinere per Brasiliam, collegit J. B. de - Spix_ (Munich, 1829, fol.). 2. F. de Castelnau, _Animaux nouveaux ou - rares, recueillis pendant l'expédition dans les parties centrales de - l'Amérique du Sud_, "Poissons" (Paris, 1855). 3. L. Vaillant and F. - Bocourt, _Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amérique - centrale_, "Poissons" (Paris, 1874). 4. F. Poey, the celebrated - naturalist of Havana, devoted many years of study to the fishes of - Cuba. His papers and memoirs are published partly in two periodicals, - issued by himself, under the title of _Memorias sobre la historia - natural de la isla de Cuba_ (from 1851), and _Repertorio - fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (from 1865), partly in North - American scientific journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner and A. - Günther have published many contributions, accompanied by excellent - figures, to our knowledge of the fishes of Central and South America. - - M. _New Zealand._--1. F. W. Hutton and J. Hector, _Fishes of New - Zealand_ (Wellington, 1872). - - N. _Arctic Regions._--1. C. Lütken, "A Revised Catalogue of the Fishes - of Greenland," in _Manual of the Natural History, Geology and Physics - of Greenland_ (Lond., 1875, 8vo). 2. The fishes of Spitzbergen were - examined by A. J. Malmgren (1865). (A. C. G.) - - -II. HISTORY AND LITERATURE FROM 1880 - -In the systematic account which followed the above chapter in the 9th -edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the following classification, -which is the same as that given in the author's _Introduction to the -Study of Fishes_ (London, 1880) was adopted by Albert Günther:-- - - Subclass I. : PALAEICHTHYES. - Order I. : _Chondropterygii._ - With two suborders : Plagiostomata and Holocephala. - Order II. : _Ganoidei._ - With eight suborders : Placodermi, Acanthodini, Dipnoi, - Chondrostei, Polypteroidei, Pycnodontoidei, Lepidosteoidei, - Amioidei. - - Subclass II. : TELEOSTEI. - Order I. : _Acanthopterygii._ - With the divisions Perciformes, Beryciformes, Kurtiformes, - Polynemiformes, Sciaeniformes, Xiphiiformes, Trichiuriformes, - Cotto-Scombriformes, Gobiiformes, Blenniformes, Mugiliformes, - Gastrosteiformes, Centrisciformes, Gobiesociformes, Channiformes, - Labyrinthibranchii, Lophotiformes, Taeniiformes and - Notacanthiformes. - Order II. : _Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi._ - Order III. : _Anacanthini._ - With two divisions : Gadoidei and Pleuronectoidei. - Order IV. : _Physostomi._ - Order V. : _Lophobranchii._ - Order VI. : _Plectognathi._ - - Subclass III. : CYCLOSTOMATA. - - Subclass IV. : LEPTOGARDII. - -It was an artificial system, in which the most obvious relationships of -the higher groups were lost sight of, and the results of the already -fairly advanced study of the fossil forms to a great extent discarded. -This system gave rise to much adverse criticism; as T. H. Huxley -forcibly put it in a paper published soon after (1883), opposing the -division of the main groups into Palaeichthyes and Teleostei: -"Assuredly, if there is any such distinction to be drawn on the basis of -our present knowledge among the higher fishes, it is between the Ganoids -and the Plagiostomes, and not between the Ganoids and the Teleosteans"; -at the same time expressing his conviction, "first, that there are no -two large groups of animals for which the evidence of a direct genetic -connexion is better than in the case of the Ganoids and the Teleosteans; -and secondly, that the proposal to separate the Elasmobranchii -(Chondropterygii of Günther), Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Müller into a group -apart from, and equivalent to, the Teleostei appears to be inconsistent -with the plainest relations of these fishes." This verdict has been -endorsed by all subsequent workers at the classification of fishes. - -Günther's classification would have been vastly improved had he made -use of a contribution published as early as 1871, but not referred to by -him. As not even a passing allusion is made to it in the previous -chapter, we must retrace our steps to make good this striking omission. -Edward Drinker Cope (1840-1897) was a worker of great originality and -relentless energy, who, in the sixties of the last century, inspired by -the doctrine of evolution, was one of the first to apply its principles -to the classification of vertebrates. Equally versed in recent and -fossil zoology, and endowed with a marvellous gift, or "instinct" for -perceiving the relationship of animals, he has done a great deal for the -advance of our knowledge of mammals, reptiles and fishes. Although often -careless in the working out of details and occasionally a little too -bold in his deductions, Cope occupies a high rank among the zoologists -of the 19th century, and much of his work has stood the test of time. - -The following was Cope's classification, 1871 (_Tr. Amer. Philos. Soc._ -xiv. 449). - - Subclass I. Holocephali. - " II. Selachii. - " III. Dipnoi. - " IV. Crossopterygia, with two orders: Haplistia and Cladistia. - " V. Actinopteri. - -The latter is subdivided in the following manner:-- - - Tribe I. : Chondrostei. - Two orders : Selachostomi and Glaniostomi. - Tribe II. : Physostomi. - Twelve orders: Ginglymodi, Halecomorphi, Nematognathi, Scyphophori, - Plectospondyli, Isospondyli, Haplomi, Glanencheli, Ichthyocephali, - Holostomi, Enchelycephali, Colocephali. - Tribe III. : Physoclysti. - Ten orders : Opisthomi, Percesoces, Synentognathi, Hemibranchii, - Lophobranchii, Pediculati, Heterosomata, Plectognathi, Percomorphi, - Pharyngognathi. - -Alongside with so much that is good in this classification, there are -many suggestions which cannot be regarded as improvements on the views -of previous workers. Attaching too great an importance to the mode of -suspension of the mandible, Cope separated the Holocephali from the -Selachii and the Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii, thus obscuring the -general agreement which binds these groups to each other, whilst there -is an evident want of proportion in the five subclasses. The exclusion -from the class Pisces of the Leptocardii, or lancelets, as first -advocated by E. Haeckel, was a step in the right direction, whilst that -of the Cyclostomes does not seem called for to such an authority as R. -H. Traquair, with whom the writer of this review entirely concurs. - -The group of Crossopterygians, first separated as a family from the -other Ganoids by Huxley, constituted a fortunate innovation, and so was -its division into two minor groups, by which the existing forms -(_Polypteroidei_) were separated as Cladistia. The divisions of the -Actinopteri, which includes all Teleostomes other than the Dipneusti and -Crossopterygii also showed, on the whole, a correct appreciation of -their relationships, the Chondrostei being well separated from the other -Ganoids with which they were generally associated. In the groupings of -the minor divisions, which Cope termed orders, we had a decided -improvement on the Cuvierian-Müllerian classification, the author having -utilized many suggestions of his fellow countrymen Theodore Gill, who -has done much towards a better understanding of their relationships. In -the association of the Characinids with the Cyprinids (Plectospondyli) -in the separation of the flat-fishes from the Ganoids, in the -approximation of the Lophobranchs to the sticklebacks and of the -Plectognaths to the Acanthopterygians, and in many other points, Cope -was in advance of his time, and it is to be regretted that his -contemporaries did not more readily take up many of his excellent -suggestions for the improvement of their systems. - -In the subsequent period of his very active scientific life, Cope made -many alterations to his system, the latest scheme published by him being -the following ("Synopsis of the families of Vertebrata," _Amer. Natur._, -1889, p. 849):-- - - Class : Agnatha. - I. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI. - Orders : Arrhina, Diplorrhina. - II. Subclass : MARSIPOBRANCHII. - Orders : Hyperotreti, Hyperoarti. - - Class : Pisces. - I. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI. - II. Subclass : DIPNOI. - III. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII. - Orders : Ichthyotomi, Selachii. - IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI. - (i.) Superorder : _Rhipidopterygia._ - Orders : Rhipidistia, Actinistia. - (ii.) Superorder : _Crossopterygia._ - Orders : Placodermi, Haplistia, Taxistia, Cladistia. - (iii.) Superorder : _Podopterygia_ (Chondrostei). - (iv.) Superorder : _Actinopterygia._ - Orders : Physostomi, Physoclysti. - -This classification is that followed, with many emendations, by A. S. -Woodward in his epoch-making _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes_ (4 vols., -London, 1889-1901), and in his most useful _Outlines of Vertebrate -Paleontology_ (Cambridge, 1898), and was adopted by Günther in the 10th -edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:-- - - Class : Agnatha. - I. Subclass : CYCLOSTOMI. - With three orders : (a) _Hyperoartia_ (Lampreys); (b) - _Hyperotreti_ (Myxinoids); (c) _Cycliae_ (Palaeospondylus). - II. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI. - With four orders : (a) _Heterostraci_ (Coelolepidae, - Psammosteidae, Drepanaspidae, Pteraspidae); (b) _Osteostraci_ - (Cephalaspidae, Ateleaspidae, &c.); (c) Antiarchi - (Asterolepidae, Pterichthys, Bothrolepis, &c.); (d) Anaspida - (Birkeniidae). - - Class : Pisces. - I. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII. - With four orders : (a) _Pleuropterygii_ (Cladoselache); (b) - _Ichthyotomi_ (Pleuracanthidae); (c) _Acanthodii_ - (Diplacanthidae, and Acanthodidae); (d) _Selachii_ (divided - from the structure of the vertebral centres into - Asterospondyli and Tectospondyli). - II. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI. - With one order : _Chimaeroidei._ - III. Subclass : DIPNOI. - With two orders : (a) _Sirenoidei_ (Lepidosiren, Ceratodus, - Uronemidae, Ctenodontidae); (b) _Arthrodira_ (Homosteus, - Coccosteus, Dinichthys). - IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI. - A. Order : _Crossopterygii._ - With four suborders: (1) _Haplistia_ (Tarassius); (2) - _Rhipidistia_ (Holoptychidae, Rhizodontidae, Osteolepidae); - (3) _Actinistia_ (Coelacanthidae); (4) _Cladistia_ - (Polypterus). - B. Order : _Actinopterygii._ - With about twenty suborders: (1) _Chondrostei_ - (Palaeoniscidae, Platysomidae, Chondrosteidae, Sturgeons); - (2) _Protospondyli_ (Semionotidae, Macrosemiidae, - Pycnodontidae, Eugnathidae, Amiidae, Pachycormidae); (3) - _Aetheospondyli_ (Aspidorhynchidae, Lepidosteidae); (4) - _Isospondyli_ (Pholidophoridae, Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae, - Leptolepidae, &c.); (5) _Plectospondyli_ (Cyprinidae, - Characinidae); (6) _Nematognathi_; (7) _Apodes_; and the - other Teleosteans. - -There are, however, grave objections to this system, which cannot be -said to reflect the present state of our knowledge. In his masterly -paper on the evolution of the Dipneusti, L. Dollo has conclusively shown -that the importance of the autostyly on which the definition of the -Holocephali from the Elasmobranchii or Selachii and of the Dipneusti -from the Teleostomi rested, had been exaggerated, and that therefore the -position assigned to these two groups in Günther's classification of -1880 still commended itself. Recent work on _Palaeospondylus_, on the -Ostracoderms, and on the Arthrodira, throws great doubt on the propriety -of the positions given to them in the above classification, and the rank -assigned to the main divisions of the Teleostomi do not commend -themselves to the writer of the present article, who would divide the -fishes into three subclasses:-- - - I. Cyclostomi - II. Selachii - III. Teleostomi, - -the characters and contents of which will be found in separate -articles; in the present state of uncertainty as to their position, -_Palaeospondylus_ and the _Ostracodermi_ are best placed _hors cadre_ -and will be dealt with under these names. - -The three subclasses here adopted correspond exactly with those proposed -in Theo. Gill's classification of the recent fishes ("Families and -Subfamilies of Fishes," _Mem. Nat. Ac. Sci._ vi. 1893), except that they -are regarded by that authority as classes. - -The period dealt with in this chapter, ushered in by the publication of -Günther's _Introduction to the Study of Fishes_, has been one of -extraordinary activity in every branch of ichthyology, recent and -fossil. A glance at the _Zoological Record_, published by the Zoological -Society of London, will show the ever-increasing number of monographs, -morphological papers and systematic contributions, which appear year -after year. The number of new genera and species which are being -proposed is amazing, but it is difficult to tell how many of them will -simply go to swell the already overburdened synonymy. Perhaps a -reasonable estimate of the living species known at the present day would -assess their number at about 13,000. - -It is much to be regretted that there is not a single general modern -systematic work on fishes. The most important treatises, the 7th volume -of the _Cambridge Natural History_, by T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, -and D. S. Jordan's _Guide to the Study of Fishes_, only profess to give -definitions of the families with enumerations of the principal genera. -Günther's _Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum_ therefore -remains the only general descriptive treatise, but its last volume dates -from 1870, and the work is practically obsolete. A second edition of it -was begun in 1894, but only one volume, by Boulenger, has appeared, and -the subject is so vast that it seems doubtful now whether any one will -ever have the time and energy to repeat Günther's achievement. The fish -fauna of the different parts of the world will have to be dealt with -separately, and it is in this direction that descriptive ichthyology is -most likely to progress. - -North America, the fishes of which were imperfectly known in 1880, now -possesses a _Descriptive Catalogue_ in 4 stout volumes, by D. S. Jordan -and B. W. Evermann, replacing the synopsis brought out in 1882 by D. S. -Jordan and C. H. Gilbert. A similar treatise should embrace all the -fresh-water species of Africa, the fishes of the two principal river -systems, the Nile and the Congo, having recently been worked out by G. -A. Boulenger. Japanese ichthyology has been taken in hand by D. S. -Jordan and his pupils. - -The fishes of the deep sea have been the subject of extensive monographs -by L. Vaillant (_Travailleur_ and _Talisman_), A. Günther -(_Challenger_), A. Alcock (_Investigator_), R. Collett (_Hirondelle_), -S. Garman (_Albatross_) and a general résumé up to 1895 was provided in -G. B. Goode's and T. H. Bean's _Oceanic Ichthyology_. More than 600 true -bathybial fishes are known from depths of 1000 fathoms and more, and a -great deal of evidence has been accumulated to show the general -transition of the surface fauna into the bathybial. - -A recent departure has been the exploration of the Antarctic fauna. -Three general reports, on the results of the _Southern Cross_, the -_Belgica_ and the Swedish _South Polar_ expeditions, had already been -published in 1907, and others on the _Scotia_ and _Discovery_ were in -preparation. No very striking new types of fishes have been discovered, -but the results obtained are sufficient to entirely disprove the theory -of bipolarity which some naturalists had advocated. Much has been done -towards ascertaining the life-histories of the fishes of economic -importance, both in Europe and in North America, and our knowledge of -the larval and post-larval forms has made great progress. - -Wonderful activity has been displayed in the field of palaeontology, and -the careful working out of the morphology of the archaic types has led -to a better understanding of the general lines of evolution; but it is -to be regretted that very little light on the relationships of the -living groups of Teleosteans has been thrown by the discoveries of -palaeontologists. - -Among the most remarkable additions made in recent years, the work of R. -H. Traquair on the problematic fishes _Palaeospondylus_, _Thelodus_, -_Drepanaspis_, _Lanarkia_, _Ateleaspis_, _Birkenia_ and _Lanasius_, -ranks foremost; next to it must be placed the researches of A. S. -Woodward and Bashford Dean on the primitive shark _Cladoselache_, and of -the same authors, J. S. Newberry, C. R. Eastman, E. W. Claypole and L. -Hussakof, on the Arthrodira, a group the affinities of which have been -much discussed. - - AUTHORITIES.--The following selection from the extremely extensive - ichthyological literature which has appeared during the period - 1880-1906 will supplement the bibliographical notice appended to - section I. I. The General Subject: A. Günther, _Introduction to the - Study of Fishes_ (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and - Fossil_ (New York, 1895); T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, "Fishes," - _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. (1904); D. S. Jordan, _Guide to the - Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York, 1905). II. Palaeontological: A. - Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation - Böhmens_ (vols, i.-iii., Prague, 1879-1894); K. A. von Zittel, - _Handbuch der Paläontologie_, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A. Smith - Woodward, _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum_, vols. - i.-iii. (London, 1889-1895); A. Smith Woodward, _Outlines of - Vertebrate Palaeontology for Students of Zoology_ (Cambridge, 1898); - J. S. Newberry, "The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America," _Mon. U.S. - Geol. Surv._ vol. xvi. (1889); J. V. Rohon, "Die obersilurischen - Fische von Ösel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae," _Mém. Ac. Imp. Sc. - St-Pétersb._ xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, _Die Selachier von Bolca, ein - Beitrag zur Morphogenie der Wirbeltiere_ (Berlin, 1894); B. Dean, - "Contributions to the Morphology of Cladoselache," _Journ. Morphol._ - ix. (1894); R. H. Traquair, "The Asterolepidae," _Mon. Palaeont. Soc._ - (1894-1904, in progress); "Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the - Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian Rocks of the South of - Scotland," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxxix. (1899); L. Dollo, "Sur la - phylogénie des Dipneustes," _Bull. Soc. Belge Géol._ vol. ix. (1895); - E. W. Claypole, "The Ancestry of the Upper Devonian Placoderms of - Ohio," _Amer. Geol._ xvii. (1896); B. Dean, "Palaeontlogical Notes," - _Mem. N.Y. Ac._ ii. (1901); A. Stewart and S. W. Williston, - "Cretaceous Fishes of Kansas," _Univ. Geol. Surv. Kansas_, vi. - (Topeka, 1901); A. S. Woodward, "Fossil Fishes of the English Chalk," - _Palaeontogr. Soc._ (1902-1903, etc.); R. H. Traquair, "The Lower - Devonian Fishes of Gemünden.," _Roy. Soc. Edin. Trans._ 40 (1903); W. - J. and I. B. J. Sollas, "Account of the Devonian Fish - Palaeospondylus," _Phil. Trans._ 196 (1903); C. T. Regan, "Phylogeny - of the Teleostomi," _Ann. & Mag. N.H._ (7) 13 (1904); C. R. Eastman, - "Fishes of Monte Bolca," _Bull. Mus. C.Z._ 46 (1904); "Structure and - Relations of Mylostoma," _Op. cit._ 2 (1906); O. Abel, "Fossile - Flugfische," _Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst._ 56 (Wien, 1906); L. Hussakof. - "Studies on the Arthrodira," _Mem. Amer. Mus. N.H._ ix. (1906). III. - Faunistic (recent fishes): (A) EUROPE: E. Bade, _Die - mitteleuropäischen Süsswasserfische_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1901-1902). - GREAT BRITAIN: F. Day, _The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2 - vols., London, 1880-1884); J. T. Cunningham, _The Natural History of - the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands_ (London, 1896); - W. C. M'Intosh and A. T. Masterman, _The Life-Histories of the British - Marine Food-Fishes_ (London, 1897); Sir H. Maxwell, _British - Fresh-water Fish_ (London, 1904); F. G. Aflalo, _British Salt-water - Fish_ (London, 1904). Numerous important researches into the - development, life-conditions and distributions, carried out at the - Biological Laboratories at Plymouth and St Andrews and during the - survey of the fishing grounds of Ireland, have been published by W. L. - Calderwood, J. T. Cunningham, E. W. L. Holt, W. C. M'Intosh, J. W. - Fulton, W. Garstang and Prince in the _Journ. Mar. Biolog. Assoc._, - _The Reports of the Fishery Board of Scotland_, _Scient. Trans. R. - Dublin Soc._ and other periodicals. (B) DENMARK AND SCANDINAVIA: W. - Lilljeborg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (3 vols., Upsala, 1881-1891); - F. A. Smith, _A History of Scandinavian Fishes by B. Fries, C. U. - Ekström and C. Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright_ (second - edition, revised and completed by F. A. S., Stockholm, 1892); A. - Stuxberg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (Göteborg, 1895); C. G. J. - Petersen, _Report of the Danish Biological Station_ (Copenhagen, - 1802-1900) (annual reports containing much information on fishes of - and fishing in the Danish seas). (C) FINLAND: G. Sundman and A. J. - Mela, _Finland's Fiskar_ (Helsingfors, 1883-1891). (D) GERMANY: K. - Möbius and F. Heincke, "Die Fische der Ostsee," _Bericht Commiss. - Untersuch. deutsch. Meere_ (Kiel, 1883); F. Heincke, E. Ehrenbaum and - G. Duncker have published their investigations into the life-history - and development of the fishes of Heligoland in _Wissenschaftl. - Meeresuntersuchungen_ (Kiel and Leipzig, 1894-1899); (E) SWITZERLAND: - V. Fatio, _Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse: Poissons_ (2 vols., - Geneva and Basel, 1882-1890). (F) FRANCE: E. Moreau, _Histoire - naturelle des poissons de la France_ (3 vols., Paris, 1881); - _Supplément_ (Paris, 1891). (G) PYRENEAN PENINSULA: D. Carlos de - Bragança, _Resultados das investigações scientificas feitas a bordo do - yacht "Amelia." Pescas maritimas_, i. and ii. (Lisbon, 1899-1904). (H) - ITALY AND MEDITERRANEAN: P. Döderlein, _Manuale ittiologico del - Mediterraneo_ (Palermo, 1881-1891, not completed; interrupted by the - death of the author); E. W. L. Holt, "Recherches sur la reproduction - des poissons osseux, principalement dans le golfe de Marseille," _Ann. - Mus. Mars._ v. (Marseilles, 1899); (I) WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA: L. - Lortet, "Poissons et reptiles du lac de Tibériade," _Arch. Mus. - d'Hist. Nat. Lyon_, iii. (1883); S. Herzenstein, _Wissenschaftliche - Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach Central Asien unternommenen - Reisen: Fische_ (St Petersburg, 1888-1891); L. Berg, _Fishes of - Turkestan_ (Russian text, St Petersburg, 1905); G. Radde, S. Kamensky - and F. F. Kawraisky have worked out the Cyprinids and Salmonids of the - Caucasus (Tiflis, 1896-1899). (J) JAPAN: F. Steindachner and L. - Döderlein, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans," _Denkschr. Ak. - Wien_, (vols. 67 and 68, 1883); K. Otaki, T. Fujita and T. Higurashi, - _Fishes of Japan_ (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1903, in progress). Numerous - papers by D. S. Jordan, in collaboration with J. O. Snyder, E. C. - Starks, H. W. Fowler and N. Sindo. (K) EAST INDIES: F. Day, _The Fauna - of British India: Fishes_ (2 vols., London, 1889) (chiefly an - abridgment of the author's _Fishes of India_); M. Weber, "Die - Süsswasserfische des Indischen Archipels," _Zool. Ergebnisse e. Reise - in Niederl. Ostind._ iii. (Leiden, 1894). Numerous contributions to - the fauna of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago by G. A. Boulenger, - L. Vaillant, F. Steindachner, G. Duncker, W. Volz and C. L. Popta. (L) - AFRICA: G. A. Boulenger, _Matériaux pour la faune du Congo: poissons - nouveaux_ (Brussels, 1898-1902, in progress); and _Poissons du bassin - du Congo_ (Brussels, 1901); G. Pfeffer, _Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas: - Fische_ (Berlin, 1896); A. Günther, G. A. Boulenger, G. Pfeffer, F. - Steindachner, D. Vinciguerra, J. Pellegrin and E. Lönnberg have - published numerous contributions to the fish-fauna of tropical Africa - in various periodicals. The marine fishes of South Africa have - received special attention on the part of J. D. F. Gilchrist, _Marine - Investigations in South Africa_, i. and ii. (1898-1904), and new - species have been described by G. A. Boulenger and C. T. Regan. (M) - NORTH AMERICA: D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, _The Fishes of North - and Middle America_ (4 vols., Washington, 1896-1900); D. S. Jordan and - B. W. Evermann, _American Food and Game Fishes_ (New York, 1902); D. - S. Jordan and C. H. Gilbert "The Fishes of Bering Sea," in _Fur-Seals - and Fur-Seal Islands_ (Washington, 1899); The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries - (since 1903) has published annually a _Report_ and a _Bulletin_, - containing a vast amount of information on North American fishes and - every subject having a bearing on the fisheries of the United States; - S. E. Meek, "Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico," _Field Columb. Mus. Zool._ - v. (1904). (N) SOUTH AMERICA: C. H. and R. S. Eigenmann, "A Catalogue - of the Fresh-water Fishes of South America," _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 14 - (Washington, 1891); the same authors, F. Steindachner, G. A. - Boulenger, C. Berg and C. T. Regan have published contributions in - periodicals on this fauna. (O) AUSTRALIA: J. E. Tenison-Woods, _Fish - and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney, 1882); J. Douglas Ogilby, - Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales (Sydney, 1893); J. - Douglas Ogilby and E. R. Waite are authors of numerous papers on - Australian fishes in _Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales_ and _Rec. Austral. - Mus._ (P) SOUTH PACIFIC: D S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, "Shore Fishes - of the Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905). (Q) - MADAGASCAR: H. E. Sauvage, _Histoire physique, naturelle et politique - de Madagascar_, par A. Grandidier. xvi.; _Poissons_ (Paris, 1891). (R) - OCEANIC FISHES: G. B. Goode and T. H. Bean, _Oceanic Ichthyology_ - (Washington, 1895); A. Günther, _Deep-sea Fishes of the "Challenger" - Expedition_ (London, 1887); C. H. Gilbert, "Deep-sea Fishes of the - Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905); R. Collett, - _Norske Nordhavs Expedition: Fiske_ (Christiania, 1880); C. F. Lütken, - _Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-Havets Fiske_ - (Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, _Expéditions scientifiques du - "Travailleur" et du "Talisman": Poissons_ (Paris, 1888); A. Agassiz, - _Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer "Blake"_ - (Boston and New York, 1888); A. Alcock, _Illustrations of the Zoology - of H.M.S. "Investigator": Fishes_ (Calcutta, 1892-1899, in progress); - A. Alcock, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep-sea Fishes in the - Indian Museum_ (Calcutta, 1899, contains references to all the - previous papers of the author on the subject); R. Collett, _Résultats - des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par Albert I^er prince de - Monaco: poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht "l'Hirondelle,"_ - (Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, _Résultats scientifiques de la campagne du - "Caudan,"_ (Paris, 1896); C. H. Gilbert and F. Cramer, "Report on the - Fishes dredged in Deep Water near the Hawaiian Islands," _Proc. U.S. - Nat. Mus._ xix. (Washington, 1896); C. Lütken, "Spolia Atlantica," - _Vidensk. Selsk. Skr._ vii. and ix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C. - Lütken, _Danish Ingolf Expedition_, ii.: _Ichthyological Results_ - (Copenhagen, 1898); S. Garman, "Reports on an Exploration off the West - Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos - Islands in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission - Steamer "Albatross," during 1891," _Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool._ vol. xxiv. - (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1899). (S) ANTARCTIC FISHES: G. A. Boulenger, - _Report on the Collections made during the voyage of the "Southern - Cross": Fishes_ (London, 1902); L. Dollo, _Expédition Antarctique - Belge_ (S.Y. "Belgica"). _Poissons_ (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lönnberg, - _Swedish South Polar Expedition: Fishes_ (Stockholm, 1905); G. A. - Boulenger, _Fishes of the "Discovery" Antarctic Expedition_ (London, - 1906). (G. A. B.) - - -III. DEFINITION OF THE CLASS _Pisces_. ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS - -Fishes, constituting the class _Pisces_, may be defined as Craniate -Vertebrata, or Chordata, in which the anterior portion of the central -nervous system is expanded into a brain surrounded by an unsegmented -portion of the axial skeleton; which are provided with a heart, -breathing through gills; and in which the limbs, if present, are in the -form of fins, as opposed to the pentadactyle, structure common to the -other Vertebrata. With the exception of a few forms in which lungs are -present in addition to the gills, thus enabling the animal to breathe -atmospheric air for more or less considerable periods (Dipneusti), all -fishes are aquatic throughout their existence. - -In addition to the paired limbs, median fins are usually present, -consisting of dermal rays borne by endoskeletal supports, which in the -more primitive forms are strikingly similar in structure to the paired -fins that are assumed to have arisen from the breaking up of a lateral -fold similar to the vertical folds out of which the dorsal, anal and -caudal fins have been evolved. The body is naked, or scaly, or covered -with bony shields or hard spines. - -Leaving aside the Ostracophori, which are dealt with in a separate -article, the fishes may be divided into three subclasses-- - -I. Cyclostomi or Marsipobranchii, with the skull imperfectly developed, -without jaws, with a single nasal aperture, without paired fins, and -with an unpaired fin without dermal rays. Lampreys and hag-fishes. - -II. Selachii or Chondropterygii, with the skull well developed but -without membrane bones, with paired nasal apertures, with median and -paired fins, the ventrals bearing prehensile organs (claspers) in the -males. Sharks, skates and chimaeras. - -III. Teleostomi, with the skull well developed and with membrane bones, -with paired nasal apertures, primarily with median and paired fins, -including all other fishes. (G. A. B.) - - -IV. ANATOMY[1] - -The special importance of a study of the anatomy of fishes lies in the -fact that fishes are on the whole undoubtedly the most archaic of -existing craniates, and it is therefore to them especially that we must -look for evidence as to the evolutionary history of morphological -features occurring in the higher groups of vertebrates. - -In making a general survey of the morphology of fishes it is essential -to take into consideration the structure of the young developing -individual (embryology) as well as that of the adult (comparative -anatomy in the narrow sense). Palaeontology is practically dumb -excepting as regards external form and skeletal features, and even of -these our knowledge must for long be in a hopelessly imperfect state. -While it is of the utmost importance to pay due attention to -embryological data it is equally important to consider them critically -and in conjunction with broad morphological considerations. Taken by -themselves they are apt to be extremely misleading. - -_External Features._--The external features of a typical fish are -intimately associated with its mode of life. Its shape is more or less -that of a spindle; its surface is covered with a highly glandular -epidermis, which is constantly producing lubricating mucus through the -agency of which skin-friction is reduced to an extraordinary degree; and -finally it possesses a set of remarkable propelling organs or fins. - - The exact shape varies greatly from the typical spindle shape with - variations in the mode of life; e.g. bottom-living fishes may be much - flattened from above downwards as in the rays, or from side to side in - the Pleuronectids such as flounder, plaice or sole, or the shape may - be much elongated as in the eels. - -_Head, Trunk and Tail._--In the body of the fish we may recognize the -three main sub-divisions of the body--head, trunk and tail--as in the -higher vertebrates, but there is no definite narrowing of the anterior -region to form a neck such as occurs in the higher groups, though a -suspicion of such a narrowing occurs in the young _Lepidosiren_. - -The tail, or postanal region, is probably a secondary development--a -prolongation of the hinder end of the body for motor purposes. This is -indicated by the fact that it frequently develops late in ontogeny. - - The vertebrate, in correlation perhaps with its extreme cephalization, - develops from before backwards (except the alimentary canal, which - develops more _en bloc_), there remaining at the hind end for a - prolonged period a mass of undifferentiated embryonic tissue from the - anterior side of which the definitive tissues are constantly being - developed. After development has reached the level of the anus it - still continues backwards and the tail region is formed, showing a - continuation of the same tissues as in front, notochord, nerve cord, - gut, myotomes. Of these the (postanal) gut soon undergoes atrophy. - -_Fins._--The fins are extensions of the body surface which serve for -propulsion. To give the necessary rigidity they are provided with -special skeletal elements, while to give mobility they are provided with -special muscles. These muscles, like the other voluntary muscles of the -body, are derived from the primitive myotomes and are therefore -segmental in origin. The fins are divisible into two main -categories--the median or unpaired fins and the paired fins. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heterocercal Tail of _Acipenser_. a, Modified -median scales ("fulcra"); b, bony plates.] - -[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., "Fishes, -&c.," by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. - -FIG. 2.--_Cladoselache._ (After Dean.)] - -The median fins are to be regarded as the more primitive. The -fundamental structure of the vertebrate, with its median skeletal axis -and its great muscular mass divided into segments along each side of the -body, indicates that its primitive method of movement was by waves of -lateral flexure, as seen in an Amphioxus, a cyclostome or an eel. The -system of median fins consists in the first instance of a continuous -fin-fold extending round the posterior end of the body--as persists even -in the adult in the existing Dipneusti. A continuous median fin-fold -occurs also in various Teleosts (many deep-sea Teleosts, eels, &c.), -though the highly specialized features in other respects make it -probable that we have here to do with a secondary return to a condition -like the primitive one. In the process of segmentation of the originally -continuous fin-fold we notice first of all a separation of and an -increase in size of that portion of the fin which from its position at -the tip of the tail region is in the most advantageous position for -producing movements of the body. There is thus formed the _caudal_ fin. -In this region there is a greatly increased size of the fin-fold--both -dorsally and ventrally. There is further developed a highly -characteristic asymmetry. In the original symmetrical or _protocercal_ ( -= _diphycercal_) type of tail (as seen in a cyclostome, a Dipnoan and in -most fish embryos) the skeletal axis of the body runs straight out to -its tip--the tail fold being equally developed above and below the axis. -In the highly developed caudal fin of the majority of fishes, however, -the fin-fold is developed to a much greater extent on the ventral side, -and correlated with this the skeletal axis is turned upwards as in the -_heterocercal_ tail of sharks and sturgeons. The highest stage in this -evolution of the caudal fin is seen in the Teleostean fishes, where the -ventral tail-fold becomes developed to such an extent as to produce a -secondarily symmetrical appearance (_homocercal_ tail, fig. 4). - -[Illustration: From _"Challenger" Reports Zool._, published by H.M. -Stationery Office. - -FIG. 3.--_Chlamydoselachus_. (After Günther.)] - - The sharks have been referred to as possessing heterocercal tails, - but, though this is true of the majority, within the limits of the - group all three types of tail-fin occur, from the protocercal tail of - the fossil Pleuracanthids and the living _Chlamydoselachus_ to the - highly developed, practically homocercal tail of the ancient - _Cladoselache_(fig. 2). - -The praecaudal portion of the fin-fold on the dorsal side of the body -becomes broken into numerous finlets in living Crossopterygians, while -in other fishes it disappears throughout part of its length, leaving -only one, two or three enlarged portions--the _dorsal_ fins (fig. 4, -d.f.). Similarly the praecaudal part of the fin-fold ventrally becomes -reduced to a single _anal_ fin (a.f.), occasionally continued backwards -by a series of finlets (_Scombridae_). In the sucker-fishes (_Remora_, -_Eckeneis_) the anterior dorsal fin is metamorphosed into a sucker by -which the creature attaches itself to larger fishes, turtles, &c. - -[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., "Fishes, -&c.," by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. - -FIG. 4.--_Tilapia dolloi_, a teleostean fish, to illustrate external -features. (After Boulenger.) - - A, Side view. g.r, Gill rakers. - B, First branchial arch. l.l, Lateral line organs. - a.f, Anal fin. n, Nasal opening. - c.f, Caudal fin. p.f, Pelvic fin. - d.f, Dorsal fin. p.op, Preoperculum. - g.f, Gill lamellae. pt.f, Pectoral fin.] - -The paired fins--though more recent developments than the median--are -yet of very great morphological interest, as in them we are compelled to -recognize the homologues of the paired limbs of the higher vertebrates. -We accordingly distinguish the two pairs of fins as pectoral or anterior -and pelvic ( = "ventral") or posterior. There are two main types of -paired fin--the _archipterygial_ type, a paddle-like structure supported -by a jointed axis which bears lateral rays and exists in an unmodified -form in _Neoceratodus_ alone amongst living fishes, and the -_actinopterygial_ type, supported by fine raylike structures as seen in -the fins of any ordinary fish. The relatively less efficiency of the -archipterygium and its predominance amongst the more ancient forms of -fishes point to its being the more archaic of these two types. - -In the less highly specialized groups of fishes the pectoral fins are -close behind the head, the pelvic fins in the region of the cloacal -opening. In the more specialized forms the pelvic fins frequently show a -more or less extensive shifting towards the head, so that their position -is described as thoracic (fig. 4) or jugular (_Gadus_--cod, haddock, -&c., fig. 5). - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Burbot (_Lota vulgaris_), with jugular ventral -fins.] - - The median fin, especially in its caudal section, is the main - propelling organ: the paired fins in the majority of fishes serve for - balancing. In the Dipneusti the paired fins are used for clambering - about amidst vegetation, much in the same fashion as the limbs of - Urodeles. In _Ceratodus_ they also function as paddles. In various - Teleosts the pectoral fins have acquired secondarily a leg-like - function, being used for creeping or skipping over the mud - (_Periophthalmus_; cf. also Trigloids, Scorpaenids and Pediculati). In - the "flying" fishes the pectoral fins are greatly enlarged and are - used as aeroplanes, their quivering movements frequently giving a - (probably erroneous) impression of voluntary flapping movements. In - the gobies and lumpsuckers (_Cyclopteridae_) the pelvic fins are fused - to form an adhesive sucker; in the _Gobiesocidae_ they take part in - the formation of a somewhat similar sucker. - - The evolutionary history of the paired limbs forms a fascinating - chapter in vertebrate morphology. As regards their origin two - hypotheses have attracted special attention: (1) that enunciated by - Gegenbaur, according to which the limb is a modified gill septum, and - (2) that supported by James K. Thacher, F. M. Balfour, St George - Mivart and others, that the paired fins are persisting and modified - portions of a once continuous fin-fold on each side of the body. The - majority of morphologists are now inclined to accept the second of - these views. Each has been supported by plausible arguments, for which - reference must be made to the literature of the subject.[2] Both views - rest upon the assumed occurrence of stages for the existence of which - there is no direct evidence, viz. in the case of (1) transitional - stages between gill septum and limb, and in the case of (2) a - continuous lateral fin-fold. (There is no evidence that the lateral - row of spines in the acanthodian _Climatius_ has any other than a - defensive significance.) In the opinion of the writer of this article, - such assumptions are without justification, now that our knowledge of - Dipnoan and Crossopterygian and Urodele embryology points towards the - former possession by the primitive vertebrate of a series of - projecting, voluntarily movable, and hence potentially motor structure - on each side of the body. It must be emphasized that these--the true - external gills--are the _only_ organs known actually to exist in - vertebrates which might readily be transformed into limbs. When - insuperable objections are adduced to this having actually taken place - in the course of evolution, it will be time enough to fall back upon - purely hypothetical ancestral structures on which to base the - evolutionary history of the limbs. - -The ectoderm covering the general surface is highly glandular. In the -case of the Dipneusti, flask-shaped multicellular glands like those of -Amphibians occur in addition to the scattered gland cells. - - A characteristic feature of glandular activity is the production of a - slight electrical disturbance. In the case of _Malopterurus_ this - elsewhere subsidiary function of the skin has become so exaggerated as - to lead to the conversion of the skin of each side of the body into a - powerful electrical organ.[3] Each of these consists of some two - million small chambers, each containing an electric disk and all - deriving their nerve supply from the branches of a single enormous - axis cylinder. This takes its origin from a gigantic ganglion cell - situated latero-dorsally in the spinal cord between the levels of the - first and second spinal nerves. - -_Cement Organs._--The larvae of certain Teleostomes and Dipnoans possess -special glandular organs in the head region for the secretion of a -sticky cement by which the young fish is able to attach itself to -water-plants or other objects. As a rule these are ectodermal in origin; -e.g. in _Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_[4] the crescentic cement organ -lying ventrally behind the mouth consists of a glandular thickening of -the deep layer of the ectoderm. In young ganoid fishes preoral cement -organs occur. In Crossopterygians there is one cup-shaped structure on -each side immediately in front of the mouth. Here the glandular -epithelium is endodermal, developed[5] as an outgrowth from the wall of -the alimentary canal, closely resembling a gill pouch. In _Amia_[6] the -same appears to be the case. In a few Teleosts similar organs occur, -e.g. _Sarcodaces_, _Hyperopisus_,[7] where so far as is known they are -ectodermal. - -_Photogenic Organs._--The slimy secretion produced by the epidermal -glands of fishes contains in some cases substances which apparently -readily undergo a slow process of oxidation, giving out light of low -wave-length in the process and so giving rise to a phosphorescent -appearance. In many deep-sea fishes this property of producing -light-emitting secretion has undergone great development, leading to the -existence of definite photogenic organs. These vary much in character, -and much remains to be done in working out their minute structure. Good -examples are seen in the Teleostean family _Scopelidae_, where they form -brightly shining eye-like spots scattered about the surface of the body, -especially towards the ventral side. - -[Illustration: From _Trans. Zool. Soc. of London_. - -FIG. 6.--Larva of Polypterus. (After Budgett.)] - -[Illustration: From _Phil. Transactions, Royal Society of London_. - -FIG. 7.--Thirty Days' Larval Lepidosiren. (After Graham Kerr.)] - -_External Gills._--In young Crossopterygians and in the young -_Protopterus_ and _Lepidosiren_ true external gills occur of the same -morphological nature as those of Urodele amphibians. In Crossopterygians -a single one is present on each side on the hyoid arch; in the two -Dipnoans mentioned four are present on each side--on visceral arches -III., IV., V. and VI. (It may be recalled that in Urodeles they occur on -arches III., IV. and V., with vestiges[8] on arches I. and II.). Each -external gill develops as a projection of ectoderm with mesodermal core -near the upper end of its visceral arch; the main aortic arch is -prolonged into it as a loop. When fully developed it is pinnate, and is -provided with voluntary muscles by which it can be moved freely to renew -the water in contact with its respiratory surface. In the case of -_Polypterus_ a short rod of cartilage projects from the hyoid arch into -the base of the external gill. Their occurrence with identical main -features in the three groups mentioned indicates that the external gills -are important and archaic organs of the vertebrata. Their non-occurrence -in at least some of the groups where they are absent is to be explained -by the presence of a large vascular yolk sac, which necessarily fulfils -in a very efficient way the respiratory function. - -_Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal forms a tube traversing the -body from mouth to cloacal opening. Corresponding with structural and -functional differences it is for descriptive purposes divided into the -following regions--(1) Buccal cavity or mouth cavity, (2) Pharynx, (3) -Oesophagus or gullet, (4) Stomach, (5) Intestine, and (6) Cloaca. The -buccal cavity or mouth cavity is morphologically a stomodaeum, i.e. it -represents an inpushing of the external surface. Its opening to the -exterior is wide and gaping in the embryo in certain groups (Selachians -and Crossopterygians), and even in the adult among the Cyclostomata, but -in the adult Gnathostome it can be voluntarily opened and shut in -correlation with the presence of a hinged jaw apparatus. The mouth -opening is less or more ventral in position in Cyclostomes and -Selachians, while in Dipnoans and Teleostomes it is usually terminal. - -[Illustration: From Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., -"Fishes, &c." (by permisson of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.). After Boas, -_Lehrbuch der Zoologie_ (by permission of Gustav Fischer). - -FIG. 8.--Diagrams to illustrate the relations of branchial clefts and -pharynx in an Elasmobranch (A) and a Teleost (B); 1, 2, &c., Branchial -septa. - - b.c, Opercular cavity. - b.l, Respiratory lamellae. - c, Coelom. - e.b.a, Opercular opening. - hy.a, Hyoid arch. - hy.c, Hyobranchial cleft. - l.s, Valvular outer edge of gill septum. - n, Nasal aperture. - oes, Oesophagus. - op, Operculum. - p.q, Palato quadrate cartilage. - Ph, Pharynx. - sp, Spiracle.] - - In certain cases (e.g. _Lepidosiren_)[9] the buccal cavity arises by - secondary excavation without any actual pushing in of ectoderm. - -It is highly characteristic of the vertebrata that the pharynx--the -portion of the alimentary canal immediately behind the buccal -cavity--communicates with the exterior by a series of paired clefts -associated with the function of respiration and known as the visceral -clefts. It is especially characteristic of fishes that a number of these -clefts remain open as functional breathing organs in the adult. - -The visceral clefts arise as hollow pouches (or at first solid -projections) of the endoderm. Each pouch fuses with the ectoderm at its -outer end and then becomes perforated so as to form a free communication -between pharynx and exterior. - -The mesenchymatous packing tissue between consecutive clefts forms the -visceral arches, and local condensation within each gives rise to -important skeletal elements--to which the name visceral arches is often -restricted. From the particular skeletal structures which develop in the -visceral arches bounding it the anterior cleft is known as the -hyomandibular cleft, the next one as hyobranchial. In common usage the -hyomandibular cleft is called the spiracle, and the series of clefts -behind it the branchial clefts. - -The typical functional gill cleft forms a vertical slit, having on each -side a gill septum which separates it from its neighbours in the series. -The lining of the gill cleft possesses over a less or greater extent of -its area a richly developed network of capillary blood-vessels, through -the thin covering of which the respiratory exchange takes place between -the blood and the water which washes through the gill cleft. The area of -respiratory surface tends to become increased by the development of -outgrowths. Frequently these take the form of regular plate-like -structures known as gill lamellae. In the Selachians these lamellae are -strap-like structures (_Elasmobranch_) attached along nearly their -whole length to the gill septum as shown in fig. 8, A. In the -Holocephali and in the sturgeon the outer portions of the gill septa -have disappeared and this leads to the condition seen in the higher -Teleostomes (fig. 8, B), where the whole of the septum has disappeared -except its thick inner edge containing the skeletal arch. It follows -that in these higher Teleostomes--including the ordinary Teleosts--the -gill lamellae are attached only at their extreme inner end. - - In the young of Selachians and certain Teleosts (e.g. _Gymnarchus_ and - _Heterotis_)[10] the gill lamellae are prolonged as filaments which - project freely to the exterior. These must not be confused with true - external gills. - -The partial atrophy of the gill septa in the Teleostomes produces an -important change in their appearance. Whereas in the Selachian a series -of separate gill clefts is seen in external view each covered by a soft -valvular backgrowth of its anterior lip, in the Teleostean fish, on the -other hand, a single large opening is seen on each side (opercular -opening) covered over by the enormously enlarged valvular flap belonging -to the anterior lip of the hyobranchial cleft. This flap, an outgrowth -of the hyoid arch, is known as the operculum. - -In the Teleostomi there are usually five functional clefts, but these -are the survivors of a formerly greater number. Evidence of reduction is -seen at both ends of the series. In front of the first functional cleft -(the hyobranchial) there is laid down in the embryo the rudiment of a -spiracular cleft. In the less highly organized fishes this survives in -many cases as an open cleft. - - In many sharks and in sturgeons the spiracle forms a conspicuous - opening just behind the eye. In rays and skates, which are modified in - correlation with their ground feeding habit, the spiracle is a large - opening which during the great widening out of the body during - development comes to be situated on the dorsal side, while the - branchial clefts come to be ventral in position. In existing - Crossopterygians the spiracle is a slit-like opening on the dorsal - side of the head which can be opened or closed at will. In Dipneusti, - as in the higher Teleostomes, the spiracle is found as an embryonic - rudiment, but in this case it gives rise in the adult to a remarkable - sense organ of problematical function.[11] - -Traces of what appear to be pre-spiracular clefts exist in the embryos -of various forms. Perhaps the most remarkable of these is to be found in -the larval Crossopterygian,[12] and apparently also in _Amia_[13] at -least, amongst the other ganoids, where a pair of entodermal pouches -become cut off from the main entoderm and, establishing an opening to -the exterior, give rise to the lining of the cement organs of the larva. -Posteriorily there is evidence that the extension backwards of the -series of gill clefts was much greater in the primitive fishes. In the -surviving sharks (_Chlamydoselachus_ and _Notidanus cinereus_), there -still exist in the adult respectively six and seven branchial clefts, -while in embryonic Selachians there are frequently to be seen pouch-like -outgrowths of entoderm apparently representing rudimentary gill pouches -but which never develop. Further evidence of the progressive reduction -in the series of clefts is seen in the reduction of their functional -activity at the two ends of the series. The spiracle, even where -persisting in the adult, has lost its gill lamellae either entirely or -excepting a few vestigial lamellae forming a "pseudobranch" on its -anterior wall (Selachians, sturgeons). A similar reduction affects the -lamellae on the anterior wall of the hyobranchial cleft (except in -Selachians) and on the posterior wall of the last branchial cleft. - - A pseudobranch is frequently present in Teleostomes on the anterior - wall of the hyobranchial cleft, i.e. on the inner or posterior face of - the operculum. It is believed by some morphologists to belong really - to the cleft in front.[14] - - _Phylogeny._--The phylogeny of the gill clefts or pouches is - uncertain. The only organs of vertebrates comparable with them - morphologically are the enterocoelic pouches of the entoderm which - give rise to the mesoderm. It is possible that the respiratory - significance of the wall of the gill cleft has been secondarily - acquired. This is indicated by the fact that they appear in some cases - to be lined by an ingrowth of ectoderm. This suggests that there may - have been a spreading inwards of respiratory surface from the external - gills. It is conceivable that before their walls became directly - respiratory the gill clefts served for the pumping of fresh water over - the external gills at the bases of which they lie. - -_Lung._--As in the higher vertebrates, there develops in all the main -groups of gnathostomatous fishes, except the Selachians, an outgrowth of -the pharyngeal wall intimately associated with gaseous interchange. In -the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans this pharyngeal outgrowth agrees -exactly in its mid-ventral origin and in its blood-supply with the lungs -of the higher vertebrates, and there can be no question about its being -morphologically the same structure as it is also in function. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lung of _Neoceratodus_, opened in its lower half -to show its cellular pouches. a, Right half; b, Left half; c, Cellular -pouches; e, Pulmonary vein; f, Arterial blood-vessel; oe, Oesophagus, -opened to show glottis (gl.)] - - In the Crossopterygian the ventrally placed slit-like glottis leads - into a common chamber produced anteriorly into two horns and continued - backwards into two "lungs." These are smooth, thin-walled, saccular - structures, the right one small, the left very large and extending to - the hind end of the splanchnocoele. In the Dipnoans the lung has taken - a dorsal position close under the vertebral column and above the - splanchnocoele. Its walls are sacculated, almost spongy in - _Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_, so as to give increase to the - respiratory surface. In _Nexeratodus_ (fig. 9) an indication of - division into two halves is seen in the presence of two prominent - longitudinal ridges, one dorsal and one ventral. In _Lepidosiren_ and - _Protopterus_ the organ is completely divided except at its anterior - end into a right and a left lung. The anterior portion of the lung or - lungs is connected with the median ventral glottis by a short wide - vestibule which lies on the right side of the oesophagus. - -In the Teleostei the representative of the lung, here termed the -swimbladder, has for its predominant function a hydrostatic one; it acts -as a float. It arises as a diverticulum of the gut-wall which may retain -a tubular connexion with the gut (_physostomatous_ condition) or may in -the adult completely lose such connexion (_physoclistic_). It shows two -conspicuous differences from the lung of other forms: (1) it arises in -the young fish as a dorsal instead of as a ventral diverticulum, and (2) -it derives its blood-supply not from the sixth aortic arch but from -branches of the dorsal aorta. - - These differences are held by many to be sufficient to invalidate the - homologizing of the swimbladder with the lung. The following facts, - however, appear to do away with the force of such a contention. (1) In - the Dipneusti (e.g. _Neoceratodus_) the lung apparatus has acquired a - dorsal position, but its connexion with the mid-ventral glottis is - asymmetrical, passing round the right side of the gut. Were the - predominant function of the lung in such a form to become hydrostatic - we might expect the course of evolution to lead to a shifting of the - glottis dorsalwards so as to bring it nearer to the definitive - situation of the lung. (2) In _Erythrinus_ and other Characinids the - glottis is not mid-ventral but decidedly lateral in position, - suggesting either a retention of, or a return to, ancestral stages in - the dorsalward migration of the glottis. (3) The blood-supply of the - Teleostean swimbladder is from branches of the dorsal aorta, which may - be distributed over a long anteroposterior extent of that vessel. - Embryology, however, shows that the swimbladder arises as a localized - diverticulum. It follows that the blood-supply from a long stretch of - the aorta can hardly be primitive. We should rather expect the - primitive blood-supply to be from the main arteries of the pharyngeal - wall, i.e. from the hinder aortic arch as is the case with the lungs - of other forms. Now in _Amia_ at least we actually find such a - blood-supply, there being here a pulmonary artery corresponding with - that in lung-possessing forms. Taking these points into consideration - there seems no valid reason for doubting that in lung and swimbladder - we are dealing with the same morphological structure. - -_Function._--In the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans the lung is used for -respiration, while at the same time fulfilling a hydrostatic function. -Amongst the Actinopterygians a few forms still use it for respiration, -but its main function is that of a float. In connexion with this -function there exists an interesting compensatory mechanism whereby the -amount of gas in the swimbladder may be diminished (by absorption), or, -on the other hand, increased, so as to counteract alterations in -specific gravity produced, e.g. by change of pressure with change of -depth. This mechanism is specially developed in physoclistic forms, -where there occur certain glandular patches ("red glands") in the lining -epithelium of the swimbladder richly stuffed with capillary -blood-vessels and serving apparently to secrete gas into the -swimbladder. That the gas in the swimbladder is produced by some vital -process, such as secretion, is already indicated by its composition, as -it may contain nearly 90% of oxygen in deep-sea forms or a similar -proportion of nitrogen in fishes from deep lakes, i.e. its composition -is quite different from what it would be were it accumulated within the -swimbladder by mere ordinary diffusion processes. Further, the formation -of gas is shown by experiment to be controlled by branches of the vagus -and sympathetic nerves in an exactly similar fashion to the secretion of -saliva in a salivary gland. (See below for relations of swimbladder to -ear). - -Of the important non-respiratory derivatives of the pharyngeal wall -(thyroid, thymus, postbranchial bodies, &c.), only the thyroid calls for -special mention, as important clues to its evolutionary history are -afforded by the lampreys. In the larval lamprey the thyroid develops as -a longitudinal groove on the pharyngeal floor. From the anterior end of -this groove there pass a pair of peripharyngeal ciliated tracts to the -dorsal side of the pharynx where they pass backwards to the hind end of -the pharynx. Morphologically the whole apparatus corresponds closely -with the endostyle and peripharyngeal and dorsal ciliated tracts of the -pharynx of _Amphioxus_. The correspondence extends to function, as the -open thyroid groove secretes a sticky mucus which passes into the -pharyngeal cavity for the entanglement of food particles exactly as in -_Amphioxus_. Later on the thyroid groove becomes shut off from the -pharynx; its secretion now accumulates in the lumina of its interior and -it functions as a ductless gland as in the Gnathostomata. The only -conceivable explanation of this developmental history of the thyroid in -the lamprey is that it is a repetition of phylogenetic history. - -Behind the pharynx comes the main portion of the alimentary canal -concerned with the digestion and absorption of the food. This forms a -tube varying greatly in length, more elongated and coiled in the higher -Teleostomes, shorter and straighter in the Selachians, Dipnoans and -lower Teleostomes. The oesophagus or gullet, usually forming a short, -wide tube, leads into the glandular, more or less dilated stomach. This -is frequently in the form of a letter J, the longer limb being -continuous with the gullet, the shorter with the intestine. The curve of -the J may be as in _Polypterus_ and the perch produced backwards into a -large pocket. The intestine is usually marked off from the stomach by a -ring-like sphincter muscle forming the pyloric valve. In the lower -gnathostomatous fishes (Selachians, Crossopterygians, Dipnoans, -sturgeons) the intestine possesses the highly characteristic spiral -valve, a shelf-like projection into its lumen which pursues a spiral -course, and along the turns of which the food passes during the course -of digestion. From its universal occurrence in the groups mentioned we -conclude that it is a structure of a very archaic type, once -characteristic of ancestral Gnathostomata; a hint as to its -morphological significance is given by its method of development.[15] In -an early stage of development the intestinal rudiment is coiled into a -spiral and it is by the fusion together of the turns that the spiral -valve arises. The only feasible explanation of this peculiar method of -development seems to lie in the assumption that the ancestral -gnathostome possessed an elongated, coiled intestine which subsequently -became shortened with a fusion of its coils. In the higher fishes the -spiral valve has disappeared--being still found, however, in a reduced -condition in _Amia_ and _Lepidosteus_, and possibly as a faint vestige -in one or two Teleosts (certain _Clupeidae_[16] and _Salmonidae_[17]). -In the majority of the Teleosts the absence of spiral valves is coupled -with a secondary elongation of the intestinal region, which in extreme -cases (_Loricariidae_) may be accompanied by a secondary spiral coiling. - -The terminal part of the alimentary canal--the cloaca--is characterized -by the fact that into it open the two kidney ducts. In Teleostomes the -cloaca is commonly flattened out, so that the kidney ducts and the -alimentary canal come to open independently on the outer surface. - -The lining of the alimentary canal is throughout the greater part of its -extent richly glandular. And at certain points local enlargements of the -secretory surface take place so as to form glandular diverticula. The -most ancient of these as indicated by its occurrence even in _Amphioxus_ -appears to be the _liver_, which, originally--as we may assume--mainly a -digestive gland, has in the existing Craniates developed important -excretory and glycogen-storing functions. Arising in the embryo as a -simple caecum, the liver becomes in the adult a compact gland of very -large size, usually bi-lobed in shape and lying in the front portion of -the splanchnocoele. The stalk of the liver rudiment becomes drawn out -into a tubular bile duct, which may become subdivided into branches, and -as a rule develops on its course a pocket-like expansion, the -gall-bladder. This may hang freely in the splanchnocoele or may be, as -in many Selachians, imbedded in the liver substance. - -The pancreas also arises by localized bulging outwards of the intestinal -lining--there being commonly three distinct rudiments in the embryo. In -the Selachians the whitish compact pancreas of the adult opens into the -intestine some little distance behind the opening of the bile duct, but -in the Teleostomes it becomes involved in the liver outgrowth and mixed -with its tissue, being frequently recognizable only by the study of -microscopic sections. In the Dipnoans the pancreatic rudiment remains -imbedded in the wall of the intestine: its duct is united with that of -the liver. - -_Pyloric Caeca._--In the Teleostomi one or more glandular diverticula -commonly occur at the commencement of the intestine and are known as the -pyloric caeca. There may be a single caecum (crossopterygians, -_Ammodytes_ amongst Teleosts) or there may be nearly two hundred -(mackerel). In the sturgeons the numerous caeca form a compact gland. In -several families of Teleosts, on the other hand, there is no trace of -these pyloric caeca. - -In Selachians a small glandular diverticulum known as the _rectal gland_ -opens into the terminal part of the intestine on its dorsal side. - -_Coelomic Organs._--The development of the mesoderm in the restricted -sense (mesothelium) as seen in the fishes (lamprey, _Lepidosiren_, -_Protopterus_, _Polypterus_) appears to indicate beyond doubt that the -mesoderm segments of vertebrates are really enterocoelic pouches in -which the development of the lumen is delayed. Either the inner, or both -inner and outer (e.g. _Lepidosiren_) walls of the mesoderm segment pass -through a myoepithelial condition and give rise eventually to the great -muscle segments (myomeres, or myotomes) which lie in series on each side -of the trunk. In the fishes these remain distinct throughout life. The -fins, both median and paired, obtain their musculature by the ingrowth -into them of muscle buds from the adjoining myotomes. - -[Illustration: From Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur vergleich. Anat. der -Wirbeltiere_, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. - -FIG. 10.--View of _Torpedo_ from the dorsal side: the electric organs are -exposed. - - I, Fore-brain. - II, Mesencephalon. - III, Cerebellum. - IV, Electric lobe. - br, Common muscular sheath covering branchial clefts (on the left side - this has been removed so as to expose the series of branchial sacs). - f, Spiracle. - o.e, Electric organ, on the left side the nerve-supply is shown. - o, Eye. - t, Sensory tubes of lateral line system.] - -_Electrical Organs._[18]--It is characteristic of muscle that at the -moment of contraction it produces a slight electrical disturbance. In -certain fishes definite tracts of the musculature show a reduction of -their previously predominant function of contraction and an increase of -their previously subsidiary function of producing electrical -disturbance; so that the latter function is now predominant. - - In the skates (_Raia_) the electrical organ is a fusiform structure - derived from the lateral musculature of the tail; in _Gymnotus_--the - electric eel--and in _Mormyrus_ it forms an enormous structure - occupying the place of the ventral halves of the myotomes along nearly - the whole length of the body; in _Torpedo_ it forms a large, somewhat - kidney-shaped structure as viewed from above lying on each side of the - head and derived from the musculature of the anterior visceral arches. - In _Torpedo_ the nerve-supply is derived from cranial nerves VII. IX. - and the anterior branchial branches of X. - -The electric organ is composed of prismatic columns each built up of a -row of compartments. Each compartment contains a lamellated electric -disc representing the shortened-up and otherwise metamorphosed muscle -fibre. On one face (ventral in _Torpedo_, anterior in _Raia_) of the -electric disc is a gigantic end-plate supplied by a beautiful, -dichotomously branched, terminal nervous arborization. - -The development of the mesoderm of the head region is too obscure for -treatment here.[19] The ventral portion of the trunk mesoderm gives rise -to the splanchnocoel or general coelom. Except in the Myxinoids the -anterior part of the splanchnocoel becomes separated off as a -pericardiac cavity, though in adult Selachians the separation becomes -incomplete, the two cavities being in communication by a -pericardio-peritoneal canal. - -_Nephridial System._---The kidney system in fishes consists of -segmentally arranged tubes leading from the coelom into a longitudinal -duct which opens within the hinder end of the enteron--the whole forming -what is known as the _archinephros_ (Lankester) or _holonephros_ -(Price). Like the other segmented organs of the vertebrate the -archinephros develops from before backwards. The sequence is, however, -not regular. A small number of tubules at the head end of the series -become specially enlarged and are able to meet the excretory needs -during larval existence (_Pronephros_): the immediately succeeding -tubules remain undeveloped, and then come the tubules of the rest of the -series which form the functional kidney of the adult (_Mesonephros_). - -The kidney tubules subserve the excretory function in two different -ways. The wall of the tubule, bathed in blood from the posterior -cardinal vein, serves to extract nitrogenous products of excretion from -the blood and pass them into the lumen of the tubule. The open ciliated -funnel or nephrostome at the coelomic end of the tubule serves for the -passage outwards of coelomic fluid to flush the cavity of the tubule. -The secretory activity of the coelomic lining is specially concentrated -in certain limited areas in the neighbourhood of the nephrostomes, each -such area ensheathing a rounded mass depending into the coelom and -formed of a blood-vessel coiled into a kind of skein--a glomerulus. In -the case of the pronephros the glomeruli are as a rule fused together -into a single glomus. In the mesonephros they remain separate and in -this case the portion of coelom surrounding the glomerulus tends to be -nipped off from the general coelom--to form a Malpighian body. The -separation may be incomplete--the Malpighian coelom remaining in -connexion with the general coelom by a narrow peritoneal canal. The -splanchnocoelic end of this is usually ciliated and is termed a -peritoneal funnel: it is frequently confused with the nephrostome. - -_Mesonephros._--The kidney of the adult fish is usually a compact gland -extending over a considerable distance in an anteroposterior direction -and lying immediately dorsal to the coelomic cavity. - -Peritoneal funnels are present in the adult of certain Selachians (e.g. -_Acanthias_, _Squatina_), though apparently in at least some of these -forms they no longer communicate with the Malpighian bodies or tubules. -The kidneys of the two sides become fused together posteriorly in -_Protopterus_ and in some Teleosts. The mesonephric ducts undergo fusion -posteriorly in many cases to form a median urinary or urinogenital -sinus. In the Selachians this median sinus is prolonged forwards into a -pair of horn-like continuations--the sperm sacs. In Dipnoans the sinus -becomes greatly dilated and forms a large, rounded, dorsally placed -cloacal caecum. In Actinopterygians a urinary bladder of similar -morphological import is commonly present. - -_Gonads._--The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to the -reproductive cells retains its primitive relations most nearly in the -female, where, as a rule, the genital cells are still shed into the -splanchnocoele. Only in Teleostomes (_Lepidosteus_ and most Teleosts) -the modification occurs that the ovary is shut off from the -splanchnocoele as a closed cavity continuous with its duct. - - In a few Teleosts (_Salmonidae_, _Muraenidae_, _Cobitis_) the ovary is - not a closed sac, its eggs being shed into the coelom as in other - groups. - -The appearance of the ovary naturally varies greatly with the character -of the eggs. - -The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to the male genital -cells (testis) is in nearly, if not quite, all cases, shut off from the -splanchnocoele. The testes are commonly elongated in form. In -Dipneusti[20] (_Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_) the hinder portion of -the elongated testis has lost its sperm-producing function, though the -spermatozoa produced in the anterior portion have to traverse it in -order to reach the kidney. In _Polypterus_[21] the testis is continued -backwards as a "testis ridge," which appears to correspond with the -posterior vesicular region of the testis in _Lepidosiren_ and -_Protopterus_. Here also the spermatozoa pass back through the cavities -of the testis ridge to reach the kidney duct. In the young Teleost[22] -the rudiment of the duct forms a backward continuation of the testis -containing a network of cavities and opening as a rule posteriorly into -the kidney duct. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the testis -duct of the Teleost is for the most part the equivalent morphologically -of the posterior vesicular region of the testis of _Polypterus_ and the -Dipneusti. - -_Relations of Renal and Reproductive Organs._ (1) _Female._--In the -Selachians and Dipnoans the oviduct is of the type (Müllerian duct) -present in the higher vertebrates and apparently representing a -split-off portion of the archinephric duct. At its anterior end is a -wide funnel-like coelomic opening. Its walls are glandular and secrete -accessory coverings for the eggs. In the great majority of Teleosts and -in _Lepidosteus_ the oviduct possesses no coelomic funnel, its walls -being in structural continuity with the wall of the ovary. In most of -the more primitive Teleostomes (Crossopterygians, sturgeons, _Amia_) the -oviduct has at its front end an open coelomic funnel, and it is -difficult to find adequate reason for refusing to regard such oviducts -as true Müllerian ducts. On this interpretation the condition -characteristic of Teleosts would be due to the lips of the oviduct -becoming fused with the ovarian wall, and the duct itself would be a -Müllerian duct as elsewhere. - -[Illustration: From _Arch. zool, expérimentale_, by permission of -Schleicher Frères. - -FIG. 11.--Urino-Genital Organs of the right side in a male _Scyllium_. -(After Borcea.) - - m.n. 1, Anterior (genital) portion of mesonephros - with its coiled duct. - m.n. 2, Posterior (renal) portion of mesonephros. - s.s, Sperm sac. - T, Testis. - u, "Ureter" formed by fusion of collecting tubes of renal portion of - mesonephros. - u.g.s, Urino-genital sinus; - v.s, Vesicula seminalis.] - - A departure from the normal arrangement is found in those Teleosts - which shed their eggs into the splanchnocoele, e.g. amongst - _Salmonidae_, the smelt (_Osmerus_) and capelin (_Mallotus_) possess a - pair of oviducts resembling Müllerian ducts while the salmon possesses - merely a pair of genital pores opening together behind the anus. It - seems most probable that the latter condition has been derived from - the former by reduction of the Müllerian ducts, though it has been - argued that the converse process has taken place. The genital pores - mentioned must not be confused with the _abdominal pores_, which in - many adult fishes, particularly in those without open peritoneal - funnels, lead from coelom directly to the exterior in the region of - the cloacal opening. These appear to be recent developments, and to - have nothing to do morphologically with the genitourinary system.[23] - -(2) _Male._--It seems that primitively the male reproductive elements -like the female were shed into the coelom and passed thence through the -nephridial tubules. In correlation probably with the greatly reduced -size of these elements they are commonly no longer shed into the -splanchnocoele, but are conveyed from the testis through covered-in -canals to the Malpighian bodies or kidney tubules. The system of -covered-in canals forms the testicular network, the individual canals -being termed vasa efferentia. In all probability the series of vasa -efferentia was originally spread over the whole length of the elongated -testis (cf. _Lepidosteus_), but in existing fishes the series is as a -rule restricted to a comparatively short anteroposterior extent. In -Selachians the vasa efferentia are restricted to the anterior end of -testis and kidney, and are connected by a longitudinal canal ending -blindly in front and behind. The number of vasa efferentia varies and in -the rays (_Raia_, _Torpedo_) may be reduced to a single one opening -directly into the front end of the mesonephric duct. The anterior -portion of the mesonephros is much reduced in size in correlation with -the fact that it has lost its renal function. The hinder part, which is -the functional kidney, is considerably enlarged. The primary tubules of -this region of the kidney have undergone a modification of high -morphological interest. Their distal portions have become much -elongated, they are more or less fused, and their openings into the -mesonephric duct have undergone backward migration until they open -together either into the mesonephric duct at its posterior end or into -the urinogenital sinus independently of the mesonephric duct. The -mesonephric duct is now connected only with the anterior part of the -kidney, and serves merely as a vas deferens or sperm duct. In -correlation with this it is somewhat enlarged, especially in its -posterior portion, to form a vesicula seminalis. - - The morphological interest of these features lies in the fact that - they represent a stage in evolution which carried a little farther - would lead to a complete separation of the definitive kidney - (_metanephros_) from the purely genital anterior section of the - mesonephros (_epididymis_), as occurs so characteristically in the - Amniota. - -Dipneusti.--In _Lepidosiren_[24] a small number (about half a dozen) of -vasa efferentia occur towards the hind end of the vesicular part of the -testis and open into Malpighian bodies. In _Protopterus_ the vasa -efferentia are reduced to a single one on each side at the extreme hind -end of the testis. - -[Illustration: Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_. - -FIG. 12.--Diagram illustrating Connexion between Kidney and Testis in -Various Groups of Fishes. - - A, Distributed condition of _vasa efferentia_ (_Acipenser_, - _Lepidosteus_). - B, _Vasa efferentia_ reduced to a few at the hind end (_Lepidosiren_). - C, Reduction of vasa efferentia to a single one posteriorly - (_Protopterus_). - D, Direct communication between testis and kidney duct (_Polypterus_, - Teleosts). - c.f, Nephrostome leading from Malpighian coelom into kidney tubule. - T1, Functional region of testis. - T2, Vesicular region of testis. - WD, Mesonephric duct.] - -Teleostomi.--In the actinopterygian Ganoids a well-developed testicular -network is present; e.g. in _Lepidosteus_[25] numerous vasa efferentia -arise from the testis along nearly its whole length and pass to a -longitudinal canal lying on the surface of the kidney, from which in -turn transverse canals lead to the Malpighian bodies. (In the case of -_Amia_ they open into the tubules or even directly into the mesonephric -duct.) In the Teleosts and in _Polypterus_ there is no obvious connexion -between testis and kidney, the wall of the testis being continuous with -that of its duct, much as is the case with the ovary and its duct in the -female. In all probability this peculiar condition is to be -explained[26] by the reduction of the testicular network to a single vas -efferens (much as in _Protopterus_ or as in _Raia_ and various anurous -Amphibians at the front end of the series) which has come to open -directly into the mesonephric duct (cf. fig. 12). - -_Organs of the Mesenchyme._--In vertebrates as in all other Metazoa, -except the very lowest, there are numerous cell elements which no longer -form part of the regularly arranged epithelial layers, but which take -part in the formation of the packing tissue of the body. Much of this -forms the various kinds of connective tissue which fill up many of the -spaces between the various epithelial layers; other and very important -parts of the general mesenchyme become specialized in two definite -directions and give rise to two special systems of organs. One of these -is characterized by the fact that the intercellular substance or matrix -assumes a more or less rigid character--it may be infiltrated with salts -of lime--giving rise to the supporting tissues of the skeletal system. -The other is characterized by the intercellular matrix becoming fluid, -and by the cell elements losing their connexion with one another and -forming the characteristic fluid tissue, the blood, which with its -well-marked containing walls forms the blood vascular system. - -_Skeletal System._--The skeletal system may be considered under three -headings--(1) the chordal skeleton, (2) the cartilaginous skeleton and -(3) the osseous skeleton. - -1. _Chordal Skeleton._--The most ancient element of the skeleton appears -to be the _notochord_--a cylindrical rod composed of highly vacuolated -cells lying ventral to the central nervous system and dorsal to the gut. -Except in _Amphioxus_--where the condition may probably be secondary, -due to degenerative shortening of the central nervous system--the -notochord extends from a point just behind the infundibulum of the brain -(see below) to nearly the tip of the tail. In ontogeny the notochord is -a derivative of the dorsal wall of the archenteron. The outer layer of -cells, which are commonly less vacuolated and form a "chordal -epithelium," soon secretes a thin cuticle which ensheaths the notochord -and is known as the primary sheath. Within this there is formed later a -secondary sheath, like the primary, cuticular in nature. This secondary -sheath attains a considerable thickness and plays an important part in -strengthening the notochord. The notochord with its sheaths is in -existing fishes essentially the skeleton of early life (embryonic or -larval). In the adult it may, in the more primitive forms (Cyclostomata, -Dipneusti), persist as an important part of the skeleton, but as a rule -it merely forms the foundation on which the cartilaginous or bony -vertebral column is laid down. - -2. _Cartilaginous or Chondral Skeleton._--(A) Vertebral column.[27] In -the embryonic connective tissue or mesenchyme lying just outside the -primary sheath of the notochord there are developed a dorsal and a -ventral series of paired nodules of cartilage known as _arcualia_ (fig. -13, d.a, v.a). The dorsal arcualia are commonly prolonged upwards by -supradorsal cartilages which complete the _neural arches_ and serve to -protect the spinal cord. The ventral arcualia become, in the tail region -only, also incorporated in complete arches--the _haemal arches_. In -correlation with the flattening of the body of the fish from side to -side the arches are commonly prolonged into elongated neural or haemal -spines. - - The relations of the arcualia to the segmentation of the body, as - shown by myotomes and spinal nerves, is somewhat obscure. The - mesenchyme in which they arise is segmental in origin (sclerotom), - which suggests that they too may have been primitively segmental, but - in existing fishes there are commonly two sets of arcualia to each - body segment. - -In gnathostomatous fishes the arcualia play a most important part in -that cartilaginous tissue derived from them comes into special -relationships with the notochord and gives rise to the vertebral column -which functionally replaces this notochord in most of the fishes. This -replacement occurs according to two different methods, giving rise to -the different types of vertebral column known as chordacentrous and -arcicentrous. - -(a) Chordacentrous type. An incipient stage in the evolution of a -chordacentrous vertebral column occurs in the Dipneusti, where cartilage -cells from the arcualia become amoeboid and migrate into the substance -of the secondary sheath, boring their way through the primary sheath -(fig. 13, C). They wander throughout the whole extent of the secondary -sheath, colonizing it as it were, and settle down as typical stationary -cartilage cells. The secondary sheath is thus converted into a cylinder -of cartilage. In Selachians exactly the same thing takes place, but in -recent forms development goes a step further, as the cartilage cylinder -becomes broken into a series of segments, known as vertebral centra. The -wall of each segment becomes much thickened in the middle so that the -notochord becomes constricted within each centrum and the space occupied -by it is shaped like the cavity of a dice-box. When free from notochord -and surrounding tissues such a cartilaginous centrum presents a deep -conical cavity at each end (_amphicoelous_). - -[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Grundriss der vergleichenden -Anatomie_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 13.--Diagrammatic transverse sections to illustrate the morphology -of the vertebral column. - - A, Primitive conditions as seen in any young embryo. - B, Condition as it occurs in Cyclostomata, sturgeons, embryos of bony - Actinopterygians. - C, Condition found in Selachians and Dipnoans. - D and E, Illustrating the developmental process in bony - Actinopterygians and higher vertebrates. - c, Centrum. - d.a, Dorsal arcualia. - n.a, Neural arch. - nc, Notochord. - nc.ep, Chordal epithelium. - n.sp, Neural spine. - sh.1, Primary sheath. - sh.2, Secondary sheath. - sk.l, Connective tissue. - tr.p, Transverse process. - v.a, Ventral arcualia.] - - A secondary modification of the centrum consists in the calcification - of certain zones of the cartilaginous matrix. The precise arrangement - of these calcified zones varies in different families and affords - characters which are of taxonomic importance in palaeontology where - only skeletal structures are available (see SELACHIANS). - -(b) Arcicentrous type. Already in the Selachians the vertebral column is -to a certain extent strengthened by the broadening of the basis of the -arcualia so as partially to surround the centra. In the Teleostomes, -with the exceptions of those ganoids mentioned, the expanded bases of -the arcualia undergo complete fusion to form cartilaginous centra which, -unlike the chordacentrous centra, lie outside the primary sheath (figs. -13, D and E). In these forms no invasion of the secondary sheath by -cartilage cells takes place. The composition of the groups of arcualia -which give rise to the individual centrum is different in different -groups. The end result is an amphicoelous or biconcave centrum in -general appearance much like that of the Selachian. - - In _Lepidosteus_ the spaces between adjacent centra become filled by a - secondary development of intervertebral cartilage which then splits in - such a way that the definitive vertebrae are _opisthocoelous_, i.e. - concave behind, convex in front. - -_Ribs._--In the Crossopterygians a double set of "ribs" is present on -each side of the vertebral column, a ventral set lying immediately -outside the splanchnocoelic lining and apparently serially homologous -with the haemal arches of the caudal region, and a second set passing -outwards in the thickness of the body wall at a more dorsal level. In -the Teleostomes and Dipnoans only the first type is present; in the -Selachians only the second. It would appear that it is the latter which -is homologous with the ribs of vertebrates above fishes. - -_Median Fin Skeleton._--the foundation of the skeleton of the median -fins consists of a series of rod-like elements, the radialia, each of -which frequently is segmented into three portions. In a few cases the -radialia correspond segmentally with the neural and haemal arches -(living Dipnoans, _Pleuracanthus_ tail region) and this suggests that -they represent morphologically prolongations of the neural and haemal -spines. That this is so is rendered probable by the fact that we must -regard the evolution of the system of median fins as commencing with a -simple flattening of the posterior part of the body. It is only natural -to suppose that the edges of the flattened region would be at first -supported merely by prolongations of the already existing spinous -processes. In the Cyclostomes (where they are branched) and in the -Selachians, the radialia form the main supports of the fin, though -already in the latter they are reinforced by a new set of fin rays -apparently related morphologically to the osseous or placoid skeleton -(see below). - - The series of radialia tends to undergo the same process of local - concentration which characterizes the fin-fold as a whole. In its - extreme form this leads to complete fusion of the basal portions of a - number of radialia (dorsal fins of _Holoptychius_ and various - Selachians, and anal fin of _Pleuracanthus_). In view of the identity - in function it is not surprising that a remarkable resemblance exists - between the mechanical arrangements (of skeleton, muscles, &c.), of - the paired and unpaired fins. The resemblance to paired fins becomes - very striking in some of the cases where the basal fusion mentioned - above takes place (_Pleuracanthus_). - -[Illustration: _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh._ - -FIG. 14.--Chondrocranium of a young Lepidosiren, showing the suspension -of the lower jaw by the upper portion of the mandibular arch. (After -Agar.) - - H, Hyoid arch. - M, Mandibular arch. - o.a, Occipital arch. - ot, Auditory capsule. - q, Quadrate = upper end of mandibular arch. - tr, Trabecula. - -The palatopterygoid bar (p.pt) is represented by a faint vestige which -disappears before the stage figured.] - -(B) _Chondrocranium[28]._--In front of the vertebral column lies the -cartilaginous trough, the chondrocranium, which protects the brain. This -consists of a praechordal portion--developed out of a pair of lateral -cartilaginous rods--the _trabeculae cranii_--and a parachordal portion -lying on either side of the anterior end of the notochord. This arises -in development from a cartilaginous rod (parachordal cartilage) lying -on each side of the notochord and possibly representing a fused row of -dorsal arcualia. The originally separate parachordals and trabeculae -become connected to form a trough-like, primitive cranium, complete or -nearly so laterally and ventrally but open dorsally. With the primitive -cranium there are also connected cartilaginous capsules developed round -the olfactory and auditory organs. There also become fused with the -hinder end of the cranium a varying number of originally distinct neural -arches. - -[Illustration: _A._ After W. K. Parker, _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_. - -_B._ After Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, -by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. - -_C._ After Hubrecht, Brown's _Tierreich_, by permission of Gustav -Fischer. - -FIG. 15.--Chondrocranium, &c. of _Scyllium_ (A), _Notidanus cinereus_ -(B) and _Chimaera_ (C). - - Br.A, Branchial arches. olf, Olfactory capsule. - c.h, Ceratohyal. ot, Auditory capsule. - e.p.l, Ethmopalatine ligament. p.pt, Palato-pterygoid bar. - Hm, Hyomandibular. p.s.l, Prespiracular ligament. - M, Meckel's cartilage. r, Rostrum.] - o, Orbit. - -(C) _Visceral Arches._--The skeleton of the visceral arches consists -essentially of a series of half-hoops of cartilage, each divided in the -adult into a number of segments and connected with its fellow by a median -ventral cartilage. The skeleton of arches I. and II. (mandibular and -hyoidean) undergoes modifications of special interest (figs. 14 and 15). -The lower portion of the mandibular arch becomes greatly thickened to -support the lower or hinder edge of the mouth. It forms the primitive -lower jaw or "Meckel's cartilage." Dorsal to this an outgrowth arises from -the anterior face of the arch which supports the upper or anterior margin -of the mouth: it is the primitive upper jaw or palato-pterygoquadrate -cartilage. The portion of the arch dorsal to the palato-pterygo-quadrate -outgrowth may form the suspensorial apparatus of the lower jaw, being -fused with the cranium at its upper end. This relatively primitive -con-arrangement (_protostylic_, as it may be termed) occurs in Dipneusti -among fishes (cf. fig. 14). More usually this dorsal part of the -mandibular arch becomes reduced, its place being occupied by a ligament -(pre-spiracular) uniting the jaw apparatus to the chondrocranium, the -upper jaw being also attached to the chondrocranium by the ethmopalatine -ligament situated more anteriorly. The main attachment, however, of the -jaws to the chondrocranium in such a case, as holds for the majority of -fishes, is through the enlarged dorsal segment of the hyoid arch -(hyomandibular) which articulates at its dorsal end with the -chondrocranium, while its ventral end is attached to the hinge region of -the jaw by stout ligamentous bands. A skull in which the jaws are -suspended in this manner is termed a hyostylic skull (e.g. _Scyllium_ in -fig. 15). - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Fore-limb of _Ceratodus_.] - - In _Notidanus_ (fig. 15, B) there is a large direct articulation of - the upper jaw to the chondrocranium in addition to the indirect one - through the hyomandibular: such a skull is amphistylic. In - _Heterodontus_ the upper jaw is firmly bound to the cranium throughout - its length, while in Holocephali (fig. 15, C) complete fusion has - taken place, so that the lower jaw appears to articulate directly with - the cranium ("auto stylic" condition). In Dipneusti[29] (_Lepidosiren_ - and _Protopterus_) the cartilaginous upper jaw never develops (except - in its hinder quadrate portion) beyond the condition of a faint - rudiment, owing doubtless to its being replaced functionally by - precociously developed bone. - -(D) _Appendicular Skeleton._--The skeleton of the free part of the limb -is attached to the limb girdle which lies embedded in the musculature of -the body. Each limb girdle is probably to be looked upon as consisting, -like the skeleton of the visceral arches, of a pair of lateral -half-hoops of cartilage. While in _Pleuracanthus_ the lateral halves are -distinct (and segmented like the branchial arches), in living Selachians -generally the two halves are completely fused ventrally with one -another. The part of the girdle lying dorsal to the articulation of the -limb is termed scapular in the case of the pectoral limb, iliac in the -case of the pelvic, while the ventral portions are known respectively as -coracoid and ischio-pubic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--a, Skeleton of pectoral limb of -_Pleuracanthus_. (From Gegenbauer, after Frisch.) b, Skeleton of -pectoral limb of _Acanthias_. (After Gegenbauer.)] - - In most Teleostomes the primitive pelvic girdle does not develop; in - the Dipneusti it is represented by a median unpaired cartilage. - -The skeleton of the free limb is probably seen in its most archaic form -amongst existing fishes in the biserial archipterygium of _Ceratodus_ -(fig. 16). This is indicated by the relative predominance of this type -of fin amongst the geologically more ancient fishes. The biserial -archipterygium consists of a segmented axial rod, bearing a praeaxial -and a postaxial series of jointed rays. - - In _Protopterus_ and _Lepidosiren_ the limbs are reduced and the - lateral rays have less (_Protopterus_) or more (_Lepidosiren_) - completely disappeared. - -[Illustration: From Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_, xvi, part vii. -From Wiedersheim's _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by permission of -Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 18.--Skeleton of Pectoral Limb of _Polypterus_. a, 30 mm. larva. b, -Adult.] - -[Illustration: From Wiesdersheim's _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by -permission of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 19.--Skeleton of Pectoral Fin of _Amia_.] - -In such an archaic Selachian as _Pleuracanthus_ the fin is clearly of -the biserial archipterygial type, but the lateral rays are reduced -(pectoral) or absent (pelvic) (fig. 17, a) on one side of the axis. In a -typical adult Selachian the pectoral fin skeleton has little apparent -resemblance to the biserial archipterygium--the numerous outwardly -directed rays springing from a series of large basal cartilages (_pro_-, -_meso_- and _metapterygium_). The condition in the young (e.g. fig. 17, -b, _Acanthias_) hints strongly, however, at the possibility of the fin -skeleton being really a modified biserial archipterygium, and that the -basal cartilages represent the greatly enlarged axis which has become -fixed back along the side of the body. In Crossopterygians -(_Polypterus_) the highly peculiar fin skeleton (fig. 18) while still in -the embryonic cartilaginous stage is clearly referable to a similar -condition. In the Actinopterygians--with the increased development of -dermal fin rays--there comes about reduction of the primitive limb -skeleton. The axis becomes particularly reduced, and the fin comes to be -attached directly to the pectoral girdle by a number of basal pieces -(Teleosts) probably representing vestigial rays (cf. fig. 19). - - Views on the general morphology of the fin skeleton are strongly - affected by the view held as to the mode of evolution of the fins. By - upholders of the lateral fold hypothesis the type of fin skeleton - described for _Cladoselache_[30] is regarded as particularly - primitive. It is, however, by no means clear that the obscure basal - structures figured (Fig. 20) in this fin do not really represent the - pressed back axis as in _Pleuracanthus_. - -The pelvic fin skeleton, while built obviously on the same plan as the -pectoral, is liable to much modification and frequently degeneration. - -[Illustration: From Bashford Dean, Mem. _N.Y. Acad. of Science_. - -FIG. 20.--Skeleton of Pectoral Fin of _Cladoselache_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Placoid elements of a male Thorn-back, _Raia -clavata_.] - -_Osseous or Bony Skeleton._--The most ancient type of bony skeleton -appears to be represented in the _placoid_ elements such as are seen in -the skin of the Selachian (fig. 21). Each placoid element consists of a -spine with a broadly expanded base embedded in the dermis. The base is -composed of bone: the spine of the somewhat modified bone known as -dentine. Ensheathing the tip of the spine is a layer of extremely hard -enamel formed by the inner surface of the ectoderm which originally -covered it. Such typical placoid scales are well seen on any ordinary -skate. In the groups of fishes above the Selachians, the coating of -placoid elements shows various modifications. The spines disappear, -though they may be present for a time in early development. The bony -basal plates tend to undergo fusion--in certain cases they form a -continuous bony cuirass (various Siluroids, trunk-fishes) formed of -large plates jointed together at their edges. More usually the plates -are small and regular in size. In Crossopterygians and _Lepidosteus_ and -in many extinct forms the scales are of the ganoid type, being -rhomboidal and having their outer layer composed of hard glistening -ganoine. In other Teleostomes the scales are as a rule thin, rounded and -overlapping--the so-called cycloid type (fig. 22, A); where the -posterior edge shows toothlike projections the scale is termed ctenoid -(fig. 22, B). In various Teleosts the scales are vestigial (eel); in -others (as in most electric fishes) they have completely disappeared. - -_Teeth._--Certain of the placoid elements belonging to that part of the -skin which gives rise to the lining of the stomodaeum have their spines -enlarged or otherwise modified to form teeth. In the majority of fishes -these remain simple, conical structures: in some of the larger sharks -(_Carcharodon_) they become flattened into trenchant blades with -serrated edges: in certain rays (_Myliobatis_) they form a pavement of -flattened plates suited for crushing molluscan shells. In the young -_Neoceratodus_[31] there are numerous small conical teeth, the bases of -which become connected by a kind of spongework of bony trabeculae. As -development goes on a large basal mass is formed which becomes the -functional tooth plate of the adult, the original separate denticles -disappearing completely. In the other two surviving Dipnoans, similar -large teeth exist, though here there is no longer trace in ontogeny of -their formation by the basal fusion of originally separate denticles. In -the Selachians the bony skeleton is restricted to the placoid elements. -In the Teleostomes and the Dipnoans the original cartilaginous skeleton -becomes to a great extent unsheathed or replaced by bony tissue. It -seems highly probable that the more deeply seated osseous elements -occurring in these as in the higher groups arose in the course of -evolution by the spreading inwards of bony trabeculae from the bases of -the placoid elements. Such a method has been demonstrated as occurring -in individual development in the case of certain of the more -superficially placed bones.[32] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--A, Cycloid Scale of _Scopelus resplendens_ -(magn.). B, Ctenoid Scale of _Lethrinus_ (magn.).] - - The placoid element with its cap of enamel secreted by the ectoderm is - probably originally derived from a local thickening of the basement - membrane which with the external cuticle may be looked on as the most - ancient skeletal structure in the Metazoa. The basal plate appears to - have been a later development than the spine; in the palaeozoic - _Coelolepidae_[33] the basal plate is apparently not yet developed. - -Only a brief summary can be given here of the leading features in the -osteology of fishes. Care must be taken not to assume that bony elements -bearing the same name in fishes and in other groups, or even in the -various sub-divisions of the fishes, are necessarily strictly -homologous. In all probability bony elements occupying similar positions -and described by the same anatomical name have been evolved -independently from the ancestral covering of placoid elements. - -_Teleostei._--It will be convenient to take as the basis of our -description the bony skeleton of such a Teleostean fish as the salmon. -In the vertebral column all the cartilaginous elements are replaced by -bone. The haemal spines of the turned-up tip of the tail are flattened -(hypural bones) and serve to support the caudal fin rays. - -In _Argyropelecus_ and in one or two deep-sea forms the vertebral column -remains cartilaginous. - -[Illustration: From Parker & Haswell's _Text-book of Zoology_, by -permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. - -FIG. 23.--One of the radialia of the salmon, consisting of three -segments, ptg¹, ptg², ptg³, and supporting a dermal fin ray. _D.F.R._] - -Apart from the ossification of the radialia which takes place in the -adults of bony fishes there exist special supporting structures in the -fins (paired as well as median) of all the gnathostomatous fishes and -apparently in nature independent of the cartilaginous skeleton. These -are known as dermal fin-rays.[34] Morphologically they are probably to -be looked on (like placoid elements) as local exaggerations of the -basement membrane. - - In their detailed characters two main types of dermal fin-ray may be - recognized. The first of these are horny unjointed rays and occur in - the fins of Selachians and at the edge of the fins of Teleostomes - (well seen in the small posterior dorsal or "adipose" fin, - particularly in Siluroids). The second type of dermal fin-ray is - originally arranged in pairs and forms the main supports of the fin in - the adult Teleost (fig. 23). The members of each pair are in close - contact except proximally where they separate and embrace the tip of - one of the radialia. The fin-rays of this second type are frequently - branched and jointed: in other cases they form unbranched rigid - spines. - - In the angler or fishing-frog (_Lophius_) the anterior rays of the - dorsal fin become greatly elongated to form small fishing-rods, from - which depend bait-like lures for the attraction of its prey. - -[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by -permission of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 24.--Chondrocranium of Salmon, seen from the right side. - - alsph, Alisphenoid. orbsph, Orbitosphenoid. - basocc, Basioccipital. proot, Prootic. - ekteth, Lateral ethmoid. psph, Parasphenoid. - epiot, Epiotic. ptero, Pterotic. - exocc, Exoccipital. socc, Supra occipital. - fr, Frontal. sphot, Sphenotic. - opisth, Opisthotic. vo, Vomer.] - -In the skull of the adult salmon it is seen that certain parts of the -chondrocranium (fig. 24) have been replaced by bone ("cartilage bones") -while other more superficially placed bones ("membrane bones") cover its -surface (fig. 25). Of cartilage bones four are developed round the -foramen magnum--the basioccipital, supraoccipital and two exoccipitals. -In front of the basioccipital is the basisphenoid with an alisphenoid on -each side. The region (presphenoidal) immediately in front of the -basisphenoid is unossified, but on each side of it an orbitosphenoid is -developed, the two orbitosphenoids being closely approximated in the -mesial plane and to a certain extent fused, forming the upper part of -the interorbital septum. In the anterior or ethmoidal portion of the -cranium the only cartilage bones are a pair of lateral ethmoids lying -at the anterior boundary of the orbit. A series of five distinct -elements are ossified in the wall of the auditory or otic capsule, the -prootic and opisthotic more ventrally, and the sphenotic, pterotic and -epiotic more dorsally. The roof of the cranium is covered in by the -following dermal bones--parietals (on each side of the supraoccipital), -frontals, dermal ethmoid and small nasals, one over each olfactory -organ. The floor of the cranium on its oral aspect is ensheathed by the -large parasphenoid and the smaller vomer in front of and overlapping it. -The cartilaginous lower jaw is ossified posteriorly to form the -articular (fig. 25) with a small membrane bone, the angular, ventral to -it, but the main part of the jaw is replaced functionally by a large -membrane bone which ensheaths it--the dentary--evolved in all -probability by the spreading outwards of bony tissue from the bases of -the placoid elements (teeth) which it bears. The original upper jaw -(palatopterygoid bar) is replaced by a chain of bones--palatine in -front, then pterygoid and mesopterygoid, and posteriorly metapterygoid -and quadrate, the latter giving articulation to the articular bone of -the lower jaw. These representatives of the palatopterygoid bar no -longer form the functional upper jaw. This function is performed by -membrane bones which have appeared external to the palatopterygoid -bar--the premaxilla and maxilla--which carry teeth--and the small -scale-like jugal behind them. The quadrate is suspended from the skull -as in the Selachians (hyostylic skull) by the upper portion of the hyoid -arch--here represented by two bones--the hyomandibular and symplectic. -The ventral portion of the hyoid arch is also represented by a chain of -bones (stylohyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, hypohyal and the ventral unpaired -basihyal), as is also each of the five branchial arches behind it. In -addition to the bony elements belonging to the hyoid arch proper a -series of membrane bones support the opercular flap. Ventrally there -project backwards from the ceratohyal a series of ten overlapping -branchiostegal rays, while more dorsally are the broader interopercular, -subopercular and opercular. - -[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by -permission of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 25.--Complete Skull of Salmon from left side. - - art, Articular. op, Opercular. - branchiost, Branchiostegal. pal, Palatine. - dent, Dentary. par, Parietal. - epiot, Epiotic. pmx, Premaxilla. - eth, Dermal ethmoid. preop, Preopercular. - fr, Frontal. pt, Pterygoid. - hyom, Hyomandibular. pter, Pterotic. - intop, Interopercular. Quad, Quadrate. - Jug, Jugal. socc, Supraoccipital. - mpt, Mesopterygoid. sphot, Sphenotic. - mtpt, Metapterygoid. subop, Subopercular. - mx, Maxilla. sympl, Symplectic. - nas, Nasal. Zunge, Tongue.] - -In addition to the bones already enumerated there is present a ring of -circumorbital bones, a preopercular, behind and external to the -hyomandibular and quadrate, and squamosal, external to the hinder end of -the auditory capsule. - - In the salmon, pike, and various other Teleosts, extensive regions of - the chondrocranium persist in the adult, while in others (e.g. the - cod) the replacement by bone is practically complete. Bony elements - may be developed in addition to those noticed in the salmon. - - In the sturgeon the chondrocranium is ensheathed by numerous membrane - bones, but cartilage bones are absent. In the Crossopterygians[35] the - chondrocranium persists to a great extent in the adult, but portions - of it are replaced by cartilage bones--the most interesting being a - large sphenethmoid like that of the frog. Numerous membrane bones - cover the chondrocranium externally. In the Dipneusti[36] the - chondrocranium is strengthened in the adult by numerous bones. One of - the most characteristic is the great palatopterygoid bone which - develops very early by the spreading of ossification backwards from - the tooth bases, and whose early development probably accounts for the - non-development of the palatopterygoid cartilage. - -_Appendicular Skeleton._--The primitive pectoral girdle, which in the -Dipneusti is strengthened by a sheath of bone, becomes in the -Teleostomes reduced in size (small scapula and coracoid bones) and -replaced functionally by a secondary shoulder girdle formed of -superficially placed membrane bones (supraclavicular and cleithrum or -"clavicle," with, in addition in certain cases, an infraclavicular and -one or two postclavicular elements), and connected at its dorsal end -with the skull by a post-temporal bone. - -The pelvic girdle is in Teleostomes completely absent as a rule. - -The skeleton of the free limb undergoes ossification to a less or -greater extent in the Teleostomes. - - In _Polypterus_ the pectoral fin (fig. 18, B) shows three - ossifications in the basal part of the fin--pro-, meso- and - metapterygium. Of these the metapterygium probably represents the - ossified skeletal axis: while the propterygium and also the numerous - diverging radials probably represent the lateral rays of one side of - the archipterygium. - - In the _Teleostomes_ the place of the pelvic girdle is taken - functionally by an element apparently formed by the fusion of the - basal portions of several radials. - -_Vascular System._--The main components of the blood vascular system in -the lower vertebrates are the following: (1) a single or double dorsal -aorta lying between the enteron and notochord; (2) a ventral vessel -lying beneath the enteron; and (3) a series of paired hoop-like aortic -arches connecting dorsal and ventral vessels round the sides of the -pharynx. The blood-stream passes forwards towards the head in the -ventral vessel, dorsalwards through the aortic arches, and tailwards in -the dorsal aorta. - -The dorsal aorta is single throughout the greater part of its extent, -but for a greater or less extent at its anterior end (_circulus -cephalicus_) it consists of two paired aortic roots. It is impossible to -say whether the paired or the unpaired condition is the more primitive, -general morphological conditions being in favour of the latter, while -embryological evidence rather supports the former. The dorsal aorta, -which receives its highly oxygenated blood from the aortic arches, is -the main artery for the distribution of this oxygenated blood. -Anteriorly the aortic roots are continued forwards as the dorsal carotid -arteries to supply the head region. A series of paired, -segmentally-arranged arteries pass from the dorsal aorta to supply the -muscular body wall, and the branches which supply the pectoral and -pelvic fins (subclavian or brachial artery, and iliac artery) are -probably specially enlarged members of this series of segmental vessels. -Besides these paired vessels a varying number of unpaired branches pass -from dorsal aorta to the wall of the alimentary canal with its glandular -diverticula (coeliac, mesenteric, rectal). - -The ventral vessel undergoes complicated changes and is represented in -the adults of existing fishes by a series of important structures. Its -post-anal portion comes with the atrophy of the post-anal gut to lie -close under the caudal portion of the dorsal aorta and is known as the -caudal vein. This assumes a secondary connexion with, and drains its -blood into, the posterior cardinal veins (see below). In the region -between cloaca and liver the ventral vessel becomes much branched or -even reticular and--serving serving to convey the food-laden blood from -the wall of the enteron to the capillary network of the liver--is known -as the hepatic portal vein. The short section in front of the liver is -known as the hepatic vein and this conveys the blood, which has been -treated by the liver, into a section of the ventral vessel, which has -become highly muscular and is rhythmically contractile. This enlarged -muscular portion, in which the contractility--probably once common to -the main vessels throughout their extent--has become concentrated, -serves as a pump and is known as the heart. Finally the precardiac -section of the ventral vessel--the ventral aorta--conveys the blood from -heart to aortic arches. - -In addition to the vessels mentioned a large paired vein is developed in -close relation to the renal organ which it serves to drain. This is the -posterior cardinal. An anterior prolongation (anterior cardinal) serves -to drain the blood from the head region. From the point of junction of -anterior and posterior cardinal a large transverse vessel leads to the -heart (_ductus Cuvieri_). - -[Illustration: From Boas, _Lehrbuch der Zoologie_, by permission of -Gustav Fischer. - -Fig. 26.--Diagram to illustrate the condition of the Conus in an -Elasmobranch (A), _Amia_ (B) and a typical Teleost (C). - - a, Atrium. v,v´, Valves. - b.a, Bulbus aortae. v.a, Ventral aorta. - c.a, Conus arteriosus. vt, Ventricle.] - s.v, Sinus venosus. - -_Heart._--Originally a simple tube curved into a somewhat S-shape, the -heart, by enlargements, constrictions and fusions of its parts, becomes -converted into the complex, compact heart of the adult. In this we -recognize the following portions--(1) _Sinus venosus_, (2) _Atrium_, (3) -_Ventricle_. A fourth chamber, the _conus arteriosus_, the enlarged and -contractile hinder end of the ventral aorta, is also physiologically a -part of the heart. The sinus venosus receives the blood from the great -veins (ductus Cuvieri and hepatic veins). It--like the atrium which it -enters by an opening guarded by two lateral valves--has thin though -contractile walls. The atrium is as a rule single, but in the Dipnoans, -in correlation with the importance of their pulmonary breathing, it is -incompletely divided into a right and a left auricle. In Neoceratodus -the incomplete division is effected by the presence of a longitudinal -shelf projecting into the atrial cavity from its posterior wall. The -opening of the sinus venosus is to the right of this shell, that of the -pulmonary vein to the left. In _Prototerus_ and _Lepidosiren_ a nearly -complete septum is formed by the fusion of trabeculae, there being only -a minute opening in it posteriorly. The atrium opens by a wide opening -guarded by two or more flap valves provided with chordae tendineae into -the ventricle. - -The ventricle, in correspondence with it being the main pumping -apparatus, has its walls much thickened by the development of muscular -trabeculae which, in the lower forms separated by wide spaces in which -most of the blood is contained, become in the Teleostomes so enlarged as -to give the wall a compact character, the spaces being reduced to small -scattered openings on its inner surface. In the Dipnoans the ventricle, -like the atrium, is incompletely divided into a right and left -ventricle. In _Ceratodus_ this is effected by an extension of the -interauricular shelf into the ventricle. In _Lepidosiren_ the separation -of the two ventricles is complete but for a small perforation -anteriorly, the heart in this respect showing a closer approximation to -the condition in the higher vertebrates than is found in any Amphibians -or in any reptiles except the Crocodilia. The conus arteriosus is of -interest from the valvular arrangements in its interior to prevent -regurgitation of blood from ventral aorta into ventricle. In their -simplest condition, as seen e.g. in an embryonic Selachian, these -arrangements consist of three, four or more prominent longitudinal -ridges projecting into the lumen of the conus, and serving to obliterate -the lumen when jammed together by the systole of the conus. As -development goes on each of these ridges becomes segmented into a row of -pocket valves with their openings directed anteriorly so that -regurgitation causes them to open out and occlude the lumen by their -free edges meeting. Amongst the Teleostomes the lower ganoids show a -similar development of longitudinal rows of valves in the conus. In -_Amia_ (fig. 26, B), however, the conus is shortened and the number of -valves in each longitudinal row is much reduced. This leads to the -condition found in the Teleosts (fig. 26, O), where practically all -trace of the conus has disappeared, a single circle of valves -representing a last survivor of each row (save in a few exceptional -cases, e.g. _Albula_, _Tarpen_, _Osteoglossum_, where two valves of each -row are present). - -[Illustration: After Newton Parker, from _Trans. of the Royal Irish -Academy_, vol. xxx. - -FIG. 27.--Venous System of _Protopterus_, as seen from ventral side. - - a, Atrium. k, Kidney. - ac, Anterior cardinal. l, Liver. - an.v, Anastomotic vein. ov.v, Ovarian veins. - c, Intestine. p, Pericardium. - c.v, Caudal vein. p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal. - f.v, Femoral vein. p.v´, Parietal veins. - g.b, Gall-bladder. r.p.v, Renal portal. - h.v, Hepatic vein. s, Stomach. - i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein. s.b.v, Subclavian.] - i.v.c, Posterior vena cava. - - In Front of the conus vestige of the Teleost there is present a thick - walled _bulbus aortae_ differing from the conus in not being - rhythmically contractile, its walls being on the contrary richly - provided with elastic tissue. - -The Dipnoans[37] show an important advance on the conus as in atrium and -ventricle. The conus has a characteristic spiral twist. Within it in -_Neoceratodus_ are a number of longitudinal rows of pocket valves. One -of these rows is marked out by the very large size of its valves and by -the fact that they are not distinct from one another but even in the -adult form a continuous, spirally-running, longitudinal fold. This ridge -projecting into the lumen of the conus divides it incompletely into two -channels, the one beginning (i.e. at its hinder end) on the _left_ side -and ending in front _ventrally_, the other beginning on the _right_ and -ending _dorsally_. In _Protopterus_ a similar condition occurs, only in -the front end of the conus a second spiral fold is present opposite the -first and, meeting this, completes the division of the conus cavity into -two separate parts. The rows of pocket valves which do not enter into -the formation of the spiral folds are here greatly reduced. - -These arrangements in the conus of the Dipnoans are of the highest -morphological interest, pointing in an unmistakable way towards the -condition found in the higher lung-breathing vertebrates. Of the two -cavities into which the conus is partially divided in the Dipneusti the -one which begins posteriorly on the right receives the (venous) blood -from the right side of the heart, and ending up anteriorly dorsal to the -other cavity communicates only with aortic arches V. and VI. In the -higher vertebrates this cavity has become completely split off to form -the root of the pulmonary arteries, and a result of aortic arch V. -receiving its blood along with the functionally much more important VI. -(the pulmonary arch) from this special part of the conus has been the -almost complete disappearance of this arch (V.) in all the higher -vertebrates. - -_Arterial System._--There are normally six aortic arches laid down -corresponding with the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) and -second (hyoidean) undergoing atrophy to a less or greater extent in -post-embryonic life. Where an external gill is present the aortic arch -loops out into this, a kind of short-circuiting of the blood-stream -taking place as the external gill atrophies. As the walls of the clefts -assume their respiratory function the aortic arch becomes broken into a -network of capillaries in its respiratory portion, and there is now -distinguished a ventral afferent and a dorsal efferent portion of each -arch. Complicated developmental changes, into which it is unnecessary to -enter,[38] may lead to each efferent vessel draining the two sides of a -single cleft instead of the adjacent walls of two clefts as it does -primitively. In the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans as in the higher -vertebrates the sixth aortic arch gives off the pulmonary artery to the -lung. Among the Actinopterygians this, probably primitive, blood-supply -to the lung (swimbladder) persists only in _Amia_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Venous System of Polypterus 30 mm. larva -(dorsal view). - - a.c.v, Anterior cardinal vein. - d.C, Ductus Cuvieri. - h.v, Hepatic vein. - i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein. - ir.v, Inter-renal vein. - l.v, Lateral cutaneous vein. - p.c.v, Posterior cardinal vein. - p.n, Pronephros. - p.v, Pulmonary vein. - s, Subclavian vein. - s.v, Sinus venosus. - th, Thyroid. - v, Vein from pharyngeal wall. - * Anterior portion of left posterior cardinal vein.] - -_Venous System._--The most interesting variations from the general plan -outlined have to do with the arrangements of the posterior cardinals. In -the Selachians these are in their anterior portion wide and sinuslike, -while in the region of the kidney they become broken into a sinusoidal -network supplied by the postrenal portion now known as the renal portal -vein. In the Teleostomes the chief noteworthy feature is the tendency to -asymmetry, the right posterior cardinal being frequently considerably -larger than the left and connected with it by transverse anastomotic -vessels, the result being that most of the blood from the two kidneys -passes forwards by the right posterior cardinal. The Dipnoans (fig. 27) -show a similar asymmetry, but here the anterior end of the right -posterior cardinal disappears, being replaced functionally by a new -vessel which conveys the blood from the right posterior cardinal direct -to the sinus venosus instead of to the outer end of the ductus Cuvieri. -This new vessel is the posterior vena cava which thus in the series of -vertebrates appears for the first time in the Dipneusti. - -_Pulmonary Veins._--In _Polypterus_ (fig. 28) the blood is drained from -the lungs by a pulmonary vein on each side which unites in front with -its fellow and opens into the great hepatic vein behind the heart. In -the Dipnoans the conjoined pulmonary veins open directly into the left -section of the atrium as in higher forms. In the Actinopterygians with -their specialized air-bladder the blood passes to the heart via -posterior cardinals, or hepatic portal, or--a probably more primitive -condition--directly into the left ductus Cuvieri (_Amia_). - -_Lymphatics._--More or less irregular lymphatic spaces occur in the -fishes as elsewhere and, as in the Amphibia, localized muscular -developments are present forming lymph hearts. - -_Central Nervous System._--The neural tube shows in very early stages an -anterior dilated portion which forms the rudiment of the brain in -contradistinction to the hinder, narrower part which forms the spinal -cord. This enlargement of the brain is correlated with the increasing -predominance of the nerve centres at the anterior end of the body which -tend to assume more and more complete control over those lying behind. - -_Spinal Cord._--A remarkable peculiarity occurs in the sun fishes -(_Molidae_), where the body is greatly shortened and where the spinal -cord undergoes a corresponding abbreviation so as to be actually shorter -than the brain. - -_Brain._--It is customary to divide the brain into three main regions, -fore-, mid-, and hind-brain, as in the most familiar vertebrates there -is frequently seen in the embryo a division of the primitive brain -dilatation into three vesicles lying one behind the other. A -consideration of the development of the brain in the various main groups -of vertebrates shows that these divisions are not of equal importance. -In those archaic groups where the egg is not encumbered by the presence -of a large mass of yolk it is usual for the brain to show in its early -stages a division into two main regions which we may term the primitive -fore-brain or cerebrum and the primitive hind-brain or rhombencephalon. -Only later does the hinder part of the primitive fore-brain become -marked off as mid-brain. In the fully developed brain it is customary to -recognize the series of regions indicated below, though the boundaries -between these regions are not mathematical lines or surfaces any more -than are any other biological boundaries:-- - - Rhombencephalon (Hind-brain) / Myelencephalon (Medulla oblongata). - \ Metencephalon (Cerebellum). - - / Mesencephalon (Mid-brain). - Cerebrum (Primitive Fore-brain) < Thalamencephalon (Diencephalon). - \ [Hemispheres (Telencephalon).] - -The myelencephalon or medulla oblongata calls for no special remark, -except that in the case of _Torpedo_ there is a special upward bulging -of its floor on each side of the middle line forming the electric lobe -and containing the nucleus of origin of the nerves to the electric -organ. - -[Illustration: A and B from Wiedersheim, by permission of Gustav -Fischer. - -FIG. 29.--Brain of _Scyllium_ (A), _Salmo_ (B) and _Lepidosiren_ (C). -The three figures are not drawn to the same scale. - - cer, Cerebellum. - c.h, Cerebral hemisphere. - th, Thalamencephalon. - f.b, Primitive fore-brain (in B the line points to the thickened - wall of the fore-brain, the so-called "basal ganglia"). - G.p, Pineal body. - m.b, Roof of mid-brain, optic lobes, _tectum opticum_. - o.l, Olfactory lobe. - IV.v, Fourth ventricle.] - -The cerebellum occurs in its simplest form in lampreys and Dipnoans -(fig. 29, C), where it forms a simple band-like thickening of the -anterior end of the roof of the hind-brain. In Selachians it is very -large and bulges upwards, forming a conspicuous organ in a dorsal view -of the brain (fig. 29, A). In Teleosts (fig. 29, B) the cerebellum is -also large. It projects back as a great tongue-like structure over the -roof of the fourth ventricle, while in front it dips downwards and -projects under the roof of the mid-brain forming a highly characteristic -_valvula cerebelli_. A _valvula cerebelli_ occurs also in ganoids, while -in the Crossopterygians a similar extension of the cerebellum projects -backwards into the IV. ventricle or cavity of the hind-brain (fig. 30). - - -The mesencephalon is a conspicuous structure in the fishes from its -greatly developed roof (_tectum opticum_) which receives the end pencils -of the optic nerve. Normally it projects upwards as a pair of large -optic lobes, but in the Dipnoans (fig. 29, C) the lateral thickening is -not sufficiently great to cause obvious lateral swellings in external -view. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Median Longitudinal Section through the brain -of _Lepidosiren_ and _Polypterus_. In the upper figure (_Lepidosiren_) -the habenular ganglion and hemisphere are shown in outline though not -actually present in a median section. - - a.c, Anterior commissure. par, Paraphysis. - cer, Cerebellum. pin, Pineal body. - d.s, Dorsal sac. p.c, Posterior commissure. - g.h, Habenular ganglion. s.v, Saccus vasculosus. - h.c, Habenular commissure. t.o, Tectum opticum. - i.g, Infundibular gland. v.III, Third ventricle. - l.p, Lateral plexus. v.IV, Fourth ventricle. - o.c, Optic chiasma. vel, Velum transversum.] - pall, Pallium. - -The thalamencephalon is one of the most interesting parts of the brain -from its remarkable uniformity throughout the Vertebrata. Even in -_Amphioxus_ the appearance of a sagittal section strongly suggests -vestiges of a once present thalamencephalon.[39] The roof--like that of -the myelencephalon--remains to a great extent membranous, forming with -the closely applied _pia mater_ a vascular roof to the III. ventricle. -Frequently a transverse fold of the roof dips down into the III. -ventricle forming the _velum transversum_ (fig. 30). - -The side walls of the thalamencephalon are greatly thickened forming the -_thalamus_ (epithalamus and hypothalamus), while a ganglionic thickening -of the roof posteriorly on each side forms the _ganglia habenulae_ which -receive olfactory fibres from the base of the hemisphere. The habenular -ganglia are unusually large in the lampreys and are here strongly -asymmetrical, the right being the larger. - -The floor of the thalamencephalon projects downwards and backwards as -the infundibulum. The side walls of this are thickened to form -characteristic _lobi inferiores_, while the blind end develops glandular -outgrowths (infundibular gland, fig. 30) overlaid by a rich development -of blood sinuses and forming with them the _saccus vasculosus_. The -optic chiasma, where present, is involved in the floor of the -thalamencephalon and forms a large, upwardly-projecting ridge. Farther -forwards on the floor or anterior wall is the anterior commissure (see -below). - -Passing forwards from the mid-brain (cf. fig. 30) a series of -interesting structures are found connected with the roof of the -primitive fore-brain, viz.--posterior commissure (intercalary region), -pineal organ, habenular commissure with anterior parietal organ, dorsal -sac (= pineal cushion), _velum transversum_, paraphysis. The posterior -commissure is situated in the boundary between thalamencephalon and -mid-brain. It is formed of fibres connecting up the right and left -sides of the tectum opticum (?). The habenular or superior commissure -situated farther forwards connects the two ganglia habenulae. In the -immediate neighbourhood of these ganglia there project upwards two -diverticula of the brain-roof known as the pineal organ and the -parapineal (or anterior parietal) organ. The special interest of these -organs[40] lies in the fact that in certain vertebrates one (parapineal -in _Sphenodon_ and in lizards) or both (_Petromyzon_) exhibit -histological features which show that they must be looked on as visual -organs or eyes. In gnathostomatous fishes they do not show any definite -eye-like structure, but in certain cases (_Polyodon_, _Callichthys_, -&c.) the bony plates of the skull-roof are discontinuous over the pineal -organ forming a definite parietal foramen such as exists in lizards -where the eye-like structure is distinct. It is also usual to find in -the epithelial wall of the pineal organ columnar cells which show -club-shaped ends projecting into the lumen (exactly as in the young -visual cells of the retina[41]) and are prolonged into a root-like -process at the other end. Definite nerve fibres pass down from these -parietal organs to the brain. It is stated that the fibres from the -pineal organ pass into the posterior commissure, those of the parapineal -organ into the habenular commissure. - -The facts mentioned render it difficult to avoid the conclusion that -these organs either have been sensory or are sensory. Possibly they -represent the degenerate and altered vestiges of eye-like organs present -in archaic vertebrates, or it may be that they represent the remains of -organs not eye-like in function but which for some other reason lay -close under the surface of the body. It would seem natural that a -diverticulum of brain-tissue exposed to the influence of light-rays -should exhibit the same reaction as is shown frequently elsewhere in the -animal kingdom and tend to assume secondarily the characters of a visual -organ. The presence of the rod-like features in the epithelial cells is -perhaps in favour of the latter view. In evolution we should expect -these to appear before the camera-like structure of a highly developed -eye, while in the process of degeneration we should expect these fine -histological characters to go first. - - Selachians.--No parapineal organ is present. The pineal body (except - in _Torpedo_ where it is absent) is in the form of a long slender tube - ending in front in a dilated bulb lying near the front end of the - brain in close contact with, or enclosed in, a definite foramen in the - cranial roof. - - Holocephali and Crossopterygii.--Here also the pineal body is long and - tubular: at its origin it passes dorsalwards or slightly backwards - behind the large dorsal sac. - - Actinopterygian Ganoids resemble Selachians on the whole. In _Amia_ a - parapineal organ is present, and it is said to lie towards the left - side and to be connected by a thick nerve with the _left_ habenular - ganglion (cf. _Petromyzon_, article CYCLOSTOMATA). This is adduced to - support the view that the pineal and parapineal bodies represent - originally paired structures. - - Teleostei.--A parapineal rudiment appears in the embryo of some forms, - but in the adult only the pineal organ is known to exist. This is - usually short and club-shaped, its terminal part with much folded wall - and glandular in character. In a few cases a parietal foramen occurs - (_Callichthys_, _Loricaria_, &c.). - - Dipneusti.--The pineal organ is short and simple. No parapineal organ - is developed. - -The dorsal sac is formed by that part of the roof of the -thalamencephalon lying between the habenular commissure and the region -of the velum. In some cases a longitudinal groove is present in which -the pineal organ lies (Dipneusti). In the Crossopterygians the dorsal -sac is particularly large and was formerly mistaken for the pineal -organ. - -The _velum transversum_ is a transverse, inwardly-projecting fold of the -roof of the primitive fore-brain in front of the dorsal sac. To those -morphologists who regard the hemisphere region or telencephalon as a -primitively unpaired structure the velum is an important landmark -indicating the posterior limit of the telencephalon. Those who hold the -view taken in this article that the hemispheres are to be regarded as -paired outpushings of the side wall of the primitive fore-brain -attribute less morphological importance to the velum. Physiologically -the velum is frequently important from the plexus of blood-vessels which -passes with it into the III. ventricle. - -In _Petromyzon_ and _Chimaera_ the velum is not developed. In Dipnoans -there are present in its place _paired_ transverse folds which are -probably merely extensions backwards of the lateral plexuses. - -The Paraphysis is a projection from the roof of the primitive fore-brain -near its anterior end. It is well seen in Dipnoans[42] (_Lepidosiren_ -and _Protopterus_) where in the larva (exactly as in the urodele larva) -it forms a blindly ending tube sloping upwards and forwards between the -two hemispheres. In the adult it becomes mixed with the two lateral -plexuses and is liable to be confused with them. In the other -groups--except the Teleosts where it is small (_Anguilla_) or absent -(most Teleosts)--the paraphysis is by no means such a definite -structure, but generally there is present a more or less branched and -divided diverticulum of the brain wall, frequently glandular, which is -homologized with the paraphysis. The morphological significance of the -paraphysis is uncertain. It may represent the remains of an ancient -sense organ, or it may simply represent the last connexion between the -brain and the external ectoderm from which it was derived. - -An important derivative of the primitive fore-brain is seen in the pair -of cerebral hemispheres which in the higher vertebrates become of such -relatively gigantic dimensions. The hemispheres appear to be primitively -associated with the special sense of smell, and they are prolonged -anteriorly into a pair of olfactory lobes which come into close relation -with the olfactory organ. From a consideration of their adult relations -and of their development--particularly in those groups where there is no -disturbing factor in the shape of a large yolk sac--it seems probable -that the hemispheres are primitively paired outpushings of the lateral -wall of the primitive fore-brain[43]--in order to give increased space -for the increased mass of nervous matter associated with the olfactory -sense. They are most highly developed in the Dipneusti amongst fishes. -They are there (cf. fig. 29, C) of relatively enormous size with thick -nervous floor (corpus striatum) and side walls and roof (pallium) -surrounding a central cavity (lateral ventricle) which opens into the -third ventricle. At the posterior end of the hemisphere a small area of -its wall remains thin and membranous, and this becomes pushed into the -lateral ventricle by an ingrowth of blood-vessel to form the huge -lateral plexus ( = _plexus hemisphaerium_). In this great size of the -hemispheres[44] and also in the presence of a rudimentary cortex in the -Dipnoi we see, as in many other features in these fishes, a distinct -foreshadowing of conditions occurring in the higher groups of -vertebrates. The Cyclostomes possess a distinct though small pair of -hemispheres. In the Selachians the relatively archaic _Notidanidae_[45] -possess a pair of thick-walled hemispheres, but in the majority of the -members of the group the paired condition is obscured (fig. 29, A). - -In the Teleostomes the mass of nervous matter which in other groups -forms the hemispheres does not undergo any pushing outwards except as -regards the small olfactory lobes. On the contrary, it remains as a -great thickening of the lateral wall of the thalamencephalon (the -so-called basal ganglia), additional space for which, however, may be -obtained by a considerable increase in length of the fore-brain region -(cf. fig. 30, A) or by actual involution into the third ventricle -(_Polypterus_).[46] The great nervous thickenings of the -thalamencephalic wall bulge into its cavity and are covered over by the -thin epithelial roof of the thalamencephalon which is as a consequence -liable to be confused with the pallium or roof of the hemispheres with -which it has nothing to do: the homologue of the pallium as of other -parts of the hemisphere is contained within the lateral thickening of -the thelamencephalic wall, not in its membranous roof.[47] - -Associated with the parts of the fore-brain devoted to the sense of -smell (especially the corpora striata) is the important system of -bridging fibres forming the anterior commissure which lies near the -anterior end of the floor, or in the front wall, of the primitive -fore-brain. It is of great interest to note the appearance in the -_Dipnoans_ (_Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_) of a corpus callosum (cf. -fig. 30 B) lying dorsal to the anterior commissure and composed of -fibres connected with the pallial region of the two hemispheres. - -_Sense Organs._--The olfactory organs are of special interest in the -Selachians, where each remains through life as a widely-open, saccular -involution of the ectoderm which may be prolonged backwards to the -margin of the buccal cavity by an open oronasal groove, thus retaining a -condition familiar in the embryo of the higher vertebrates. In Dipnoans -the olfactory organ communicates with the roof of the buccal cavity by -definite posterior nares as in the higher forms--the communicating -passage being doubtless the morphological equivalent of the oronasal -groove, although there is no direct embryological evidence for this. In -the Teleostomes the olfactory organ varies from a condition of great -complexity in the Crossopterygians down to a condition of almost -complete atrophy in certain Teleosts (Plectognathi).[48] - -The _eyes_ are usually of large size. The lens is large and spherical -and in the case of most Teleostomes accommodation for distant vision is -effected by the lens being pulled bodily nearer the retina. This -movement is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscle fibres -contained in the _processus falciformis_, a projection from the choroid -which terminates in contact with the lens in a swelling, the _campanula -Halleri_. In _Amia_ and in Teleosts a network of capillaries forming the -so-called choroid gland surrounds the optic nerve just outside the -retina. As a rule the eyes of fishes have a silvery, shining appearance -due to the deposition of shining flakes of guanin in the outer layer of -the choroid (_Argentea_) or, in the case of Selachians, in the inner -layers (_tapetum_). Fishes which inhabit dark recesses, e.g. of caves or -of the deep sea, show an enlargement, or, more frequently, a reduction, -of the eyes. Certain deep-sea Teleosts possess remarkable telescopic -eyes with a curious asymmetrical development of the retina.[49] - -The otocyst or auditory organ agrees in its main features with that of -other vertebrates. In Selachians the otocyst remains in the adult open -to the exterior by the _ductus endolymphaticus_. In _Squatina_[50] this -is unusually wide and correlated; with this the calcareous otoconia are -replaced by sand-grains from the exterior. In Dipnoans (_Lepidosiren_ -and _Protopterus_) curious outgrowths arise from the ductus -endolymphaticus and come to overlie the roof of the fourth ventricle, -recalling the somewhat similar condition met with in certain Amphibians. - - In various Teleosts the swimbladder enters into intimate relations - with the otocyst. In the simplest condition these relations consist in - the prolongation forwards of the swimbladder as a blindly ending tube - on either side, the blind end coming into direct contact either with - the wall of the otocyst itself or with the fluid surrounding it - (perilymph) through a gap in the rigid periotic capsule. A wave of - compression causing a slight inward movement of the swimbladder wall - will bring about a greatly magnified movement of that part of the wall - which is not in relation with the external medium, viz. the part in - relation with the interior of the auditory capsule. In this way the - perception of delicate sound waves may be rendered much more perfect. - In the Ostariophysi (Sagemehl), including the _Cyprinidae_, the - _Siluridae_, the _Characinidae_ and the _Gymnotidae_, a - physiologically similar connexion between swimbladder and otocyst is - brought about by the intervention of a chain of auditory ossicles - (Weberian ossicles) formed by modification of the anterior - vertebrae.[51] - -_Lateral Line Organs._[52]--Epidermal sense buds are scattered about in -the ectoderm of fishes. A special arrangement of these in lines along -the sides of the body and on the head region form the highly -characteristic sense organs of the lateral line system. In _Lepidosiren_ -these organs retain their superficial position; in other fishes they -become sunk beneath the surface into a groove, which may remain open -(some Selachians), but as a rule becomes closed into a tubular channel -with openings at intervals. It has been suggested that the function of -this system of sense organs is connected with the perception of -vibratory disturbances of comparatively large wave length in the -surrounding medium. - -_Peripheral Nerves._--In the Cyclostomes the dorsal afferent and ventral -efferent nerves are still, as in _Amphioxus_, independent, but in the -gnathostomatous fishes they are, as in the higher vertebrates, combined -together into typical spinal nerves. - -As regards the cranial nerves the chief peculiarities of fishes relate -to (1) the persistence of the branchial clefts and (2) the presence of -an elaborate system of cutaneous sense organs supplied by a group of -nerves (_lateralis_) connected with a centre in the brain which develops -in continuity with that which receives the auditory nerve. These points -may be exemplified by the arrangements in Selachians (see fig. 31). I., -II., III., IV. and VI. call for no special remark. - -[Illustration: From Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii. -"Fishes" (by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.). After Wiedersheim, -_Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie_ (by permission of Gustav -Fischer). - -FIG. 31.--Diagram of Cranial nerves of a Fish. Cranial nerves and -branchial clefts are numbered with Roman figures. Trigeminus black; -Facialis dotted; Lateralis oblique shading; Glossopharyngeal -cross-hatched; Vagus white. - - bucc, Buccal. - c, Commissure between pre- and postauditory parts of lateralis - system. - d.r, Dorsal roots of spinal nerves. - g.g, Gasserian ganglion. - gn.g, (Geniculate) ganglion of VII. - hy, Hyomandibular. - l.n.X, Lateralis vagi. - m, Motor branches of hy. - md, Mandibular. - md.ex, External mandibular. - mk.c, Meckel's cartilage. - mx, Maxillary. - oc, Occipitospinal. - ol.o, Olfactory organ. - op.p, Ophthalmicus profundus. - op.s, Ophthalmicus superficialis. - pn, Palatine. - pq., Palatopterygo-quadrate cartilage. - s, Spiracle. - st, Supra-temporal branch of lateralis system. - t.a, Lateralis centre in brain. - v.n, Visceral nerve. - v.r, Ventral roots.] - -_Trigeminus_ (V.).--The _ophthalmicus profundus_ branch (op.p.)--which -probably is morphologically a distinct cranial nerve--passes forwards -along the roof of the orbit to the skin of the snout. As it passes -through the orbit it gives off the long ciliary nerves to the eyeball, -and is connected with the small ciliary ganglion (also connected with -III.) which in turn gives off the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball. -The _ophthalmicus superficialis_ (cut short in the figure) branch passes -from the root ganglion of V. (Gasserian ganglion), and passes also over -the orbit to the skin of the snout. It lies close to, or completely -fused with, the corresponding branch of the lateralis system. - -The main trunk of V. branches over the edge of the mouth into the -_maxillary_ (mx.) and _mandibular_ (md.) divisions, the former, like the -two branches already mentioned, purely sensory, the latter -mixed--supplying the muscles of mastication as well as the teeth of the -lower jaw and the lining of the buccal floor. - -The main trunk of the _Facialis_ (VII.) bifurcates over the spiracle -into a pre-spiracular portion--the main portion of which passes to the -mucous membrane of the palate as the palatine (pnVII.)--and a -postspiracular portion, the hyomandibular (hy.) trunk which supplies the -muscles of the hyoid arch and also sends a few sensory fibres to the -lining of the spiracle, the floor of mouth and pharynx and the skin of -the lower jaw. Combined with the main trunk of the facial are branches -belonging to the _lateralis_ system. - -_Lateralis Group of Nerves._--The _lateralis_ group of nerves are -charged with the innervation of the system of cutaneous sense organs and -are all connected with the same central region in the medulla. A special -sensory area of the ectoderm becomes involuted below the surface to form -the otocyst, and the nerve fibres belonging to this form the auditory -nerve (VIII.). Other portions of the _lateralis_ group become mixed up -with various other cranial nerves as follows: - -(a) Facial portion. - -(1) _Ophthalmicus superficialis_ (op.s.VII.): passes to lining of nose -or to the lateral line organs of the dorsal part of snout. - -(2) _Buccal_ (bucc.VII): lies close to maxillary division of V. and -passes to the sensory canals of the lower side of the snout. - -(3) _External mandibular_ (md.ex.): lies in close association with the -mandibular division of V., supplies the sensory canals of the lower jaw -and hyoid region. - -_Lateralis vagi_ (l.n.X.) becomes closely associated with the vagus. It -supplies the lateral line organs of the trunk. - -In the lamprey and in Dipnoans the _lateralis vagi_ loses its -superficial position in the adult and comes into close relation with the -notochord. - -In Actinopterygians and at least some Selachians a _lateralis_ set of -fibres is associated with IX., and in the former fishes a conspicuous -trunk of _lateralis_ fibres passes to some or all (_Gadus_) of the fins. -This has been called the _lateralis accessorius_ and is apparently -connected with V., VII., IX., X. and certain spinal nerves.[53] - -_Vagus Group_ (IX., X., XI.).--The _glossopharyngeus_ (IX.) forks over -the first branchial cleft (pretrematic and post-trematic branches) and -also gives off a palatine branch (pn.IX.). In some cases (various -Selachians, Ganoids and Teleosts) it would seem that IX. includes a few -fibres of the _lateralis_ group. - -Vagus (X.) is shown by its multiple roots arising from the medulla and -also by the character of its peripheral distribution to be a compound -structure formed by the fusion of a number of originally distinct -nerves. It consists of (1) a number of branchial branches (X.¹ X.² &c.), -one of which forks over each gill cleft behind the hyobranchial and -which may (Selachians) arise by separate roots from the medulla; (2) an -intestinal branch (v.n.X.) arising behind the last branchial and -innervating the wall of the oesophagus and stomach and it may be even -the intestine throughout the greater part of its length (_Myxine_). - -The _accessorius_ (XI.) is not in fishes separated as a distinct nerve -from the vagus. - -With increased development of the brain its hinder portion, giving rise -to the vagus system, has apparently come to encroach on the anterior -portion of the spinal cord, with the result that a number of spinal -nerves have become reduced to a less or more vestigial condition. The -dorsal roots of these nerves disappear entirely in the adult, but the -ventral roots persist and are to be seen arising ventrally to the vagus -roots. They supply certain muscles of the pectoral fins and of the -visceral arches and are known as spino-occipital nerves.[54] - - These nerves are divisible into an anterior more ancient set--the - occipital nerves--and a posterior set of more recent - origin--(occipito-spinal nerves). In Selachians 1-5 pairs of occipital - nerves alone are recognizable: in Dipnoans 2-3 pairs of occipital and - 2-3 pairs of occipito-spinal: in Ganoids 1-2 pairs occipital and 1-5 - pairs occipito-spinal; in Teleosts finally the occipital nerves have - entirely disappeared while there are 2 pairs of occipito-spinal. In - Cyclostomes no special spino-occipital nerves have been described. - -The fibres corresponding with those of the _Hypoglossus_ (XII.) of -higher vertebrates spring from the anterior spinal nerves, which are -here, as indeed in Amphibia, still free from the cranium. - -_Sympathetic._--The sympathetic portion of the nervous system does not -in fishes attain the same degree of differentiation as in the higher -groups. In Cyclostomes it is apparently represented by a fine plexus -with small ganglia found in the neighbourhood of the dorsal aorta and on -the surface of the heart and receiving branches from the spinal nerves. -In Selachians also a plexus occurs in the neighbourhood of the cardinal -veins and extends over the viscera: it receives visceral branches from -the anterior spinal nerves. In Teleosts the plexus has become condensed -to form a definite sympathetic trunk on each side, extending forwards -into the head and communicating with the ganglia of certain of the -cranial nerves. (J. G. K.) - - -V. DISTRIBUTION IN TIME AND SPACE - -The origin of Vertebrates, and how far back in time they extend, is -unknown. The earliest fishes were in all probability devoid of hard -parts and traces of their existence can scarcely be expected to be -found. The hypothesis that they may be derived from the early -Crustaceans, or Arachnids, is chiefly based on the somewhat striking -resemblance which the mailed fishes of the Silurian period -(Ostracodermi) bear to the Arthropods of that remote time, a -resemblance, however, very superficial and regarded by most -morphologists as an interesting example of mimetic resemblance--whatever -this term may be taken to mean. The minute denticles known as conodonts, -which first appear in the Ordovician, were once looked upon as teeth of -Cyclostomes, but their histological structure does not afford any -support to the identification and they are now generally dismissed -altogether from the Vertebrates. As a compensation the Lower Silurian of -Russia has yielded small teeth or spines which seem to have really -belonged to fishes, although their exact affinities are not known -(_Palaeodus_ and _Archodus_ of J. V. Rohon). - -It is not until we reach the Upper Silurian that satisfactory remains of -unquestionable fishes are found, and here they suddenly appear in a -considerable variety of forms, very unlike modern fishes in every -respect, but so highly developed as to convince us that we have to -search in much earlier formations for their ancestors. These Upper -Silurian fishes are the _Coelolepidae_, the _Ateleaspidae_, the -_Birkeniidae_, the _Pteraspidae_, the _Tremataspidae_ and the -_Cephalaspidae_, all referred to the Ostracophori. The three last types -persist in the Devonian, in the middle of which period the Osteolepid -Crossopterygii, the Dipneusti and the Arthrodira suddenly appear. The -most primitive Selachian (_Cladoselache_), the Acanthodian Selachians -(_Diplacanthidae_), the Chimaerids (_Ptyctodus_), and the Palaeoniscid -ganoids (_Chirolepis_) appear in the Upper Devonian, along with the -problematic _Palaeospondylus_. - -In the Carboniferous period, the Ostracophori and Arthrodira have -disappeared, the Crossopterygii and Dipneusti are still abundant, and -the Selachians (_Pleuracanthus_, Acanthodians, truesharks) and -Chondrostean ganoids (_Palaeoniscidae_ and _Platysomidae_) are -predominant. In the Upper Permian the Holostean ganoids -(_Acanthophorus_) make their appearance, and the group becomes dominant -in the Jurassic and the Lower Cretaceous. In the Trias, the -Crossopterygii and Dipneusti dwindle in variety and the _Ceratodontidae_ -appear; the Chondrostean and Holostean ganoids are about equally -represented, and are supplemented in the Jurassic by the first, -annectant representatives of the Teleostei (_Pholidophoridae_, -_Leptolepidae_). In the latter period, the Holostean ganoids are -predominant, and with them we find numerous Cestraciont sharks, some -primitive skates (_Squatinidae_ and _Rhinobatidae_), Chimaerids and -numerous Coelacanthid crossopterygians. - -The fish-fauna of the Lower Cretaceous is similar to that of the -Jurassic, whilst that of the Chalk and other Upper Cretaceous formations -is quite modern in aspect, with only a slight admixture of Coelacanthid -crossopterygians and Holostean ganoids, the Teleosteans being abundantly -represented by _Elopidae_, _Albulidae_, _Halosauridae_, _Scopelidae_ and -_Berycidae_, many being close allies of the present inhabitants of the -deep sea. At this period the spiny-rayed Teleosteans, dominant in the -seas of the present day, made their first appearance. - -With the Eocene, the fish-fauna has assumed the essential character -which it now bears. A few Pycnodonts survive as the last representatives -of typically Mesozoic ganoids, whilst in the marine deposits of Monte -Bolca (Upper Eocene) the principal families of living marine fishes are -represented by genera identical with or more or less closely allied to -those still existing; it is highly remarkable that forms so highly -specialized as the sucking-fish or remoras, the flat-fish -(_Pleuronectidae_), the Pediculati, the Plectognaths, &c., were in -existence, whilst in the freshwater deposits of North America -_Osteoglossidae_ and _Cichlidae_ were already represented. Very little -is known of the freshwater fishes of the early Tertiaries. What has been -preserved of them from the Oligocene and Miocene shows that they -differed very slightly from their modern representatives. We may -conclude that from early Tertiary times fishes were practically as they -are at present. The great hiatus in our knowledge lies in the period -between the Cretaceous and the Eocene. - -At the present day the Teleosteans are in immense preponderance, -Selachians are still well represented, the Chondrostean ganoids are -confined to the rivers and lakes of the temperate zone of the northern -hemisphere (_Acipenseridae_, _Polyodontidae_), the Holostean ganoids are -reduced to a few species (_Lepidosteus_, _Amia_) dwelling in the fresh -waters of North America, Mexico and Cuba, the Crossopterygians are -represented by the isolated group _Polypteridae_, widely different from -any of the known fossil forms, with about ten species inhabiting the -rivers and lakes of Africa, whilst the Dipneusti linger in Australia -(_Neoceratodus_), in South America (_Lepidosiren_), and in tropical -Africa (_Protopterus_). The imperfections of the geological record -preclude any attempt to deal with the distribution in space as regards -extinct forms, but several types, at present very restricted in their -habitat, once had a very wide distribution. The _Ceratodontidae_, for -instance, of which only one species is now living, confined to the -rivers of Queensland, has left remains in Triassic, Rhaetic, Jurassic -and Cretaceous rocks of Europe, North America, Patagonia, North and -South Africa, India and Australia; the _Amiidae_ and _Lepidosteidae_ -were abundant in Europe in Eocene and Miocene times; the -_Osteoglossidae_, now living in Africa, S.E. Asia and South America, -occurred in North America and Europe in the Eocene. - -In treating of the geographical distribution of modern fishes, it is -necessary to distinguish between fresh-water and marine forms. It is, -however, not easy to draw a line between these categories, as a large -number of forms are able to accommodate themselves to either fresh or -salt water, whilst some periodically migrate from the one into the -other. On the whole, fishes may be roughly divided into the following -categories:-- - - I. Marine fishes. A. shore-fishes; B. pelagic fishes; C. deep-sea - fishes. - - II. Brackish-water fishes. - - III. Fresh-water fishes. - - IV. Migratory fishes. A. anadromous (ascending fresh waters to spawn); - B. catadromous (descending to the sea to spawn). - -About two-thirds of the known recent fishes are marine. Such are nearly -all the Selachians, and, among the Teleosteans, all the _Heteromi_, -_Pediculati_ and the great majority of _Apodes_, _Thoracostei_, -_Percesoces_, _Anacanthini_, _Acanthopterygii_ and _Plectognathi_. All -the _Crossopterygii_, _Dipneusti_, _Opisthomi_, _Symbranchii_, and -nearly all the _Ganoidei_ and _Ostariophysi_ are confined to -fresh-water. - -The three categories of marine fishes have thus been defined by -Günther:-- - - "1. _Shore Fishes_--that is, fishes which chiefly inhabit parts of the - sea in the immediate neighbourhood of land either actually raised - above, or at least but little submerged below, the surface of the - water. They do not descend to any great depth,--very few to 300 - fathoms, and the majority live close to the surface. The distribution - of these fishes is determined, not only by the temperature of the - surface water, but also by the nature of the adjacent land and its - animal and vegetable products,--some being confined to flat coasts - with soft or sandy bottoms, others to rocky and fissured coasts, - others to living coral formations. If it were not for the frequent - mechanical and involuntary removals to which these fishes are exposed, - their distribution within certain limits, as it no doubt originally - existed, would resemble still more that of freshwater fishes than we - find it actually does at the present period. - - 2. _Pelagic Fishes_--that is, fishes which inhabit the surface and - uppermost strata of the open ocean, and approach the shores only - accidentally or occasionally (in search of prey), or periodically (for - the purpose of spawning). The majority spawn in the open sea, their - ova and young being always found at a great distance from the shore. - With regard to their distribution, they are still subject to the - influences of light and the temperature of the surface water; but they - are independent of the variable local conditions which tie the shore - fish to its original home, and therefore roam freely over a space - which would take a freshwater or shore fish thousands of years to - cover in its gradual dispersal. Such as are devoid of rapidity of - motion are dispersed over similarly large areas by the oceanic - currents, more slowly than the strong swimmers, but not less surely. - An accurate definition, therefore, of their distribution within - certain areas equivalent to the terrestrial regions is much less - feasible than in the case of shore fishes. - - 3. _Deep-Sea Fishes_--that is, fishes which inhabit such depths of the - ocean that they are but little or not at all influenced by light or - the surface temperature, and which, by their organization, are - prevented from reaching the surface stratum in a healthy condition. - Living almost under identical tellurian conditions, the same type, the - same species, may inhabit an abyssal depth under the equator as well - as one near the arctic or antarctic circle; and all that we know of - these fishes points to the conclusion that no separate horizontal - regions can be distinguished in the abyssal fauna, and that no - division into bathymetrical strata can be attempted on the base of - generic much less of family characters." - -A division of the world into regions according to the distribution of -the shore-fishes is a much more difficult task than that of tracing -continental areas. It is possible perhaps to distinguish four great -divisions: the Arctic region, the Atlantic region, the Indo-Pacific -region and the Antarctic region. The second and third may be again -subdivided into three zones: Northern, Tropical and Southern. This -appears to be a more satisfactory arrangement than that which has been -proposed into three zones primarily, each again subdivided according to -the different oceans. Perhaps a better division is that adopted by D. S. -Jordan, who arranges the littoral fishes according to coast lines; we -then have an East Atlantic area, a West Atlantic, an East Pacific and a -West Pacific, the latter including the coasts of the Indian Ocean. The -tropical zone, whatever be the ocean, is that in which fishes flourish -in greatest abundance and where, especially about coral-reefs, they show -the greatest variety of bizarre forms and the most gorgeous coloration. -The fish-fauna of the Indo-Pacific is much richer than that of the -Atlantic, both as regards genera and species. - -As regards the Arctic and Antarctic regions, the continuity or -circumpolar distribution of the shore fishes is well established. The -former is chiefly characterized by its Cottids, Cyclopterids, Zoarcids -and Gadids, the latter by its Nototheniids. The theory of bipolarity -receives no support from the study of the fishes. - -Pelagic fishes, among which we find the largest Selachians and -Teleosteans, are far less limited in their distribution, which, for many -species, is nearly world-wide. Some are dependent upon currents, but the -great majority being rapid swimmers able to continue their course for -weeks, apparently without the necessity of rest (many sharks, scombrids, -sword-fishes), pass from one ocean into the other. Most numerous between -the tropics, many of these fishes occasionally wander far north and -south of their habitual range, and there are few genera that are at all -limited in their distribution. - -Deep-sea fishes, of which between seven hundred and eight hundred -species are known, belong to the most diverse groups and quite a number -of families are exclusively bathybial (_Chlamydoselachidae_, -_Stomiatidae_, _Alepocephalidae_, _Nemichthyidae_, _Synaphobranchidae_, -_Saccopharyngidae_, _Cetomimidae_, _Halosauridae_, _Lipogenyidae_, -_Notacanthidae_, _Chiasmodontidae_, _Icosteidae_, _Muraenolepididae_, -_Macruridae_, _Anomalopidae_, _Podatelidae_, _Trachypteridae_, -_Lophotidae_, _Ceratiidae_, _Gigantactinidae_). But they are all -comparatively slight modifications of the forms living on the surface of -the sea or in the shallow parts, from which they may be regarded as -derived. In no instance do these types show a structure which may be -termed archaic when compared with their surface allies. That these -fishes are localized in their vertical distribution, between the -100-fathoms line, often taken as the arbitrary limit of the bathybial -fauna, and the depth of 2750 fathoms, the lowest point whence fishes -have been procured, there is little doubt. But our knowledge is still -too fragmentary to allow of any general conclusions, and the same -applies to the horizontal distribution. Yet the same species may occur -at most distant points; as these fishes dwell beyond the influence of -the sun's rays, they are not affected by temperature, and living in the -Arctic zone or under the equator makes little difference to them. A -great deal of evidence has been accumulated to show the gradual -transition of the surface into the bathybial forms; a large number of -surface fishes have been met with in deep water (from 100 to 500 -fathoms), and these animals afford no support to Alexander Agassiz's -supposition of the existence of an azoic zone between the 200-fathoms -line and the bottom. - -Brackish-water fishes occur also in salt and fresh water, in some -localities at least, and belong to various groups of Teleosteans. -Sticklebacks, gobies, grey mullets, blennies are among the best-known -examples. The facility with which they accommodate themselves to changes -in the medium in which they live has enabled them to spread readily over -very large areas. The three-spined stickleback, for instance, occurs -over nearly the whole of the cold and temperate parts of the northern -hemisphere, whilst a grey mullet (_Mugil capito_) ranges without any -appreciable difference in form from Scandinavia and the United States -along all the Atlantic coasts to the Cape of Good Hope and Brazil. It -would be hardly possible to base zoo-geographical divisions on the -distribution of such forms. - -The fresh-water fishes, however, invite to such attempts. How greatly -their distribution differs from that of terrestrial animals has long ago -been emphasized. The key to their mode of dispersal is, with few -exceptions, to be found in the hydrography of the continents, latitude -and climate, excepting of course very great altitudes, being -inconsiderable factors, the fish-fauna of a country deriving its -character from the headwaters of the river-system which flows through -it. The lower Nile, for instance, is inhabited by fishes bearing a close -resemblance to, or even specifically identical with, those of tropical -Africa, thus strikingly contrasting with the land-fauna of its banks. -The knowledge of the river-systems is, however, not sufficient for -tracing areas of distribution, for we must bear in mind the movements -which have taken place on the surface of the earth, owing to which -present conditions may not have existed within comparatively recent -times, geologically speaking; and this is where the systematic study of -the aquatic animals affords scope for conclusions having a direct -bearing on the physical geography of the near past. It is not possible -here to enter into the discussion of the many problems which the -distribution of fresh-water fishes involves; we limit ourselves to an -indication of the principal regions into which the world may be divided -from this point of view. The main divisions proposed by Günther in the -9th edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ still appear the most -satisfactory. They are as follows:-- - - I. THE NORTHERN ZONE OR HOLARCTIC REGION.--Characterized - by Acipenseridae. Few Siluridae. Numerous Cyprinidae, Salmonidae, - Esocidae, Percidae. - 1. Europaeo-Asiatic or Palaearctic Region. Characterized by - absence of osseous Ganoidei; Cobitinae and Barbus numerous. - 2. North American or Nearctic Region. Characterized by osseous - Ganoidei and abundance of Catostominae; but no Cobitinae or - Barbus. - - II. THE EQUATORIAL ZONE.--Characterized by the development - of Siluridae. - A. Cyprinoid Division. Characterized by presence of Cyprinidae, - Mastacembelidae. Anabantidae, Ophiocephalidae. - 1. Indian Region. Characterized by absence of Dipneusti, - Polypteridae, Mormyridae and Characinidae. Cobitinae - numerous. - 2. African Region. Characterized by presence of Dipneusti, - Polypterid and Mormyrid; Cichlid and Characinid numerous. - - B. Acyprinoid Division. Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and the - other families mentioned above. - 1. Tropical American or Neotropical Region. Characterized by - presence of Dipneusti; Cichlidae and Characinidae numerous; - Gymnotidae and Loricariidae. - 2. Tropical Pacific Region. Includes the Australian as well as - the Polynesian Region. Characterized by presence of - Dipneusti. Cichlidae and Characinidae absent. - - III. THE SOUTHERN ZONE.--Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and - scarcity of Siluridae. Haplochitonidae and Galaxiidae represent the - Salmonids and Esoces of the northern zone. One region only. - - 1. Antarctic Region. Characterized by the small number of species; the - fishes of - (a) The Tasmanian subregion; - (b) The New Zealand subregion; and - (c) The Patagonian or Fuegian subregion being almost identical. - -Although, as expressed in the above synopsis, the resemblance between -the Indian and African regions is far greater than exists between them -and the other regions of the equatorial zone, attention must be drawn to -the marked affinity which some of the fishes of tropical Africa show to -those of South America (_Lepidosirenidae_, _Characinidae_, _Cichlidae_, -_Nandidae_), an affinity which favours the supposition of a connexion -between these two parts of the world in early Tertiary times. - -The boundaries of Günther's regions may thus be traced, beginning with -the equatorial zone, this being the richest. - -EQUATORIAL ZONE.--Roughly speaking, the borders of this zoological zone -coincide with the geographical limits of the tropics of Cancer and -Capricorn; its characteristic forms, however, extend in undulating lines -several degrees both northwards and southwards. Commencing from the west -coast of Africa, the desert of the Sahara forms a boundary between the -equatorial and northern zones; as the boundary approaches the Nile, it -makes a sudden sweep towards the north as far as northern Syria, crosses -through Persia and Afghanistan to the southern ranges of the Himalayas, -and follows the course of the Yang-tse-Kiang, which receives its -contingent of equatorial fishes through its southern tributaries. Its -continuation through the North Pacific may be indicated by the tropic, -which strikes the coast of Mexico at the southern end of the Gulf of -California. Equatorial types of South America are known to extend so far -northwards; and, by following the same line, the West India Islands are -naturally included in this zone. - -Towards the south the equatorial zone embraces the whole of Africa and -Madagascar, and seems to extend still farther south in Australia, its -boundary probably following the southern coast of that continent; the -detailed distribution of the freshwater fishes of south-western -Australia has been little studied, but the tropical fishes of that -region follow the principal watercourse, the Murray river, far towards -the south and probably to its mouth. The boundary-line then stretches to -the north of Tasmania and New Zealand, coinciding with the tropic until -it strikes the western slope of the Andes, on the South American -continent, where it again bends southward to embrace the system of the -Rio de la Plata. - -The four regions into which the equatorial zone is divided arrange -themselves into two well-marked divisions, one of which is characterized -by the presence of Cyprinid fishes, combined with the development of -_Labyrinthic_ Percesoces (_Anabantidae_ and _Ophiocephalidae_) and -Mastacembelids, whilst in the other these types are absent. The boundary -between the Cyprinoid and Acyprinoid division seems to follow the now -exploded Wallace's line--a line drawn from the south of the Philippines -between Borneo and Celebes, and farther south between Bali and Lombok. -Borneo abounds in Cyprinids; from the Philippine Islands a few only are -known, and in Bali two species have been found; but none are known from -Celebes or Lombok, or from islands situated farther east. - -The Indian region comprises Asia south of the Himalayas and the -Yang-tse-Kiang, and includes the islands to the west of Celebes and -Lombok. Towards the north-east the island of Formosa, which also by -other parts of its fauna shows the characters of the equatorial zone, -has received some characteristic Japanese freshwater fishes. Within the -geographical boundaries of China the freshwater fishes of the tropics -pass gradually into those of the northern zone, both being separated by -a broad, debateable ground. The affluents of the great river traversing -this district are more numerous from the south than from the north, and -carry the southern fishes far into the temperate zone. Scarcely better -defined is the boundary of this region towards the north-west, in which -fishes were very poorly represented by types common to India and Africa. - -The African region comprises the whole of Africa south of the Sahara. It -might have been conjectured that the more temperate climate of its -southern extremity would have been accompanied by a conspicuous -difference in the fish fauna. But this is not the case; the difference -between the tropical and southern parts of Africa consists simply in the -gradual disappearance of specifically tropical forms, whilst Silurids, -Cyprinids and even _Anabas_ penetrate to its southern coast; no new -form, except a _Galaxias_ at the Cape of Good Hope, has entered to -impart to South Africa a character distinct from the central portion of -the continent. In the north-east the African fauna passes the isthmus of -Suez and penetrates into Syria; the system of the Jordan presents so -many African types that it has to be included in a description of the -African region as well as of the Europaeo-Asiatic. - -The boundaries of the Neotropical or Tropical American region have been -sufficiently indicated in the definition of the equatorial zone. A broad -and most irregular band of country, in which the South and North -American forms are mixed, exists in the north. - -The Tropical Pacific region includes all the islands east of Wallace's -line, New Guinea, Australia (with the exception of its south-eastern -portion), and all the islands of the tropical Pacific to the Sandwich -group. - -NORTHERN ZONE.--The boundaries of the northern zone coincide in the main -with the northern limit of the equatorial zone; but they overlap the -latter at different points. This happens in Syria, as well as east of -it, where the mixed faunae of the Jordan and the rivers of Mesopotamia -demand the inclusion of this territory in the northern zone as well as -in the equatorial; in the island of Formosa, where a Salmonid and -several Japanese Cyprinids flourish; and in Central America, where a -_Lepidosteus_, a Cyprinid (_Sclerognathus meridionalis_), and an -_Amiurus_ (_A. meridionalis_) represent the North American fauna in the -midst of a host of tropical forms. - -There is no separate arctic zone for freshwater fishes; ichthyic life -becomes extinct towards the pole wherever the fresh water remains frozen -throughout the year, or thaws for a few weeks only; and the few fishes -which extend into high latitudes belong to types in no wise differing -from those of the more temperate south. The highest latitude at which -fishes have been obtained is 82° N. lat., whence specimens of char -(_Salmo arcturus_ and _Salmo naresii_) have been brought back. - -_The Palaearctic or Europaeo-Asiatic Region._--The western and southern -boundaries of this region coincide with those of the northern zone. -Bering Strait and the Kamchatka Sea have been conventionally taken as -the boundary in the north, but the fishes of both coasts, so far as they -are known, are not sufficiently distinct to be referred to two different -regions. The Japanese islands exhibit a decided Palaearctic fish fauna -with a slight influx of tropical forms in the south. In the east, as -well as in the west, the distinction between the Europaeo-Asiatic and -the North American regions disappears almost entirely as we advance -farther towards the north. Finally, the Europaeo-Asiatic fauna mingles -with African and Indian forms in Syria, Persia and Afghanistan. - -The boundaries of the North American or Nearctic region have been -sufficiently indicated. The main features and the distribution of this -fauna are identical with those of the preceding region. - -SOUTHERN ZONE.--The boundaries of this zone have been indicated in the -description of the equatorial zone; they overlap the southern -boundaries of the latter in South Australia and South America, but we -have not the means of defining the limits to which southern types extend -northwards. This zone includes Tasmania, with at least a portion of -south-eastern Australia (Tasmanian sub-region), New Zealand and the -Auckland Islands (New Zealand sub-region), and Chile, Patagonia, Tierra -del Fuego and the Falkland Islands (Fuegian sub-region). No freshwater -fishes are known from Kerguelen's Land, or from islands beyond 55° S. -lat. - -The Tropical American region is the richest (about 1300 species); next -follow the African region (about 1000), the Indian region (about 800), -the Europaeo-Asiatic region (about 500), the North American region -(about 400), the Tropical Pacific region (about 60); whilst the -Antarctic region is quite insignificant. - -Of the migratory fishes, or fishes travelling regularly from the sea to -fresh waters, most, if not all, were derived from marine forms. The -anadromous forms, annually or periodically ascending rivers for the -purpose of spawning, such as several species of _Acipenser_, _Salmo_, -_Coregonus_, _Clupea_ (shads), and _Petromyzon_, are only known from the -northern hemisphere, whilst the catadromous forms, spending most of -their life in fresh water but resorting to the sea to breed, such as -_Anguilla_, some species of _Mugil_, _Galaxias_ and _Pleuronectes_, have -representatives in both hemispheres. (G. A. B.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For general anatomy of fishes, see T. W. Bridge, _Cambridge - Natural History_, and R. Wiedersheim, _Vergl. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_. - The latter contains an excellent bibliography. - - [2] Cf. J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._ x. 227. - - [3] For electric organs see W. Biedermann, _Electro-Physiology_. - - [4] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi. - - [5] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. - - [6] J. Phelps, _Science_, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and - Wilson, _Amer. Journ. Anat._ v. (1906) p. 154. - - [7] J. S. Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xvi., 1901, p. 130. - - [8] L. Drüner, _Zool. Jahrbücher Anat._ Band xix. (1904), S. 434. - - [9] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvi. 423. - - [10] J. S. Budgett, _op. cit._ - - [11] W. E. Agar, _Anat. Anz._, 1905, S. 298. - - [12] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. - - [13] J. Phelps, _Science_, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and - Wilson, _Amer. Journ. Anat._, v. 1906, p. 154. - - [14]: F. Maurer, _Morphol. Jahrb._ ix., 1884, S. 229, and xiv., 1888, - S. 175. - - [15] J. Rückert, _Arch. Entwickelungsmech_. Band iv., 1897, S. 298; - J. Graham Kerr, _Phil. Trans._ B. 192, 1900, p. 325, and _The Budgett - Memorial Volume_. - - [16] Cuvier et Valenciennes, _Hist. nat. des poiss._ xix., 1846, p. - 151. - - [17] J. Rathke, _Üb. d. Darmkanal u.s.w. d. Fische_, Halle, 1824, S. - 62. - - [18] Cf. W. Biedermann, Electro-Physiology. - - [19] Literature in N. K. Koltzoff, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1901, P. - 259. - - [20] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901), p. 484. - - [21] J. S. Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xv. (1901), vol. p. - 324. - - [22] H. F. Jungersen, _Arb. zool. zoot. Inst. Würzburg_, Band ix., - 1889. - - [23] E. J. Bles, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ 62, 1897, p. 232. - - [24] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901) p. 484. - - [25] F. M. Balfour and W. N. Parker, _Phil. Trans._ (1882). - - [26] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901), p. 495. - - [27] H. Gadow and E. C. Abbott, _Phil. Trans._ 186 (1895), p. 163. - - [28] For development cf. Gaupp in Hertwig's _Handbuch der - Entwickelungslehre_. - - [29] Cf. W. E. Agar, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xlv. (1906), 49. - - [30] Bashford Dean, _Journ. Morph._ ix. (1894) 87, and _Trans. New - York Acad. Sci._ xiii. (1894) 115. - - [31] R. Semon, _Zool. Forschungsreisen_, Band i. § 115. - - [32] O. Hertwig, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ xi. (1874). - - [33] R. H. Traquair, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxxix. (1899). - - [34] Cf. E. S. Goodrich, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvii. (1904), - 465. - - [35] R. H. Traquair, _Journ. Anat. Phys._ v. (1871) 166; J. S. - Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xvi. 315. - - [36] T. W. Bridge, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xiv. (1898) 350; W. E. - Agar, _op. cit._ - - [37] J. V. Boas, _Morphol. Jahrb._ vi. (1880). - - [38] Cf. F. Hochstetter in O. Hertwig _Handbuch der - Entwickelungslehre_. - - [39] C. v. Kupffer, _Studien z. vergl. Enlwickelungsgeschichte der - Cranioten_. - - [40] Cf. F. K. Studnicka's excellent account of the parietal organs - in A. Oppel's _Lehrbuch vergl, mikr. Anatomie_, T. v. (1905). - - [41] 2. F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, - _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial - Volume_. - - [42] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi. - - [43] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, - _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial - Volume_. - - [44] G. Elliot Smith, _Anat. Anz._ (1907). - - [45] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1896). - - [46] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. - - [47] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, - _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. - - [48]: R. Wiedersheim, Kölliker's _Festschrift_: cf. also _Anat. Anz._ - (1887). - - [49] A. Brauer, _Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesell._ (1902). - - [50] C. Stewart, _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ (1906), 439. - - [51] T. W. Bridge and A. C. Haddon, _Phil. Trans._ 184 (1893). - - [52] For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, _Trans. Linn. - Soc._ vii. (1898). - - [53] For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, _Trans. Linn. - Soc._, vii. (1898). - - [54] M. Fürbringer in Gegenbaur's _Festschrift_ (1896). - - - - -ICHTHYOPHAGI (Gr. for "fish-eaters"), the name given by ancient -geographers to several coast-dwelling peoples in different parts of the -world and ethnically unrelated. Nearchus mentions such a race as -inhabiting the barren shores of the Mekran on the Arabian Sea; Pausanias -locates them on the western coast of the Red Sea. Ptolemy speaks of -fish-eaters in Ethiopia, and on the west coast of Africa; while Pliny -relates the existence of such tribes on the islands in the Persian Gulf. -Herodotus (book i. c. 200) mentions three tribes of the Babylonians who -were solely fish-eaters, and in book iii. c. 19 refers to Ichthyophagi -in Egypt. The existence of such tribes was confirmed by Sir Richard F. -Burton (_El-Medinah_, p. 144). - - - - -ICHTHYOSAURUS, a fish or porpoise-shaped marine reptile which -characterized the Mesozoic period and became extinct immediately after -the deposition of the Chalk. It was named _Ichthyosaurus_ (Gr. -fish-lizard) by C. König in 1818 in allusion to its outward form, and is -best known by nearly complete skeletons from the Lias of England and -Germany. The large head is produced into a slender, pointed snout; and -the jaws are provided with a row of conical teeth nearly uniform in size -and deeply implanted in a continuous groove. The eye is enormous, and is -surrounded by a ring of overlapping "sclerotic plates," which would -serve to protect the eye-ball during diving. The vertebrae are very -numerous, short and deeply biconcave, imparting great flexibility to the -backbone as in fishes. The neck is so short and thick that it is -practically absent. There are always two pairs of paddle-like limbs, the -hinder pair never disappearing as in porpoises and other Cetacea, though -often much reduced in size. A few specimens from the Upper Lias of -Württemberg (in the museums of Stuttgart, Tübingen, Budapest and -Chicago) exhibit remains of the skin, which is quite smooth and forms -two triangular median fins, one in the middle of the back, the other at -the end of the tail. The dorsal fin consists merely of skin without any -internal skeleton, while the tail-fin is expanded in a vertical plane -and has the lower lobe stiffened by the tapering end of the backbone, -which is sharply bent downwards. Immature individuals are sometimes -observable within the full-grown skeletons, suggesting that this reptile -was viviparous. - -[Illustration: From British Museum _Guide to Fossil Reptiles and -Fishes_, by permission of the Trustees. - -Skeleton of _Ichthyosaurus communis_, with outline of body and fins, -from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorset; original nearly four metres -in length.] - -The largest known species of _Ichthyosaurus_ is _I. trigonodon_ from the -Upper Lias of Banz, Bavaria, with the head measuring about two metres in -length and probably representing an animal not less than ten metres in -total length. _I. platyodon_, from the English Lower Lias, seems to have -been almost equally large. _I. intermedius_ and _I. communis_, which are -the commonest species in the English Lower Lias, rarely exceed a length -of three or four metres. The species in rocks later than the Lias are -known for the most part only by fragments, but the remains of Lower -Cretaceous age are noteworthy for their very wide geographical -distribution, having been found in Europe, the East Indies, Australia, -New Zealand and South America. Allied Ichthyosaurians named -_Ophthalmosaurus_ and _Baptanodon_, from the Upper Jurassic of England -and North America, are nearly or quite toothless and have very flexible -broad paddles. The earliest known Ichthyosaurians (_Mixosaurus_), which -occur in the Trias, are of diminutive size, with paddles which suggest -that these marine reptiles were originally descended from land or marsh -animals (see REPTILES). - - AUTHORITIES.--R. Owen, _A Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of the - Liassic Formations_, part iii. (Mon. Palaeont. Soc., 1881); E. Fraas, - _Die Ichthyosaurier der süddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen_ - (Tübingen, 1891). Also good figures in T. Hawkins, _The Book of the - Great Sea-dragons_ (London, 1840). (A. S. Wo.) - - - - -ICHTHYOSIS, or XERODERMA, a general thickening of the whole skin and -marked accumulation of the epidermic elements, with atrophy of the -sebaceous glands, giving rise to a hard, dry, scaly condition, whence -the names, from [Greek: ichthys], fish, and [Greek: xêros], dry, [Greek: -derma], skin. This disease generally first appears in infancy, and is -probably congenital. It differs in intensity and in distribution, and is -generally little amenable to any but palliative remedies, such as the -regular application of oily substances. Ichthyosis lingualis ("smokers' -tongue"), a variety common in heavy smokers, occurs in opaque white -patches on the tongue, gums and roof of the mouth. Cancer occasionally -starts from the patches. The affection is obstinate, but may disappear -spontaneously. - - - - -ICKNIELD STREET. (i) The Saxon name (earlier _Icenhylt_) of a -prehistoric (not Roman) "Ridgeway" along the Berkshire downs and the -Chilterns, which crossed the Thames near Streatley and ended somewhere -near Tring or Dunstable. In some places there are traces of a double -road, one line on the hills and one in the valley below, as if for -summer and winter use. No modern highroad follows it for any distance. -Antiquaries have supposed that it once ran on to Royston, Newmarket and -Norfolk, and have connected its name with the Iceni, the Celtic tribe -inhabiting East Anglia before the Roman conquest. But the name does not -occur in early documents so far east, and it has certainly nothing to do -with that of the Iceni (Haverfield, _Victoria History of Norfolk_, i. -286). See further ERMINE STREET. (2) A Roman road which ran through -Derby, Lichfield, Birmingham and Alcester is sometimes called Icknield -Street and sometimes Rycknield Street. The origin of this nomenclature -is very obscure (_Vict. Hist. of Warwick_, i. 239). (F. J. H.) - - - - -ICON (through the Latinized form, from Gr. [Greek: eikôn], portrait, -image), generally any image or portrait-figure, but specially the term -applied to the representations in the Eastern Church of sacred -personages, whether in painting or sculpture, and particularly to the -small metal plaques in archaic Byzantine style, venerated by the -adherents of the Greek Church. See ICONOCLASTS; IMAGE-WORSHIP; BYZANTINE -ART. The term "iconography," once confined to the study of engravings -(q.v.), is now applied to the history of portrait images in Christian -art, though it is also used with a qualifying adjective of Greek, Roman -and other art. - - - - -ICONIUM (mod. _Konia_), a city of Asia Minor, the last of the Phrygian -land towards Lycaonia, was commonly reckoned to Lycaonia in the Roman -time, but retained its old Phrygian connexion and population to a -comparatively late date. Its natural surroundings must have made it an -important town from the beginning of organized society in this region. -It lies in an excellently fertile plain, 6 m. from the Pisidian -mountains on the west, with mountains more distant on the north and -south, while to the east the dead level plain stretches away for -hundreds of miles, though the distant view is interrupted by island-like -mountains. Streams from the Pisidian mountains make the land on the -south-west and south of the city a garden; but on the east and -north-east a great part of the naturally fertile soil is uncultivated. -Trees grow nowhere except in the gardens near the city. Irrigation is -necessary for productiveness, and the water-supply is now deficient. A -much greater supply was available for agriculture in ancient times and -might be reintroduced. - -Originally a Phrygian city, as almost every authority who has come into -contact with the population calls it, and as is implied in Acts xiv. 6, -it was in a political sense the chief city of the Lycaonian tetrarchy -added to the Galatian country about 165 B.C., and it was part of the -Roman province Galatia from 25 B.C. to about A.D. 295. Then it was -included in the province Pisidia (as Ammianus Marcellinus describes it) -till 372, after which it formed part of the new province Lycaonia so -long as the provincial division lasted. Later it was a principal city of -the theme of Anatolia. It suffered much from the Arab raids in the three -centuries following A.D. 660; its capture in 708 is mentioned, but it -never was held as a city of the caliphs. In later Roman and Byzantine -times it must have been a large and wealthy city. It was a metropolis -and an archbishopric, and one of the earliest councils of the church was -held there in A.D. 235. The ecclesiastical organization of Lycaonia and -the country round Iconium on all sides was complete in the early 4th -century, and monuments of later 3rd and 4th century Christianity are -extremely numerous. The history of Christian Iconium is utterly obscure. -The city was thrice visited by St Paul, probably in A.D. 47, 50 and 53; -and it is the principal scene of the tale of Paul and Thecla (which -though apocryphal has certainly some historical basis; see THECLA). -There was a distinct Roman element in Iconium, arising doubtless from -the presence of Roman traders. This was recognized by Claudius, who -granted the honorary title Claudiconium, and by Hadrian, who elevated -the city to the rank of a Roman colony about A.D. 130 under the name -Colonia Aelia Hadriana Augusta Iconiensium. The period of its greatest -splendour was after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks about 1072-1074. It -soon became the capital of the Seljuk state, and one of the most -brilliant cities of the world. The palace of the sultans and the mosque -of Ala ed-din Kaikobad formerly covered great part of the Acropolis hill -in the northern part of the city. Farther south there is still the great -complex of buildings which form the chief seat of the Mevlevi dervishes, -a sect widely spread over Anatolia. Many other splendid mosques and -royal tombs adorned the city, and justified the Turkish proverb, "See -all the world; but see Konia." The walls, about 2 m. in circumference, -consisted of a core of rubble and concrete, coated with ancient stones, -inscriptions, sculptures and architectural marbles, forming a striking -sight, which no traveller ever examined in detail. Beyond the walls -extended the gardens and villas of a prosperous Oriental population, -especially on the south-west towards the suburb of Meram. - -When the Seljuk state broke up, and the Osmanli or Ottoman sovereignty -arose, Konia decayed, its population dwindled and the splendid early -Turkish buildings were suffered to go to ruin. As trade and intercourse -diminished Konia grew poorer and more ruinous. The walls and the palace, -still perfect in the beginning of the 19th century, were gradually -pulled down for building material, and in 1882 there remained only a -small part of the walls, from which all the outer stones had been -removed, while the palace was a ruin. At that time and for some years -later a large part of Konia was like a city of the dead. But about 1895 -the advent of the Anatolian railway began to restore its prosperity. A -good supply of drinking water was brought to the city by Ferid Pasha, -who governed the vilayet ably for several years, till in 1903 he was -appointed Grand Vizier. The sacred buildings, mosques, &c., were patched -up (except a few which were quite ruinous) and the walls wholly removed, -but an unsightly fragment of a palace-tower still remained in 1906. In -1904-1905 the first two sections of the Bagdad railway, 117 m., to -Karaman and Eregli, were built. In the city there is a branch of the -Ottoman bank, a government technical school, a French Catholic mission -and a school, an Armenian Protestant school for boys, an American -mission school for girls, mainly Armenian, and other educational -establishments. - -The founder of the Mevlevi dancing dervishes, the poet Mahommed -Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi), in 1307, though tempted to assume the inheritance -along with the empire of the Seljuk sultan Ala ed-din Kaikobad III., who -died without heirs, preferred to pass on the power to Osman, son of -Ertogrul, and with his own hands invested Osman and girt him with the -sword: this investiture was the legitimate beginning of the Osmanli -authority. The heirs of Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi) were favoured by the Osmanli -sultans until 1516, when Selim was on the point of destroying the -Mevlevi establishment as hostile to the Osmanli and the faith; and -though he did not do so the Mevlevi and their chiefs were deprived of -influence and dignity. In 1829 Mahmud II. restored their dignity in -part, and in 1889 Abd-ul-Hamid II. confirmed their exemption from -military duty. The head of the Mevlevi dervishes (Aziz-Effendi, -Hazreti-Mevlana, Mollah-Unkiar, commonly styled simply Chelebi-Effendi) -has the right to gird on the sultan's sword at his investiture, and is -master of the considerable revenues of the greatest religious -establishment in the empire. He has also the privilege of corresponding -direct with the caliph; but otherwise is regarded as rather opposed to -the Osmanli administration, and has no real power. - -Iconium is distant by rail 466 m. from the Bosporus at Haidar-Pasha, and -389 from Smyrna by way of Afium-Kara-Hissar. It has recently become the -seat of a considerable manufacture of carpets, owing to the cheapness of -labour. The population was estimated at 44,000 in 1890, and is now -probably over 50,000. Mercury mines have begun to be worked; other -minerals are known to exist. (W. M. Ra.) - - - - -ICONOCLASTS (Gr. [Greek: eikonoklastês: eikôn], image, and [Greek: -klaein], to break), the name applied particularly to the opponents in -the 8th and 9th centuries of the use of images in Christian cult. - -As regards the attitude towards religious images assumed by the -primitive Christian Church, several questions have often been treated as -one which cannot be too carefully kept apart. There can be no doubt that -the early Christians were unanimous in condemning heathen image-worship -and the various customs, some immoral, with which it was associated. A -form of iconolatry specially deprecated in the New Testament was the -then prevalent adoration of the images of the reigning emperors (see -Rev. xv. 2). It is also tolerably certain that, if for no other reasons -besides the Judaism, obscurity, and poverty of the early converts to -Christianity, the works of art seen in their meeting-houses cannot at -first have been numerous. Along with these reasons would co-operate -towards the exclusion of visible aids to devotion, not only the church's -sacramental use of Christ's name as a name of power, and its living -sense of his continued real though unseen presence, but also, during the -first years, its constant expectation of his second advent as imminent. -It was a common accusation brought against Jews and Christians that they -had "no altars, no temples, no known images" (Min. Fel. _Oct._ c. 10), -that "they set up no image or form of any god" (see Arnob. _Adv. Gent._ -vi. I; similarly Celsus); and this charge was never denied; on the -contrary Origen gloried in it (_c. Celsum_, bk. 7, p. 386). At a -comparatively early date, indeed, we read of various Gnostic sects -calling in the fine arts to aid their worship; thus Irenaeus (_Haer._ i. -25. 6), speaking of the followers of Marcellina, says that "they possess -images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of -material; and they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by -Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among men. They crown these images, -and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world; -that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras and Plato and Aristotle -and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images after -the same manner as the Gentiles" (cf. Aug. _De Haer._ c. 7). It is also -well known that the emperor Alexander Severus found a place for several -Scripture characters and even for Christ in his lararium (Lamprid. _Vit. -Alex. Sev._ c. 29). But there is no evidence that such a use of images -extended at that period to orthodox Christian circles. The first -unmistakable indication of the public use of the painter's art for -directly religious ends does not occur until A.D. 306, when the synod of -Elvira, Spain, decreed (can. 36) that "pictures ought not to be in a -church, lest that which is worshipped and adored be painted on -walls."[1] This canon is proof that the use of sacred pictures in public -worship was not at the beginning of the 4th century a thing unknown -within the church in Spain; and the presumption is that in other places, -about the same period, the custom was looked upon with a more tolerant -eye. Indications of the existence of allied forms of sacred Christian -art prior to this period are not wholly wanting. It seems possible to -trace some of the older and better frescos in the catacombs to a very -early age; and Bible manuscripts were often copiously illuminated and -illustrated even before the middle of the 4th century. An often-quoted -passage from Tertullian (_De Pudic._ c. 10, cf. c. 7) shows that in his -day the communion cup was wont to bear a representation of the Good -Shepherd. Clement of Alexandria (_Paedag._ iii. 11) mentions the dove, -fish, ship, lyre, anchor, as suitable devices for Christian signet -rings. Origen (c. _Celsum_, bk. 3) repudiates graven images as only fit -for demons. - -During the 4th and following centuries the tendency to enlist the fine -arts in the service of the church steadily advanced; not, however, so -far as appears, with the formal sanction of any regular ecclesiastical -authority, and certainly not without strong protests raised by more than -one powerful voice. From a passage in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa -(_Orat. de Laudibus Theodori Martyris_, c. 2) it is easy to see how the -stories of recent martyrs would offer themselves as tempting subjects -for the painter, and at the same time be considered to have received -from him their best and most permanent expression; that this feeling was -widespread is shown in many places by Paulinus of Nola (_ob._ 431), from -whom we gather that not only martyrdoms and Bible histories, but also -symbols of the Trinity were in his day freely represented pictorially. -Augustine (_De Cons. Ev._ i. 10) speaks less approvingly of those who -look for Christ and his apostles "on painted walls" rather than in his -written word. How far the Christian feeling of the 4th and 5th centuries -was from being settled in favour of the employment of the fine arts is -shown by such a case as that of Eusebius of Caesarea, who, in reply to a -request of Constantia, sister of Constantine, for a picture of Christ, -wrote that it was unlawful to possess images pretending to represent the -Saviour either in his divine or in his human nature, and added that to -avoid the reproach of idolatry he had actually taken away from a lady -friend the pictures of Paul and of Christ which she had.[2] Similarly -Epiphanius in a letter to John, bishop of Jerusalem, tells how in a -church at Anablatha near Bethel he had found a curtain painted with the -image "of Christ or of some other saint," which he had torn down and -ordered to be used for the burial of a pauper. The passage, however, -reveals not only what Epiphanius thought on the subject, but also that -such pictures must have been becoming frequent. Nilus, the disciple and -defender of Chrysostom, permitted the symbol of the cross in churches -and also pictorial delineations of Old and New Testament history, but -deprecated other symbols, pictures of martyrs, and most of all the -representation of Christ. In the time of Gregory the Great the Western -Church obtained something like an authoritative declaration on the -question about images, but in a sense not quite the same as that of the -synod of Elvira. Serenus of Marseilles had ordered the destruction of -all sacred images within his diocese; this action called forth several -letters from Pope Gregory (viii. 2. III; ix. 4. 11), in which he -disapproved of that course, and, drawing the distinction which has since -been authoritative for the Roman Church, pointed out that-- - - "It is one thing to worship a picture and another to learn from the - language of a picture what that is which ought to be worshipped. What - those who can read learn by means of writing, that do the uneducated - learn by looking at a picture.... That, therefore, ought not to have - been destroyed which had been placed in the churches, not for worship, - but solely for instructing the minds of the ignorant." - -With regard to the symbol of the cross, its public use dates from the -time of Constantine, though, according to many Christian archaeologists -it had, prior to that date, a very important place in the so-called -"disciplina arcani." The introduction of the crucifix was later; -originally the favourite combination was that of the figure of a lamb -lying at the foot of the cross; the council of Constantinople, called -"in Trullo," in 692 enjoined that this symbol should be discontinued, -and that where Christ was shown in connexion with his cross he should be -represented in his human nature. In the catacombs Christ is never -represented hanging on the cross, and the cross itself is only portrayed -in a veiled and hesitating manner. In the Egyptian churches the cross -was a pagan symbol of life borrowed by the Christians and interpreted in -the pagan manner. The cross of the early Christian emperors was a -_labarum_ or token of victory in war, a standard for use in battle. -Religious feeling in the West recoiled from the crucifix as late as the -6th century, and it was equally abhorrent to the Monophysites of the -East who regarded the human nature of Christ as swallowed up in the -divine. Nevertheless it seems to have originated in the East, perhaps as -a protest against the extreme Monophysites, who even denied the -passibility of Christ. Perhaps the Nestorians, who clung to the human -aspect of Christ, introduced it about 550. From the East it soon passed -to the West. - -Not until the 8th century were the religious and theological questions -which connect themselves with image-worship distinctly raised in the -Eastern Church in their entirety. The controversy began with an address -which Leo the Isaurian, in the tenth year of his reign (726), delivered -in public "in favour of overthrowing the holy and venerable images," as -says Theophanes (_Chronogr._, in Migne _Patr. Gr._ 108, 816). This -emperor had, in the years 717 and 718, hurled back the tide of Arab -conquest which threatened to engulf Byzantium, and had also shown -himself an able statesman and legislator. Born at Germanicia in Syria, -and, before he mounted the throne, captain-general of the Anatolian -theme, he had come under the influence of the anti-idolatrous sects, -such as the Jews, Montanists, Paulicians and Manicheans, which abounded -in Asia Minor, but of which he was otherwise no friend. But his -religious reform was unpopular, especially among the women, who killed -an official who, by the emperor's command, was destroying an image of -Christ in the vestibule of the imperial palace of Chalcé. This _émeute_ -provoked severe reprisals, and the partisans of the images were -mutilated and killed, or beaten and exiled. A rival emperor even, -Agallianus, was set up, who perished in his attempt to seize -Constantinople. Italy also rose in arms, and Pope Gregory II. wrote to -Leo blaming his interference in religious matters, though he dissuaded -the rebels in Venetia, the Exarchate and the Pentapolis from electing a -new emperor and marching against Leo. In 730 Germanus the patriarch -resigned rather than subscribe to a decree condemning images; later he -was strangled, in exile and replaced by an iconoclast, Anastasius. -Meanwhile, inside the Arab empire, John of Damascus wrote his three -dogmatic discourses against the traducers of images, arguing that their -use was not idolatry but only a relative worship ([Greek: proskynêsis -schetkê]). The next pope, Gregory III. convoked a council of -ninety-three bishops, which excommunicated the iconoclasts, and the -fleet which Leo sent to retaliate on the Latin peninsula was lost in a -storm in the Adriatic. The most Leo was able to do was to double the -tribute of Calabria and Sicily, confiscate the pope's revenues there, -and impose on the bishops of south Italy a servitude to Byzantium which -lasted for centuries. - -Leo III. died in June 740, and then his son Constantine V. began a -persecution of the image-worshippers in real earnest. In his eagerness to -restore the simplicity of the primitive church he even assailed -Mariolatry, intercession of saints, relics and perhaps infant baptism, to -the scandal even of the iconoclast bishops themselves. His reign began -with the seizure for eighteen months of Constantinople by his -brother-in-law Artavasdes, who temporarily restored the images. He was -captured and beheaded with his accomplices in November 742, and in -February 754 Constantine held in the palace of Hieria a council of 388 -bishops, mostly of the East; the patriarchs of Rome, Antioch, Alexandria -and Jerusalem refused to attend. In it images were condemned, but the -other equally conservative leanings of the emperor found no favour. The -chief upholders of images, the patriarch Germanus, George of Cyprus and -John of Damascus, were anathematized, and Christians forbidden to adore -or make images or even to hide them. These decrees were obstinately -resisted, especially by the monks, large numbers of whom fled to Italy. -In 765 the emperor demanded of his subjects all over his empire an oath -on the cross that they detested images, and St Stephen the younger, the -chief upholder of them, was murdered in the streets. A regular crusade -now began against monks and nuns, and images and relics were destroyed on -a great scale. In parts of Asia Minor (Lydia and Caria) the monks were -even forced to marry the nuns. In 769 Pope Stephen III. condemned the -council of Hieria, and in 775 Constantine V. died. His son Leo IV. died -in 780, leaving a widow, Irene, of Athenian birth, who seized the -opportunity presented by the minority of her ten-year-old son Constantine -VI. to restore the images and dispersed relics. In 784 she invited Pope -Adrian I. to come and preside over a fresh council, which was to reverse -that of 754 and heal the schism with Rome. In August 786 the council met, -but was broken up by the imperial guards, who were Easterns and sturdy -iconoclasts. Irene replaced them by a more trustworthy force, and -convoked a fresh council of three hundred bishops and monks innumerable -in September 787, at Nicaea in the church of St Sophia. The cult of -images was now solemnly restored, iconoclast bishops deposed or -reconciled, the dogmatic theory of images defined, and church discipline -re-established. The order thus imposed lasted twenty-four years, until a -military revolution placed a soldier of fortune, half Armenian, half -Persian, named Leo, on the throne; he, like his soldiers, was persuaded -that the ill-success of the Roman arms against Bulgarians and other -invaders was due to the idolatry rampant at court and elsewhere. The -soldiers stoned the image of Christ which Irene had set up afresh in the -palace of Chalcé, and this provoked a counter-demonstration of the -clergy. Leo feigned for a while to be on their side, but on the 2nd of -February 815, in the sanctuary of St Sophia, publicly refused to -prostrate himself before the images, with the approbation of the army and -of many bishops who were iconoclasts at heart. Irene's patriarch -Nicephorus was now deposed and one Theodotus, a kinsman of Constantine -Copronymus, consecrated in his place on the 1st of April 815. A fresh -council was soon convoked, which cursed Irene and re-enacted the decrees -of 754. This reaction lasted only for a generation under Leo the -Armenian, who died 820, Michael II. 820-829, and Theophilus 829-842; and -was frustrated mainly by the exertions of Theodore of Studion and his -monks, called the Studitae. Theodore refused to attend or recognize the -new council, and was banished first to Bithynia and thence to Smyrna, -whence he continued to address his appeals to the pope, to the eastern -patriarchs and to his dispersed monks. He died in 826. Theophilus, the -last of the iconoclast emperors, was a devoted Mariolater and -controversialist who invited the monks to discuss the question of images -with him, and whipped or branded them when he was out-argued; he at -length banished them from the cities, and branded on the hands a painter -of holy pictures, Lazarus by name, who declined to secularize his art; he -also raised to the patriarchal throne John Hylilas, chief instigator of -the reaction of 815. In 842 Theophilus died, leaving his wife Theodora -regent; she was, like Irene, addicted to images, and chose as patriarch a -monk, Methodius, whom the emperor Michael had imprisoned for laying -before him Pope Paschal I.'s letter of protest. John Hylilas was deposed -and flogged in turn. A fresh council was now held which re-enacted the -decrees of 787, and on the 20th of February 842 the new patriarch, the -empress, clergy and court dignitaries assisted in the church of St Sophia -at a solemn restoration of images which lasted until the advent of the -Turks. The struggle had gone on for 116 years. - -The iconoclastic movement is perhaps the most dramatic episode in -Byzantine history, and the above outline of its external events must be -completed by an appreciation of its deeper historical and religious -significance and results. We can distinguish three parties among the -combatants:-- - -1. The partisans of image worship. These were chiefly found in the -Hellenic portions of the empire, where Greek art had once held sway. The -monks were the chief champions of images, because they were illuminators -and artists. Their doctors taught that the same grace of the Holy Spirit -which imbued the living saint attaches after death to his relics, name, -image and picture. The latter are thus no mere representations, but as -it were emanations from the archetype, vehicles of the supernatural -personality represented, and possessed of an inherent sacramental value -and power, such as the name of Jesus had for the earliest believers. -Here Christian image-worship borders on the beliefs which underlie -sympathetic magic (see IMAGE WORSHIP). - -2. The iconoclasts proper, who not only condemned image worship in the -sense just explained but rejected all religious art whatever. Fleeting -matter to their mind was not worthy to embody or reflect heavenly -supersensuous energies denoted by the names of Christ and the saints. -For the same reason they rejected relics and, as a rule, the worship of -the cross. Statues of Christ, especially of him hanging on the cross, -inspired the greatest horror and indignation; and this is why none of -the graven images of Christ, common before the outbreak of the movement, -survive. More than this--although the synod of 692 specially allowed the -crucifix, yet Greek churches have discarded it ever since the 8th -century. - -This idea that material representation involves a profanation of divine -personages, while disallowing all religious art which goes beyond -scroll-work, spirals, flourishes and geometrical designs, yet admits to -the full of secular art; and accordingly the iconoclastic emperors -replaced the holy pictures in churches with frescoes of hunting scenes, -and covered their palaces with garden scenes where men were plucking -fruit and birds singing amid the foliage. Contemporary Mahommedans did -the same, for it is an error to suppose that this religion was from the -first hostile to profane art. At one time the mosques were covered with -mosaics, analogous to those of Ravenna, depicting scenes from the life -of Mahomet and the prophets. The Arabs only forbade plastic art in the -9th century, nor were their essentially Semitic scruples ever shared by -the Persians. - -The prejudice we are considering is closely connected with the -Manichaean view of matter, which in strict consistency rejected the -belief that God was really made flesh, or really died on the cross. The -Manichaeans were therefore, by reason of their dualism, arch-enemies no -less of Christian art than of relics and cross-worship; the Monophysites -were equally so by reason of their belief that the divine nature in -Christ entirely absorbed and sublated the human; they shaded off into -the party of the _aphthartodoketes_, who held that his human body was -incorruptible and made of ethereal fire, and that his divine nature was -impassible. Their belief made them, like the Manichaeans, hostile to -material portraiture of Christ, especially of his sufferings on the -cross. All these nearly allied schools of Christian thought could, -moreover, address, as against the image-worshippers, a very effective -appeal to the Bible and to Christian antiquity. Now Egypt, Asia Minor, -Armenia, western Syria and the Hauran were almost wholly given up to -these forms of opinion. Accordingly in all the remains of the Christian -art of the Hauran one seeks in vain for any delineation of human face or -figure. The art of these countries is mainly geometrical, and allows -only of monograms crowned with laurels, of peacocks, of animals -gambolling amid foliage, of fruit and flowers, of crosses which are -either _svastikas_ of Hindu and Mycenaean type, or so lost in enveloping -arabesques as to be merely decorative. Such was the only religious art -permitted by the Christian sentiment of these countries, and also of the -large _enclaves_ of semi-Manichaean belief formed in the Balkans by the -transportation thither of Armenians and Paulicians. And it is important -to remark that the protagonists of iconoclasm in Byzantium came from -these lands where image cult offended the deepest religious instincts of -the masses. Leo the Isaurian had all the scruples of a Paulician, even -to the rejection of the cult of Virgin and saints; Constantine V. was -openly such. Michael Balbus was reared in Phrygia among Montanists. The -soldiers and captains of the Byzantine garrisons were equally Armenians -and Syrians, in whom the sight of a crucifix or image set up for worship -inspired nothing but horror. - -The issue of the struggle was not a complete victory even in Byzantium -for the partisans of image-worship. The Iconoclasts left an indelible -impress on the Christian art of the Greek Church, in so far as they put -an end to the use of graven images; for the Eastern icon is a flat -picture, less easily regarded than would be a statue as a nidus within -which a spirit can lurk. Half the realm of creative art, that of -statuary, was thus suppressed at a blow; and the other half, painting, -forfeited all the grace and freedom, all the capacity of new themes, -forms and colours, all the development which we see in the Latin Church. -The Greeks have produced no Giotto, no Fra Angelico, no Raphael. Their -artists have no choice of subjects and no initiative. Colour, dress, -attitude, grouping of figures are all dictated by traditional rules, set -out in regular manuals. God the Father may not be depicted at all--a -restriction intelligible when we remember that the image in theory is -fraught with the virtue of the archetype; but everywhere the utmost -timidity is shown. What else could an artist do but make a slavish and -exact copy of old pictures which worked miracles and perhaps had the -reputation as well of having fallen from heaven? - -3. Between these extreme parties the Roman Church took the middle way of -common sense. The hair-splitting distinction of the Byzantine doctors -between veneration due to images ([Greek: proskynêsis timêtikê]), and -the adoration ([Greek: proskynêsis latreutikê]) due to God alone, was -dropped, and the utility of pictures for the illiterate emphasized. -Their use was declared to be this, that they taught the ignorant through -the eye what they should adore with the mind; they are not themselves to -be adored. Such was Gregory the Great's teaching, and such also is the -purport of the Caroline books, which embody the conclusions arrived at -by the bishops of Germany, Gaul and Aquitaine, presided over by papal -legates at the council of Frankfort in 794, and incidentally also reveal -the hatred and contempt of Charlemagne for the Byzantine empire as an -institution, and for Irene, its ruler, as a person. The theologians whom -Louis the Pious convened at Paris in 825, to answer the letter received -from the iconoclast emperor Michael Balbus, were as hostile to the -orthodox Greeks as to the image-worshippers, and did not scruple to -censure Pope Adrian for having approved of the empress Irene's attitude. -The council of Trent decided afresh in the same sense. - -Two incidental results of the iconoclastic movement must be noticed, the -one of less, the other of more importance. The lesser one was the flight -of Greek iconolatrous monks from Asia Minor and the Levant to Sicily and -Calabria, where they established convents which for centuries were the -western homes of Greek learning, and in which were written not a few of -the oldest Greek MSS. found in our libraries. The greater event was the -scission between East and West. The fury of the West against the -iconoclastic emperors was such that the whole of Italy clamoured for -war. It is true that Pope Stephen II. applied in 753 to Constantine V., -one of the worst destroyers of images, for aid against the Lombards, for -the emperor of Byzantium was still regarded as the natural champion of -the church. But Constantine refused aid, and the pope turned to the -Frankish King Pippin. The die was cast. Henceforth Rome was linked with -the Carolingian house in an alliance which culminated in the coronation -of Charlemagne by the pope on the 25th of December 800. - -In the crusading epoch the Cathars and Paulicians carried all over -Europe the old iconoclastic spirit, and perhaps helped to transmit it to -Wycliffe and Hus. Not the least racy clause in the document compiled -about 1389 by the Wycliffites in defence of their defunct teacher is the -following: "Hit semes that this offrynge ymages is a sotile cast of -Antichriste and his clerkis for to drawe almes fro pore men ... certis, -these ymages of hemselfe may do nouther gode nor yvel to mennis soules, -but thai myghtten warme a man's body in colde, if thai were sette upon a -fire." - -At the period of the Reformation it was unanimously felt by the -reforming party that, with the invocation of saints and the practice of -reverencing their relics, the adoration of images ought also to cease. -The leaders of the movement were not, however, perfectly agreed on the -question as to whether these might not in some circumstances be retained -in churches. Luther had no sympathy with the iconoclastic outbreaks -which then occurred; he classed images in themselves as among the -"adiaphora," and condemned only their cultus; so also the "Confessio -Tetrapolitana" leaves Christians free to have them or not, if only due -regard be had to what is expedient and edifying. The "Heidelberg -Catechism," however, emphatically declares that images are not to be -tolerated at all in churches. - - SOURCES.--"Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in Nicaea, - 787," in Mansi's _Concilia_, vols. xii. and xiii.; "Acts of the - Iconoclast Council of 815," in a treatise of Nicephorus discovered by - M. Serruys and printed in the _Séances Acad. des Inscript._ (May - 1903); Theophanes, _Chronographia_, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, - 1883-1885); and _Patr. Gr._ vol. 108. Also his "Continuators" in - _Patr. Gr._ vol. 109; Nicephorus, _Chronicon_, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, - 1880), and _Patr. Gr._ vol. 100; Georgius Monachus, _Chronicon_, edit. - Muralt (Petersburg, 1859), and _Patr. Gr._ 110; anonymous "Life of Leo - the Armenian" in _Patr. Gr._ 108; _The Book of the Kings_, by Joseph - Genesios, _Patr. Gr._ 109; "Life of S. Stephanus, Junior," _Patr. Gr._ - 100; "St John of Damascus," three "Sermones" against the iconoclasts, - _Patr. Gr._ 95; Nicephorus Patriarch, "Antirrhetici," _Patr. Gr._ 100; - Theodore Studita, "Antirrhetici," _Patr. Gr. 99_. For bibliography of - contemporary hymns, letters, &c., bearing on the controversy see K. - Krumbacher's _History of Byzantine Literature_, 2nd ed. p. 674. - Literature: Louis Brehier, _La Querelle des images_, and _Les Origines - du crucifix_ (Paris, 1904); Librairie Blond, in French, each volume 60 - centimes (brief but admirable); Karl Schwartzlose, _Der Bilderstreit_ - (Gotha, 1890); Karl Schenk, "The Emperor Leo III.," in _Byzant. - Zeitschrift_ (1896, German); Tel. Uspenskij, _Skizzen zur Geschichte - der byzantinischen Kultur_ (St Petersburg, 1892, Russian); Lombard, - _Études d'histoire byzantine_; Constantine V.( Paris, 1902, _Biblioth. - de l'université de Paris_, xvi.); A. Tougard, _La Persécution - iconoclaste_ (Paris, 1897); and _Rev. des questions historiques_ - (1891); Marin, _Les Moines de Constantinople_ (Paris, 1897, bk. iv. - _Les Moines et les empereurs iconoclastes_); Alice Gardner, Theodore - of Studium (London, 1905); Louis Maimbourg, _Histoire de l'hérésie des - iconoclastes_ (Paris, 1679-1683); J. Daillé (Dallaeus), _De - imaginibus_ (Leiden, 1642, and in French, Geneva, 1641); Spanheim, - _Historia imaginum_ (Leiden, 1686). See also the account of this epoch - in the _Histories_ of Neander, Gibbon and Milman; Aug. Fr. Gfrörer, - "Der Bildersturm" in _Byzantinische Geschichte 2_ (1873); C. J. von - Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_ 3 (1877), 366 ff. (also in English - translation; Karl Krumbacher. _Byzant. Literaturgeschichte_ (2nd ed. - p. 1090). (F. C. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] "Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et - adoratur in parietibus depingatur." See Hefele, _Conciliengesch_. i. - 170. - - [2] The letter, which is most probably, though not certainly, - genuine, appears in the _Acta_ of the second council of Nice. - - - - -ICONOSTASIS, the screen in a Greek church which divides the altar and -sanctuary from the rest of the church. It is generally attached to the -first eastern pier or column and rises to the level of the springing of -the vault. The iconostasis or image-bearer has generally three doors, -one on each side of the central door, beyond which is the principal -altar. The screen is subdivided into four or five tiers, each tier -decorated with a series of panels containing representations of the -saints: of these only the heads, hands and feet are painted, the bodies -being covered with embossed metal work, richly gilded. There is a fine -example in the Russo-Greek chapel, Welbeck Street, London, which was -rebuilt in 1864-1865. - - - - -ICOSAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: eikosi], twenty, and [Greek: hedra], a face or -base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twenty faces. The "regular -icosahedron" is one of the Platonic solids; the "great icosahedron" is a -Kepler-Poinsot solid; and the "truncated icosahedron" is an Archimedean -solid (see POLYHEDRON). In crystallography the icosahedron is a possible -form, but it has not been observed; it is closely simulated by a -combination of the octahedron and pentagonal dodecahedron, which has -twenty triangular faces, but only eight are equilateral, the remaining -twelve being isosceles (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). - - - - -ICTERUS, a bird so called by classical authors, and supposed by Pliny to -be the same as the _Galgulus_, which is generally identified with the -golden oriole (_Oriolus galbula_).[1] It signified a bird in the plumage -of which yellow or green predominated, and hence Brisson did not take an -unhappy liberty when he applied it in a scientific sense to some birds -of the New World of which the same could be said. These are now held to -constitute a distinct family, _Icteridae_, intermediate it would seem -between the BUNTINGS (q.v.) and STARLINGS (q.v.); and, while many of -them are called troopials (the English equivalent of the French -_Troupiales_, first used by Brisson), others are known as the American -GRACKLES (q.v.). The typical species of _Icterus_ is the _Oriolus -icterus_ of Linnaeus, the _Icterus vulgaris_ of Daudin and modern -ornithologists, an inhabitant of northern Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, -occasionally visiting some of the Antilles and of the United States. -Thirty-three species of the genus _Icterus_ alone, and more than seventy -others belonging to upwards of a score of genera, are recognized by -Sclater and Salvin (_Nomenclator_, pp. 35-39) as belonging to the -Neotropical Region, though a few of them emigrate to the northward in -summer. _Cassicus_ and _Ostinops_ may perhaps be named as the most -remarkable. They are nearly all gregarious birds, many of them with loud -and in most cases, where they have been observed, with melodious notes, -rendering them favourites in captivity, for they readily learn to -whistle simple tunes. Some have a plumage wholly black, others are -richly clad, as is the well-known Baltimore oriole, golden robin or -hangnest of the United States, _Icterus baltimore_, whose brightly -contrasted black and orange have conferred upon it the name it most -commonly bears in North America, those colours being, says Catesby -(_Birds of Carolina_, i. 48), the tinctures of the armorial bearings of -the Calverts, Lords Baltimore, the original grantees of Maryland, but -probably more correctly those of their liveries. The most divergent form -of _Icteridae_ seems to be that known in the United States as the -meadow-lark, _Sturnella magna_ or _S. ludoviciana_, a bird which in -aspect and habits has considerable resemblance to the larks of the Old -World, _Alaudidae_, to which, however, it has no near affinity, while -_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_, the bobolink or rice-bird, with its very -bunting-like bill, is not much less aberrant. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The number of names by which this species was known in ancient - times--_Chloris_ or _Chlorion_, _Galbula_ (akin to _Galgulus_), - _Parra_ and _Vireo_--may be explained by its being a common and - conspicuous bird, as well as one which varied in plumage according to - age and sex (see ORIOLE). Owing to its general colour, _Chloris_ was - in time transferred to the Greenfinch (q.v.), while the names - _Galbula_, _Parra_ and _Vireo_ have since been utilized by - ornithologists (see JACAMAR and JACANA). - - - - -ICTINUS, the architect of the Parthenon at Athens, of the Hall of the -Mysteries at Eleusis, and of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, near -Phigalia. He was thus active about 450-430 B.C. We know little else -about him; but the remains of his two great temples testify to his -wonderful mastery of the principles of Greek architecture. - - - - -IDA (d. 559), king of Bernicia, became king in 547, soon after the -foundation of the kingdom of Bernicia by the Angles. He built the -fortress of Bebbanburh, the modern Bamborough, and after his death his -kingdom, which did not extend south of the Tees, passed in turn to six -of his sons. The surname of "Flame-Bearer," sometimes applied to him, -refers, however, not to Ida, but to his son Theodric (d. 587). - - See J. R. Green, _Making of England_, vol. i. (London, 1897). - - - - -IDAHO, a western state of the United States of America, situated between -42° and 49° N. lat. and 111° and 117° W. long. It is bounded N. by -British Columbia and Montana, E. by Montana and Wyoming, S. by Utah and -Nevada, and W. by Oregon and Washington. Its total area is 83,888 sq. -m., of which 83,354 sq. m. are land surface, and of this 41,851.55 sq. -m. were in July 1908 unappropriated and unreserved public lands of the -United States, and 31,775.7 sq. m. were forest reserves, of which -15,153.5 sq. m. were reserved between the 1st of July 1906 and the 1st -of July 1907. - - _Physical Features._--Idaho's elevation above sea-level varies from - 738 ft. (at Lewiston, Nez Perce county) to 12,078 ft. (Hyndman Peak, - on the boundary between Custer and Blaine counties), and its mean - elevation is about 4500 ft. The S.E. corner of the wedge-shaped - surface of the state is a part of the Great Basin region of the United - States. The remainder of the state is divided by a line running S.E. - and N.W., the smaller section, to the N. and E., belonging to the - Rocky Mountain region, and the larger, S. and W. of this imaginary - line, being a part of the Columbia Plateau region. The topography of - the Great Basin region in Idaho is similar to that of the same region - in other states (see NEVADA); in Idaho it forms a very small part of - the state; its mountains are practically a part of the Wasatch Range - of Utah; and the southward drainage of the region (into Great Salt - Lake, by Bear river) also separates it from the other parts of the - state. The Rocky Mountain region of Idaho is bounded by most of the - state's irregular E. boundary--the Bitter Root, the Coeur d'Alene and - the Cabinet ranges being parts of the Rocky Mountain System. The Rocky - Mountain region reaches across the N. part of the state (the - Panhandle), and well into the middle of the state farther S., where - the region is widest and where the Salmon River range is the principal - one. The region is made up in general of high ranges deeply glaciated, - preserving some remnants of ancient glaciers, and having fine "Alpine" - scenery, with many sharp peaks and ridges, U-shaped valleys, cirques, - lakes and waterfalls. In the third physiographic region, the Columbia - plateau, are the Saw Tooth, Boisé, Owyhee and other rugged ranges, - especially on the S. and W. borders of the region. The most prominent - features of this part of the state are the arid Snake river plains and - three mountain-like elevations--Big, Middle and East Buttes--that rise - from their midst. The plains extend from near the S.E. corner of the - state in a curved course to the W. and N.W. for about 350 m. over a - belt 50 to 75 m. wide, and cover about 30,000 sq. m. Where they cross - the W. border at Lewiston is the lowest elevation in the state, 738 - ft. above the sea. Instead of being one plain formed by erosion, this - region is rather a series of plains built up with sheets of lava, - several thousand feet deep, varying considerably in elevation and in - smoothness of surface according to the nature of the lava, and being - greater in area than any other lava beds in North America except those - of the Columbia river, which are of similar formation and, with the - Snake river plains, form the Columbia plateau. Many volcanic cones - mark the surface, but by far the most prominent among them are Big - Butte, which rises precipitously 2350 ft. above the plain (7659 ft. - above the sea) in the E. part of Blaine county, and East Butte, 700 - ft. above the plain, in the N.W. part of Bingham county. Middle Butte - (400 ft. above the plain, also in Bingham county) is an upraised block - of stratified basalt. The Snake river (which receives all the drainage - of Idaho except small amounts taken by the Spokane, the Pend Oreille - and the Kootenai in the N., all emptying directly into the Columbia, - and by some minor streams of the S.E. that empty into Great Salt Lake, - Utah) rises in Yellowstone National Park a few miles from the heads of - the Madison fork of the Missouri, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico, - and the Green fork of the Colorado, which flows to the Gulf of - California. It flows S.W. and then W. for about 800 m. in a tremendous - cañon across southern Idaho; turns N. and runs for 200 m. as the - boundary between Idaho and Oregon (and for a short distance between - Idaho and Washington); turns again at Lewiston (where it ceases to be - the boundary, and where the Clearwater empties into it) to the W. into - a deep narrow valley, and joins the Columbia in S.E. Washington. - Practically all the valley of the Snake from Idaho Falls in S.E. Idaho - (Bingham county) to the mouth is of cañon character, with walls from a - few hundred to 6000 ft. in height (about 650 m. in Idaho). The finest - parts are among the most magnificent in the west; among its falls are - the American (Oneida and Blaine counties), and the Shoshone and the - Salmon (Lincoln county). At the Shoshone Falls the river makes a - sudden plunge of nearly 200 ft., and the Falls have been compared with - the Niagara and Zambezi; a short distance back of the main fall is a - cataract of 125 ft., the Bridal Veil. Between Henry's Fork and Malade - (or Big Wood) river, a distance of 200 m., the river apparently has no - northern tributaries; but several streams, as the Camas, Medicine - Lodge and Birch creeks, and Big and Little Lost rivers, which fail to - penetrate the plain of the Snake after reaching its border, are - believed to join it through subterranean channels. The more important - affluents are the North Fork in the E., the Raft, Salmon Falls and the - Bruneau in the S., the Owyhee and the Payette in the S.W., and the - Salmon and Clearwater in the W. The scenery on some of these - tributaries is almost as beautiful as that of the Snake, though - lacking the grandeur of its greater scale. In 1904 electricity, - generated by water-power from the rivers, notably the Snake, began to - be utilized in mining operations. Scattered among the mountains are - numerous (glacial) lakes. In the N. are: Coeur d'Alene Lake, in - Kootenai county, about 30 m. long and from 2 to 4 m. wide, drained by - the Spokane river; Priest Lake, in Bonner county, 20 m. long and about - 10 m. wide; and mostly in Bonner, but partly in Kootenai county, a - widening of Clark Fork, Lake Pend Oreille, 60 m. long and from 3 to 15 - m. wide, which is spanned by a trestle of the Northern Pacific 8400 - ft. long. Bear Lake, in the extreme S.E., lies partly in Utah. Mineral - springs and hot springs are also a notable feature of Idaho's - physiography, being found in Washington, Ada, Blaine, Bannock, Cassia, - Owyhee, Oneida, Nez Perce, Kootenai, Shoshone and Fremont counties. At - Soda Springs in Bannock county are scores of springs whose waters, - some ice cold and some warm, contain magnesia, soda, iron, sulphur, - &c.; near Hailey, Blaine county, water with a temperature of 144° F. - is discharged from numerous springs; and at Boisé, water with a - temperature of 165° is obtained from wells. - - The fauna and flora of Idaho are similar in general to those of the - other states in the north-western part of the United States. - - _Climate._--The mean annual temperature of Idaho from 1898 to 1903 was - 45.5° F. There are several distinct climate zones within the state. - North of Clearwater river the climate is comparatively mild, the - maximum in 1902 (96° F.) being lower than the highest temperature in - the state and the minimum (-16°) higher than the lowest temperature - registered. The mildest region of the state is the Snake river basin - between Twin Falls and Lewiston, and the valley of the Boisé, Payette - and Weiser rivers; here the mean annual temperature in 1902 was 52° - F., the maximum was 106° F., and the minimum was -13° F. In the Upper - Snake basin, in the Camas prairie and Lost river regions, the climate - is much colder, the highest temperature in 1902 being 101° and the - lowest -35° F. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state in 1903 - was 16.60 in.; the highest amount recorded was at Murray, Shoshone - county (37.70 in.) and the lowest was at Garnet, Elmore county (5.69 - in.). - - _Agriculture._--The principal source of wealth in Idaho was in 1900 - agriculture, but it had long been secondary to mining, and its - development had been impeded by certain natural disadvantages. Except - for the broad valleys of the Panhandle, where the soils are black in - colour and rich in vegetable mould, the surface of the state is arid; - the Snake river valley is a vast lava bed, covered with deposits of - salt and sand, or soils of volcanic origin. And, apart from this, the - farming country was long without transport facilities. The fertile - northern plateaus, the Camas and Nez Perce prairies and the Palouse - country--a wonderful region for growing the _durum_ or macaroni - wheat--until 1898 had no market nearer than Lewiston, 50-70 m. away; - and even in 1898, when the railway was built, large parts of the - region were not tapped by it, and were as much as 30 m. from any - shipping point, for the road had followed the Clearwater. In the arid - southern region, also, there was no railway until 1885, when the - Oregon Short Line was begun. Like limitations in N. and S. had like - effects: for years the country was devoted to live-stock, which could - be driven to a distant market. Timothy was grown in the northern, and - alfalfa in the southern region as a forage crop. Even at this earliest - period, irrigation, simple and individual, had begun in the southern - section, the head waters of the few streams in this district being - soon surrounded by farms. Co-operation and colonization followed, and - more ditching was done, co-operative irrigation canals were - constructed with some elaborate and large dams and head gates. The - Carey Act (1894) and the Federal Reclamation Act (1902) introduced the - most important period of irrigation. Under the Carey Act the Twin - Falls project, deriving water from the Snake river near Twin Falls, - and irrigating more than 200,000 acres, was completed in 1903-1905. - The great projects undertaken with Federal aid were: the Minidoka, in - Lincoln and Cassia counties, of which survey began in March 1903 and - construction in December 1904, and which was completed in 1907, - commanding an irrigable area of 130,000-150,000 acres,[1] and has a - diversion dam (rock-fill type) 600 ft. long, and 130 m. of canals and - 100 m. of laterals; the larger Payette-Boisé project in Ada, Canyon - and Owyhee counties (372,000 acres irrigable; 300,000 now desert; 60% - privately owned), whose principal features are the Payette dam - (rock-fill), 100 ft. high and 400 ft. long, and the Boisé dam - (masonry), 33 ft. high and 400 ft. long, 200 m. of canals, 100 m. of - laterals, a tunnel 1100 ft. long and 12,500 h.p. transmitted 29 m., - 3000 h.p. being necessary to pump to a height of 50-90 ft. water for - the irrigation of 15,000 acres; and the Dubois project, the largest in - the state, on which survey and reconnaissance work were done in - 1903-1904, which requires storage sites on the North Fork of the - Snake and on nearly all the important branches of the North Fork, and - whose field is 200,000--250,000 acres, almost entirely Federal - property, in the W. end of Fremont county between Mud Lake and the - lower end of Big Lost river. A further step in irrigation is the - utilization of underground waters: in the Big Camas Prairie region, - Blaine county, water 10 ft. below the surface is tapped and pumped by - electricity generated from the only surface water of the region, Camas - Creek. In 1899 the value of the crops and other agricultural products - of the irrigated region amounted to more than seven-tenths of the - total for the state. In 1907, according to the _Report_ of the state - commissioner of immigration, 1,559,915 irrigated acres were under - cultivation, and 3,266,386 acres were "covered" by canals 3789 m. long - and costing $11,257,023. - - [Illustration: Map of Idaho and Montana.] - - Up to 1900 the most prosperous period (absolutely) in the agricultural - development of the state was the last decade of the 19th century; the - relative increase, however, was greater between 1880 and 1890. The - number of farms increased from 1885 in 1880 to 6603 in 1890 and to - 17,471 in 1900; the farm acreage from 327,798 in 1880 to 1,302,256 in - 1890 and to 3,204,903 acres in 1900; the irrigated area (exclusive of - farms on Indian reservations) from 217,005 acres in 1889 to 602,568 - acres in 1899; the value of products increased from $1,515,314 in 1879 - to $3,848,930 in 1889, and to $18,051,625 in 1899; the value of farm - land with improvements (including buildings) from $2,832,890 in 1880 - to $17,431,580 in 1890 and $42,318,183 in 1900; the value of - implements and machinery from $363,930 in 1880 to $1,172,460 in 1890 - and to $3,295,045 in 1900; and that of live-stock from $4,023,800 in - 1880 to $7,253,490 in 1890 and to $21,657,974 in 1900. In 1900 the - average size of farms was 183.4 acres. Cultivation by owners is the - prevailing form of tenure, 91.3% of the farms being so operated in - 1900 (2.3% by cash tenants and 6.4% by share tenants). As illustrative - of agricultural conditions the contrast of the products of farms - operated by Indians, Chinese and whites is of considerable interest, - the value of products (not fed to live-stock) per acre of the 563 - Indian farms being in 1899 $1.40, that of the 16,876 white farms - $4.67, and that of the 23 Chinese farms intensively cultivated and - devoted to market vegetables $69.83. - - The income from agriculture in 1899 was almost equally divided between - crops ($8,951,440) and animal products ($8,784,364)--in that year - forest products were valued at $315,821. Of the crops, hay and forage - were the most valuable ($4,238,993), yielding 47.4% of the total value - of crops, an increase of more than 200% over that of 1889, and in - 1907, according to the _Year-book_ of the Department of Agriculture, - the crop was valued at $8,585,000. Wheat, which in 1899 ranked second - ($2,131,953), showed an increase of more than 400% in the decade, and - the farm value of the crop of 1907, according to the _Year-book_ of - the United States Department of Agriculture, was $5,788,000; the value - of the barley crop in 1899 ($312,730) also increased more than 400% - over that of 1889, and in 1907 the farm value of the product, - according to the same authority, was $1,265,000; the value of the oat - crop in 1899 ($702,955) showed an increase of more than 300% in the - decade, and the value of the product in 1907, according to the United - States Department of Agriculture, was $2,397,000. - - More than one-half of the cereal crop in 1905 was produced in the - prairie and plateau region of Nez Perce and Latah counties. The - production of orchard fruits (apples, cherries, peaches, pears, plums - and prunes) increased greatly from 1889 to 1899; the six counties of - Ada, Canyon (probably the leading fruit county of the state), Latah - (famous for apples), Washington, Owyhee and Nez Perce had in 1900 89% - of the plum and prune trees, 85% of all pear trees, 78% of all cherry - trees, and 74% of all apple trees in the state, and in 1906 it was - estimated by the State Commissioner of Immigration that there were - nearly 48,000 acres of land devoted to orchard fruits in Idaho. - Viticulture is of importance, particularly in the Lewiston valley. In - 1906, 234,000 tons of sugar beets were raised, and fields in the Boisé - valley raised 30 tons per acre. - - Of the animal products in 1899, the most valuable was live-stock sold - during the year ($3,909,454); the stock-raising industry was carried - on most extensively in the S.E. part of the state. Wool ranked second - in value ($2,210,790), and according to the estimate of the National - Association of Wool Manufactures for 1907, Idaho ranked fourth among - the wool-producing states in number of sheep (2,500,000), third in - wool, washed and unwashed (17,250,000 lb.), and fourth in scoured wool - (5,692,500 lb.). In January 1908, according to the _Year-book_ of the - Department of Agriculture, the number and farm values of live-stock - were: milch cows, 69,000, valued at $2,208,000, and other neat cattle, - 344,000, valued at $5,848,000; horses, 150,000, $11,250,000; sheep, - 3,575,000, $12,691,000; and swine, 130,000, $910,000. According to - state reports for 1906, most of the neat cattle were then on ranges in - Lemhi, Idaho, Washington, Cassia and Owyhee counties; Nez Perce, - Canyon, Fremont, Idaho, and Washington counties had the largest number - of horses; Owyhee, Blaine and Canyon counties had the largest numbers - of sheep, and Idaho and Nez Perce counties were the principal - swine-raising regions. The pasture lands of the state have been - greatly decreased by the increase of forest reserves, especially by - the large reservations made in 1906-1907. - - _Mining._--The mineral resource of Idaho are second only to the - agricultural; indeed it was primarily the discovery of the immense - value of the deposits of gold and silver about 1860 that led to the - settlement of Idaho Territory. In Idaho, as elsewhere, the first form - of mining was a very lucrative working of placer deposits; this gave - way to vein mining and a greatly reduced production of gold and silver - after 1878, on account of the exhaustion of the placers. Then came an - adjustment to new conditions and a gradual increase of the product. - The total mineral product in 1906, according to the State Mine - Inspector, was valued at $24,138,317. The total gold production of - Idaho from 1860 to 1906 has been estimated at $250,000,000, of which a - large part was produced in the Idaho Basin, the region lying between - the N. fork of the Boisé and the S. fork of the Payette rivers. In - 1901-1902 rich gold deposits were discovered in the Thunder Mountain - district in Idaho county. The counties with the largest production of - gold in 1907 (state report) were Owyhee ($362,742), Boisé ($282,444), - Custer ($210,900) and Idaho; the total for the state was $1,075,618 in - 1905; in 1906 it was $1,149,100; and in 1907, according to state - reports, $1,373,031. The total of the state for silver in 1905 was - $5,242,172; in 1906 it was $6,042,606; in 1907, according to state - reports, it was $5,546,554. The richest deposits of silver are those - of Wood river and of the Coeur d'Alene district in Shoshone county - (opened up in 1886); the county's product in 1906 was valued at - $5,322,706, an increase of $917,743 over the preceding year; in 1907 - it was $4,780,093, according to state reports. The production of the - next richest county, Owyhee, in 1907, was less than one tenth that of - Shoshone county, which yields, besides, about one half of the lead - mined in the United States, its product of lead being valued at - $9,851,076 in 1904, at $14,365,265 in 1906, and at $12,232,233 (state - report) in 1907. Idaho was the first of the states in its output of - lead from 1896, when it first passed Colorado in rank, to 1906, - excepting the year 1899, when Colorado again was first; the value of - the lead mined in 1906 was $14,535,823, and of that mined in 1907 - (state report), $12,470,375. High grade copper ores have been produced - in the Seven Devils and Washington districts of Washington county; - there are deposits, little developed up to 1906, in Lemhi county - (which was almost inaccessible by railway) and in Bannock county; the - copper mined in 1905 was valued at $1,134,846, and in 1907, according - to state reports, at $2,241,177, of which about two-thirds was the - output of the Coeur d'Alene district in Shoshone county. Zinc occurs - in the Coeur d'Alene district, at Hailey, Blaine county and elsewhere; - according to the state reports, the state's output in 1906 was valued - at $91,426 and in 1907 at $534,087. Other minerals of economic value - are sandstone, quarried at Boisé, Ada county, at Preston, Oneida - county, and at Goshen, Prospect and Idaho Falls, Bingham county, - valued at $22,265 in 1905, and at $11,969 in 1906; limestone, valued - at $14,105 in 1905 and at $12,600 in 1906, used entirely for the local - manufacture of lime, part of which was used in the manufacture of - sugar; and coal, in the Horseshoe Bend and Jerusalem districts in - Boisé county, in Lemhi county near Salmon City, and in E. Bingham and - Fremont counties, with an output in 1906 of 5365 tons, valued at - $18,538 as compared with 20 and 10 tons respectively in 1899 and 1900. - Minerals developed slightly, or not at all, are granite, valued at - $1500 in 1905; surface salt, in the arid and semi-arid regions; nickel - and cobalt, in Lemhi county; tungsten, near Murray, Shoshone county; - monazite and zircon, in certain sands; and some pumice. - - _Manufactures._--The manufactures of Idaho in 1900 were relatively - unimportant, the value of all products of establishments under the - "factory system" being $3,001,442; in 1905 the value of such - manufactured products had increased 192.2%, to $8,768,743. The - manufacturing establishments were limited to the supply of local - demands. The principal industries were devoted to lumber and timber - products, valued at $908,670 in 1900, and in 1905 at $2,834,506, - 211.9% more. In 1906 the Weyerhauser Syndicate built at Potlatch, a - town built by the syndicate in Latah county, a lumber mill, supposed - to be the largest in the United States, with a daily capacity of - 750,000 ft. In Bonner county there are great mills at Sand Point and - at Bonner's Ferry. In these and the other 93 saw-mills in the state in - 1905 steam generated by the waste wood was the common power. The raw - material for these products was secured from the 35,000 sq. m. of - timber land in the state (6164 sq. m. having been reserved up to 1905, - and 31,775.7 sq. m. up to April 1907 by the United States government); - four-fifths of the cut in 1900 was yellow pine. Flour and grist mill - products ranked second among the manufactures, being valued at - $1,584,473 in 1905, an increase of nearly 116% over the product in - 1900; and steam-car construction and repairs ranked third, with a - value of $913,670 in 1905 and $523,631 in 1900. In 1903-1904 the - cultivation of sugar beets and the manufacture of beet sugar were - undertaken, and manufacturing establishments for that purpose were - installed at Idaho Falls and Blackfoot (Bingham county), at Sugar, or - Sugar City (Fremont county), a place built up about the sugar - refineries, and at Nampa, Canyon county. In 1906 between 57,000,000 - and 64,000,000 lb. of beet sugar were refined in the state. - Brick-making was of little more than local importance in 1906, the - largest kilns being at Boisé, Sand Point and Coeur d'Alene City. Lime - is made at Orofino, Shoshone county, and at Hope, Bonner county. - - _Communications._--The total railway mileage in January 1909 was - 2,022.04 m., an increase from 206 m. in 1880 and 946 m. in 1890. The - Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Oregon Railway & - Navigation lines cross the N. part of the state; the Oregon Short Line - crosses the S., and the Union Pacific, which owns the Oregon Railway & - Navigation and the Oregon Short Line roads, crosses the eastern part. - The constitution declares that railways are public highways, that the - legislature has authority to regulate rates, and that discrimination - in tolls shall not be allowed. - -_Population._--The population of Idaho in 1870 was 14,999; in 1880 it -was 32,610, an increase of 117.4%; in 1890 it was 88,548, an increase of -158.8%; in 1900 161,772 (82.7% increase); and in 1910 325,594 (101.3% -increase). Of the inhabitants 15.2% were in 1900 foreign-born and 4.5% -were coloured, the coloured population consisting of 293 negroes, 1291 -Japanese, 1467 Chinese and 4226 Indians. The Indians lived principally -in three reservations, the Fort Hall and Lemhi reservations (1350 sq. m. -and 100 sq. m. respectively), in S.E. and E. Idaho, being occupied by -the Shoshone, Bannock and Sheef-eater tribes, and the Coeur d'Alene -reservation (632 sq. m.), in the N.W., by the Coeur d'Alene and Spokane -tribes. The former Nez Perce reservation, in the N.W. part of the state, -was abolished in 1895, and the Nez Perces were put under the supervision -of the superintendent of the Indian School at Fort Lapwai, about 12 m. -E. of Lewiston, in Nez Perce county. Of these tribes, the Nez Perce and -Coeur d'Alene were self-supporting; the other tribes were in 1900 -dependent upon the United States government for 30% of their rations. Of -the 24,604 foreign-born inhabitants of the state, 3943 were from -England, 2974 were from Germany, 2528 were Canadian English, 2822 were -from Sweden, and 1633 were from Ireland, various other countries being -represented by smaller numbers. The urban population of Idaho in 1900 -(i.e. the population of places having 4000 or more inhabitants) was 6.2% -of the whole. There were thirty-three incorporated cities, towns and -villages, but only five had a population exceeding 2000; these were -Boisé (5957), Pocatello (4046), Lewiston (2425), Moscow (2484) and -Wallace (2265). In 1906 it was estimated that the total membership of -all religious denominations was 74,578, and that there were 32,425 -Latter-Day Saints or Mormons (266 of the Reorganized Church), 18,057 -Roman Catholics, 5884 Methodist Episcopalians (5313 of the Northern -Church), 3770 Presbyterians (3698 of the Northern Church), 3206 -Disciples of Christ, and 2374 Baptists (2331 of the Northern -Convention). - -_Government._--The present constitution of Idaho was adopted in 1889. -The government is similar in outline to that of the other states of the -United States. The executive officials serve for a term of two years. -Besides being citizens of the United States and residents of the state -for two years preceding their election the governor, lieutenant-governor -and attorney-general must each be at least thirty years of age, and the -secretary of state, state auditor, treasurer and superintendent of -education must be at least twenty-five years old. The governor's veto -may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature; the governor, -secretary of state, and the attorney-general constitute a Board of -Pardons and a Board of State Prison Commissioners. The legislature meets -biennially; its members, who must be citizens of the United States and -electors of the state for one year preceding their election, are chosen -biennially; the number of senators may never exceed twenty-four, that of -representatives sixty; each county is entitled to at least one -representative. The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three -judges, elected every six years, and circuit and probate courts, the -five district judges being elected every four years. Suffrage -requirements are citizenship in the United States, registration and -residence in the state for six months and in the county for thirty days -immediately before election, but mental deficiency, conviction of -infamous crimes (without restoration to rights of citizenship), bribery -or attempt at bribery, bigamy, living in "what is known as patriarchal, -plural or celestial marriage," or teaching its validity or belonging to -any organization which teaches polygamy,[2] are disqualifications. -Chinese or persons of Mongolian descent not born in the United States -are also excluded from suffrage rights. Women, however, since 1897, have -had the right to vote and to hold office, and they are subject to jury -service. An Australian ballot law was passed in 1891. The constitution -forbids the chartering of corporations except according to general laws. -In 1909 a direct primary elections law was passed which required a -majority of all votes to nominate, and, to make a majority possible, -provided for preferential (or second-choice) voting, such votes to be -canvassed and added to the first-choice vote for each candidate if there -be no majority by the first-choice vote. The right of eminent domain -over all corporations is reserved to the state; and no corporation may -issue stock except for labour, service rendered, or money paid in. The -waters of the state are, by the constitution of the state, devoted to -the public use, contrary to the common law theory of riparian rights. By -statute (1891) it has been provided that in civil actions three-fourths -of a jury may render a verdict, and in misdemeanour cases five-sixths -may give a verdict. Life insurance agents not residents of Idaho cannot -write policies in the state. Divorces may be obtained after residence of -six months on the ground of adultery, cruelty, desertion or neglect for -one year, habitual drunkenness for the same period, felony or insanity. -There are a state penitentiary at Boisé, an Industrial Training School -at St Anthony, an Insane Asylum at Blackfoot, and a North Idaho Insane -Asylum at Orofino. The care of all defectives was let by contract to -other states until 1906, when a state school for the deaf and blind was -opened in Boisé. No bureau of charities is in existence, but there is a -Labor Commission, and a Commissioner of Immigration and a Commissioner -of Public Lands to investigate the industrial resources. The offices of -State Engineer and Inspector of Mines have been created. - - _Education._--The public schools in 1905-1906 had an enrolment of - 62,726, or 81.5% of the population between 5 and 21 years of age. The - average length of school term was 6-8 months, the average expenditure - (year ending Aug. 31, 1906) for instruction for each child was $19.29, - and the expenditure for all school purposes was $1,008,481. There was - a compulsory attendance law, which, however, was not enforced. Higher - education is provided by the University of Idaho, established in 1899 - at Moscow, Latah county, which confers degrees in arts, science, music - and engineering, and offers free tuition. In 1907-1908 the institution - had 41 instructors and 426 regular and 58 special students. In 1901 - the Academy of Idaho, another state institution with industrial and - technical courses and a preparatory department, was established at - Pocatello, Bannock county, to be a connecting link between the public - schools and the university. There are two state normal schools, one at - Lewiston and the other at Albion. The only private institution of - college rank in 1908 was the College of Caldwell (Presbyterian, opened - 1891) at Caldwell, Canyon county, with 65 students in 1906-1907. There - are Catholic academies at Boisé and Coeur d'Alene and a convent, Our - Lady of Lourdes, at Wallace, Shoshone county, opened in 1905; Mormon - schools at Paris (Bear Lake county), Preston (Oneida county), Rexburg - (Fremont county), and Oakley (Cassia county); a Methodist Episcopal - school (1906) at Weiser (Washington county); and a Protestant - Episcopal school at Boisé (1892). The Idaho Industrial Institute - (non-denominational; incorporated in 1899) is at Weiser. - - _Finance._--The finances of Idaho are in excellent condition. The - bonded debt on the 30th of September 1908 was $1,364,000. The revenue - system is based on the general property tax and there is a State Board - of Equalization. Each year $100,000 is set aside for the sinking fund - for the payment of outstanding bonds as fast as they become due. The - constitution provides that the rate of taxation shall never exceed 10 - mills for each dollar of assessed valuation, that when the taxable - property amounts to $50,000,000 the rate shall not exceed 5 mills, - when it reaches $100,000,000, 3 mills shall be the limit, and when it - reaches $300,000,000 the rate shall not exceed 1½ mills; but a greater - rate may be established by a vote of the people. No public debt - (exclusive of the debt of the Territory of Idaho at the date of its - admission to the Union as a state) may be created that exceeds 1½% of - the assessed valuation (except in case of war, &c.); the state cannot - lend its credit to any corporation, municipality or individual; nor - can any county, city or town lend its credit or become a stockholder - in any company (except for municipal works). - -_History._--The first recorded exploration of Idaho by white men was -made by Lewis and Clark, who passed along the Snake river to its -junction with the Columbia; in 1805 the site of Fort Lemhi in Lemhi -county was a rendezvous for two divisions of the Lewis and Clark -expedition; later, the united divisions reached a village of the Nez -Perce Indians near the south fork of the Clearwater river, where they -found traces of visits by other white men. In 1810 Fort Henry, on the -Snake river, was established by the Missouri Fur Company, and in the -following year a party under the auspices of the Pacific Fur Company -descended the Snake river to the Columbia. In 1834 Fort Hall in E. Idaho -(Bingham county) was founded. It acquired prominence as the -meeting-point of a number of trails to the extreme western parts of -North America. Missions to the Indians were also established, both by -the Catholics and by the Protestants. But the permanent settlements date -from the revelation of Idaho's mineral resources in 1860, when the Coeur -d'Alene, Palouses and Nez Perces were in the North, and the Blackfoots, -Bannocks and Shoshones in the South. While trading with these Indians, -Capt. Pierce learned in the summer of 1860 that there was gold in Idaho. -He found it on Orofino Creek, and a great influx followed--coming to -Orofino, Newsome, Elk City, Florence, where the ore was especially rich, -and Warren. The news of the discovery of the Boisé Basin spread far and -wide, and Idaho City, Placerville, Buena Vista, Centreville and -Pioneerville grew up. The territory now constituting Idaho was comprised -in the Territory of Oregon from 1848 to 1853; from 1853 to 1859 the -southern portion of the present state was a part of Oregon, the northern -a part of Washington Territory; from 1859 to 1863 the territory was -within the bounds of Washington Territory. In 1863 the Territory of -Idaho was organized; it included Montana until 1864, and a part of -Wyoming until 1868, when the area of the Territory of Idaho was -practically the same as that of the present state. Idaho was admitted -into the Union as a state in 1890. There have been a few serious Indian -outbreaks in Idaho. In 1856 the Coeur d'Alenes, Palouses and Spokanes -went on the war-path; in April 1857 they put to flight a small force -under Col. Edward Tenner Steptoe; but the punitive expedition led by -Col. George Wright (1803-1865) was a success. In 1877 the Nez Perces, -led by Chief Joseph, refused to go on the reservation set apart for -them, defeated a small body of regulars, were pursued by Major-General -O. O. Howard, reinforced by frontier volunteers, and in September and -October were defeated and retreated into Northern Montana, where they -were captured by Major-General Nelson A. Miles. Occasional labour -troubles have been very severe in the Coeur d'Alene region, where the -attempt in 1892 of the Mine Owners' Association to discriminate in wages -between miners and surfacemen brought on a union strike. Rioting -followed the introduction of non-union men, the Frisco Mill was blown -up, and many non-union miners were killed. The militia was called out -and regular troops were hurried to Shoshone county from Fort Sherman, -Idaho and Fort Missoula, Montana. These soon quieted the district. But -the restlessness of the region caused more trouble in 1899. The famous -Bunker Hill and Sullivan mines were wrecked, late in April, by union -men. Federal troops, called for by Governor Frank Steunenberg, again -took charge, and about 800 suspected men in the district were arrested -and shut up in a stockade known as the "bull-pen." Ten prisoners, -convicted of destroying the property of the mine-owners, were sentenced -to twenty-two months in jail. The feeling among the union men was bitter -against Steunenberg, who was assassinated on the 30th of December 1905. -The trial in 1907 of Charles H. Haywood, secretary of the Western -Federation of Miners, who was charged with conspiracy in connexion with -the murder, attracted national attention; it resulted in Haywood's -acquittal. Before 1897 the administration of the state was controlled by -the Republican party; but in 1896 Democrats, Populists and those -Republicans who believed in free coinage of silver united, and until -1902 elected a majority of all candidates for state offices. In 1902, -1904, 1906 and 1908 a Republican state ticket was elected. - -GOVERNORS - - _Territorial._ - - William H. Wallace 1863 - W. B. Daniels, Secretary, Acting Governor 1863-1864 - Caleb Lyon 1864-1865 - C. de Witt Smith, Secretary, Acting Governor 1865 - Horace C. Gilson " " 1865-1866 - S. R. Howlett " " 1866 - David W. Ballard 1866-1870 - E. J. Curtis, Acting Governor 1870 - Thomas W. Bennett 1871-1875 - D. P. Thompson 1875-1876 - Mason Brayman 1876-1880 - John B. Neil 1880-1883 - John N. Irwin 1883-1884 - William M. Bunn 1884-1885 - Edward A. Stevenson 1885-1889 - George L. Shoup 1889-1890 - - STATE GOVERNORS - - George L. Shoup,[3] Republican 1890 - Norman B. Wiley, Acting Governor 1890-1892 - William J. McConnell, Republican 1893-1897 - Frank Steunenberg, Democrat Populist 1897-1901 - Frank W. Hunt, " " 1901-1903 - John T. Morrison, Republican 1903-1905 - Frank R. Gooding, " 1905-1909 - James H. Brady, " 1909- - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The physical features and economic resources of Idaho - are discussed in J. L. Onderdonk's _Idaho: Facts and Statistics_ (San - Francisco, 1885), Israel C. Russell's "Geology and Water Resources of - the Snake River Plains of Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin - 199_ (Washington, 1902), _The State of Idaho_ (a pamphlet issued by - the State Commissioner of Immigration), Waldmor Lindgren's "Gold and - Silver Veins of Silver City, De Lamar and other Mining Districts of - Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, 20th Annual Report_ (Washington, - 1900), and "The Mining Districts of the Idaho Basin and the Boisé - Ridge, Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, 18th Annual Report_ - (Washington, 1898). These reports should be supplemented by the - information contained elsewhere in the publications of the Geological - Survey (see the Indexes of the survey) and in various volumes of the - United States Census. W. B. Hepburn's _Idaho Laws and Decisions, - Annotated and Digested_ (Boisé, 1900), and H. H. Bancroft's - _Washington, Idaho, and Montana_ (San Francisco, 1890) are the - principal authorities for administration and history. The reports of - the state's various executive officers should be consulted also. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Of these 80,000 acres are reached directly--72,000 N., and 8000 - S. of the Snake river; and from 50,000 to 70,000 acres more are above - the level of the canals and will have water pumped to them by the - 11,000-30,000 h.p. developed. - - [2] This disqualification and much other legislation were due to the - large Mormon population in Idaho. In 1884-1885 all county and - precinct officers were required to take a test oath abjuring bigamy, - polygamy, or celestial marriage; and under this law in 1888 three - members of the territorial legislature were deprived of their seats - as ineligible. An act of 1889, when the Mormons constituted over 20% - of the population, forbade in the case of any who had since the 1st - of January 1888 practised, taught, aided or encouraged polygamy or - bigamy, their registration or voting until two years after they had - taken a test oath renouncing such practices, and until they had - satisfied the District Court that in the two years preceding they had - been guilty of no such practices. The Constitutional Convention which - met at Boisé in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon, and the - Constitution it framed was approved by a popular vote of 12,398 out - of 14,184. The United States Supreme Court decided the anti-Mormon - legislation case of Davis v. Beason in favour of the Idaho - legislature. In 1893 the disqualification was made no longer - retroactive, the two-year clause was omitted, and the test oath - covered only present renunciation of polygamy. - - [3] Governor Shoup resigned in December to take his seat in the U.S. - Senate. - - - - -IDAR, or EDAR, a native state of India, forming part of the Mahi Kantha -agency, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 1669 -sq. m., and a population (1901) of 168,557, showing a decrease of 44% in -the decade as the result of famine. Estimated gross revenue, £29,000; -tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his -posthumous son both died, and the succession devolved upon Sir Pertab -Singh (q.v.) of Jodhpur. The line of railway from Ahmedabad through -Parantij runs mainly through this state. Much of the territory is held -by kinsmen of the raja on feudal tenure. The products are grain, -oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The town of Idar is 64 m. N.E. of Ahmedabad. -Pop. (1901) 7085. It was formerly the capital, but Ahmednagar (pop. -3200) is the present capital. - - - - -IDAS, in Greek legend, son of Aphareus of the royal house of Messene, -brother of Lynceus. He is only mentioned in a single passage in Homer -(_Iliad_, ix. 556 sqq.), where he is called the strongest of men on -earth. He carried off Marpessa, daughter of Evenus, as his wife and -dared to bend his bow against Apollo, who was also her suitor. Zeus -intervened, and left the choice to Marpessa, who declared in favour of -Idas, fearing that the god might desert her when she grew old -(Apollodorus i. 7). The Apharetidae are best known for their fight with -the Dioscuri. A quarrel had arisen about the division of a herd of -cattle which the four had stolen. Idas claimed the whole of the booty as -the victor in a contest of eating, and drove the cattle off to Messene. -The Dioscuri overtook him and lay in wait in a hollow oak. But Lynceus, -whose keenness of sight was proverbial, saw Castor through the trunk and -warned his brother, who thereupon slew the mortal Castor; finally, -Pollux slew Lynceus, and Idas was struck by lightning (Apollodorus iii. -11; Pindar, _Nem._, x. 60; Pausanias iv. 3. 1). According to others, the -Dioscuri had carried off the daughters of Leucippus, who had been -betrothed to the Apharetidae (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 699; Theocritus xxii. -137). The scene of the combat is placed near the grave of Aphareus at -Messene, at Aphidna in Attica, or in Laconia; and there are other -variations of detail in the accounts (see also Hyginus, _Fab._ 80). Idas -and Lynceus were originally gods of light, probably the sun and moon, -the herd of cattle (for the possession of which they strove with the -Dioscuri) representing the heavenly bodies. The annihilation of the -Apharetidae in the legend indicates the subordinate position held by the -Messenians after the loss of their independence and subjugation by -Sparta, the Dioscuri being distinctly Spartan, as the Apharetidae were -Messenian heroes. The grave of Idas and Lynceus was shown at Sparta, -according to Pausanias (iii. 13. 1), whose own opinion, however, is that -they were buried in Messenia. On the chest of Cypselus, Marpessa is -represented as following Idas from the temple of Apollo (by whom, -according to some, she had been carried off), and there was a painting -by Polygnotus of the rape of the Leucippidae in the temple of the -Dioscuri at Athens. - - In the article GREEK ART, fig. 66 (Pl. iv.) represents Idas and the - Dioscuri driving off cattle. - - - - -IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, 1ST EARL OF (1818-1887), British -statesman, was born in London, on the 27th of October 1818. His -ancestors had long been settled in Devonshire, their pedigree, according -to Burke, being traceable to the beginning of the 12th century. After a -successful career at Balliol College, Oxford, he became in 1843 private -secretary to Mr Gladstone at the board of trade. He was afterwards legal -secretary to the board; and after acting as one of the secretaries to -the Great Exhibition of 1851, co-operated with Sir Charles Trevelyan in -framing the report which revolutionized the conditions of appointment to -the Civil Service. He succeeded his grandfather, Sir Stafford Henry -Northcote, as 8th baronet in 1851. He entered Parliament in 1855 as -Conservative M.P. for Dudley, and was elected for Stamford in 1858, a -seat which he exchanged in 1866 for North Devon. Steadily supporting his -party, he became president of the board of trade in 1866, secretary of -state for India in 1867, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1874. In the -interval between these last two appointments he had been one of the -commissioners for the settlement of the "Alabama" difficulty with the -United States, and on Mr Disraeli's elevation to the House of Lords in -1876 he became leader of the Conservative party in the Commons. As a -finance minister he was largely dominated by the lines of policy laid -down by Mr Gladstone; but he distinguished himself by his dealings with -the Debt, especially his introduction of the New Sinking Fund (1876), by -which he fixed the annual charge for the Debt in such a way as to -provide for a regular series of payments off the capital. His temper as -leader was, however, too gentle to satisfy the more ardent spirits among -his own followers, and party cabals (in which Lord Randolph -Churchill--who had made a dead set at the "old gang," and especially Sir -Stafford Northcote--took a leading part) led to Sir Stafford's transfer -to the Lords in 1885, when Lord Salisbury became prime minister. Taking -the titles of earl of Iddesleigh and Viscount St Cyres, he was included -in the cabinet as first lord of the treasury. In Lord Salisbury's 1886 -ministry he became secretary of state for foreign affairs, but the -arrangement was not a comfortable one, and his resignation had just been -decided upon when on the 12th of January 1887 he died very suddenly at -Lord Salisbury's official residence in Downing Street. Lord Iddesleigh -was elected lord rector of Edinburgh University in 1883, in which -capacity he addressed the students on the subject of "Desultory -Reading." He had little leisure for letters, but amongst his works were -_Twenty Years of Financial Policy_ (1862), a valuable study of -Gladstonian finance, and _Lectures and Essays_ (1887). His _Life_ by -Andrew Lang appeared in 1890. Lord Iddesleigh married in 1843 Cecilia -Frances Farrer (d. 1910) (sister of Thomas, 1st Lord Farrer), by whom he -had seven sons and three daughters. - -He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son, WALTER STAFFORD -NORTHCOTE (1845- ), who for some years was his father's private -secretary. He was chairman of the Inland Revenue Board from 1877 to -1892; and is also known as a novelist. His eldest son STAFFORD HENRY -NORTHCOTE, Viscount St Cyres (1869- ), was educated at Eton and Merton -College Oxford. After taking a 1st class in History, he was elected a -senior student of Christ Church, where he resided for a while as tutor -and lecturer. His interest in the development of religious thought led -him to devote himself specially to the history of the Roman Catholic -Church in the 17th century, the first-fruits of which was his _François -de Fénelon_ (London, 1901); eight years later he published his _Pascal_ -(ib. 1909). - -The second son of the 1st earl of Iddesleigh, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, -1st Baron Northcote (b. 1846), was educated at Eton and at Merton -College, Oxford. He became a clerk in the foreign office in 1868, acted -as private secretary to Lord Salisbury, and was attached to the embassy -at Constantinople from 1876 to 1877. From 1877 to 1880 he was secretary -to the chancellor of the exchequer, was financial secretary to the war -office from 1885 to 1886, surveyor-general of ordnance, 1886 to 1887, -and charity commissioner, 1891 to 1892. In 1887 he was created a -baronet. In 1880 he was elected M.P. for Exeter as a Conservative, and -retained the seat until 1899, when he was appointed governor of Bombay -(1899-1903), being created a peer in 1900. Lord Northcote was appointed -governor-general of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1903, and held this -post till 1908. He married in 1873 Alice, adopted daughter of the 1st -Lord Mount Stephen. - - - - -IDEA (Gr. [Greek: idea], connected with [Greek: idein], to see; cf. Lat. -_species_ from _specere_, to look at), a term used both popularly and in -philosophical terminology with the general sense of "mental picture." To -have no _idea_ how a thing happened is to be without a mental picture of -an occurrence. In this general sense it is synonymous with concept -(q.v.) in its popular usage. In philosophy the term "idea" is common to -all languages and periods, but there is scarcely any term which has been -used with so many different shades of meaning. Plato used it in the -sphere of metaphysics for the eternally existing reality, the archetype, -of which the objects of sense are more or less imperfect copies. Chairs -may be of different forms, sizes, colours and so forth, but "laid up in -the mind of God" there is the one permanent _idea_ or type, of which the -many physical chairs are derived with various degrees of imperfection. -From this doctrine it follows that these _ideas_ are the sole reality -(see further IDEALISM); in opposition to it are the empirical thinkers -of all time who find reality in particular physical objects (see -HYLOZOISM, EMPIRICISM, &c.). In striking contrast to Plato's use is that -of John Locke, who defines "idea" as "whatever is the object of -understanding when a man thinks" (_Essay on the Human Understanding_ -(I.), vi. 8). Here the term is applied not to the mental process, but to -anything whether physical or intellectual which is the object of it. -Hume differs from Locke by limiting "idea" to the more or less vague -mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process being -described as an "impression." Wundt widens the term to include -"conscious representation of some object or process of the external -world." In so doing he includes not only ideas of memory and -imagination, but also perceptual processes, whereas other psychologists -confine the term to the first two groups. G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin, -in the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_, i. 498, define "idea" -as "the reproduction with a more or less adequate image, of an object -not actually present to the senses." They point out that an idea and a -perception are by various authorities contrasted in various ways. -"Difference in degree of intensity," "comparative absence of bodily -movement on the part of the subject," "comparative dependence on mental -activity," are suggested by psychologists as characteristic of an idea -as compared with a perception. - -It should be observed that an idea, in the narrower and generally -accepted sense of a mental reproduction, is frequently composite. That -is, as in the example given above of the idea of chair, a great many -objects, differing materially in detail, all call a single idea. When a -man, for example, has obtained an idea of chairs in general by -comparison with which he can say "This is a chair, that is a stool," he -has what is known as an "abstract idea" distinct from the reproduction -in his mind of any particular chair (see ABSTRACTION). Furthermore a -complex idea may not have any corresponding physical object, though its -particular constituent elements may severally be the reproductions of -actual perceptions. Thus the idea of a centaur is a complex mental -picture composed of the ideas of man and horse, that of a mermaid of a -woman and a fish. - - See PSYCHOLOGY. - - - - -IDEALISM (from Gr. [Greek: idea], archetype or model, through Fr. -_idéalisme_), a term generally used for the attitude of mind which is -prone to represent things in an imaginative light and to lay emphasis -exclusively or primarily on abstract perfection (i.e. in "ideals"). With -this meaning the philosophical use of the term has little in common. - -To understand the philosophical theory that has come to be known under -this title, we may ask (1) what in general it is and how it is -differentiated from other theories of knowledge and reality, (2) how it -has risen in the history of philosophy, (3) what position it occupies at -present in the world of speculation. - -1. _General Definition of Idealism._--Idealism as a philosophical -doctrine conceives of knowledge or experience as a process in which the -two factors of subject and object stand in a relation of entire -interdependence on each other as warp and woof. Apart from the activity -of the self or subject in sensory reaction, memory and association, -imagination, judgment and inference, there can be no world of objects. A -thing-in-itself which is not a thing to some consciousness is an -entirely unrealizable, because self-contradictory, conception. But this -is only one side of the truth. It is equally true that a subject apart -from an object is unintelligible. As the object exists through the -constructive activity of the subject, so the subject lives in the -construction of the object. To seek for the true self in any region into -which its opposite in the form of a not-self does not enter is to grasp -a shadow. It is in seeking to realize its own ideas in the world of -knowledge, feeling and action that the mind comes into possession of -itself; it is in becoming permeated and transformed by the mind's ideas -that the world develops the fullness of its reality as object. - -Thus defined, idealism is opposed to ordinary common-sense dualism, -which regards knowledge or experience as the result of the more or less -accidental relation between two separate and independent entities--the -mind and its ideas on one side, the thing with its attributes on the -other--that serve to limit and condition each other from without. It is -equally opposed to the doctrine which represents the subject itself and -its state and judgments as the single immediate datum of consciousness, -and all else, whether the objects of an external world or person other -than the individual subject whose states are known to itself, as having -a merely problematic existence resting upon analogy or other process of -indirect inference. This theory is sometimes known as idealism. But it -falls short of idealism as above defined in that it recognizes only one -side of the antithesis of subject and object, and so falls short of the -doctrine which takes its stand on the complete correlativity of the two -factors in experience. It is for this reason that it is sometimes known -as subjective or incomplete idealism. Finally the theory defined is -opposed to all forms of realism, whether in the older form which sought -to reduce mind to a function of matter, or in any of the newer forms -which seek for the ultimate essence of both mind and matter in some -unknown force or energy which, while in itself it is neither, yet -contains the potentiality of both. It is true that in some modern -developments of idealism the ultimate reality is conceived of in an -impersonal way, but it is usually added that this ultimate or absolute -being is not something lower but higher than self-conscious personality, -including it as a more fully developed form may be said to include a -more elementary. - -2. _Origin and Development of Idealism._--In its self-conscious form -idealism is a modern doctrine. In it the self or subject may be said to -have come to its rights. This was possible in any complete sense only -after the introspective movement represented by the middle ages had done -its work, and the thought of the individual mind and will as possessed -of relative independence had worked itself out into some degree of -clearness. In this respect Descartes' dictum--_cogito ergo sum_--may be -said to have struck the keynote of modern philosophy, and all subsequent -speculation to have been merely a prolonged commentary upon it. While in -its completer form it is thus a doctrine distinctive of modern times, -idealism has its roots far back in the history of thought. One of the -chief proofs that has been urged of the truth of its point of view is -the persistency with which it has always asserted itself at a certain -stage in philosophical reflection and as the solution of certain -recurrent speculative difficulties. All thought starts from the ordinary -dualism or pluralism which conceives of the world as consisting of the -juxtaposition of mutually independent things and persons. The first -movement is in the direction of dispelling this appearance of -independence. They are seen to be united under the relation of cause and -effect, determining and determined, which turns out to mean that they -are merely passing manifestations of some single entity or energy which -constitutes the real unknown essence of the things that come before our -knowledge. In the pantheism that thus takes the place of the old dualism -there seems no place left for the individual. Mind and will in their -individual manifestations fade into the general background of appearance -without significance except as a link in a fated chain. Deliverance from -the pantheistic conception of the universe comes through the recognition -of the central place occupied by thought and purpose in the actual -world, and, as a consequence of this, of the illegitimacy of the -abstraction whereby material energy is taken for the ultimate reality. - - - Ancient idealism: Socrates. - - Plato - -The first illustration of this movement on a large scale was given in -the Socratic reaction against the pantheistic conclusions of early Greek -philosophy (see IONIAN SCHOOL). The whole movement of which Socrates was -a part may be said to have been in the direction of the assertion of the -rights of the subject. Its keynote is to be found in the Protagorean -"man is the measure." This seems to have been interpreted by its author -and by the Sophists in general in a subjective sense, with the result -that it became the motto of a sceptical and individualistic movement in -contemporary philosophy and ethics. It was not less against this form of -idealism than against the determinism of the early physicists that -Socrates protested. Along two lines the thought of Socrates led to -idealistic conclusions which may be said to have formed the basis of all -subsequent advance. (1) He perceived the importance of the universal or -conceptual element in knowledge, and thus at a single stroke broke -through the hard realism of ordinary common sense, disproved all forms -of naturalism that were founded on the denial of the reality of thought, -and cut away the ground from a merely sensational and subjective -idealism. This is what Aristotle means by claiming for Socrates that he -was the founder of definition. (2) He taught that life was explicable -only as a system of ends. Goodness consists in the knowledge of what -these are. It is by his hold upon them that the individual is able to -give unity and reality to his will. In expounding these ideas Socrates -limited himself to the sphere of practice. Moreover, the end or ideal of -the practical life was conceived of in too vague a way to be of much -practical use. His principle, however, was essentially sound, and led -directly to the Platonic Idealism. Plato extended the Socratic -discovery to the whole of reality and while seeking to see the -pre-Socratics with the eyes of Socrates sought "to see Socrates with the -eyes of the pre-Socratics." Not only were the virtues to be explained by -their relation to a common or universal good which only intelligence -could apprehend, but there was nothing in all the furniture of heaven or -earth which in like manner did not receive reality from the share it had -in such an intelligible idea or essence. But these ideas are themselves -intelligible only in relation to one another and to the whole. -Accordingly Plato conceived of them as forming a system and finding -their reality in the degree in which they embody the one all-embracing -idea and conceived of not under the form of an efficient but of a final -cause, an inner principle of action or tendency in things to realize the -fullness of their own nature which in the last resort was identical with -the nature of the whole. This Plato expressed in the myth of the Sun, -but the garment of mythology in which Plato clothed his idealism, -beautiful as it is in itself and full of suggestion, covered an -essential weakness. The more Plato dwelt upon his world of ideas, the -more they seemed to recede from the world of reality, standing over -against it as principles of condemnation instead of revealing themselves -in it. In this way the Good was made to appear as an end imposed upon -things from without by a creative intelligence instead of as an inner -principle of adaptation. - - - Aristotle. - -On one side of his thought Aristotle represents a reaction against -idealism and a return to the position of common-sense dualism, but on -another, and this the deeper side, he represents the attempt to restore -the theory in a more satisfactory form. His account of the process of -knowledge in his logical treatises exhibits the idealistic bent in its -clearest form. This is as far removed as possible either from dualism or -from empiricism. The universal is the real; it is that which gives -coherence and individuality to the particulars of sense which apart from -it are like the routed or disbanded units of an army. Still more -manifestly in his _Ethics_ and _Politics Aristotle_ makes it clear that -it is the common or universal will that gives substance and reality to -the individual. In spite of these and other anticipations of a fuller -idealism, the idea remains as a form imposed from without on a reality -otherwise conceived of as independent of it. As we advance from the -logic to the metaphysics and from that to his ontology, it becomes clear -that the concepts are only "categories" or predicates of a reality lying -outside of them, and there is an ultimate division between the world as -the object or matter of thought and the thinking or moving principle -which gives its life. It is this that gives the Aristotelian doctrine in -its more abstract statements an air of uncertainty. Yet besides the -particular contribution that Aristotle made to idealistic philosophy in -his logical and ethical interpretations, he advanced the case in two -directions, (a) He made it clear that no explanation of the world could -be satisfactory that was not based on the notion of continuity in the -sense of an order of existence in which the reality of the lower was to -be sought for in the extent to which it gave expression to the -potentialities of its own nature--which were also the potentialities of -the whole of which it was a part. (b) From this it followed that -difficult as we might find it to explain the relation of terms so remote -from each other as sense and thought, the particular and the universal, -matter and mind, these oppositions cannot in their nature be absolute. -These truths, however, were hidden from Aristotle's successors, who for -the most part lost the thread which Socrates had put into their hand. -When the authority of Aristotle was again invoked, it was its dualistic -and formal, not its idealistic and metaphysical, side that was in -harmony with the spirit of the age. Apart from one or two of the -greatest minds, notably Dante, what appealed to the thinkers of the -middle ages was not the idea of reality as a progressive self-revelation -of an inner principle working through nature and human life, but the -formal principles of classification which it seemed to offer for a -material of thought and action given from another source. - - - Modern Idealism. - -Modern like ancient idealism came into being as a correction of the -view that threatened to resolve the world of matter and mind alike into -the changing manifestations of some single non-spiritual force or -substance. While, however, ancient philosophy may be said to have been -unilinear, modern philosophy had a twofold origin, and till the time of -Kant may be said to have pursued two independent courses. - -All philosophy is the search for reality and rational certainty as -opposed to mere formalism on the one hand, to authority and dogmatism on -the other. In this sense modern philosophy had a common root in revolt -against medievalism. In England this revolt sought for the certainty and -clearness that reason requires In the assurance of an outer world given -to immediate sense experience; on the continent of Europe, in the -assurance of an inner world given immediately in thought. Though -starting from apparently opposite poles and following widely different -courses the two movements led more or less directly to the same results. -It is easy to understand how English empiricism issued at once in the -trenchant naturalism of Hobbes. It is less comprehensible how the -Cartesian philosophy from the starting-point of thought allied itself -with a similar point of view. This can be understood only by a study of -the details of Descartes' philosophy (see CARTESIANISM). Suffice it to -say that in spite of its spiritualistic starting-point its general -result was to give a stimulus to the prevailing scientific tendency as -represented by Galileo, Kepler and Harvey to the principle of mechanical -explanations of the phenomena of the universe. True it was precisely -against this that Descartes' immediate successors struggled. But the -time-spirit was too strong for them. Determinism had other forms besides -that of a crude materialism, and the direction that Malebranche -succeeded in giving to speculation led only to the more complete denial -of freedom and individuality in the all-devouring pantheism of Spinoza. - - - Berkeley. - -The foundations of idealism in the modern sense were laid by the -thinkers who sought breathing room for mind and will in a deeper -analysis of the relations of the subject to the world that it knows. -From the outset English philosophy had a leaning to the psychological -point of view, and Locke was only carrying on the tradition of his -predecessors and particularly of Hobbes in definitely accepting it as -the basis of his _Essay_. It was, however, Berkeley who first sought to -utilize the conclusions that were implicit in Locke's starting-point to -disprove "the systems of impious and profane persons which exclude all -freedom, intelligence, and design from the formation of things, and -instead thereof make a self-existent, stupid, unthinking substance the -root and origin of all beings." Berkeley's statement of the view that -all knowledge is relative to the subject--that no object can be known -except under the form which our powers of sense-perception, our memory -and imagination, our notions and inference, give it--is still the most -striking and convincing that we possess. To have established this -position was a great step in speculation. Henceforth ordinary dogmatic -dualism was excluded from philosophy; any attempt to revive it, whether -with Dr Johnson by an appeal to common prejudice, or, in the more -reflective Johnsonianism of the 18th-century Scottish philosophers, must -be an anachronism. Equally impossible was it thenceforth to assert the -mediate or immediate certainty of material substance as the cause either -of events in nature or of sensations in ourselves. But with these -advances came the danger of falling into error from which common-sense -dualism and naturalistic monism were free. From the point of view which -Berkeley had inherited from Locke it seemed to follow that not only -material substance, but the whole conception of a world of objects, is -at most an inference from subjective modifications which are the only -immediately certain objects of knowledge. The implications of such a -view were first clearly apparent when Hume showed that on the basis of -it there seemed to be nothing that we could confidently affirm except -the order of our own impressions and ideas. This being so, not only were -physics and mathematics impossible as sciences of necessary objective -truth, but our apparent consciousness of a permanent self and object -alike must be delusive. - - - Kant. - -It was these paradoxes that Kant sought to rebut by a more thoroughgoing -criticism of the basis of knowledge the substance of which is summed up -in his celebrated Refutation of Idealism,[1] wherein he sought to -undermine Hume's scepticism by carrying it one step further and -demonstrating that not only is all knowledge of self or object excluded, -but the consciousness of any series of impressions and ideas is itself -impossible except in relation to some external permanent and universally -accepted world of objects. - - - Leibnitz. - -But Kant's refutation of subjective idealism and his vindication of the -place of the object can be fully understood only when we take into -account the other defect in the teaching of his predecessors that he -sought in his _Critique_ to correct. In continental philosophy the -reaction against mechanical and pantheistic explanations of the universe -found even more definite utterance than in English psychological -empiricism in the metaphysical system of Leibnitz, whose theory of -self-determined monads can be understood only when taken in the light of -the assertion of the rights of the subject against the substance of -Spinoza and the atoms of the materialist. But Leibnitz also anticipated -Kant in seeking to correct the empirical point of view of the English -philosophers. True, sense-given material is necessary in order that we -may have thought. "But by what means," he asks, "can experience and the -senses give ideas? Has the soul windows? Is it like a writing tablet? Is -it like wax? It is plain that all those who think thus of the soul make -it at bottom corporeal. True, nothing is in the intellect which has not -been in the senses, but we must add except the intellect itself. The -soul contains the notions of being, substance, unity, identity, cause, -perception, reasoning and many others which the senses cannot give" -(_Nouveaux essais_, ii. 1). But Leibnitz's conception of the priority of -spirit had too little foundation, and the different elements he sought -to combine were too loosely related to one another to stand the strain -of the two forces of empiricism and materialism that were opposed to his -idealism. More particularly by the confusion in which he left the -relation between the two logical principles of identity and of -sufficient reason underlying respectively analytic and synthetic, -deductive and inductive thought, he may be said to have undermined in -another way the idealism he strove to establish. It was in seeking to -close up the fissure in his system represented by this dualism that his -successors succeeded only in adding weakness to weakness by reducing the -principle of sufficient reason to that of formal identity (see WOLFF) -and representing all thought as in essence analytic. From this it -immediately followed that, so far as the connexion of our experiences of -the external world does not show itself irreducible to that of formal -identity, it must remain unintelligible. As empiricism had foundered on -the difficulty of showing how our thoughts could be an object of sense -experience, so Leibnitzian formalism foundered on that of understanding -how the material of sense could be an object of thought. On one view as -on the other scientific demonstration was impossible. - - - Kant. - -The extremity to which philosophy had been brought by empiricism on the -one hand and formalism on the other was Kant's opportunity. Leibnitz's -principle of the "nisi intellectus ipse" was expanded by him into a -demonstration the completest yet effected by philosophy of the part -played by the subject not merely in the manipulation of the material of -experience but in the actual constitution of the object that is known. -On the other hand he insisted on the synthetic character of this -activity without which it was impossible to get beyond the circle of our -own thoughts. The parts of the _Critique of Pure Reason_, more -particularly the "Deduction of the Categories" in which this theory is -worked out, may be said to have laid the foundation of modern -idealism--"articulum stantis aut cadentis doctrinae." In spite of the -defects of Kant's statement--to which it is necessary to return--the -place of the concepts and ideals of the mind and the synthetic -organizing activity which these involve was established with a -trenchancy which has been acknowledged by all schools alike. The -"Copernican revolution" which he claimed to have effected may be said to -have become the starting-point of all modern philosophy. Yet the -divergent uses that have been made of it witness to the ambiguity of his -statement which is traceable to the fact that Kant was himself too -deeply rooted in the thought of his predecessors and carried with him -too much of their spirit to be able entirely to free himself from their -assumptions and abstractions. His philosophy was more like -Michaelangelo's famous sculpture of the Dawn, a spirit yet encumbered -with the stubble of the material from which it was hewn, than a clear -cut figure with unmistakable outlines. Chief among these encumbering -presuppositions was that of a fundamental distinction between perception -and conception and consequent upon it between the synthetic and the -analytic use of thought. It is upon this in the last resort that the -distinction between the phenomenal world of our experience and a -noumenal world beyond it is founded. Kant perceives that "perception -without conception is blind, conception without perception is empty," -but if he goes so far ought he not to have gone still further and -inquired whether there can be any perception at all without a concept, -any concept which does not presuppose a precept, and, if this is -impossible, whether the distinction between a world of appearance which -is known and a world of things-in-themselves which is not, is not -illusory? - - - Hegel. - -It was by asking precisely these questions that Hegel gave the finishing -strokes to the Kantian philosophy. The starting-point of all valid -philosophy must be the perception that the essence of all conscious -apprehension is the union of opposites--of which that of subject and -object is the most fundamental and all-pervasive. True, before -differences can be united they must have been separated, but this merely -proves that differentiation or analysis is only one factor in a single -process. Equally fundamental is the element of synthesis. Nor is it -possible at any point in knowledge to prove the existence of a merely -given in whose construction the thinking subject has played no part nor -a merely thinking subject in whose structure the object is not an -organic factor. In coming, as at a certain point in its development it -does, to the consciousness of an object, the mind does not find itself -in the presence of an opponent, or of anything essentially alien to -itself but of that which gives content and stability to its own -existence. True, the stability it seems to find in it is incomplete. The -object cannot rest in the form of its immediate appearance without -involving us in contradiction. The sun does not "rise," the dew does not -"fall." But this only means that the unity between subject and object to -which the gift of consciousness commits us is incompletely realized in -that appearance: the apparent truth has to submit to correction and -supplementation before it can be accepted as real truth. It does not -mean that there is anywhere a mere fact which is not also an -interpretation nor an interpreting mind whose ideas have no hold upon -fact. From this it follows that ultimate or absolute reality is to be -sought not beyond the region of experience, but in the fullest and most -harmonious statement of the facts of our experience. True a completely -harmonious world whether of theory or of practice remains an ideal. But -the fact that we have already in part realized the ideal and that the -degree in which we have realized it is the degree in which we may regard -our experience as trustworthy, is proof that the ideal is no mere idea -as Kant taught, but the very substance of reality. - - - Stumbling blocks in Hegel's statements. - -Intelligible as this development of Kantian idealism seems in the light -of subsequent philosophy, the first statement of it in Hegel was not -free from obscurity. The unity of opposites translated into its most -abstract terms as the "identity of being and not-being," the principle -that the "real is the rational," the apparent substitution of -"bloodless" categories for the substance of concrete reality gave it an -air of paradox in the eyes of metaphysicians while physicists were -scandalized by the premature attempts at a complete philosophy of nature -and history. For this Hegel was doubtless partly to blame. But -philosophical critics of his own and a later day are not hereby absolved -from a certain perversity in interpreting these doctrines in a sense -precisely opposite to that in which they were intended. The doctrine of -the unity of contraries so far from being the denial of the law of -non-contradiction is founded on an absolute reliance upon it. Freed from -paradox it means that in every object of thought there are different -aspects or elements each of which if brought separately into -consciousness may be so emphasized as to appear to contradict another. -Unity may be made to contradict diversity, permanence change, the -particular the universal, individuality relatedness. Ordinary -consciousness ignores these "latent fires"; ordinary discussion brings -them to light and divides men into factions and parties over them; -philosophy not because it denies but because it acknowledges the law of -non-contradiction as supreme is pledged to seek a point of view from -which they may be seen to be in essential harmony with one another as -different sides of the same truth. The "rationality of the real" has in -like manner been interpreted as intended to sanctify the existing order. -Hegel undoubtedly meant to affirm that the actual was rational in the -face of the philosophy which set up subjective feeling and reason -against it. But idealism has insisted from the time of Plato on the -distinction between what is actual in time and space and the reality -that can only partially be revealed in it. Hegel carried this principle -further than had yet been done. His phrase does not therefore sanctify -the established fact but, on the contrary, declares that it partakes of -reality only so far as it embodies the ideal of a coherent and stable -system which it is not. As little is idealism responsible for any -attempt to pass off logical abstractions for concrete reality. The -"Logic" of Hegel is merely the continuation of Kant's "Deduction" of the -categories and ideas of the reason which has generally been recognized -as the soberest of attempts to set forth the presuppositions which -underlie all experience. "What Hegel attempts to show is just that the -categories by which thought must determine its object are stages in a -process that, beginning with the idea of 'Being,' the simplest of all -determinations is driven on by its own dialectic till it reaches the -idea of self-consciousness. In other words the intelligence when it once -begins to define an object for itself, finds itself launched on a -movement of self-asserting synthesis in which it cannot stop until it -had recognized that the unity of the object with itself involves its -unity with all other objects and with the mind that knows it. Hence, -whatever we begin by saying, we must ultimately say 'mind'" (Caird, -_Kant_, i. 443). - - While the form in which these doctrines were stated proved fatal to - them in the country of their birth, they took deep root in the next - generation in English philosophy. Here the stone that the builders - rejected was made the head of the corner. The influences which led to - this result were manifold. From the side of literature the way was - prepared for it by the genius of Coleridge, Wordsworth and Carlyle; - from the side of morals and politics by the profound discontent of the - constructive spirit of the century with the disintegrating conceptions - inherited from utilitarianism. In taking root in England idealism had - to contend against the traditional empiricism represented by Mill on - the one hand and the pseudo-Kantianism which was rendered current by - Mansel and Hamilton on the other. As contrasted with the first it - stood for the necessity of recognizing a universal or ideal element as - a constitutive factor in all experience whether cognitive or - volitional; as contrasted with the latter for the ultimate unity of - subject and object, knowledge and reality, and therefore for the - denial of the existence of any thing-in-itself for ever outside the - range of experience. Its polemic against the philosophy of experience - has exposed it to general misunderstanding, as though it claimed some - a priori path to truth. In reality it stands for a more thoroughgoing - and consistent application of the test of experience. The defect of - English empiricism from the outset had been the uncritical acceptance - of the metaphysical dogma of a pure unadulterated sense-experience as - the criterion of truth. This assumption idealism examines and rejects - in the name of experience itself. Similarly it only carried the - doctrine of relativity to its logical conclusion in denying that there - could be any absolute relativity. Object stands in essential relation - to subject, subject to object. This being so, it is wholly illogical - to seek for any test of the truth and reality of either except in the - form which that relation itself takes. In its subsequent development - idealism in England has passed through several clearly marked stages - which may be distinguished as (a) that of exploration and tentative - exposition in the writings of J. F. Ferrier,[2] J. Hutchison - Stirling,[3] Benjamin Jowett,[4] W. T. Harris;[5] (b) of confident - application to the central problems of logic, ethics and politics, - fine art and religion, and as a principle of constructive criticism - and interpretation chiefly in T. H. Green,[6] E. Caird,[7] B. - Bosanquet;[8] (c) of vigorous effort to develop on fresh lines its - underlying metaphysics in F. H. Bradley,[9] J. M. E. McTaggart,[10] A. - E. Taylor,[11] Josiah Royce[12] and others. Under the influence of - these writers idealism, as above expounded though with difference of - interpretation in individual writers, may be said towards the end of - the 19th century to have been on its way to becoming the leading - philosophy in the British Isles and America. - - - New Dualism and Pragmatism. - -3. _Reaction against Traditional Idealism._--But it was not to be -expected that the position idealism had thus won for itself would remain -long unchallenged. It had its roots in a literature and in forms of -thought remote from the common track; it had been formulated before the -great advances in psychology which marked the course of the century; its -latest word seemed to involve consequences that brought it into conflict -with the vital interest the human mind has in freedom and the -possibility of real initiation. It is not, therefore, surprising that -there should have been a vigorous reaction. This has taken mainly two -opposite forms. On the one hand the attack has come from the old ground -of the danger that is threatened to the reality of the external world -and may be said to be in the interest of the object. On the other hand -the theory has been attacked in the interest of the subject on the -ground that in the statuesque world of ideas into which it introduces us -it leaves no room for the element of movement and process which recent -psychology and metaphysic alike have taught us underlies all life. The -conflict of idealism with these two lines of criticism--the accusation -of subjectivism on the one side of intellectualism and rigid objectivism -on the other--may be said to have constituted the history of Anglo-Saxon -philosophy during the first decade of the 20th century. - -I. Whatever is to be said of ancient Idealism, the modern doctrine may -be said notably in Kant to have been in the main a vindication of the -subjective factor in knowledge. But that space and time, matter and -cause should owe their origin to the action of the mind has always -seemed paradoxical to common sense. Nor is the impression which its -enunciation in Kant made, likely to have been lightened in this country -by the connexion that was sure to be traced between Berkeleyanism and -the new teaching or by the form which the doctrine received at the hands -of T. H. Green, its leading English representative between 1870 and -1880. If what is real in things is ultimately nothing but their -relations, and if relations are inconceivable apart from the relating -mind, what is this but the dissolution of the solid ground of external -reality which my consciousness seems to assure me underlies and eludes -all the conceptual network by which I try to bring one part of my -experience into connexion with another? It is quite true that modern -idealists like Berkeley himself have sought to save themselves from the -gulf of subjectivism by calling in the aid of a universal or infinite -mind or by an appeal to a total or absolute experience to which our own -is relative. But the former device is too obviously a _deus ex machina_, -the purpose of which would be equally well served by supposing with -Fichte the individual self to be endowed with the power of -subconsciously extraditing a world which returns to it in consciousness -under the form of a foreign creation. The appeal to an Absolute on the -other hand is only to substitute one difficulty for another. For -granting that it places the centre of reality outside the individual -self it does so only at the price of reducing the reality of the latter -to an appearance; and if only one thing is real what becomes of the -many different things which again my consciousness assures me are the -one world with which I can have any practical concern? To meet these -difficulties and give back to us the assurance of the substantiality of -the world without us it has therefore been thought necessary to maintain -two propositions which are taken to be the refutation of idealism. (1) -There is given to us immediately in knowledge a world entirely -independent of and different from our own impressions on the one hand -and the conceptions by which we seek to establish relations between them -upon the other. The relation of these impressions (and for the matter of -that of their inter-relations among themselves) to our minds is only one -out of many. As a leading writer puts it: "There is such a thing as -greenness having various relations, among others that of being -perceived."[13] (2) Things may be, and may be known to be simply -different. They may exclude one another, exist so to speak in a -condition of armed neutrality to one another, without being positively -thereby related to one another or altered by any change taking place in -any of them. As the same writer puts it: "There is such a thing as -numerical difference, different from conceptual difference,"[14] or -expressing the same thing in other words "there are relations not -grounded in the nature of the related terms." - -In this double-barrelled criticism it is important to distinguish what -is really relevant. Whatever the shortcomings of individual writers may -be, modern idealism differs, as we have seen, from the arrested idealism -of Berkeley precisely in the point on which dualism insists. In all -knowledge we are in touch not merely with the self and its passing -states, but with a real object which is different from them. On this -head there is no difference, and idealism need have no difficulty in -accepting all that its opponents here contend. The difference between -the two theories does not consist in any difference of emphasis on the -objective side of knowledge, but in the standard by which the nature of -the object is to be tested--the difference is logical not -metaphysical--it concerns the definition of truth or falsity in the -knowledge of the reality which both admit. To idealism there can be no -ultimate test, but the possibility of giving any fact which claims to be -true its place in a coherent system of mutually related truths. To this -dualism opposes the doctrine that truth and falsehood are a matter of -mere immediate intuition: "There is no problem at all in truth and -falsehood, some propositions are true and some false just as some roses -are red and some white."[15] The issue between the two theories under -this head may here be left with the remark that it is a curious comment -on the logic of dualism that setting out to vindicate the reality of an -objective standard of truth it should end in the most subjective of all -the way a thing appears to the individual. The criticism that applies to -the first of the above contentions applies _mutatis mutandis_ to the -second. As idealism differs from Berkeleyanism in asserting the reality -of an "external" world so it differs from Spinozism in asserting the -reality of difference within it. Determination is not merely negation. -On this head there need be no quarrel between it and dualism. Ours is a -many-sided, a many-coloured world. The point of conflict again lies in -the nature and ground of the assigned differences. Dualism meets the -assertion of absolute unity by the counter assertion of mere difference. -But if it is an error to treat the unity of the world as its only real -aspect, it is equally an error to treat its differences as something -ultimately irreducible. No philosophy founded on this assumption is -likely to maintain itself against the twofold evidence of modern -psychology and modern logic. According to the first the world, whether -looked at from the side of our perception or from the side of the object -perceived, can be made intelligible only when we accept it for what it -is as a real continuity. Differences, of course, there are; and, if we -like to say so, every difference is unique, but this does not mean that -they are given in absolute independence of everything else, "fired at us -out of a cannon." They bear a definite relation to the structure of our -physical and psychical nature, and correspond to definite needs of the -subject that manifests itself therein. Similarly from the side of logic. -It is not the teaching of idealism alone but of the facts which logical -analysis has brought home to us that all difference in the last resort -finds its ground in the quality or content of the things differentiated, -and that this difference of content shows in turn a double strand, the -strand of sameness and the strand of otherness--that _in_ which and that -_by_ which they differ from one another. Idealism has, of course, no -quarrel with numerical difference. All difference has its numerical -aspect: two different things are always two both in knowledge and in -reality. What it cannot accept is the doctrine that there are two things -which are two in themselves apart from that which makes them two--which -are not two _of something_. So far from establishing the truth for which -dualism is itself concerned--the reality of all differences--such a -theory can end only in a scepticism as to the reality of any difference. -It is difficult to see what real difference there can be between things -which are differences of nothing. - -II. More widespread and of more serious import is the attack from the -other side to which since the publication of A. Seth's _Hegelianism and -Personality_ (1887) and W. James's _Will to Believe_ (1903) idealism has -been subjected. Here also it is important to distinguish what is -relevant from what is irrelevant in the line of criticism represented by -these writers. There need be no contradiction between idealism and a -reasonable pragmatism. In so far as the older doctrine is open to the -charge of neglecting the conative and teleological side of experience it -can afford to be grateful to its critics for recalling it to its own -eponymous principle of the priority of the "ideal" to the "idea," of -_needs_ to the conception of their object. The real issue comes into -view in the attempt, undertaken in the interest of freedom, to -substitute for the notion of the world as a cosmos pervaded by no -discernible principle and in its essence indifferent to the form -impressed upon it by its active parts. - - To the older idealism as to the new the essence of mind or spirit is - freedom. But the guarantee of freedom is to be sought for not in the - denial of law, but in the whole nature of mind and its relation to the - structure of experience. _Without mind no orderly world_: only through - the action of the subject and its "ideas" are the confused and - incoherent data of sense-perception (themselves shot through with both - strands) built up into that system of things we call Nature, and which - stands out against the subject as the body stands out against the soul - whose functioning may be said to have created it. On the other hand, - _without the world no mind_: only through the action of the - environment upon the subject is the idealizing activity in which it - finds its being called into existence. Herein lies the paradox which - is also the deepest truth of our spiritual life. In interpreting its - environment first as a world of things that seem to stand in a - relation of exclusion to one another and to itself, then as a natural - system governed by rigid mechanical necessity, the mind can yet feel - that in its very opposition the world is akin to it, bone of its bone - and flesh of its flesh. What is true of mind is true of will. Idealism - starts from the relativity of the world to purposive consciousness. - But this again may be so stated as to represent only one side of the - truth. It is equally true that the will is relative to the world of - objects and interests to which it is attached through instincts and - feelings, habits and sentiments. In isolation from its object the will - is as much an abstraction as thought apart from the world of percepts, - memories and associations which give it content and stability. And - just as mind does not lose but gain in individuality in proportion as - it parts with any claim to the capricious determination of what its - world shall be, and becomes dominated by the conception of an order - which is immutable so the will becomes free and "personal" in - proportion as it identifies itself with objects and interests, and - subordinates itself to laws and requirements which involve the - suppression of all that is merely arbitrary and subjective. Here, too, - subject and object grow together. The power and vitality of the one is - the power and vitality of the other, and this is so because they are - not two things with separate roots but are both rooted in a common - reality which, while it includes, is more than either. - - Passing by these contentions as unmeaning or irrelevant and seeing - nothing but irreconcilable contradiction between the conceptions of - the world as immutable law and a self-determining subject pragmatism - (q.v.) seeks other means of vindicating the reality of freedom. It - agrees with older forms of libertarianism in taking its stand on the - fact of spontaneity as primary and self-evidencing, but it is not - content to assert its existence side by side with rigidly determined - sequence. It carries the war into the camp of the enemy by seeking to - demonstrate that the completely determined action which is set over - against freedom as the basis of explanation in the material world is - merely a hypothesis which, while it serves sufficiently well the - limited purpose for which it is devised, is incapable of verification - in the ultimate constituents of physical nature. There seems in fact - nothing to prevent us from holding that while natural laws express the - average tendencies of multitudes they give no clue to the movement of - individuals. Some have gone farther and argued that from the nature of - the case no causal explanation of any real change in the world of - things is possible. A cause is that which contains the effect ("causa - aequat effectum"), but this is precisely what can never be proved with - respect to anything that is claimed as a real cause in the concrete - world. Everywhere the effect reveals an element which is - indiscoverable in the cause with the result that the identity we seek - for ever eludes us. Even the resultant of mechanical forces refuses to - resolve itself into its constituents. In the "resultant" there is a - new direction, and with it a new quality the component forces of which - no analysis can discover.[16] - -It is not here possible to do more than indicate what appear to be the -valid elements in these two conflicting interpretations of the -requirements of a true idealism. On behalf of the older it may be -confidently affirmed that no solution is likely to find general -acceptance which involves the rejection of the conception of unity and -intelligible order as the primary principle of our world. The assertion -of this principle by Kant was, we have seen, the corner-stone of -idealistic philosophy in general, underlying as it does the conception -of a permanent subject not less than that of a permanent object. As -little from the side of knowledge is it likely that any theory will find -acceptance which reduces all thought to a process of analysis and the -discovery of abstract identity. There is no logical principle which -requires that we should derive qualitative change by logical analysis -from quantitative difference. Everywhere experience is synthetic: it -gives us multiplicity in unity. Explanation of it does not require the -annihilation of all differences but the apprehension of them in organic -relation to one another and to the whole to which they belong. It was, -as we have seen, this conception of thought as essentially synthetic for -which Kant paved the way in his polemic against the formalism of his -continental predecessors. The revival as in the above argument of the -idea that the function of thought is the elimination of difference, and -that rational connexion must fail where absolute identity is -indiscoverable merely shows how imperfectly Kant's lesson has been -learned by some of those who prophesy in his name. - -Finally, apart from these more academic arguments there is an undoubted -paradox in a theory which, at a moment when in whatever direction we -look the best inspiration in poetry, sociology and physical science -comes from the idea of the unity of the world, gives in its adhesion to -pluralism on the ground of its preponderating practical value. - -On the other hand, idealism would be false to itself if it interpreted -the unity which it thus seeks to establish in any sense that is -incompatible with the validity of moral distinctions and human -responsibility in the fullest sense of the term. It would on its side -be, indeed, a paradox if at a time when the validity of human ideals and -the responsibility of nations and individuals to realize them is more -universally recognized than ever before on our planet, the philosophical -theory which hitherto has been chiefly identified with their vindication -should be turned against them. Yet the depth and extent of the -dissatisfaction are sufficient evidence that the most recent -developments are not free from ambiguity on this vital issue. - -What is thus suggested is not a rash departure from the general point of -view of idealism (by its achievements in every field to which it has -been applied, "stat mole sua") but a cautious inquiry into the -possibility of reaching a conception of the world in which a place can -be found at once for the idea of unity and determination and of movement -and freedom. Any attempt here to anticipate what the course of an -idealism inspired by such a spirit of caution and comprehension is -likely to be cannot but appear dogmatic. - - Yet it may be permitted to make a suggestion. Taking for granted the - unity of the world idealism is committed to interpret it as spiritual - as a unity of spirits. This is implied in the phrase by which it has - sought to signalize its break with Spinozism: "from substance to - subject." The universal or infinite is one that realizes itself in - finite particular minds and wills, not as accidents or imperfections - of it, but as its essential form. These on their side, to be subject - in the true sense must be conceived of as possessing a life which is - truly their own, the expression of their own nature as - self-determinant. In saying subject we say self, in saying self we say - free creator. No conception of the infinite can therefore be true - which does not leave room for movement, process, free creation. - Oldness, sameness, permanence of principle and direction, these must - be, otherwise there is _nothing_; but newness of embodiment, - existence, realization also, otherwise nothing _is_. - - Now it is just to these implications in the idea of spirit that some - of the prominent recent expositions of Idealism seem to have failed to - do justice. They have failed particularly when they have left the idea - of "determination" unpurged of the suggestion of time succession. The - very word lends itself to this mistake. Idealists have gone beyond - others in asserting that the subject in the sense of a being which - merely repeats what has gone before is timeless. This involves that - its activity cannot be truly conceived of as included in an - antecedent, as an effect in a cause or one term of an equation in the - other. As the activity of a subject or spirit it is essentially a new - birth. It is this failure that has led to the present revolt against a - "block universe." But the difficulty is not to be met by running to - the, opposite extreme in the assertion of a loose and ramshackle one. - This is merely another way of perpetuating the mistake of allowing the - notion of determination by an _other_ or a preceding to continue to - dominate us in a region where we have in reality passed from it to the - notion of determination by self or by self-acknowledged ideals. As the - correction from the one side consists in a more whole-hearted - acceptance of the conception of determination by an ideal as the - essence of mind, so from the other side it must consist in the - recognition of the valuelessness of a freedom which does not mean - submission to a self-chosen, though not self-created, law. - - The solution here suggested is probably more likely to meet with - opposition from the side of Idealism than of Pragmatism. It involves, - it will be said, the reality of time, the dependence of the Infinite - in the finite, and therewith a departure from the whole line of - Hegelian thought. (1) It does surely involve the reality of time in - the sense that it involves the reality of existence, which it is - agreed is process. Without process the eternal is not complete or, if - eternity means completeness, is not truly eternal. Our mistake lies in - abstraction of the one from the other, which, as always, ends in - confusion of the one with the other. Truth lies in giving each its - place. Not only does eternity assert the conception of the hour but - the hour asserts the conception of eternity--with what adequacy is - another question. (2) The second of the above objections takes its - point from the contradiction to religious consciousness which seems to - be involved. This is certainly a mistake. Religious consciousness - asserts, no doubt, that God is necessary to the soul: from Him as its - inspiration, to Him as its ideal are all things. But it asserts with - equal emphasis that the soul is necessary to God. To declare itself an - unnecessary creation is surely on the part of the individual soul the - height of impiety. God lives in the soul as it in Him. He also might - say, from it as His offspring, to it as the object of His outgoing - love are all things. (3) It is a mistake to attribute to Hegel the - doctrine that time is an illusion. If in a well-known passage (_Logic_ - § 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately - corrects it by assigning an "actualizing force" to this illusion and - making it a "necessary dynamic element of truth." Consistently with - this we have the conclusion stated in the succeeding section on the - Will. "Good, the final end of the world, has being only while it - constantly produces itself. And the world of the spirit and the world - of nature continue to have this distinction, that the latter moves - only in a recurring cycle while the former certainly also makes - progress." The mistake is not Hegel's but ours. It is to be remedied - not by giving up the idea of the Infinite but by ceasing to think of - the Infinite as of a being endowed with a static perfection which the - finite will merely reproduces, and definitely recognizing the forward - effort of the finite as an essential element in Its self-expression. - If there be any truth in this suggestion it seems likely that the last - word of idealism, like the first, will prove to be that the type of - the highest reality is to be sought for not in any fixed Parmenidean - circle of achieved being but in an ideal of good which while never - fully expressed under the form of time can never become actual and so - fulfil itself under any other. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(A) General works besides those of the writers - mentioned above: W. Wallace, _Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel_ - (1894), and Hegel's _Philosophy of Mind_ (1894); A. Seth and R. B. - Haldane, _Essays in Phil. Criticism_ (1883); John Watson, _Kant and - his English Critics_ (1881); J. B. Baillie, _Idealistic Construction - of Experience_ (1906); J. S. Mackenzie, _Outlines of Metaphysics_ - (1902); A. E. Taylor, _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903); R. L. - Nettleship, _Lectures and Remains_ (1897); D. G. Ritchie, - _Philosophical Studies_ (1905). - - (B) Works on particular branches of philosophy: (a) _Logic_--F. H. - Bradley, _Principles of Logic_ (1883); B. Bosanquet, _Logic_ (1888) - and _Essentials of Logic_ (1895). (b) _Psychology_--J. Dewey, - _Psychology_ (1886); G. F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (1896); B. - Bosanquet, _Psychology of the Moral Self_ (1897). (c) _Ethics_--F. H. - Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); J. Dewey, _Ethics_ (1891); W. R. - Sorley, _Ethics of Naturalism_ (2nd ed., 1904); J. S. Mackenzie, - _Manual of Ethics_ (4th ed., 1900); J. H. Muirhead, _Elements of - Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1910). (d) _Politics and Economics_--B. Bosanquet, - _Philosophical Theory of the State_ (1899), and _Aspects of the Social - Problem_ (1895); B. Bonar, _Philosophy and Political Economy in their - historical Relations_ (1873); D. G. Ritchie, _Natural Rights_ (1895); - J. S. Mackenzie, _An Introd. to Social Phil._ (1890); J. MacCunn, _Six - Radical Thinkers_ (1907). (e) _Aesthetic_--B. Bosanquet, _History of - Aesthetic_ (1892), and _Introd. to Hegel's Phil. of the Fine Arts_ - (1886); W. Hastie, _Phil. of Art by Hegel and Michelet_ (1886). (f) - _Religion_--J. Royce, _Religious Aspect of Philosophy_ (1885), and - _The Conception of God_ (1897); R. B. Haldane, _The Pathway to - Reality_ (1903); E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_ (1893); J. Caird, - _Introd. to the Phil. of Religion_ (1880); H. Jones, _Idealism as a - Practical Creed_ (1909). - - (C) Recent Criticism. Besides works mentioned in the text: W. James, - _Pragmatism_ (1907), _A Pluralistic Universe_ (1909), _The Meaning of - Truth_ (1909); H. Sturt, _Personal Idealism_ (1902); F. C. S. - Schiller, _Humanism_ (1903); G. E. Moore, _Principia Ethica_; H. - Rashdall, _The Theory of Good and Evil_ (1907). - - See also ETHICS and METAPHYSICS. (J. H. Mu.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_, p. 197 (ed. Hartenstein). - - [2] _Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854); _Works_ (1866). - - [3] _Secret of Hegel_ (1865). - - [4] _Dialogues of Plato_ (1871). - - [5] _Journal of Spec. Phil._ (1867). - - [6] Hume's _Phil. Works_ (1875). - - [7] _Critical account of the Phil. of Kant_ (1877). - - [8] _Knowledge and Reality_ (1885); Logic (1888). - - [9] _Appearance and Reality_ (1893). - - [10] _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901). - - [11] _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903). - - [12] _The World and the individual_ (1901). - - [13] See _Mind_, New Series, xii. p. 433 sqq. - - [14] _Proceedings_ of the Aristotelian Society (1900-1901), p. 110. - - [15] _Mind_, New Series, xiii. p. 523; cf. 204, 350. - - [16] The most striking statement of this argument is to be found in - Boutroux's treatise _De la contingence des lois de la nature_, first - published in 1874 and reprinted without alteration in 1905. The same - general line of thought underlies James Ward's _Naturalism and - Agnosticism_ (2nd ed., 1903), and A. J. Balfour's _Foundations of - Belief_ (8th ed., 1901). H. Bergson's works on the other hand contain - the elements of a reconstruction similar in spirit to the suggestions - of the present article. - - - - -IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1766-1846), German chronologist and -astronomer, was born near Perleberg on the 21st of September 1766. After -holding various official posts under the Prussian government he became -professor at the university of Berlin in 1821, and eighteen years later -foreign member of the Institute of France. From 1816 to 1822 he was -tutor to the young princes William Frederick and Charles. He died in -Berlin on the 10th of August 1846. He devoted his life chiefly to the -examination of ancient systems of chronology. In 1825-1826 he published -his great work, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen -Chronologie_ (2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1883), re-edited as _Lehrbuch der -Chronologie_ (1831); a supplementary volume, _Die Zeitrechnung der -Chinesen_, appeared in 1839. Beside these important works he wrote also -_Untersuchungen über d. Ursprung und d. Bedeutung d. Sternnamen_ (1809) -and _Über d. Ursprung d. Thierkreises_ (1838). With Nolte he published -handbooks on English and French language and literature. His son, JULIUS -LUDWIG IDELER (1809-1842), wrote _Meteorologia veterum Graecorum et -Romanorum_ (1832). - - - - -IDENTIFICATION (Lat. _idem_, the same), the process of proving any one's -identity, i.e. that he is the man he purports to be, or--if he is -pretending to be some one else--the man he really is; or in case of -dispute, that he is the man he is alleged to be. As more strenuous -efforts have been made for the pursuit of criminals, and more and more -severe penalties are inflicted on old offenders, means of identification -have become essential, and various processes have been tried to secure -that desirable end. For a long time they continued to be most imperfect; -nothing better was devised than rough and ready methods of recognition -depending upon the memories of officers of the law or the personal -impressions of witnesses concerned in the case, supplemented in more -recent years by photographs, not always a safe and unerring guide. The -machinery employed was cumbrous, wasteful of time and costly. Detective -policemen were marched in a body to inspect arrested prisoners in the -exercising yards of the prison. Accused persons were placed in the midst -of a number of others of approximately like figure and appearance, and -the prosecutor and witnesses were called in one by one to pick out the -offender. Inquiries, with a detailed description of distinctive marks, -and photographs were circulated far and wide to local police forces. -Officers, police and prison wardens were despatched in person to give -evidence of identity at distant courts. Mis-identification was by no -means rare. Many remarkable cases may be quoted. One of the most notable -was that of the Frenchman Lesurques, in the days of the Directory, who -was positively identified as having robbed the Lyons mail and suffered -death, protesting his innocence of the crime, which was afterwards -brought home to another man, Duboscq, and this terrible judicial error -proved to be the result of the extraordinary likeness between the two -men. Another curious case is to be found in American records, when a man -was indicted for bigamy as James Hoag, who averred that he was really -Thomas Parker. There was a marvellous conflict of testimony, even wives -and families and personal friends being misled, and there was a narrow -escape of mis-identification. The leading modern case in England is that -of Adolf Beck (1905). Beck (who eventually died at the end of 1909) was -arrested on the complaint of a number of women who positively swore to -his identity as Smith, a man who had defrauded them. An ex-policeman who -had originally arrested Smith also swore that Beck was the same man. -There was a grave miscarriage of justice. Beck was sentenced to penal -servitude, and although a closer examination of the personal marks -showed that Beck could not possibly be Smith, it was only after a -scandalous delay, due to the obstinacy of responsible officials, that -relief was afforded. It has to be admitted that evidence as to identity -based on personal impressions is perhaps of all classes of evidence the -least to be relied upon. - -Such elements of uncertainty cannot easily be eliminated from any system -of jurisprudence, but some improvements in the methods of identification -have been introduced in recent years. The first was in the adoption of -anthropometry (q.v.), which was invented by the French savant, A. -Bertillon. The reasons that led to its general supersession may be -summed up in its costliness, the demand for superior skill in -subordinate agents and the liability to errors not easy to trace and -correct. A still more potent reason remained, the comparative failure of -results. It was found in the first four years of its use in England and -Wales that an almost inappreciable number of identifications were -effected by the anthropometric system; namely, 152 in 1898, 243 in 1899, -462 in 1900, and 503 in 1901, the year in which it was supplemented by -the use of "finger prints" (q.v.). The figures soon increased by leaps -and bounds. In 1902 the total number of searches among the records were -6826 and the identifications 1722 for London and the provinces; in 1903 -the searches were 11,919, the identifications 3642; for the first half -of 1904 the searches were 6697 and the identifications 2335. In India -and some of the colonies the results were still more remarkable; the -recognitions in 1903 were 9512, and 17,289 in 1904. Were returns -available from other countries very similar figures would no doubt be -shown. Among these countries are Ireland, Australasia, Ceylon, South -Africa, and many great cities of the United States; and the system is -extending to Germany, Austria-Hungary and other parts of Europe. - -The record of finger prints in England and Wales is kept by the -Metropolitan police at New Scotland Yard. They were at first limited to -persons convicted at courts at quarter sessions and assizes and to all -persons sentenced at minor courts to more than a month without option of -fine for serious offences. The finger prints when taken by prison -warders are forwarded to London for registration and reference on -demand. The total number of finger-print slips was 70,000 in 1904, and -weekly additions were being made at the rate of 350 slips. The -advantages of the record system need not be emphasized. By its means -identification is prompt, inevitable and absolutely accurate. By -forwarding the finger prints of all remanded prisoners to New Scotland -Yard, their antecedents are established beyond all hesitation. - -In past times identification of criminals who had passed through the -hands of the law was compassed by branding, imprinting by a hot iron, or -tattooing with an indelible sign, such as a crown, fleur de lys or -initials upon the shoulder or other part of the body. This practice, -long since abandoned, was in a measure continued in the British army, -when offenders against military law were ordered by sentence of -court-martial to be marked with "D" for deserter and "B.C." bad -character; this ensured their recognition and prevented re-enlistment; -but all such penalties have now disappeared. (A. G.) - - - - -IDEOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek: graphein], to write), a -symbol or character painted, written or inscribed, representing ideas -and not sounds; such a form of writing is found in Chinese and in most -of the Egyptian hieroglyphs (see WRITING). - - - - -IDIOBLAST (Gr. [Greek: idios], peculiar, and [Greek: blastos], a shoot), -a botanical term for an individual cell which is distinguished by its -shape, size or contents, such as the stone-cells in the soft tissue of a -pear. - - - - -IDIOM (Gr. [Greek: idiôma], something peculiar and personal; [Greek: -idios], one's own, personal), a form of expression whether in words, -grammatical construction, phraseology, &c., which is peculiar to a -language; sometimes also a special variety of a particular language, a -dialect. - - - - -IDIOSYNCRASY (Gr. [Greek: idiosynkrasia], peculiar habit of body or -temperament; [Greek: idios], one's own, and [Greek: synkrasis], -blending, tempering, from [Greek: sygkerannusthai], to put together, -compound, mix), a physical or mental condition peculiar to an individual -usually taking the form of a special susceptibility to particular -stimuli; thus it is an idiosyncrasy of one individual that abnormal -sensations of discomfort should be excited by certain odours or colours, -by the presence in the room of a cat, &c.; similarly certain persons are -found to be peculiarly responsive or irresponsive to the action of -particular drugs. The word is also used, generally, of any eccentricity -or peculiarity of character, appearance, &c. - - - - -IDOLATRY, the worship (Gr. [Greek: latreia]) of idols (Gr. [Greek: -eidôlon]), i.e. images or other objects, believed to represent or be the -abode of a superhuman personality. The term is often used generically to -include such varied, forms as litholatry, dendrolatry, pyrolatry, -zoolatry and even necrolatry. In an age when the study of religion was -practically confined to Judaism and Christianity, idolatry was regarded -as a degeneration from an uncorrupt primeval faith, but the comparative -and historical investigation of religion has shown it to be rather a -stage of an upward movement, and that by no means the earliest. It is -not found, for instance, among Bushmen, Fuegians, Eskimos, while it -reached a high development among the great civilizations of the ancient -world in both hemispheres.[1] Its earliest stages are to be sought in -naturism and animism. To give concreteness to the vague ideas thus -worshipped the idol, at first rough and crude, comes to the help of the -savage, and in course of time through inability to distinguish -subjective and objective, comes to be identified with the idea it -originally symbolized. The degraded form of animism known as fetichism -is usually the direct antecedent of idolatry. A fetich is adored, not -for itself, but for the spirit who dwells in it and works through it. -Fetiches of stone or wood were at a very early age shaped and polished -or coloured and ornamented. A new step was taken when the top of the log -or stone was shaped like a human head; the rest of the body soon -followed. The process can be followed with some distinctness in Greece. -Sometimes, as in Babylonia and India, the representation combined human -and animal forms, but the human figure is the predominant model; man -makes God after his own image. - -Idols may be private and personal like the teraphim of the Hebrews or -the little figures found in early Egyptian tombs, or--a late -development, public and tribal or national. Some, like the ancestral -images among the Maoris, are the intermittent abodes of the spirits of -the dead. - -As the earlier stages in the development of the religious consciousness -persist and are often manifest in idolatry, so in the higher stages, -when men have attained loftier spiritual ideas, idolatry itself survives -and is abundantly visible as a reactionary tendency. The history of the -Jewish people whom the prophets sought, for long in vain, to wean from -worshipping images is an illustration: so too the vulgarities of modern -popular Hinduism contrasted with the lofty teaching of the Indian sacred -books. - -In the New Testament the word [Greek: eidôlolatreia] (_idololatria_, -afterwards shortened occasionally to [Greek: eidolatreia], _idolatria_) -occurs in all four times, viz. in 1 Cor. x. 14; Gal. v. 20; 1 Peter iv. -3; Col. iii. 5. In the last of these passages it is used to describe the -sin of covetousness or "mammon-worship." In the other places it -indicates with the utmost generality all the rites and practices of -those special forms of paganism with which Christianity first came into -collision. It can only be understood by reference to the LXX., where -[Greek: eidôlon] (like the word "idol" in A.V.) occasionally translates -indifferently no fewer than sixteen words by which in the Old Testament -the objects of what the later Jews called "strange worship" (Hebrew: -avoda zara) are denoted (see _Encyclopaedia Biblica_). In the widest -acceptation of the word, idolatry in any form is absolutely forbidden in -the second commandment, which runs "Thou shalt not make unto thee a -graven image; [and] to no visible shape in heaven above, or in the earth -beneath, or in the water under the earth, shalt thou bow down or render -service" (see DECALOGUE). For some account of the questions connected -with the breaches of this law which are recorded in the history of the -Israelites see the article JEWS; those differences as to the -interpretation of the prohibition which have so seriously divided -Christendom are discussed under the head of ICONOCLASTS. - -In the ancient church, idolatry was naturally reckoned among those -_magna crimina_ or great crimes against the first and second -commandments which involved the highest ecclesiastical censures. Not -only were those who had gone openly to heathen temples and partaken in -the sacrifices (_sacrificati_) or burnt incense (_thurificati_) held -guilty of this crime; the same charge, in various degrees, was incurred -by those whose renunciation of idolatry had been private merely, or who -otherwise had used unworthy means to evade persecution, by those also -who had feigned themselves mad to avoid sacrificing, by all promoters -and encouragers of idolatrous rites, and by idol makers, incense sellers -and architects or builders of structures connected with idol worship. -Idolatry was made a crime against the state by the laws of Constantius -(_Cod. Theod._ xvi. 10. 4, 6), forbidding all sacrifices on pain of -death, and still more by the statutes of Theodosius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. -10. 12) enacted in 392, in which sacrifice and divination were declared -treasonable and punishable with death; the use of lights, incense, -garlands and libations was to involve the forfeiture of house and land -where they were used; and all who entered heathen temples were to be -fined. See Bingham, _Antiqq._ bk. xvi. c. 4. - - See also IMAGE-WORSHIP; and on the whole question, RELIGION. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] According to Varro the Romans had no animal or human image of a - god for 170 years after the founding of the city; Herodotus (i. 131) - says the Persians had no temples or idols before Artaxerxes I.; - Lucian (_De sacrif._ 11) bears similar testimony for Greece and as to - idols (_Dea Syr._ 3) for Egypt. Eusebius (_Praep. Evang._ i. 9) sums - up the theory of antiquity in his statement "the oldest peoples had - no idols." Images of the gods indeed presuppose a definiteness of - conception and powers of discrimination that could only be the result - of history and reflection. The iconic age everywhere succeeded to an - era in which the objects of worship were aniconic, e.g. wooden posts, - stone steles, cones. - - - - -IDOMENEUS, in Greek legend, son of Deucalion, grandson of Minos and -Pasiphaë, and king of Crete. As a descendant of Zeus and famous for his -beauty, he was one of the suitors of Helen; hence, after her abduction -by Paris, he took part in the Trojan War, in which he distinguished -himself by his bravery. He is mentioned as a special favourite of -Agamemnon (_Iliad_, iv. 257). According to Homer (_Odyssey_, iii. 191), -he returned home safely with all his countrymen who had survived the -war, but later legend connects him with an incident similar to that of -Jephtha's daughter. Having been overtaken by a violent storm, to ensure -his safety he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon the first living thing that -met him when he landed on his native shore. This proved to be his son, -whom he slew in accordance with his vow; whereupon a plague broke out in -the island, and Idomeneus was driven out. He fled to the district of -Sallentum in Calabria, and subsequently to Colophon in Asia Minor, where -he settled near the temple of the Clarian Apollo and was buried on Mount -Cercaphus (Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 121, 400, 531, and Servius on those -passages). But the Cretans showed his grave at Cnossus, where he was -worshipped as a hero with Meriones (Diod. Sic. v. 79). - - - - -IDRIA, a mining town in Carniola, Austria, 25 m. W. of Laibach. Pop. -(1900) 5772. It is situated in a narrow Alpine valley, on the river -Idria, an affluent of the Isonzo, and owes its prosperity to the rich -mines of quicksilver which were accidentally discovered in 1497. Since -1580 they have been under the management of the government. The -mercurial ore lies in a bed of clay slate, and is found both mingled -with schist and in the form of cinnabar. A special excellence of the ore -is the greatness of the yield of pure metal compared with the amount of -the refuse. As regards the quantity annually extracted, the mines of -Idria rank second to those of Almaden in Spain, which are the richest in -the world. - - - - -IDRIALIN, a mineral wax accompanying the mercury ore in Idria. According -to Goldschmidt it can be extracted by means of xylol, amyl alcohol or -turpentine; also without decomposition, by distillation in a current of -hydrogen, or carbon dioxide. It is a white crystalline body, very -difficultly fusible, boiling above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition -C40H28O. Its solution in glacial acetic acid, by oxidation with chromic -acid, yielded a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and -exhibiting all the characters of a mixture of palmitic and stearic -acids. - - - - -IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn -Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154], Arabic geographer. Very little is known of -his life. Having left Islamic lands and become the courtier and -panegyrist of a Christian prince, though himself a descendant of the -Prophet, he was probably regarded by strict Moslems as a scandal, whose -name should not, if possible, be mentioned. His great-grandfather, -Idrisi II., "Biamrillah," a member of the great princely house which had -reigned for a time as caliphs in north-west Africa, was prince of -Malaga, and likewise laid claim to the supreme title (Commander of the -Faithful). After his death in 1055, Malaga was seized by Granada (1057), -and the Idrisi family then probably migrated to Ceuta, where a freedman -of theirs held power. Here the geographer appears to have been born in -A.H. 493 (A.D. 1099). He is said to have studied at Cordova, and this -tradition is confirmed by his elaborate and enthusiastic description of -that city in his geography. From this work we know that he had visited, -at some period of his life before A.D. 1154, both Lisbon and the mines -of Andalusia. He had also once resided near Morocco city, and once was -at (Algerian) Constantine. More precisely, he tells us that in A.D. 1117 -he went to see the cave of the Seven Sleepers at Ephesus; he probably -travelled extensively in Asia Minor. From doubtful readings in his text -some have inferred that he had seen part of the coasts of France and -England. We do not know when Roger II. of Sicily (1101-1154) invited him -to his court, but it must have been between 1125 and 1150. Idrisi made -for the Norman king a celestial sphere and a disk representing the known -world of his day--both in silver. These only absorbed one-third of the -metal that had been given him for the work, but Roger bestowed on him -the remaining two-thirds as a present, adding to this 100,000 pieces of -money and the cargo of a richly-laden ship from Barcelona. Roger next -enlisted Idrisi's services in the compilation of a fresh description of -the "inhabited earth" from observation, and not merely from books. The -king and his geographer chose emissaries whom they sent out into various -countries to observe, record and design; as they returned, Idrisi -inserted in the new geography the information they brought. Thus was -gradually completed (by the month of Shawwal, A.H. 548 = mid-January, -A.D. 1154), the famous work, best known, from its patron and originator, -as _Al Rojari_, but whose fullest title seems to have been, _The going -out of a Curious Man to explore the Regions of the Globe, its Provinces, -Islands, Cities and their Dimensions and Situation_. This has been -abbreviated to _The Amusement of him who desires to traverse the Earth_, -or _The Relaxation of a Curious Mind_. The title of _Nubian Geography_, -based upon Sionita and Hezronita's misreading of a passage relating to -Nubia and the Nile, is entirely unwarranted and misleading. The -_Rogerian Treatise_ contains a full description of the world as far as -it was known to the author. The "inhabited earth" is divided into seven -"climates," beginning at the equinoctial line, and extending northwards -to the limit at which the earth was supposed to be rendered -uninhabitable by cold. Each climate is then divided by perpendicular -lines into eleven equal parts, beginning with the western coast of -Africa and ending with the eastern coast of Asia. The whole world is -thus formed into seventy-seven equal square compartments. The geographer -begins with the first part of the first climate, including the -westernmost part of the Sahara and a small (north-westerly) section of -the Sudan (of which a vague knowledge had now been acquired by the -Moslems of Barbary), and thence proceeds eastward through the different -divisions of this climate till he finds its termination in the Sea of -China. He then returns to the first part of the second climate, and so -proceeds till he reaches the eleventh part of the seventh climate, which -terminates in north-east Asia, as he conceives that continent. The -inconveniences of the arrangement (ignoring all divisions, physical, -political, linguistic or religious, which did not coincide with those of -his "climates") are obvious. - -Though Idrisi was in such close relations with one of the most civilized -of Christian courts and states, we find few traces of his influence on -European thought and knowledge. The chief exception is perhaps in the -delineation of Africa in the world-maps of Marino Sanuto (q.v.) and -Pietro Vesconte. His account of the voyage of the _Maghrurin_ or -"Deceived Men" of Lisbon in the Atlantic (a voyage on which they seem to -have visited Madeira and one of the Canaries) may have had some effect in -stimulating the later ocean enterprise of Christian mariners; but we have -no direct evidence of this. Idrisi's Ptolemaic leanings give a distinctly -retrograde character to certain parts of his work, such as east Africa -and south Asia; and, in spite of the record of the Lisbon Wanderers, he -fully shares the common Moslem dread of the black, viscous, stormy and -wind-swept waters of the western ocean, whose limits no one knew, and -over which thick and perpetual darkness brooded. At the same time his -breadth of view, his clear recognition of scientific truths (such as the -roundness of the world) and his wide knowledge and intelligent -application of preceding work (such as that of Ptolemy, Masudi and Al -Jayhani) must not be forgotten. He also preserves and embodies a -considerable amount of private and special information--especially as to -Scandinavia (in whose delineation he far surpasses his predecessors), -portions of the African coast, the river Niger (whose name is perhaps -first to be found, after Ptolemy's doubtful Nigeir, in Idrisi), portions -of the African coast, Egypt, Syria, Italy, France, the Adriatic -shore-lands, Germany and the Atlantic islands. No other Arabic work -contains a larger assortment of valuable geographical facts; -unfortunately the place-names are often illegible or hopelessly corrupted -in the manuscripts. Idrisi's world-map, with all its shortcomings, is -perhaps the best product of that strangely feeble thing--the Mahommedan -cartography of the middle ages. - -Besides the _Rojari_, Idrisi wrote another work, largely geographical, -cited by Abulfida as _The Book of Kingdoms_, but apparently entitled by -its author _The Gardens of Humanity and the Amusement of the Soul_. This -was composed for William the Bad (1154-1166), son and successor of Roger -II., but is now lost. He likewise wrote, according to Ibn Said, on -_Medicaments_, and composed verses, which are referred to by the -Sicilian Mahommedan poet Ibn Bashrun. - - Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, - and other two in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. One of the English - MSS., brought from Egypt by Greaves, is illustrated by a map of the - known world, and by thirty-three sectional maps (for each part of the - first three climates). The second manuscript, brought by Pococke from - Syria, bears the date of A.H. 906, or A.D. 1500. It consists of 320 - leaves, and is illustrated by one general and seventy-seven particular - maps, the latter consequently including all the parts of every - climate. The general map was published by Dr Vincent in his _Periplus - of the Erythraean Sea_. A copy of Idrisi's work in the Escorial was - destroyed by the fire of 1671. - - An epitome of Idrisi's geography, in the original Arabic, was printed, - with many errors, in 1592 at the Medicean press in Rome, from a MS. - preserved in the Grand Ducal library at Florence (_De geographia - universali. Hortulus cultissimus ..._ ). Even the description of Mecca - is here omitted. Pococke supplied it from his MS. In many - bibliographical works this impression has been wrongly characterized - as one of the rarest of books. In 1619 two Maronite scholars, Gabriel - Sionita, and Joannes Hezronita, published at Paris a Latin translation - of this epitome (_Geographia Nubiensis, id est, accuratissima totius - orbis in VII. climata divisi descriptio_). Besides its many - inaccuracies of detail, this edition, by its unlucky title of _Nubian - Geography_, started a fresh and fundamental error as to Idrisi's - origin; this was founded on a misreading of a passage where Idrisi - describes the Nile passing into Egypt through Nubia--not "_terram - nostram_," as this version gives, but "_terram illius_" is here the - true translation. George Hieronymus Velschius, a German scholar, had - prepared a copy of the Arabic original, with a Latin translation, - which he purposed to have illustrated with notes; but death - interrupted this design, and his manuscript remains in the university - library of Jena. Casiri (_Bib. Ar. Hisp._ ii. 13) mentions that he had - determined to re-edit this work, but he appears never to have executed - his intention. The part relating to Africa was ably edited by Johann - Melchior Hartmann (_Commentatio de geographia Africae Edrisiana_, - Göttingen, 1791, and _Edrisii Africa_, Göttingen, 1796), Here are - collected the notices of each region in other Moslem writers, so as to - form, for the time, a fairly complete body of Arabic geography as to - Africa. Hartmann afterwards published Idrisi's Spain (_Hispania_, - Marburg, 3 vols., 1802-1818). - - An (indifferent) French translation of the whole of Idrisi's geography - (the only complete version which has yet appeared), based on one of - the MSS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, was published by Amédée - Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes v. and vi. of the _Recueil de - voyages_ issued by the Paris Société de Géographie; but a good and - complete edition of the original text is still a desideratum. A number - of Oriental scholars at Leiden determined in 1861 to undertake the - task. Spain and western Europe were assigned to Dozy; eastern Europe - and western Asia to Engelmann; central and eastern Asia to Defrémery; - and Africa to de Goeje. The first portion of the work appeared in - 1866, under the title of _Description de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne par - Edrisi, texte arabe, publié avec une traduction, des notes et un - glossaire par R. Dozy et M. J. de Goeje_ (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1866); - but the other collaborators did not furnish their quota. Other parts - of Idrisi's work have been separately edited; e.g. "Spain" - (_Descripcion de España de ... Aledris_), by J. A. Condé, in Arabic - and Spanish (Madrid, 1799); "Sicily" (_Descrizione della Sicilia ... - di Elidris_), by P. D. Magri and F. Tardia (Palermo, 1764); "Italy" - (_Italia descritta nel "libro del Re Ruggero," compilato da Edrisi_), - by M. Amari and C. Schiaparelli, in Arabic and Italian (Rome, 1883); - "Syria" (_Syria descripta a ... El Edrisio ..._ ), by E. F. C. - Rosenmüller, in Arabic and Latin, 1825, and (_Idrisii ... Syria_), by - J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1885) (the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the - _Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palästina-Vereins_). See also M. Casiri, - _Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis_ (2 vols., Madrid, - 1760-1770); V. Lagus, "Idrisii notitiam terrarum Balticarum ex - commerciis Scandinavorum et Italorum ... ortam esse" in _Atti del IV° - Congresso internaz. degli orientalisti in Firenze_, p. 395 (Florence, - 1880); R. A. Brandel "Om och ur den arabiske geografen Idrisi," _Akad. - afhand._ (Upsala, 1894). (C. R. B.) - - - - -IDUMAEA ([Greek: 'Idoumaia]), the Greek equivalent of Edom ([Hebrew: -Edom]), a territory which, in the works of the Biblical writers, is -considered to lie S.E. of the Dead Sea, between the land of Moab and the -Gulf of Akaba. Its name, which is connected with the root meaning "red," -is probably applied in reference to the red sandstone ranges of the -mountains of Petra.[1] This etymology, however, is not certain. The -apparently theophorous name Obed-Edom (2 Sam. vi. 10) shows that Edom is -the name of a divinity. Of this there is other evidence; a Leiden -papyrus names Etum as the wife of the Semitic fire-god Reshpu. - -The early history of Edom is hidden in darkness. The Egyptian references -to it are few, and do not give us much light regarding its early -inhabitants. In the early records of the Pentateuch, the country is -often referred to by the name of Seir, the general name for the whole -range of mountains on the east side of the Jordan-Araba depression south -of the Dead Sea. These mountains were occupied, so early as we can find -any record, by a cave-dwelling aboriginal race known as Horites, who -were smitten by the much-discussed king Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 6) and -according to Deut. ii. 22 were driven out by the Semitic tribes of -Esau's descendants. The Horites are to us little more than a name, -though the discovery of cave-dwellers of very early date at Gezer in the -excavations of 1902-1905 has enabled us to form some idea as to their -probable culture-status and physical character. - -The occupants of Edom during practically the whole period of Biblical -history were the Bedouin tribes which claimed descent through Esau from -Abraham, and were acknowledged by the Israelites (Deut. xxiii. 7) as -kin. That they intermarried with the earlier stock is suggested by the -passage in Gen. xxxvi. 2, naming, as one of the wives of Esau, -Oholibamah, daughter of Zibeon the Horite (corrected by verse 20). Among -the peculiarities of the Edomites was government by certain officials -known as [Hebrew: alufim][2] which the English versions (by too close a -reminiscence of the Vulgate _duces_) translate "dukes." The now -naturalized word "sheikhs" would be the exact rendering. In addition to -this Bedouin organization there was the curious institution of an -elective monarchy, some of whose kings are catalogued in Gen. xxxvi. -31-39 and 1 Chron. i. 43-54. These kings reigned at some date anterior -to the time of Saul. No deductions as to their chronology can be based -on the silence regarding them in Moses' song, Exodus xv. 15. There was a -king in Edom (Num. xx. 14) who refused passage to the Israelites in -their wanderings. - -The history of the relations of the Edomites and Israelites may be -briefly summarized. Saul, whose chief herdsman, Doeg, was an Edomite (1 -Sam. xxi. 7), fought successfully against them (1 Sam. xiv. 47). Joab (1 -Kings xi. 16) or Abishai, as his deputy (1 Chron. xviii. 11, 13), -occupied Edom for six months and devastated it; it was garrisoned and -permanently held by David (2 Sam. viii. 14). But a refugee named Hadad, -who escaped as a child to Egypt and grew up at the court of the Egyptian -king, returned in Solomon's reign and made a series of reprisal raids on -the Israelite territory (1 Kings xi. 14). This did not prevent Solomon -introducing Edomites into his harem (1 Kings xi. 1) and maintaining a -navy at Ezion-geber, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings ix. 26). -Indeed, until the time of Jehoram, when the land revolted (2 Kings viii. -20, 22), Edom was a dependency of Judah, ruled by a viceroy (1 Kings -xxii. 47). An attempt at recovering their independence was temporarily -quelled in a campaign by Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. 7), and Azariah his -successor was able to renew the sea trade of the Gulf of Akaba (2 Kings -xiv. 22) which had probably languished since the wreck of Jehoshaphat's -ships (1 Kings xxii. 48); but the ancient kingdom had been -re-established by the time of Ahaz, and the king's name, Kaush-Malak, is -recorded by Tiglath Pileser. He made raids on the territory of Judah (2 -Chron. xxviii. 17). The kingdom, however, was short-lived, and it was -soon absorbed into the vassalage of Assyria. - -The later history of Edom is curious. By the constant westward pressure -of the eastern Arabs, which (after the restraining force of the great -Mesopotamian kingdoms was weakened) assumed irresistible strength, the -ancient Edomites were forced across the Jordan-Araba depression, and -with their name migrated to the south of western Palestine. In 1 -Maccabees v. 65 we find them at Hebron, and this is one of the first -indications that we discover of the cis-Jordanic Idumaea of Josephus and -the Talmud. - -Josephus used the name Idumaea as including not only Gobalitis, the -original Mount Seir, but also Amalekitis, the land of Amalek, west of -this, and Akrabatine, the ancient Acrabbim, S.W. of the Dead Sea. In -_War_ IV. viii. 1, he mentions two villages "in the very midst of -Idumaea," named Betaris and Caphartobas. The first of these is the -modern Beit Jibrin (see ELEUTHEROPOLIS), the second is Tuffuh, near -Hebron. Jerome describes Idumaea as extending from Beit Jibrin to Petra, -and ascribes the great caves at the former place to cave-dwellers like -the aboriginal Horites. Ptolemy's account presents us with the last -stage, in which the name Idumaea is entirely restricted to the -cis-Jordanic district, and the old trans-Jordanic region is absorbed in -Arabia. - -The Idumaean Antipater was appointed by Julius Caesar procurator of -Judaea, Samaria and Galilee, as a reward for services rendered against -Pompey. He was the father of Herod the Great, whose family thus was -Idumaean in origin. (See PALESTINE.) (R. A. S. M.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A curious etymological speculation connects the name with the - story of Esau's begging for Jacob's pottage, Gen. xxv. 30. - - [2] The same word is used in the anonymous prophecy incorporated in - the book of Zachariah (xii. 5), and in one or two other places as - well, of _Hebrew_ leaders. - - - - -IDUN, or IDUNA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of youth and -spring. She was daughter of the dwarf Svald and wife of Bragi. She was -keeper of the golden apples, the eating of which preserved to the gods -their eternal youth. Loki, the evil spirit, kidnapped her and the -apples, but was forced by the gods to restore her liberty. Idun -personifies the year between March and September, and her myth -represents the annual imprisonment of spring by winter. - - - - -IDYL, or IDYLL (Gr. [Greek: eidyllion], a descriptive piece, from -[Greek: eidos], a shape or style; Lat. _idyllium_), a short poem of a -pastoral or rural character, in which something of the element of -landscape is preserved or felt. The earliest commentators of antiquity -used the term to designate a great variety of brief and homely poems, in -which the description of natural objects was introduced, but the -pastoral idea came into existence in connexion with the Alexandrian -school, and particularly with Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, in the 3rd -century before Christ. It appears, however, that [Greek: eidyllion] was -not, even then, used consciously as the name of a form of verse, but as -a diminutive of [Greek: eidos], and merely signified "a little piece in -the style of" whatever adjective might follow. Thus the idyls of the -pastoral poets were [Greek: eidyllia aipolika], little pieces in the -goatherd style. We possess ten of the so-called "Idyls" of Theocritus, -and these are the type from which the popular idea of this kind of poem -is taken. But it is observable that there is nothing in the technical -character of these ten very diverse pieces which leads us to suppose -that the poet intended them to be regarded as typical. In fact, if he -had been asked whether a poem was or was not an idyl he would doubtless -have been unable to comprehend the question. As a matter of fact, the -first of his poems, the celebrated "Dirge for Daphnis," has become the -prototype, not of the modern idyl, but of the modern elegy, and the not -less famous "Festival of Adonis" is a realistic mime. It was the six -little epical romances, if they may be so called, which started the -conception of the idyl of Theocritus. It must be remembered, however, -that there is nothing in ancient literature which justifies the notion -of a form of verse recognized as an "idyl." In the 4th century after -Christ the word seems to have become accepted in Latin as covering short -descriptive poems of very diverse characters, for the early MSS. of -Ausonius contain a section of "Edyllia," which embraces some of the most -admirable of the miscellaneous pieces of that writer. But that Ausonius -himself called his poems "idyls" is highly doubtful. Indeed, it is not -certain that the heading is not a mistake for "Epyllia." The word was -revived at the Renaissance and applied rather vaguely to Latin and Greek -imitations of Theocritus and of Virgil. It was also applied to modern -poems of a romantic and pastoral character published by such writers as -Tasso in Italy, Montemayor in Portugal and Ronsard in French. In 1658 -the English critic, Edward Phillips, defined an "idyl" as "a kind of -eclogue," but it was seldom used to describe a modern poem. Mme -Deshoulières published a series of seven _Idylles_ in 1675, and Boileau -makes a vague reference to the form. The sentimental German idyls of -Salomon Gessner (in prose, 1758) and Voss (in hexameters, 1800) were -modelled on Theocritus. Goethe's _Alexis und Dora_ is an idyl. It -appears that the very general use, or abuse, of the word in the second -half of the 19th century, both in English and French, arises from the -popularity of two works, curiously enough almost identical in date, by -two eminent and popular poets. The _Idylles héroïques_ (1858) of Victor -de Laprade and the _Idylls_ of the King (1859) of Tennyson enjoyed a -success in either country which led to a wide imitation of the title -among those who had, perhaps, a very inexact idea of its meaning. Among -modern Germans, Berthold Auerbach and Jeremias Gotthelf have been -prominent as the composers of sentimental idyls founded on anecdotes of -village-life. On the whole, it is impossible to admit that the idyl has -a place among definite literary forms. Its character is vague and has -often been purely sentimental, and our conception of it is further -obscured by the fact that though the noun carries no bucolic idea with -it in English, the adjective ("idyllic") has come to be synonymous with -pastoral and rustic. (E. G.) - - - - -IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM (1759-1814), German actor and dramatic author, -was born at Hanover on the 19th of April 1759. His father intended his -son to be a clergyman, but the boy preferred the stage, and at eighteen -ran away to Gotha in order to prepare himself for a theatrical career. -He was fortunate enough to receive instruction from Hans Ekhof, and made -such rapid progress that he was able in 1779 to accept an engagement at -the theatre in Mannheim, then rising into prominence. He soon stood high -in his profession, and extended his reputation by frequently playing in -other towns. In 1796 he settled in Berlin, where he became director of -the national theatre of Prussia; and in 1811 he was made general -director of all representations before royalty. Iffland produced the -classical works of Goethe and Schiller with conscientious care; but he -had little understanding for the drama of the romantic writers. The form -of play in which he was most at home, both as actor and playwright, was -the domestic drama, the sentimental play of everyday life. His works are -almost entirely destitute of imagination; but they display a thorough -mastery of the technical necessities of the stage, and a remarkable -power of devising effective situations. His best characters are simple -and natural, fond of domestic life, but too much given to the utterance -of sentimental commonplace. His best-known plays are _Die Jäger_, -_Dienstpflicht_, _Die Advokaten_, _Die Mündel_ and _Die Hagestolzen_. -Iffland was also a dramatic critic, and German actors place high value -on the reasonings and hints respecting their art in his _Almanach für -Theater und Theaterfreunde_. In 1798-1802 he issued his _Dramatischen -Werke_ in 16 volumes, to which he added an autobiography (_Meine -theatralische Laufbahn_). In 1807-1809 Iffland brought out two volumes -of _Neue dramatische Werke_. Selections from his writings were -afterwards published, one in 11 (Leipzig, 1827-1828), the other in 10 -volumes (Leipzig, 1844, and again 1860). As an actor, he was conspicuous -for his brilliant portrayal of comedy parts. His fine gentlemen, -polished men of the world, and distinguished princes were models of -perfection, and showed none of the traces of elaborate study which were -noticed in his interpretation of tragedy. He especially excelled in -presenting those types of middle-class life which appear in his own -comedies. Iffland died at Berlin on the 22nd of September 1814. A bronze -portrait statue of him was erected in front of the Mannheim theatre in -1864. - - See K. Duncker, _Iffland in seinen Schriften als Künstler, Lehrer, und - Direktor der Berliner Bühne_ (1859); W. Koffka, _Iffland und Dalberg_ - (1865); and Lampe, _Studien über Iffland als Dramatiker_ (Celle, - 1899). Iffland's interesting autobiography, _Meine theatralische - Laufbahn_, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885. - - - - -IGLAU (Czech _Jihlava_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 56 m. N.W. of -Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom 4200 are Czechs and the -remainder Germans. Iglau is situated on the Iglawa, close to the -Bohemian frontier, and is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, being the -centre of a German-speaking enclave. Among the principal buildings are -the churches of St Jakob, St Ignatius, St John and St Paul, the -town-hall, and the barracks formed from a monastery suppressed under the -emperor Joseph II. There is also a fine cemetery, containing some -remarkable monuments. It has the principal tobacco and cigar factory of -the state monopoly, which employs about 2500 hands, and has besides a -large and important textile and glass industry, corn and saw-mills, -pottery and brewing. Fairs are periodically held in the town; and the -trade in timber, cereals, and linen and woollen goods is generally -brisk. - -Iglau is an old mining town where, according to legend, the silver mines -were worked so early as 799. King Ottakar I. (1198-1230) established -here a mining-office and a mint. At a very early date it enjoyed -exceptional privileges, which were confirmed by King Wenceslaus I. in -the year 1250. The town-hall contains a collection of municipal and -mining laws dating as far back as 1389. At Iglau, on the 5th of July -1436, the treaty was made with the Hussites, by which the emperor -Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A granite column near the -town marks the spot where Ferdinand I., in 1527, swore fidelity to the -Bohemian states. During the Thirty Years' War Iglau was twice captured -by the Swedes. In 1742 it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in -December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town. - - - - -IGLESIAS, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia in the province of -Cagliari, from which it is 34 m. W.N.W. by rail, 620 ft. above -sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,436 (town), 20,874 (commune). It is finely -situated among the mountains in the S.W. portion of the island, and is -chiefly important as the centre of a mining district; it has a -government school for mining engineers. The minerals are conveyed by a -small railway via Monteponi (with its large lead and zinc mine) to -Portovesme (15 m. S.W. of Iglesias in the sheltered gulf of Carloforte), -near Portoscuso, where they are shipped. The total amount of the -minerals extracted in Sardinia in 1905 was 170,236 tons and their value -£765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc, 26,051 of -blende zinc, 24,798 tons of lead and 15,429 tons of lignite): the -greater part of them--118,009 tons--was exported from Portoscuso by sea -and most of the rest from Cagliari, the zinc going mainly to Antwerp, -and in a less proportion to Bordeaux and Dunkirk, while the lead is sent -to Pertusola near Spezia, to be smelted. At Portoscuso is also a tunny -fishery. - -The cathedral of Iglesias, built by the Pisans, has a good façade -(restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San Francesco is a fine -Gothic church with a gallery over the entrance, while Sta Chiara and the -church of the Capuchins (the former dating from 1285) show a transition -between Romanesque and Gothic. The battlemented town walls are well -preserved and picturesque; the castle, built in 1325, now contains a -glass factory. The church of Nostra Signora del Buon Cammino above the -town (1080 ft.) commands a fine view. - - - - -IGNATIEV, NICHOLAS PAVLOVICH, COUNT (1832-1908), Russian diplomatist, -was born at St Petersburg on the 29th of January 1832. His father, -Captain Paul Ignatiev, had been taken into favour by the tsar Nicholas -I., owing to his fidelity on the occasion of the military conspiracy in -1825; and the grand duke Alexander (afterwards tsar) stood sponsor at -the boy's baptism. At the age of seventeen he became an officer of the -Guards. His diplomatic career began at the congress of Paris, after the -Crimean War, where he took an active part as military attaché in the -negotiations regarding the rectification of the Russian frontier on the -Lower Danube. Two years later (1858) he was sent with a small escort on -a dangerous mission to Khiva and Bokhara. The khan of Khiva laid a plan -for detaining him as a hostage, but he eluded the danger and returned -safely, after concluding with the khan of Bokhara a treaty of -friendship. His next diplomatic exploit was in the Far East, as -plenipotentiary to the court of Peking. When the Chinese government was -terrified by the advance of the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 and the -burning of the Summer Palace, he worked on their fears so dexterously -that he obtained for Russia not only the left bank of the Amur, the -original object of the mission, but also a large extent of territory and -sea-coast south of that river. This success was supposed to prove his -capacity for dealing with Orientals, and paved his way to the post of -ambassador at Constantinople, which he occupied from 1864 till 1877. -Here his chief aim was to liberate from Turkish domination and bring -under the influence of Russia the Christian nationalities in general and -the Bulgarians in particular. His restless activity in this field, -mostly of a semi-official and secret character, culminated in the -Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878, at the close of which he negotiated with -the Turkish plenipotentiaries the treaty of San Stefano. As the war -which he had done so much to bring about did not eventually secure for -Russia advantages commensurate with the sacrifices involved, he fell -into disfavour, and retired from active service. Shortly after the -accession of Alexander III. in 1881, he was appointed minister of the -interior on the understanding that he would carry out a nationalist, -reactionary policy, but his shifty ways and his administrative -incapacity so displeased his imperial master that he was dismissed in -the following year. After that time he exercised no important influence -in public affairs. He died on the 3rd of July 1908. - - - - -IGNATIUS ([Greek: Ignatios]), bishop of Antioch, one of the "Apostolic -Fathers." No one connected with the history of the early Christian -Church is more famous than Ignatius, and yet among the leading churchmen -of the time there is scarcely one about whose career we know so little. -Our only trustworthy information is derived from the letters which he -wrote to various churches on his last journey from Antioch to Rome, and -from the short epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians. The earlier -patristic writers seem to have known no more than we do. Irenaeus, for -instance, gives a quotation from his Epistle to the Romans and does not -appear to know (or if he knew he has forgotten) the name of the author, -since he describes him (_Adv. haer._ v. 28. 4) as "one of those -belonging to us" ([Greek: tis tôn hêmeterôn]). If Eusebius possessed any -knowledge about Ignatius apart from the letters he never reveals it. The -only shred of extra information which he gives us is the statement that -Ignatius "was the second successor of Peter in the bishopric of Antioch" -(_Eccles. hist._ iii. 36). Of course in later times a cloud of tradition -arose, but none of it bears the least evidence of trustworthiness. The -martyrologies, from which the account of his martyrdom that used to -appear in uncritical church histories is taken, are full of anachronisms -and impossibilities. There are two main types--the Roman and the -Syrian--out of which the others are compounded. They contradict each -other in many points and even their own statements in different places -are sometimes quite irreconcilable. Any truth that the narrative may -contain is hopelessly overlaid with fiction. We are therefore limited to -the Epistles for our information, and before we can use even these we -are confronted with a most complex critical problem, a problem which for -ages aroused the most bitter controversy, but which happily now, thanks -to the labours of Zahn, Lightfoot, Harnack and Funk, may be said to have -reached a satisfactory solution. - -I. _The Problem of the Three Recensions._--The Ignatian problem arises -from the fact that we possess three different recensions of the -Epistles. (a) _The short recension_ (often called the Vossian) contains -the letters to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, -Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. This recension was derived -in its Greek form from the famous Medicean MS. at Florence and first -published by Vossius in 1646 (see _Theol. Literaturzeitung_, 1906, 596 -f., for an early papyrus fragment in the Berlin Museum, containing _Ad -Smyrn._ iii. fin. xii. init.). In the Medicean MS. the Epistle to the -Romans is missing, but a Greek version of this epistle was discovered by -Ruinart, embedded in a _martyrium_, in the National Library at Paris and -published in 1689. There are also (1) a Latin version made by Robert -Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, about 1250, and published by Ussher in -1644--two years before the Vossian edition appeared; (2) an Armenian -version which was derived from a Syriac not earlier than the 5th century -and published at Constantinople in 1783; (3) some fragments of a Syriac -version published in Cureton's edition of Ignatius; (4) fragments of a -Coptic version first published in Lightfoot's work (ii. 859-882). (b) -_The long recension_ contains the seven Epistles mentioned above in an -expanded form and several additional letters besides. The Greek form of -the recension, which has been preserved in ten MSS., has thirteen -letters, the additional ones being to the Tarsians, the Philippians, the -Antiochians, to Hero, to Mary of Cassobola and a letter of Mary to -Ignatius. The Latin form, of which there are thirteen extant MSS., omits -the letter of Mary of Cassobola, but adds to the list the Laus Heronis, -two Epistles to the apostle John, one to the Virgin Mary and one from -Mary to Ignatius. (c) _The Syriac or Curetonian recension_ contains only -three Epistles, viz. to Polycarp, to the Romans, and to the Ephesians, -and these when compared with the same letters in the short and long -recensions are found to be considerably abbreviated. The Syriac -recension was made by William Cureton in 1845 from three Syriac MSS. -which had recently been brought from the Nitrian desert and deposited -in the British Museum. One of these MSS. belongs to the 6th century, the -other two are later. Summed up in a word, therefore, the Ignatian -problem is this: which of these three recensions (if any) represents the -actual work of Ignatius? - -II. _History of the Controversy._--The history of the controversy may be -divided into three periods: (a) up to the discovery of the short -recension in 1646; (b) between 1646 and the discovery of the Syriac -recension in 1845; (c) from 1845 to the present day. In the first stage -the controversy was theological rather than critical. The Reformation -raised the question as to the authority of the papacy and the hierarchy. -Roman Catholic scholars used the interpolated Ignatian Epistles very -freely in their defence and derived many of their arguments from them, -while Protestant scholars threw discredit on these Epistles. The -Magdeburg centuriators expressed the gravest doubts as to their -genuineness, and Calvin declared that "nothing was more foul than those -fairy tales (_naeniis_) published under the name of Ignatius!" It should -be stated, however, that one Roman Catholic scholar, Denys Petau -(Petavius), admitted that the letters were interpolated, while the -Protestant Vedelius acknowledged the seven letters mentioned by -Eusebius. In England the Ignatian Epistles took an important place in -the episcopalian controversy in the 17th century. Their genuineness was -defended by the leading Anglican writers, e.g. Whitgift, Hooker and -Andrewes, and vigorously challenged by Dissenters, e.g. the five -Presbyterian ministers who wrote under the name of Smectymnuus and John -Milton.[1] The second period is marked by the recognition of the -superiority of the Vossian recension. This was speedily demonstrated, -though some attempts were made, notably by Jean Morin or Morinus (about -1656), Whiston (in 1711) and Meier (in 1836), to resuscitate the long -recension. Many Protestants still maintained that the new recension, -like the old, was a forgery. The chief attack came from Jean Daillé, who -in his famous work (1666) drew up no fewer than sixty-six objections to -the genuineness of the Ignatian literature. He was answered by Pearson, -who in his _Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii_ (1672) completely -vindicated the authenticity of the Vossian Epistles. No further attack -of any importance was made till the time of Baur, who like Daillé -rejected both recensions. In the third stage--inaugurated in 1845 by -Cureton's work--the controversy has ranged round the relative claims of -the Vossian and the Curetonian recensions. Scholars have been divided -into three camps, viz. (1) those who followed Cureton in maintaining -that the three Syriac Epistles alone were the genuine work of Ignatius. -Among them may be mentioned the names of Bunsen, A. Ritschl, R. A. -Lipsius, E. de Pressensé, H. Ewald, Milman, Bohringer. (2) Those who -accepted the genuineness of the Vossian recension and regarded the -Curetonian as an abbreviation of it, e.g. Petermann, Denzinger, Uhlhorn, -Merx, and in more recent times Th. Zahn, J. B. Lightfoot, Ad. Harnack -and F. X. Funk. (3) Those who denied the authenticity of both -recensions, e.g. Baur and Hilgenfeld and in recent times van Manen,[2] -Völter[3] and van Loon.[4] The result of more than half a century's -discussion has been to restore the Vossian recension to the premier -position. - -III. _The Origin of the Long Recension._--The arguments against the -genuineness of the long recension are decisive. (1) It conflicts with -the statement of Eusebius. (2) The first trace of its use occurs in -Anastasius of Antioch (A.D. 598) and Stephen Gobarus (c. 575-600). (3) -The ecclesiastical system of the letters implies a date not earlier than -the 4th century. (4) The recension has been proved to be dependent on -the _Apostolical Constitutions_. (5) The doctrinal atmosphere implies -the existence of Arian and Apollinarian heresies. (6) The added passages -reveal a difference in style which stamps them at once as -interpolations. There are several different theories with regard to the -origin of the recension. Some, e.g. Leclerc, Newman and Zahn, think that -the writer was an Arian and that the additions were made in the interest -of Arianism. Funk, on the other hand, regards the writer as an -Apollinarian. Lightfoot opposes both views and suggests that it is -better "to conceive of him as writing with a conciliatory aim." - -IV. _The Objections to the Curetonian Recension._--The objections to the -Syriac recension, though not so decisive, are strong enough to carry -conviction with them. (1) We have the express statement of Eusebius that -Ignatius wrote seven Epistles. (2) There are statements in Polycarp's -Epistle which cannot be explained from the three Syriac Epistles. (3) -The omitted portions are proved by Lightfoot after an elaborate analysis -to be written in the same style as the rest of the epistles and could -not therefore have been later interpolations. (4) The Curetonian letters -are often abrupt and broken and show signs of abridgment. (5) The -discovery of the Armenian version proves the existence of an earlier -Syriac recension corresponding to the Vossian of which the Curetonian -may be an abbreviation. It seems impossible to account for the origin of -the Curetonian recension on theological grounds. The theory that the -abridgment was made in the interests of Eutychianism or Monophysitism -cannot be substantiated. - -V. _The Date and Genuineness of the Vossian Epistles._--We are left -therefore with the seven Epistles. Are they the genuine work of -Ignatius, and, if so, at what date were they written? The main -objections are as follows: (1) The conveyance of a condemned prisoner to -Rome to be put to death in the amphitheatre is unlikely on historical -grounds, and the route taken is improbable for geographical reasons. -This objection has very little solid basis. (2) The heresies against -which Ignatius contends imply the rise of the later Gnostic and Docetic -sects. It is quite certain, however, that Docetism was in existence in -the 1st century (cf. 1 John), while many of the principles of Gnosticism -were in vogue long before the great Gnostic sects arose (cf. the -Pastoral Epistles). There is nothing in Ignatius which implies a -knowledge of the teaching of Basilides or Valentinus. In fact, as -Harnack says: "No Christian writer after 140 could have described the -false teachers in the way that Ignatius does." (3) The ecclesiastical -system of Ignatius is too developed to have arisen as early as the time -of Trajan. At first sight this objection seems to be almost fatal. But -we have to remember that the bishops of Ignatius are not bishops in the -modern sense of the word at all, but simply pastors of churches. They -are not mentioned at all in two Epistles, viz. _Romans_ and -_Philippians_, which seems to imply that this form of government was not -universal. It is only when we read modern ecclesiastical ideas into -Ignatius that the objection has much weight. To sum up, as Uhlhorn says: -"The collective mass of internal evidence against the genuineness of the -letters ... is insufficient to counterbalance the testimony of the -Epistle of Polycarp in their favour. He who would prove the Epistles of -Ignatius to be spurious must begin by proving the Epistle of Polycarp to -be spurious, and such an undertaking is not likely to succeed." This -being so, there is no reason for rejecting the opinion of Eusebius that -the Epistles were written in the reign of Trajan. Harnack, who formerly -dated them about 140, now says that they were written in the latter -years of Trajan, or possibly a little later (117-125). The majority of -scholars place them a few years earlier (110-117).[5] - -The letters of Ignatius unfortunately, unlike the Epistles of St Paul, -contain scant autobiographical material. We are told absolutely nothing -about the history of his career. The fact that like St Paul he describes -himself as an [Greek: ektrôma] (_Rom._ 9), and that he speaks of himself -as "the last of the Antiochene Christians" (_Trall._ 13; _Smyrn._ xi.), -seems to suggest that he had been converted from paganism somewhat late -in life and that the process of conversion had been abrupt and violent. -He bore the surname of Theophorus, i.e. "God-clad" or "bearing God." -Later tradition regarded the word as a passive form ("God-borne") and -explained it by the romantic theory that Ignatius was the child whom -Christ took in his arms (Mark ix. 36-37). The date at which he became -bishop of Antioch cannot be determined. At the time when the Epistles -were written he had just been sentenced to death, and was being sent in -charge of a band of soldiers to Rome to fight the beasts in the -amphitheatre. The fact that he was condemned to the amphitheatre proves -that he could not have been a Roman citizen. We lose sight of him at -Troas, but the presumption is that he was martyred at Rome, though we -have no early evidence of this. - -But if the Epistles tell us little of the life of Ignatius, they give us -an excellent picture of the man himself, and are a mirror in which we -see reflected certain ideals of the life and thought of the day. -Ignatius, as Schaff says, "is the incarnation of three closely connected -ideas: the glory of martyrdom, the omnipotence of episcopacy, and the -hatred of heresy and schism." - -1. Zeal for martyrdom in later days became a disease in the Church, but -in the case of Ignatius it is the mark of a hero. The heroic note runs -through all the Epistles; thus he says: - - "I bid all men know that of my own free will I die for God, unless ye - should hinder me.... Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through - them I can attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I am ground by the - wild beasts that I may be found the pure bread of Christ. Entice the - wild beasts that they may become my sepulchre...; come fire and cross - and grapplings with wild beasts, wrenching of bones, hacking of limbs, - crushings of my whole body; only be it mine to attain unto Jesus - Christ" (_Rom._ 4-5). - -2. Ignatius constantly contends for the recognition of the authority of -the ministers of the church. "Do nothing," he writes to the Magnesians, -"without the bishop and the presbyters." The "three orders" are -essential to the church, without them no church is worthy of the name -(cf. _Trall._ 3). "It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to -baptize or to hold a love-feast" (_Smyrn._ 8). Respect is due to the -bishop as to God, to the presbyters as the council of God and the -college of apostles, to the deacons as to Jesus Christ (_Trall._ 3). -These terms must not, of course, be taken in their developed modern -sense. The "bishop" of Ignatius seems to represent the modern pastor of -a church. As Zahn has shown, Ignatius is not striving to introduce a -special form of ministry, nor is he endeavouring to substitute one form -for another. His particular interest is not so much in the form of -ministry as in the unity of the church. It is this that is his chief -concern. Centrifugal forces were at work. Differences of theological -opinion were arising. Churches had a tendency to split up into sections. -The age of the apostles had passed away and their successors did not -inherit their authority. The unity of the churches was in danger. -Ignatius was resisting this fatal tendency which threatened ruin to the -faith. The only remedy for it in those days was to exalt the authority -of the ministry and make it the centre of church life. It should be -noted that (1) there is no trace of the later doctrine of apostolical -succession; (2) the ministry is never sacerdotal in the letters of -Ignatius. As Lightfoot puts it: "The ecclesiastical order was enforced -by him (Ignatius) almost solely as a security for doctrinal purity. The -threefold ministry was the husk, the shell, which protected the precious -kernel of the truth" (i. 40). - -3. Ignatius fights most vehemently against the current forms of heresy. -The chief danger to the church came from the Docetists who denied the -reality of the humanity of Christ and ascribed to him a phantom body. -Hence we find Ignatius laying the utmost stress on the fact that Christ -"was _truly_ born and ate and drank, was _truly_ persecuted under -Pontius Pilate ... was _truly_ raised from the dead" (_Trall._ 9). "I -know that He was in the flesh even after the resurrection, and when He -came to Peter and his company, He said to them, 'Lay hold and handle me, -and see that I am not an incorporeal spirit'" (_Smyrn._ 3). Equally -emphatic is Ignatius's protest against a return to Judaism. "It is -monstrous to talk of Jesus Christ and to practise Judaism, for -Christianity did not believe in Judaism but Judaism in Christianity" -(_Magn._ 10). - -Reference must also be made to a few of the more characteristic points -in the theology of Ignatius. As far as Christology is concerned, -besides the insistence on the reality of the humanity of Christ already -mentioned, there are two other points which call for notice. (1) -Ignatius is the earliest writer outside the New Testament to describe -Christ under the categories of current philosophy; cf. the famous -passage in _Eph._ 7, "There is one only physician, of flesh and of -spirit ([Greek: sarkikos kai pneumatikos]), generate and ingenerate -([Greek: gennêtos kai agennêtos]), God in man, true life in death, son -of Mary and son of God, first passible and then impassible" ([Greek: -prôton pathêtos kai apathês]). (2) Ignatius is also the first writer -outside the New Testament to mention the Virgin Birth, upon which he -lays the utmost stress. "Hidden from the prince of this world were the -virginity of Mary and her child-bearing and likewise also the death of -the Lord, three mysteries to be cried aloud, the which were wrought in -the silence of God" (_Eph._ 19). Here, it will be observed, we have the -nucleus of the later doctrine of the deception of Satan. In regard to -the Eucharist also later ideas occur in Ignatius. It is termed a [Greek: -mystêrion] (_Trall._ 2), and the influence of the Greek mysteries is -seen in such language as that used in _Eph._ 20, where Ignatius -describes the Eucharistic bread as "the medicine of immortality and the -antidote against death." When Ignatius says too that "the heretics -abstain from Eucharist because they do not allow that the Eucharist is -the flesh of Christ," the words seem to imply that materialistic ideas -were beginning to find an entrance into the church (_Smyr._ 6). Other -points that call for special notice are: (1) Ignatius's rather -extravagant angelology. In one place for instance he speaks of himself -as being able to comprehend heavenly things and "the arrays of angels -and the musterings of principalities" (_Trall._ 5). (2) His view of the -Old Testament. In one important passage Ignatius emphatically states his -belief in the supremacy of Christ even over "the archives" of the faith, -i.e. the Old Testament: "As for me, my archives--my inviolable -archives--are Jesus Christ, His cross, His death, His resurrection and -faith through Him" (_Philadel._ 8). - - AUTHORITIES.--T. Zahn, _Ignatius von Antiochien_ (Gotha, 1873); J. B. - Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, part ii. (London, 2nd ed., 1889); F. - X. Funk, _Die Echtheit der ignat. Briefe_ (Tübingen, 1892); A. - Harnack, _Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur_ (Leipzig, 1897). - There is a good bibliography in G. Krüger, _Early Christian - Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1897, pp. 28-29). See also APOSTOLIC - FATHERS. (H. T. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In his short treatise "Of Prelatical Episcopacy," works iii. p. - 72 (Pickering, 1851). - - [2] _Theologisch. Tijdschrift_ (1892), 625-633. - - [3] _Ib._ (1886) 114-136; _Die Ignatianischen Briefe_ (1892). - - [4] _Ib._ (1893) 275-316. - - [5] But there are still a few scholars, e.g. van Manen and Völter, - who prefer a date about 150 or later; van Loon goes as late as 175. - See article "Old-Christian Literature," _Ency. Bib._ iii. col. 3488. - - - - -IGNORAMUS (Latin for "we do not know," "we take no notice of"), properly -an English law term for the endorsement on the bill of indictment made -by a grand jury when they "throw out" the bill, i.e. when they do not -consider that the case should go to a petty jury. The expression is now -obsolete, "not a true bill," "no bill," being used. The expressions -"ignoramus jury," "ignoramus Whig," &c., were common in the political -satires and pamphlets of the years following on the throwing out of the -bill for high treason against the 2nd earl of Shaftesbury in 1681. The -application of the term to an ignorant person dates from the early part -of the 17th century. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes two examples -illustrating the early connexion of the term with the law or lawyers. -George Ruggle (1575-1622) in 1615 wrote a Latin play with the title -Ignoramus, the name being also that of the chief character in it, -intended for one Francis Brakin, the recorder of Cambridge. It is a -satire against the ignorance and pettifogging of the common lawyers of -the day. It was answered by a prose tract (not printed till 1648) by one -Robert Callis, serjeant-at-law. This bore the title of _The Case and -Argument against Sir Ignoramus of Cambridge_. - - - - -IGNORANCE (Lat. _ignorantia_, from _ignorare_, not to know), want of -knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A -well-known legal maxim runs: _ignorantia juris non excusat_ ("ignorance -of the law does not excuse"). With this is sometimes coupled another -maxim: _ignorantia facti excusat_ ("ignorance of the fact excuses"). -That every one who has capacity to understand the law is presumed to -know it is a very necessary principle, for otherwise the courts would be -continually occupied in endeavouring to solve problems which by their -very impracticability would render the administration of justice next to -impossible. It would be necessary for the court to engage in endless -inquiries as to the true inwardness of a man's mind, whether his state -of ignorance existed at the time of the commission of the offence, -whether such a condition of mind was inevitable or brought about merely -by indifference on his part. Therefore, in English, as in Roman law, -ignorance of the law is no ground for avoiding the consequences of an -act. So far as regards criminal offences, the maxim as to _ignorantia -juris_ admits of no exception, even in the case of a foreigner -temporarily in England, who is likely to be ignorant of English law. In -Roman law the harshness of the rule was mitigated in the case of women, -soldiers and persons under the age of twenty-five, unless they had good -legal advice within reach (_Dig._ xxii. 6. 9). Ignorance of a matter of -fact may in general be alleged in avoidance of the consequences of acts -and agreements, but such ignorance cannot be pleaded where it is the -duty of a person to know, or where, having the means of knowledge at his -disposal, he wilfully or negligently fails to avail himself of it (see -CONTRACT). - -In logic, ignorance is that state of mind which for want of evidence is -equally unable to affirm or deny one thing or another. Doubt, on the -other hand, can neither affirm nor deny because the evidence seems -equally strong for both. For _Ignoratio Elenchi_ (ignorance of the -refutation) see FALLACY. - - - - -IGNORANTINES (_Frères Ignorantins_), a name given to the Brethren of the -Christian Schools (_Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes_), a religious -fraternity founded at Reims in 1680, and formally organized in 1683, by -the priest Jean Baptiste de la Salle, for the purpose of affording a -free education, especially in religion, to the children of the poor. In -addition to the three simple vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, -the brothers were required to give their services without any -remuneration and to wear a special habit of coarse black material, -consisting of a cassock, a hooded cloak with hanging sleeves and a -broad-brimmed hat. The name Ignorantine was given from a clause in the -rules of the order forbidding the admission of priests with a -theological education. Other popular names applied to the order are -_Frères de Saint-Yon_, from the house at Rouen, which was their -headquarters from 1705 till 1770, _Frères à quatre bras_, from their -hanging sleeves, and _Frères Fouetteurs_, from their former use of the -whip (_fouet_) in punishments. The order, approved by Pope Benedict -XIII. in 1724, rapidly spread over France, and although dissolved by the -National Assembly's decree in February 1790, was recalled by Napoleon I. -in 1804, and formally recognized by the French government in 1808. Since -then its members have penetrated into nearly every country of Europe, -and into America, Asia and Africa. They number about 14,000 members and -have over 2000 schools, and are the strongest Roman Catholic male order. -Though not officially connected with the Jesuits, their organization and -discipline are very similar. - - See J. B. Blain, _La Vie du vénérable J. B. de la Salle_ (Versailles, - 1887). - - - - -IGUALADA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on -the left bank of the river Noya, a right-hand tributary of the Llobregat, -and at the northern terminus of the Igualada-Martorell-Barcelona railway. -Pop. (1900) 10,442. Igualada is the central market of a rich agricultural -and wine-producing district. It consists of an old town with narrow and -irregular streets and the remains of a fortress and ramparts, and a new -town which possesses regular and spacious streets and many fine houses. -The local industries, chiefly developed since 1880, include the -manufacture of cotton, linen, wool, ribbons, cloth, chocolate, soap, -brandies, leather, cards and nails. The famous mountain and convent of -Montserrat or Monserrat (q.v.) is 12 m. E. - - - - -IGUANA, systematically _Iguanidae_ (Spanish quivalent of Carib _iwana_), -a family of pleurodont lizards, comprising about 50 genera and 300 -species. With three exceptions, all the genera of this extensive family -belong to the New World, being specially characteristic of the -Neotropical region, where they occur as far south as Patagonia, while -extending northward into the warmer parts of the Nearctic regions as far -as California and British Columbia. The exceptional genera are -_Brachylophus_ in the Fiji Islands, _Hoplurus_ and _Chalarodon_ in -Madagascar. The iguanas are characterized by the peculiar form of their -teeth, these being round at the root and blade-like, with serrated edges -towards the tip, resembling in this respect the gigantic extinct reptile -_Iguanodon_. The typical forms belonging to this family are -distinguished by the large dewlap or pouch situated beneath the head and -neck, and by the crest, composed of slender elongated scales, which -extends in gradually diminishing height from the nape of the neck to the -extremity of the tail. The latter organ is very long, slender and -compressed. The tongue is generally short and not deeply divided at its -extremity, nor is its base retracted into a sheath; it is always moist -and covered with a glutinous secretion. The prevailing colour of the -iguanas is green; and, as the majority of them are arboreal in their -habits, such colouring is generally regarded as protective. Those on the -other hand which reside on the ground have much duller, although as a -rule equally protective hues. Some iguanas, however (e.g. _Anolis -carolinensis_), possess, to an extent only exceeded by the chameleon, -the power of changing their colours, their brilliant green becoming -transformed under the influence of fear or irritation, into more sombre -hues and even into black. They differ greatly in size, from a few inches -to several feet in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Iguana.] - -One of the largest and most widely distributed is the common iguana -(_Iguana tuberculata_), which occurs in the tropical parts of Central -and South America and the West Indies, with the closely allied _I. -rhinolophus_. It attains a length of 6 ft., weighing then perhaps 30 -lb., and is of a greenish colour, occasionally mixed with brown, while -the tail is surrounded with alternate rings of those colours. Its food -consists of vegetable substances, mostly leaves, which it obtains from -the forest trees among whose branches it lives and in the hollows of -which it deposits its eggs. These are of an oblong shape about 1½ in. in -length, and are said by travellers to be very pleasant eating, -especially when taken raw, and mixed with farina. They are timid, -defenceless animals, depending for safety on the comparative -inaccessibility of their arboreal haunts, and their protective -colouring, which is rendered even more effective by their remaining -still on the approach of danger. But the favourite resorts of the iguana -are trees which overhang the water, into which they let themselves fall -with a splash, whatever the height of the tree, and then swim away, or -hide at the bottom for many minutes. Otherwise they exhibit few signs of -animal intelligence. "The iguana," says H. W. Bates (_The Naturalist on -the Amazons_), "is one of the stupidest animals I ever met. The one I -caught dropped helplessly from a tree just ahead of me; it turned round -for a moment to have an idiotic stare at the intruder and then set off -running along the path. I ran after it and it then stopped as a timid -dog would do, crouching down and permitting me to seize it by the neck -and carry it off." Along with several other species, notably _Ctenosura -acanthinura_, which is omnivorous, likewise called iguana, the common -iguana, is much sought after in tropical America; the natives esteem its -flesh a delicacy, and capture it by slipping a noose round its neck as -it sits in fancied security on the branch of a tree. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head of _Iguana rhinolophus_.] - -Although chiefly arboreal, many of the iguanas take readily to the -water; and there is at least one species, _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_, -which leads for the most part an aquatic life. These marine lizards -occur only in the Galapagos Islands, where they are never seen more than -20 yds. inland, while they may often be observed in companies several -hundreds of yards from the shore, swimming with great facility by means -of their flattened tails. Their feet are all more or less webbed, but in -swimming they are said to keep these organs motionless by their sides. -Their food consists of marine vegetation, to obtain which they dive -beneath the water, where they are able to remain, without coming to the -surface to breathe, for a very considerable time. Though they are thus -the most aquatic of lizards, Darwin, who studied their habits during his -visit to those islands, states that when frightened they will not enter -the water. Driven along a narrow ledge of rock to the edge of the sea, -they preferred capture to escape by swimming, while if thrown into the -water they immediately returned to the point from which they started. A -land species belonging to the allied genus _Conolophus_ also occurs in -the Galapagos, which differs from most of its kind in forming burrows in -the ground. - - - - -IGUANODON, a large extinct herbivorous land reptile from the Wealden -formation of western Europe, almost completely known by numerous -skeletons from Bernissart, near Mons, Belgium. It is a typical -representative of the ornithopodous (Gr. for bird-footed) Dinosauria. -The head is large and laterally compressed with a blunt snout, nearly -terminal nostrils and relatively small eyes. The sides of the jaws are -provided with a close series of grinding teeth, which are often worn -down to stumps; the front of the jaws forms a toothless beak, which -would be encased originally in a horny sheath. When unworn the teeth are -spatulate and crimped or serrated round the edge, closely resembling -those of the existing Central American lizard, _Iguana_--hence the name -_Iguanodon_ (Gr. Iguana-tooth) proposed by Mantell, the discoverer of -this reptile, in 1825. The bodies of the vertebrae are solid; and they -are convexo-concave (i.e. _opisthocoelous_) in the neck and anterior -part of the back, where there must have been much freedom of motion. The -hindquarters are comparatively large and heavy, while the tail is long, -deep and more or less laterally compressed, evidently adapted for -swimming. The small and mobile fore-limbs bear four complete fingers, -with the thumb reduced to a bony spur. The pelvis and hind-limbs much -resemble those of a running bird, such as those of an emu or the extinct -moa; but the basal bones (metatarsals) of the three-toed foot remain -separate throughout life, thus differing from those of the running -birds, which are firmly fused together even in the young adult. No -external armour has been found. The reptile doubtless frequented -marshes, feeding on the succulent vegetation, and often swimming in the -water. Footprints prove that when on land it walked habitually on its -hind-limbs. - -[Illustration: Skeleton of _Iguanadon bernissartensis_. (After Dollo.)] - -The earliest remains of _Iguanodon_ were found by Dr G. A. Mantell in -the Wealden formation of Sussex, and a large part of the skeleton, -lacking the head, was subsequently discovered in a block of ragstone in -the Lower Greensand near Maidstone, Kent. These fossils, which are now -in the British Museum, were interpreted by Dr Mantell, who made -comparisons with the skeleton of _Iguana_, on the erroneous supposition -that the resemblance in the teeth denoted some relationship to this -existing lizard. Several of the bones, however, could not be understood -until the much later discoveries of Mr S. H. Beckles in the Wealden -cliffs near Hastings; and an accurate knowledge of the skeleton was only -obtained when many complete specimens were disinterred by the Belgian -government from the Wealden beds at Bernissart, near Mons, during the -years 1877-1880. These skeletons, which now form the most striking -feature of the Brussels Museum, evidently represent a large troop of -animals which were suddenly destroyed and buried in a deep ravine or -gully. The typical species, _Iguanodon mantelli_, measures 5 to 6 metres -in length, while _I. bernissartensis_ (see fig.) attains a length of 8 -to 10 metres. They are found both at Bernissart and in the south of -England, while other species are also known from Sussex. Nearly complete -skeletons of allied reptiles have been discovered in the Jurassic and -Cretaceous rocks of North America. - - REFERENCES.--G. A. Mantell, _Petrifactions and their Teaching_ - (London, 1851); L. Dollo, papers in _Bull. Mus. Roy. d'Hist. Nat. - Belg._, vols. i.-iii. (1882-1884). (A. S. Wo.) - - - - -IGUVIUM (mod. Gubbio, q.v.), a town of Umbria, situated among the -mountains, about 23 m. N.N.E. of Perusia and connected with it by a -by-road, which joined the Via Flaminia near the temple of Jupiter -Appenninus, at the modern Scheggia. It appears to have been an important -place in pre-Roman times, both from its coins and from the celebrated -_tabulae Iguvinae_ (see below). - -We find it in possession of a treaty with Rome, similar to that of the -Camertes Umbri; and in 167 B.C. it was used as a place of safe custody -for the Illyrian King Gentius and his sons (Livy xlv. 43). After the -Social War, in which it took no part, it received Roman citizenship. At -that epoch it must have received full citizen rights since it was -included in the tribus Clustumina (_C.I.L._ xi. e.g. 5838). In 49 B.C. -it was occupied by Minucius Thermus on behalf of Pompey, but he -abandoned the town. Under the empire we hear almost nothing of it. -Silius Italicus mentions it as subject to fogs. A bishop of Iguvium is -mentioned as early as A.D. 413. It was taken and destroyed by the Goths -in 552, but rebuilt with the help of Narses. The Umbrian town had three -gates only, and probably lay on the steep mountain side as the present -town does, while the Roman city lay in the lower ground. Here is the -theatre, which, as an inscription records, was restored by Cn. Satrius -Rufus in the time of Augustus. The diameter of the orchestra is 76½ ft. -and of the whole 230 ft., so that it is a building of considerable size; -the stage is well preserved and so are parts of the external arcades of -the auditorium. Not far off are ruins probably of ancient baths, and the -concrete core of a large tomb with a vaulted chamber within. (T. As.) - -Of Latin inscriptions (_C.I.L._ xi. 5803-5926) found at Iguvium two or -three are of Augustan date, but none seem to be earlier. A Latin -inscription of Iguvium (_C.I.L._ xi. 5824) mentions a priest whose -functions are characteristic of the place "L. Veturius Rufio avispex -extispecus, sacerdos publicus et privatus." - -The ancient town is chiefly celebrated for the famous _Iguvine_ (less -correctly _Eugubine_) _Tables_, which were discovered there in 1444, -bought by the municipality in 1456, and are still preserved in the town -hall. A Dominican, Leandro Alberti (_Descrizione d'Italia_, 1550), -states that they were originally nine in number, and an independent -authority, Antonio Concioli (_Statuta civitatis Eugubii_, 1673), states -that two of the nine were taken to Venice in 1540 and never reappeared. -The existing seven were first published in a careful but largely -mistaken transcript by Buonarotti in 1724, as an appendix to Dempster's -_De Etruria Regali_.[1] - -The first real advance towards their interpretation was made by Otfried -Müller (_Die Etrusker_, 1828), who pointed out that though their -alphabet was akin to the Etruscan their language was Italic. Lepsius, in -his essay _De tabulis Eugubinis_ (1833), finally determined the value of -the Umbrian signs and the received order of the Tables, pointing out -that those in Latin alphabet were the latest. He subsequently published -what may be called the _editio princeps_ in 1841. The first edition, -with a full commentary based on scientific principles, was that of -Aufrecht and Kirchhoff in 1849-1851, and on this all subsequent -interpretations are based (Bréal, Paris, 1875; Bücheler, _Umbrica_, -Bonn, 1883, a reprint and enlargement of articles in Fleckeisen's -_Jahrbuch_, 1875, pp. 127 and 313). The text is everywhere perfectly -legible, and is excellently represented in photographs by the marquis -Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, published with Bréal's edition. - - _Language._--The dialect in which this ancient set of liturgies is - written is usually known as Umbrian, as it is the only monument we - possess of any length of the tongue spoken in the Umbrian district - before it was latinized (see UMBRIA). The name, however, is certainly - too wide, since an inscription from Tuder of, probably, the 3rd - century B.C. (R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, 352) shows a final - -_s_ and a medial -_d_-, both apparently preserved from the changes - which befell these sounds, as we shall see, in the dialect of Iguvium. - On the other hand, inscriptions of Fulginia and Assisium (ibid. - 354-355) agree very well, so far as they go, with Iguvine. It is - especially necessary to make clear that the language known as Umbrian - is that of a certain limited area, which cannot yet be shown to have - extended very far beyond the eastern half of the Tiber valley (from - Interamna Nahartium to Urvinum Mataurense), because the term is often - used by archaeologists with a far wider connotation to include all the - Italic, pre-Etruscan inhabitants of upper Italy; Professor Ridgeway, - for instance, in his _Early Age of Greece_, frequently speaks of the - "Umbrians" as the race to which belonged the Villanova culture of the - Early Iron age. It is now one of the most urgent problems in the - history of Italy to determine the actual historical relation (see - further ROME: _History, ad. init._) between the [Greek: 'Ombroi] of, - say, Herodotus and the language of Iguvium, of which we may now offer - some description, using the term Umbrian strictly in this sense. - - Under the headings LATIN LANGUAGE and OSCA LINGUA there have been - collected (1) the points which separate all the Italic languages from - their nearest congeners, and (2) those which separate Osco-Umbrian - from Latin. We have now to notice (3) the points in which Umbrian has - diverged from Oscan. The first of them antedates by six or seven - centuries the similar change in the Romance languages (see ROMANCE - LANGUAGES). - - (1) The palatalization of _k_ and _g_ before a following _i_ or _e_, - or consonant _i_ as in _tiçit_ (i.e. _diçit_) = Lat. _decet_; _muieto_ - past part. passive (pronounced as though the _i_ were an English or - French _j_) beside Umb. imperative _mugatu_, Lat. _mugire_. - - (2) The loss of final -_d_, e.g. in the abl. sing. fem. Umb. _tota_ = - Osc. _toutad_. - - (3) The change of _d_ between vowels to a sound akin to _r_, written - by a special symbol q (_d_) in Umbrian alphabet and by RS in Latin - alphabet, e.g. _teda_ in Umbrian alphabet = _dirsa_ in Latin alphabet - (see below), "let him give," exactly equivalent to Paelignian _dida_ - (see PAELIGNI). - - (4) The change of -_s_- to -_r_- between vowels as in _erom_, "esse" = - Osc. _ezum_, and the gen. plur. fem. ending in -_aru_ = Lat. -_arum_, - Osc. -_azum_. - - To this there appear a long string of exceptions, e.g. _asa_ = Lat. - _ara_. These are generally regarded as mere archaisms, and - unfortunately the majority of them are in words of whose origin and - meaning very little is known, so that (for all we can tell) in many - the -_s_- may represent -_ss_- or -_ps_- as in _osatu_ = Lat. - _operato_, cf. Osc. _opsaom_. - - (5) The change of final -_ns_ to -_f_ as in the acc. plur. masc. - _vitluf_ = Lat. _vitulos_. - - (6) In the latest stage of the dialect (see below) the change of final - -_s_ to -_r_, as in abl. plur. _arver_, _arviis_, i.e. "arvorum - frugibus." - - (7) The decay of all diphthongs; _ai_, _oi_, _ei_ all become a - monophthong variously written _e_ and _i_ (rarely _ei_), as in the - dat. sing. fem. _tote_, "civitati"; dat. sing. masc. _pople_, - "populo"; loc. sing. masc. _onse_ (from *_om(e)sei_), "in umero." So - _au_, _eu_, _ou_ all become _o_, as in _ote_ = Osc. _auti_, Lat. - _aut_. - - (8) The change of initial _l_ to _v_, as in _vutu_ = Lat. _lavito_. - - Owing to the peculiar character of the Tables no grammatical statement - about Umbrian is free from difficulty; and these bare outlines of its - phonology must be supplemented by reference to the lucid discussion in - C. D. Buck's _Oscan and Umbrian Grammar_ (Boston, 1904), or to the - earlier and admirably complete _Oskischumbrische Grammatik_ of R. von - Planta (Strassburg, 1892-1897). Some of the most important questions - are discussed by R. S. Conway in _The Italic Dialects_, vol. ii. p. - 495 seq. - - Save for the consequences of these phonetic changes, Umbrian - morphology and syntax exhibit no divergence from Oscan that need be - mentioned here, save perhaps two peculiar perfect-formations with - -_l_- and -_nçi_-; as in _ampelust_, fut. perf. "impenderit," - _combifiançiust_, "nuntiaverit" (or the like). Full accounts of the - accidence and syntax, so far as it is represented in the inscriptions, - will be found in the grammars of Buck and von Planta already - mentioned, and in the second volume of Conway, _op. cit._ - - _Chronology._ (I.) _The Relative Dates of the Tables._--At least four - periods in the history of the dialect can be distinguished in the - records we have left to us, by the help of the successive changes (a) - in alphabet and (b) in language, which the Tables exhibit. Of these - only the outstanding features can be mentioned here; for a fuller - discussion the reader must be referred to _The Italic Dialects_, pp. - 400 sqq. - - (a) _Changes in Alphabet._--Observe first that Tables I., II., III. - and IV., and the first two inscriptions of V. are in Umbrian - character; the Latin alphabet is used in the _Claverniur_ paragraph - (V. iii.), and the whole of VI. (_a_ and _b_) and VII. (_a_ and _b_). - - What we may call the normal Umbrian alphabet (in which e.g. Table I. - _a_ is written) consists of the following signs, the writing being - always from right to left: [Symbols: A a, B b, D d] (i.e. a sound akin - to _r_ derived from _d_), [Symbols: E e, F v, Z z, H h, I i, K k] and - g, [Symbols: L l, M m, N n, P p, R r, S s X t] and d, V u and o, - [Symbols: F f, S s] (i.e. a voiceless palatal consonant.) - - In the Latin alphabet, in which Tables VI. and VII. and the third - inscription of Table V. are written, _d_ is represented by RS, _g_ by - G, but _k_ by C, _d_ by D, _t_ by T, _v_ and _u_ by V but _o_ by O, s - by S, though the diacritic is often omitted. The interpunct is double - with the Umbrian alphabet, single and medial with the Latin. - - Tables VI. and VII., then, and V. iii., were written later than the - rest. But even in the earlier group certain variations appear. - - The latest form of the Umbrian alphabet is that of Table V. i. and - ii., where the abbreviated form of _m_ (^) and the angular and - undivided form of _k_ ([Symbols: k not K] are especially - characteristic. - - Nearest to this is that of Tables III. and IV., which form a single - document; then that of I. (a) and (b); earliest would seem that of II. - (a) and II. (b). In II. _a_, 18 and 24, we have the archaic letter - _san_ (M = _s_) of the abecedaria (E. S. Roberts, _Int. Gr. Epig._ pp. - 17 ff.), which appears in no other Italic nor in any Chalcidian - inscription, though it survived longer in Etruscan and Venetic use. - Against this may be set the use of [Symbol: O] for _t_ in I. _b_ 1, - but this appears also in IV. 20 and should be called rather Etruscan - than archaic. These characteristics of II. _a_ and _b_ would be in - themselves too slight to prove an earlier date, but they have perhaps - some weight as confirming the evidence of the language. - - (b) _Changes in Language._--The evidence of date derived from changes - in the language is more difficult to formulate, and the inquiry calls - for the most diligent use of scientific method and critical judgment. - Its intricacy lies in the character of the documents before - us--religious formularies consisting partly of matter established in - usage long before they were written down in their present shape, - partly of additions made at the time of writing. The best example of - this is furnished by the expansion and modernisation of the - subject-matter of Table I. into Tables VI. and VII._a_. Hence we - frequently meet with forms which had passed out of the language that - was spoken at the time they were engraved, side by side with their - equivalents in that language. We may distinguish four periods, as - follows: - - 1. The first period is represented, not by any complete table, but by - the old unmodernised forms of Tables III. and IV., which show the - original guttural plosives unpalatalized, e.g. _kebu_ = Lat. _cibum_. - - 2. In the second period the gutturals have been palatalized, but there - yet is no change of final _s_ to _r_. This is represented by the rest - of III. and IV. and by II. (_a_ and _b_). - - 3. In the third period final _s_ has everywhere become _r_. This - appears in V. (i. and ii. and also iii.). Table I. is a copy or - redraft made from older documents during this period. This is shown by - the occasional appearance of _r_ instead of final _s_. - - 4. Soon after the dialect had reached its latest form, the Latin - alphabet was adopted. Tables VI. and VII._a_ contain an expanded form - of the same liturgical direction as Table I. - - It is probable that further research will amend this classification in - detail, but its main lines are generally accepted. - - (II.) _Actual Date of the Tables._--Only the leading points can be - mentioned here. - - (i.) The Latin alphabet of the latest Tables resembles that of the - _Tabula Bantina_, and might have been engraved at almost any time - between 150 B.C. and 50 B.C. It is quite likely that the closer - relations with Rome, which began after the Social War, led to the - adoption of the Latin alphabet. Hence we should infer that the Tables - in Umbrian alphabet were at all events older than 90 B.C. - - (ii.) For an upper limit of date, in default of definite evidence, it - seems imprudent to go back beyond the 5th century B.C., since neither - in Rome nor Campania have we any evidence of public written documents - of any earlier century. When more is known of the earliest Etruscan - inscriptions it may become possible to date the Iguvine Tables by - their alphabetic peculiarities as compared with their mother-alphabet, - the Etruscan. The "Tuscan name" is denounced in the comprehensive - curse of Table VI. b, 53-60, and we may infer that the town of Iguvium - was independent but in fear of the Etruscans at the time when the - curse was first composed. The absence of all mention of either Gauls - or Romans seems to prove that this time was at least earlier than 400 - B.C.; and the curse may have been composed long before it was written - down. - - The chief sources in which further information may be sought have been - already mentioned. (R. S. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A portion of this article is taken by permission from R. S. - Conway's _Italic Dialects_ (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897). - - - - -IJOLITE (derived from the first syllable of the Finnish words _Jiwaru_, -_Jijoki_, &c., common as geographical names in the Kola peninsula, and -the Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone), a rock consisting essentially of -nepheline and augite, and of great rarity, but of considerable -importance from a mineralogical and petrographical standpoint. It occurs -in various parts of the Kola peninsula in north Finland on the shores of -the White Sea. The pyroxene is morphic, yellow or green, and is -surrounded by formless areas of nepheline. The accessory minerals are -apatite, cancrinite, calcite, titanite and jiwaarite, a dark-brown -titaniferous variety of melanite-garnet. This rock is the plutonic and -holocrystalline analogue of the nephelenites and nepheline-dolerites; -it bears the same relation to them as the nepheline-syenites have to the -phonolites. It is worth mentioning that a leucite-augite rock, -resembling ijolite except in containing leucite in place of nepheline, -is known to occur at Shonkin Creek, near Fort Benton, Montana, and has -been called missourite. - - - - -IKI, an island belonging to Japan, lying off the north-western coast of -Kiushiu, in 33° 45´ N. lat. and 129° 40´ E. long. It has a circumference -of 86 m., an area of 51 sq. m., and a population of 36,530. The island -is, for the most part, a tableland about 500 ft. above sea-level. The -anchorage is at Gonoura, on the south-west. A part of Kublai Khan's -Mongols landed at Iki when about to invade Japan in the 13th century, -for it lies in the direct route from Korea to Japan via Tsushima. In the -immediate vicinity are several rocky islets. - - - - -ILAGAN, the capital of the province of Isabela, Luzon, Philippine -Islands, on an elevated site at the confluence of the Pinacanauan river -with the Grande de Cagayan, about 200 m. N.N.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) -16,008. The neighbouring country is the largest tobacco-producing -section in the Philippines. - - - - -ILCHESTER, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of -Somersetshire, England, in the valley of the river Ivel or Yeo, 5 m. -N.W. of Yeovil. It is connected by a stone bridge with the village of -Northover on the other side of the river. Ilchester has lost the -importance it once possessed, and had in 1901 a population of only 564, -but its historical interest is considerable. The parish church of St -Mary is Early English and Perpendicular, with a small octagonal tower, -but has been largely restored in modern times. The town possesses -almshouses founded in 1426, a picturesque cross, and a curious ancient -mace of the former corporation. - -Ilchester (_Cair Pensavelcoit_, _Ischalis_, _Ivelcestre_, -_Yevelchester_) was a fortified British settlement, and subsequently a -military station of the Romans, whose Fosse Way passed through it. Its -importance continued in Saxon times, and in 1086 it was a royal borough -with 107 burgesses. In 1180 a gild merchant was established, and the -county gaol was completed in 1188. Henry II. granted a charter, -confirmed by John in 1203, which gave Ilchester the same liberties as -Winchester, with freedom from tolls and from being impleaded without the -walls, the fee farm being fixed at £26, 10s. 0d. The bailiffs of -Ilchester are mentioned before 1230. The borough was incorporated in -1556, the fee farm being reduced to £8. Ilchester was the centre of the -county administration from the reign of Edward III. until the 19th -century, when the change from road to rail travelling completed the -decay of the town. Its place has been taken by Taunton. The corporation -was abolished in 1886. Parliamentary representation began in 1298, and -the town continued to return two members until 1832. A fair on the 29th -of August was granted by the charter of 1203. Other fairs on the 27th of -December, the 21st of July, and the Monday before Palm Sunday, were held -under a charter of 1289. The latter, fixed as the 25th of March, was -still held at the end of the 18th century, but there is now no fair. The -Wednesday market dates from before the Conquest. The manufacture of -thread lace was replaced by silk weaving about 1750, but this has -decayed. - - - - -ÎLE-DE-FRANCE, an old district of France, forming a kind of island, -bounded by the Seine, the Marne, the Beuvronne, the Thève and the Oise. -In this sense the name is not found in written documents before 1429; -but in the second half of the 15th century it designated a wide military -province of government, bounded N. by Picardy, W. by Normandy, S. by -Orléanais and Nivernais, and E. by Champagne. Its capital was Paris. -From the territory of Île-de-France were formed under the Revolution the -department of the Seine, together with the greater part of -Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Oise and Aisne, and a small part of -Loiret and Nièvre. (The term Île-de-France is also used for Mauritius, -q.v.). - - See A. Longnon, "L'Île-de-France, son origine, ses limites, ses - gouverneurs," in the _Mémoires de la Société de l'histoire de Paris et - de l'Île-de-France_, vol. i. (1875). - - - - -ILETSK, formerly _Fort Iletskaya Zashchita_, a town of Russia, in the -government of Orenburg, 48 m. S. of the town of Orenburg by the railway -to Tashkent, near the Ilek river, a tributary of the Ural. Pop. 11,802 -in 1897. A thick bed of excellent rock-salt is worked here to the extent -of about 100,000 tons annually. The place is resorted to for its salt, -mud and brine baths, and its koumiss cures. - - - - -ILFELD, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated -at the south foot of the Harz, at the entrance to the Bährethal, 8 m. N. -from Nordhausen by the railway to Wernigerode. Pop. 1600. It contains an -Evangelical church, a celebrated gymnasium, once a monasterial school, -with a fine library, and manufactures of parquet-flooring, paper and -plaster of Paris, while another industry in the town is brewing. It is -also of some repute as a health resort. - -Ilfeld, as a town, dates from the 14th century, when it sprang up round -a Benedictine monastery. Founded about 1190 this latter was reformed in -1545, and a year later converted into the school mentioned above, which -under the rectorship of Michael Neander (1525-1595) enjoyed a reputation -for scholarship which it has maintained until to-day. - - See Förstemann, _Monumenta rerum Ilfeldensium_ (Nordhausen, 1843); M. - Neander, _Bericht vom Kloster Ilfeld_, edited by Bouterwek (Göttingen, - 1873); and K. Meyer, _Geschichte des Klosters Ilfeld_ (Leipzig, 1897). - - - - -ILFORD [GREAT ILFORD], an urban district in the Romford parliamentary -division of Essex, England, on the Roding, 7 m. E.N.E. of London by the -Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 10,913, (1901) 41,234. A portion of -Hainault Forest lies within the parish. The hospital of St Mary and St -Thomas, founded in the 12th century as a leper hospital, now contains -almshouses and a chapel, and belongs to the marquess of Salisbury, who -as "Master" is required to maintain a chaplain and six aged inmates. The -chapel appears to be of the date of this foundation. Claybury Hall is a -lunatic asylum (1893) of the London County Council. There are large -photographic material works and paper mills. LITTLE ILFORD is a parish -on the opposite (west) side of the Roding. The church of St Mary retains -Norman portions, and has a curious monumental brass commemorating a boy -in school-going clothes (1517). Pop. (1901) 17,915. - - - - -ILFRACOMBE, a seaport and watering-place in the Barnstaple parliamentary -division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol Channel, 225 m. W. by S. -of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district -(1901) 8557. The picturesque old town, built on the cliffs above its -harbour, consists of one street stretching for about a mile through a -network of lanes. Behind it rise the terraces of a more modern town, -commanding a fine view across the Channel. With its beautiful scenery -and temperate climate, Ilfracombe is frequented by visitors both in -summer and winter. Grand rugged cliffs line the coast; while, inland, -the country is celebrated for the rich colouring of its woods and glens. -Wooded heights form a semicircle round the town, which is protected from -sea winds by Capstone Hill. Along the inner face of this rock has been -cut the Victoria Promenade, a long walk roofed with glass and used for -concerts. The restored church of Holy Trinity dates originally from the -12th century. Sea-bathing is insecure, and is confined to a few small -coves, approached by tunnels hewn through the rock. The harbour, a -natural recess among the cliffs, is sheltered on the east by Hilsborough -Head, where there are some alleged Celtic remains; on the west by -Lantern Hill, where the ancient chapel of St Nicholas has been -transformed into a lighthouse. In summer, passenger steamers run to and -from Ilfracombe pier; but the shipping trade generally has declined, -though herring fisheries are carried on with success. In the latter part -of the 13th century Ilfracombe obtained a grant for holding a fair and -market, and in the reign of Edward III. it was a place of such -importance as to supply him with six ships and ninety-six men for his -armament against Calais. During the Civil War, being garrisoned for the -Roundheads, it was in 1644 captured by the Royalists, but in 1646 it -fell into the hands of Fairfax. - - - - -ILHAVO, a seaport in the district of Aveiro, formerly included in the -province of Beira, Portugal, 3 m. S.W. of Aveiro (q.v.), on the lagoon -of Aveiro, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 12,617. Ilhavo is -inhabited chiefly by fishermen, but has a celebrated manufactory of -glass and porcelain, the Vista-Alegre, at which the art of glass-cutting -has reached a high degree of perfection. Salt is largely exported. -Ilhavo is celebrated for the beauty of its women. It is said to have -been founded by Greek colonists about 400 B.C., but this tradition is of -doubtful validity. - - - - -ILI, one of the principal rivers of Central Asia, in the Russian -province of Semiryechensk. The head-stream, called the Tekez, rises at -an altitude of 11,600 ft. E. of Lake Issyk-kul, in 82° 25´ E. and 43° -23´ N., on the W. slopes of mount Kash-katur. At first it flows eastward -and north-eastward, until, after emerging from the mountains, it meets -the Kungez, and then, assuming the name of Ili, it turns westwards and -flows between the Trans-Ili Ala-tau mountains on the south and the -Boro-khoro and Talki ranges on the north for about 300 m. to Iliysk. The -valley between 79° 30´ and 82° E. is 50 m. wide, and the portion above -the town of Kulja (Old Kulja) is fertile and populous, Taranchi villages -following each other in rapid succession, and the pastures being well -stocked with sheep and cattle and horses. At Iliysk the river turns -north-west, and after traversing a region of desert and marsh falls by -at least seven mouths into the Balkash Lake, the first bifurcation of -the delta taking place about 115 m. up the river. But it is only the -southern arm of the delta that permanently carries water. The total -length of the river is over 900 m. From Old Kulja to New Kulja the Ili -is navigable for at most only two and a half months in the year, and -even then considerable difficulty is occasioned by the shoals and -sandbanks. From New Kulja to Iliysk (280 m.) navigation is easy when the -water is high, and practicable even at its lowest for small boats. At -Iliysk there is a ferry on the road from Kopal to Vyernyi. The principal -tributaries of the Ili are the Kash, Chilik and Charyn. A vast number of -streams flow towards it from the mountains on both sides, but most of -them are used up by the irrigation canals and never reach their goal. -The wealth of coal in the valley is said to be great, and when the -Chinese owned the country they worked gold and silver with profit. Fort -Ili or Iliysk, a modern Russian establishment, must not be confounded -with Ili, the old capital of the Chinese province of the same name. The -latter, otherwise known as Hoi-yuan-chen, New Kulja (Gulja), or Manchu -Kulja, was formerly a city of 70,000 inhabitants, but now lies -completely deserted. Old Kulja, Tatar Kulja or Nin-yuan, is now the -principal town of the district. The Chinese district of Ili formerly -included the whole of the valley of the Ili river as far as Issyk-kul, -but now only its upper part. Its present area is about 27,000 sq. m. and -its population probably 70,000. It belongs administratively to the -province of Sin-kiang or East Turkestan. (See KULJA.) - - - - -ILION, a village of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A., about 12 m. S.E. -of Utica, on the S. bank of the Mohawk river. Pop. (1890) 4057; (1900) -5138 (755 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 5924; (1910) 6588. It is -served by the New York Central & Hudson river, and the West Shore -railways, by the Utica & Mohawk Valley Electric railroad, and by the -Erie canal. It has a public library (1868) of about 13,500 volumes, a -public hospital and a village hall. The village owns its water-works and -its electric-lighting plant. Its principal manufactures are Remington -typewriters and Remington fire-arms (notably the Remington rifle); other -manufactures are filing cabinets and cases and library and office -furniture (the Clark & Baker Co.), knit goods, carriages and harness, -and store fixtures. In 1828 Eliphalet Remington (1793-1861) established -here a small factory for the manufacture of rifles. He invented, and, -with the assistance of his sons, Philo (1816-1889), Samuel and -Eliphalet, improved the famous Remington rifle, which was adopted by -several European governments, and was supplied in large numbers to the -United States army. In 1856 the company added the manufacture of farming -tools, in 1870 sewing-machines, and in 1874 typewriters. The last-named -industry was sold to the Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict Company in 1886, -and soon afterwards, on the failure of the original Remington company, -the fire-arms factory was bought by a New York City firm. A store was -established on the present site of Ilion as early as 1816, but the -village really dates from the completion of the Erie canal in 1825. On -the canal list it was called Steele's Creek, but it was also known as -Morgan's Landing, and from 1830 to 1843 as Remington's Corners. The -post-office, which was established in 1845, was named Remington, in -honour of Eliphalet Remington; but later the present name was adopted. -The village was incorporated in 1852. Ilion is a part of the township of -German Flats (pop. in 1900, 8663; in 1910, 10,160), settled by -Palatinate Germans about 1725. The township was the scene of several -Indian raids during the French and Indian War and the War of -Independence. Here General Herkimer began his advance to raise the siege -of Fort Schuyler (1777), and subsequently Ilion was the rendezvous of -Benedict Arnold's force during the same campaign. - - - - -ILKESTON, a market town and municipal borough, in the Ilkeston -parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Derby, on -the Midland and the Great Northern railways. Pop. (1891) 19,744, (1901) -25,384. It is situated on a hill commanding fine views of the Erewash -valley. The church of St Mary is Norman and Early English, and has a -fine chancel screen dating from the later part of the 13th century. The -manufactures of the town are principally hosiery and lace, and various -kinds of stoneware. Coal and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood. An -alkaline mineral spring, resembling the seltzer water of Germany, was -discovered in 1830, and baths were then erected, which, however, were -subsequently closed. The town, which is very ancient, being mentioned in -Domesday, obtained a grant for a market and fair in 1251, and received -its charter of incorporation in 1887. It is governed by a mayor, 6 -aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2526 acres. - - - - -ILKLEY, an urban district in the Otley parliamentary division of the -West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m. N.W. from Leeds, on the Midland -and the North-Eastern railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7455. It -is beautifully situated in the upper part of the valley of the Wharfe, -and owing to the fine scenery of the neighbourhood, and to the bracing -air of the high moorlands above the valley, has become a favourite -health resort. Here and at Ben Rhydding, 1 m. E., are several -hydropathic establishments. The church of All Saints is in the main -Decorated, largely restored in 1860. Three ancient sculptured crosses -are preserved in the churchyard. The institutions include a museum of -local antiquities, a grammar school, the Siemens Convalescent Home and -the Ilkley Bath Charitable Institution. The fine remains of Bolton Abbey -lie in the Wharfe valley, 5 m. above Ilkley. Ilkley has been identified -with the _Olicana_ of Ptolemy, one of the towns of the British tribe of -the Brigantes. There was a Roman fort near the present church of All -Saints, and the site has yielded inscriptions and other small remains. -Numerous relics are preserved in the museum. - - - - -ILL, a river of Germany, entirely within the imperial territory of -Alsace-Lorraine. It rises on a north foothill of the Jura, S.W. of -Basel, and flows N.N.E. parallel with the Rhine, which it enters from -the left, 9 m. below Strassburg. Its course lies for the most part -through low meadowland; and the stream, which is 123 m. long, receives -numerous small affluents, which pour out of the short narrow valleys of -the Vosges. It is navigable from Ladhof near Colmar to its confluence -with the Rhine, a distance of 59 m. It is on this river, and not on the -Rhine, that the principal towns of Upper Alsace are situated, e.g. -Mülhausen, Colmarl, Schlettstadt and Strassburg. The Ill feeds two -important canals, the Rhine-Marne canal and the Rhine-Rhone canal, both -starting from the neighbourhood of Strassburg. - - - - -ILLAWARRA, a beautiful and fertile district of New South Wales, -Australia, extending from a point 33 m. S. of Sydney, along the coast -southwards for 40 m. to Shoalhaven. It is thickly populated, and -supplies Sydney with the greater part of its dairy produce. There are -also numerous collieries, producing coal of superior quality, and iron -ore, fireclay and freestone are plentiful. The Illawarra Lake, a salt -lagoon, 9 m. long and 3 m. wide, is encircled by hills and is connected -with the sea by a narrow channel; quantities of fish are caught in it -and wild fowl are abundant along its shores. The chief towns in the -district are Wollongong, Kiama, Clifton and Shellharbour. - - - - -ILLE-ET-VILAINE, a maritime department of north-western France, formed -in 1790 out of the eastern part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. -(1906) 611,805. Area 2699 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the English -Channel, the Bay of St Michel and the department of Manche; E. by -Mayenne; S. by Loire-Inférieure; and W. by Morbihan and Côtes-du-Nord. -The territory of Ille-et-Vilaine constitutes a depression bordered by -hills which reach their maximum altitudes (over 800 ft.) in the N.E. and -W. of the department. The centre of this depression, which separates the -hills of Brittany from those of Normandy, is occupied by Rennes, capital -of the department and an important junction of roads, rivers and -railways. The department takes its name from its two principal rivers, -the Ille and the Vilaine. The former joins the Vilaine at Rennes after a -course of 18 m. through the centre of the department; and the latter, -which rises in Mayenne, flows westwards as far as Rennes, where it turns -abruptly south. The stream is tidal up to the port of Redon, and is -navigable for barges as far as Rennes. The Vilaine receives the Meu and -the Seiche, which are both navigable. There are two other navigable -streams, the Airon and the Rance, the long estuary of which falls almost -entirely within the department. The Ille-et-Rance canal connects the -town of Rennes with those of Dinan and St Malo. The greater portion of -the shore of the Bay of St Michel is covered by the Marsh of Dol, -valuable agricultural land, which is protected from the inroads of the -sea by dykes. Towards the open channel the coast is rocky. Small lakes -are frequent in the interior of the department. The climate is -temperate, humid and free from sudden changes. The south-west winds, -while they keep the temperature mild, also bring frequent showers, and -in spring and autumn thick fogs prevail. The soil is thin and not very -fertile, but has been improved by the use of artificial manure. Cereals -of all kinds are grown, but the principal are wheat, buckwheat, oats and -barley. Potatoes, early vegetables, flax and hemp are also largely -grown, and tobacco is cultivated in the arrondissement of St Malo. -Apples and pears are the principal fruit, and the cider of the canton of -Dol has a high reputation. Cheese is made in considerable quantities, -and the butter of Rennes is amongst the best in France. Large numbers of -horses and cattle are raised. Mines of iron, lead and zinc (Pont-Péan) -and quarries of slate, granite, &c., are worked. There are flour and -saw-mills, brick works, boat-building yards, iron and copper foundries -and forges, dyeworks, and a widespread tanning industry. Sail-cloth, -rope, pottery, boots and shoes (Fougères), edge-tools, nails, farming -implements, paper and furniture are also among the products of the -department. The chief ports are St Malo and St Servan. Fishing is very -active on the coast, and St Malo, St Servan and Cancale equip fleets for -the Newfoundland cod-banks. There are also important oyster-fisheries in -the Bay of St Michel, especially at Cancale. The little town of Dinard -is well known as a fashionable bathing-resort. Exports include -agricultural products, butter, mine-posts and dried fish; imports, -live-stock, coal, timber, building materials and American wheat. The -department is served by the Western railway, and has over 130 m. of -navigable waterway. The population is of less distinctively Celtic -origin than the Bretons of Western Brittany, between whom and the -Normans and Angevins it forms a transitional group. Ille-et-Vilaine is -divided into the arrondissements of Fougères, St Malo, Montfort-sur-Meu, -Redon, Rennes and Vitré, with 43 cantons and 360 communes. The chief -town is Rennes, which is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of -appeal, headquarters of the X. army corps, and the centre of an académie -(educational division). - -In addition to the capital, Fougères, St Malo, St Servan, Redon, Vitré, -Dol, Dinard and Cancale are the towns of chief importance and are -separately noticed. At Combourg there is a picturesque château of the -14th and 15th centuries where Chateaubriand passed a portion of his -early life. St Aubin-du-Cormier has the ruins of an important feudal -fortress of the 13th century built by the dukes of Brittany for the -protection of their eastern frontier. Montfort-sur-Meu has a cylindrical -keep of the 15th century which is a survival of its old ramparts. - - - - -ILLEGITIMACY (from "illegitimate," Lat. _illegitimus_, not in accordance -with law, hence born out of lawful wedlock), the state of being of -illegitimate birth. The law dealing with the legitimation of children -born out of wedlock will be found under LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION. How -far the prevalence of illegitimacy in any community can be taken as a -guide to the morality of that community is a much disputed question. The -phenomenon itself varies so much in different localities, even in -localities where the same factors seem to prevail, that affirmative -conclusions are for the most part impossible to draw. In the United -Kingdom, where the figures differ considerably for the three -countries--England, Scotland, Ireland--the reasons that might be -assigned for the differences are negatived if applied on the same lines, -as they might well be, to certain other countries. Then again, racial, -climatic and social differences must be allowed for, and the influence -of legislation is to be taken into account. The fact that in some -countries marriage is forbidden until a man has completed his military -service, in another, that consent of parents is requisite, in another, -that "once a bastard always a bastard" is the rule, while in yet another -that the merest of subsequent formalities will legitimize the offspring, -must account in some degree for variations in figures. - - TABLE I.--_Illegitimate Births per 1000 Births (excluding - still-born)._ - - +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | |1876-|1881-|1886-|1891-|1896-|1901-| - | |1880.|1885.|1890.|1895.|1900.|1905.| - +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | England and Wales| 48 | 48 | 46 | 42 | 41 | 40 | - | Scotland | 85 | 83 | 81 | 74 | 68 | 64 | - | Ireland | 24 | 27 | 28 | 36 | 36 | 26 | - | Denmark | 101 | 100 | 95 | 94 | 96 | 101 | - | Norway | 84 | 81 | 75 | 71 | 74 | .. | - | Sweden | 100 | 102 | 103 | 105 | 113 | .. | - | Finland | 73 | 70 | 65 | 65 | 66 | .. | - | Russia | 28 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | .. | - | Austria | 138 | 145 | 147 | 146 | 141 | .. | - | Hungary | 73 | 79 | 82 | 85 | 90 | 94 | - | Switzerland | 47 | 48 | 47 | 46 | 45 | .. | - | Germany | 87 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 90 | 84 | - | Netherlands | 31 | 30 | 32 | 31 | 27 | 23 | - | Belgium | 74 | 82 | 87 | 88 | 80 | 68 | - | France | 72 | 78 | 83 | 87 | 88 | 88 | - | Portugal | .. | .. | 123 | 122 | 121 | .. | - | Spain | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 | 44 | - | Italy | 72 | 76 | 74 | 69 | 62 | 56 | - | New South Wales | 42 | 44 | 49 | 60 | 69 | 70 | - | Victoria | 43 | 46 | 49 | 60 | 69 | 70 | - | Queensland | 39 | 41 | 44 | 48 | 59 | 65 | - | South Australia | .. | 22 | 25 | 30 | 38 | 41 | - | West Australia | .. | .. | .. | 48 | 51 | 42 | - | Tasmania | .. | 44 | 38 | 46 | 57 | .. | - | New Zealand | 23 | 29 | 32 | 38 | 44 | 45 | - +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - -Table I. gives the number of illegitimate births per 1000 births in -various countries of the world for quinquennial periods. It is to be -noted that still-born births are excluded, as in the United Kingdom -(contrary to the practice prevailing in most European countries) -registration of such births is not compulsory. The United States is -omitted, as there is no national system of registration of births. - -This method of measuring illegitimacy by ascertaining the proportion of -illegitimate births in every thousand births is a fairly accurate one, -but there is another valuable one which is often applied, that of -comparing the number of illegitimate births with each thousand unmarried -females at the child-bearing age the "corrected" rate as opposed to the -"crude," as it is usually termed. This is given for certain countries -in Table II. - - TABLE II.--_Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Females, - aged 15-49 years._ - - +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ - | Country. |1846-55.|1856-65.|1866-75.|1876-85.|1886-95.|1896-1905.| - +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ - | England and Wales| 17 | 18 | 16 | 13 | 10 | 8 | - | Scotland | .. | 22 | 23 | 20 | 17 | 13 | - | Ireland | .. | .. | 5 | 4 | 5 | 3 | - | Denmark | .. | 28 | 27 | 26 | 24 | 23 | - | Sweden | 20 | 22 | 23 | 22 | 22 | .. | - | Germany | .. | .. | .. | 28 | 27 | 26 | - | Netherlands | .. | .. | 10 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | Belgium | 16 | 16 | 17 | 19 | 17 | 17 | - | France | 15 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 17 | 18 | - | Italy | .. | .. | .. | 24 | 24 | 19 | - +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ - -The generally accepted idea that the inhabitants of the warmer countries -of the south of Europe are more ardent in temperament has at least no -support as shown in the figures in Table I., where we find a higher rate -of illegitimacy in Sweden and Denmark than in Spain or Italy. Religion, -however, must be taken into account as having a strong influence in -preventing unchastity, though it cannot be concluded that any particular -creed is more powerful in this direction than another; for example, the -figures for Austria and Ireland are very different. It cannot be said, -either, that figures bear out the statement that where there is a high -rate of illegitimacy there is little prostitution. It is more probable -that in a country where the standard of living is low, and early -marriages are the rule, the illegitimate birth-rate will be low. As -regards England and Wales, the illegitimate birth-rate has been steadily -declining for many years, not only in actual numbers, but also in -proportion to the population. - - TABLE III.--_England and Wales._ - - +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ - | | Illegitimate | Proportion | Illegitimate | - | Year.| Births. | to 1000 of | Births in | - | | | population. | 1000 Births. | - +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ - | 1860 | 43,693 | 2.2 | 64 | - | 1865 | 46,585 | 2.2 | 62 | - | 1870 | 44,737 | 2.0 | 56 | - | 1875 | 40,813 | 1.7 | 48 | - | 1880 | 42,542 | 1.6 | 48 | - | 1885 | 42,793 | 1.6 | 48 | - | 1890 | 38,412 | 1.3 | 44 | - | 1895 | 38,836 | 1.3 | 42 | - | 1900 | 36,814 | 1.1 | 40 | - | 1905 | 37,515 | 1.1 | 40 | - | 1907 | 36,189 | 1.0 | 39 | - +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ - -The corrected rate bears out the result shown in Table III as follows: - - TABLE IV.--_England and Wales. Illegitimate Birth-rate calculated on - the Unmarried and Widowed Female Population, aged 15-45 years._ - - +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ - | | | Compared with | - | | Rate per 1000. | rate in 1876-1880, | - | | | taken as 100. | - +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ - | 1876-1880 | 14.4 | 100.0 | - | 1881-1885 | 13.5 | 93.8 | - | 1886-1890 | 11.8 | 81.9 | - | 1891-1895 | 10.1 | 70.1 | - | 1896-1900 | 9.2 | 63.9 | - | 1901-1905 | 8.4 | 58.3 | - | 1906 | 8.1 | 56.3 | - | 1907 | 7.8 | 54.2 | - +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ - - TABLE V.--_England and Wales. Illegitimate Births to 1000 Births._ - - +----------------+------------+-------+ - | | Ten years | 1907. | - | | 1897-1906. | | - +----------------+------------+-------+ - | Bedford | 49 | 53 | - | Berks | 47 | 48 | - | Bucks | 40 | 44 | - | Cambridge | 48 | 53 | - | Chester | 41 | 39 | - | Cornwall | 50 | 48 | - | Cumberland | 61 | 58 | - | Derby | 41 | 41 | - | Devon | 39 | 39 | - | Dorset | 40 | 37 | - | Durham | 34 | 37 | - | Essex | 28 | 27 | - | Gloucester | 36 | 36 | - | Hants | 40 | 36 | - | Hereford | 66 | 66 | - | Hertford | 40 | 42 | - | Huntingdon | 49 | 46 | - | Kent | 40 | 41 | - | Lancashire | 38 | 37 | - | Leicestershire | 40 | 39 | - | Lincolnshire | 55 | 54 | - | London | 37 | 38 | - | Middlesex | 30 | 28 | - | Monmouth | 29 | 27 | - | Norfolk | 62 | 65 | - | Northampton | 41 | 42 | - | Northumberland | 39 | 38 | - | Nottingham | 50 | 49 | - | Oxford | 53 | 56 | - | Rutland | 46 | 70 | - | Shropshire | 64 | 61 | - | Somerset | 37 | 35 | - | Stafford | 40 | 38 | - | Suffolk | 56 | 62 | - | Surrey | 38 | 37 | - | Sussex | 52 | 52 | - | Warwick | 32 | 30 | - | Westmorland | 61 | 62 | - | Wilts | 41 | 42 | - | Worcester | 37 | 38 | - | Yorks-- | | | - | E. Riding | 52 | 49 | - | N. " | 53 | 45 | - | W. " | 43 | 41 | - | | | | - | Anglesey | 81 | 75 | - | Brecon | 44 | 40 | - | Cardigan | 64 | 61 | - | Carmarthen | 37 | 41 | - | Carnarvon | 60 | 72 | - | Denbigh | 49 | 47 | - | Flint | 42 | 42 | - | Glamorgan | 26 | 26 | - | Merioneth | 71 | 77 | - | Montgomery | 76 | 73 | - | Pembroke | 52 | 47 | - | Radnor | 66 | 67 | - +----------------+------------+-------+ - - TABLE VI.--_Annual Illegitimate Birth-rates in each Registration - County of England and Wales, 1970-1907._ - - +---------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+ - | | Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried | Decrease per | - | | and Widowed Females aged 15-45 years. | cent in each | - | Registration +-----------------------------+-----------+ County | - | Counties. | Three-year Periods. | Years. | between | - | +-----------------------------+-----------+ the period | - | |1870-|1880-|1890-|1900-|1903-|1906.|1907.| 1870-1872 | - | |1872.|1882.|1892.|1902.|1905.| | | and 1907. | - +---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------+ - | England | | | | | | | | | - | and Wales |17.0 |14.1 |10.5 | 8.5 | 8.3 | 8.1 | 7.8 | 54.1 | - | London |10.3 | 9.8 | 8.1 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 6.8 | 6.4 | 37.9 | - | Bedford |21.1 |18.0 |11.2 | 8.4 | 8.0 | 8.2 | 8.7 | 58.8 | - | Berks |16.8 |13.4 |10.3 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 8.1 | 8.4 | 50.0 | - | Bucks |19.0 |16.5 |12.6 | 9.1 | 8.9 | 7.3 | 8.8 | 53.7 | - | Cambridge |19.3 |15.6 |12.4 | 9.6 |10.1 | 9.7 |10.4 | 46.1 | - | Chester |17.5 |14.2 |10.3 | 7.7 | 7.3 | 7.2 | 6.9 | 60.6 | - | Cornwall |16.5 |14.8 |11.2 | 8.6 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 7.5 | 54.5 | - | Cumberland |29.2 |23.9 |18.6 |12.3 |12.3 |12.3 |11.0 | 62.3 | - | Derby |22.5 |17.7 |12.8 |10.0 |10.0 |10.0 | 9.4 | 58.2 | - | Devon |14.0 |10.6 | 8.1 | 6.7 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 6.1 | 56.4 | - | Dorset |14.2 |13.1 | 9.6 | 7.2 | 7.2 | 8.1 | 6.4 | 54.9 | - | Durham |24.0 |18.0 |13.8 |11.1 |11.1 |10.8 |11.6 | 51.7 | - | Essex |16.2 |12.7 | 9.1 | 7.3 | 7.1 | 6.7 | 6.4 | 60.5 | - | Gloucester |12.9 |11.6 | 8.2 | 6.3 | 6.1 | 6.8 | 5.8 | 55.0 | - | Hants |13.6 |11.8 | 8.5 | 7.3 | 7.1 | 6.9 | 6.4 | 52.9 | - | Hereford |21.4 |19.0 |13.4 |11.2 |11.5 |10.3 |11.0 | 48.6 | - | Hertford |18.4 |15.3 |10.4 | 7.0 | 7.2 | 6.6 | 7.5 | 59.2 | - | Huntingdon |19.8 |14.0 |12.9 |10.9 | 9.7 | 9.7 | 9.7 | 51.0 | - | Kent |14.7 |12.1 | 9.3 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 7.5 | 7.2 | 51.0 | - | Lancashire |16.2 |13.6 |10.2 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 7.5 | 7.2 | 55.6 | - | Leicestershire|19.9 |16.1 |11.4 | 8.6 | 7.9 | 7.5 | 7.3 | 63.3 | - | Lincolnshire |22.3 |18.5 |14.2 |12.2 |12.1 |12.7 |11.9 | 46.6 | - | Middlesex | 9.4 | 9.4 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 5.7 | 39.4 | - | Monmouth |18.6 |15.9 |11.3 |10.2 | 9.1 | 9.6 | 9.3 | 50.0 | - | Norfolk |27.3 |22.6 |16.7 |13.4 |13.4 |12.5 |12.8 | 53.1 | - | Northampton |18.7 |15.9 |11.7 | 9.1 | 8.8 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 58.8 | - | Northumberland|21.1 |17.9 |12.4 |10.2 |10.0 |10.4 | 9.3 | 55.9 | - | Nottingham |24.5 |21.7 |15.4 |13.7 |12.6 |12.0 |11.9 | 51.4 | - | Oxford |19.0 |15.4 |10.4 | 9.0 | 9.1 | 9.3 | 9.2 | 51.6 | - | Rutland |18.1 |12.7 | 7.9 | 7.2 | 6.8 | 9.0 |11.4 | 37.0 | - | Salop |28.2 |21.8 |16.6 |12.8 |13.4 |13.0 |11.8 | 58.2 | - | Somerset |13.3 |11.3 | 7.4 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 5.4 | 5.5 | 58.6 | - | Stafford |24.6 |19.4 |14.5 |11.2 |11.4 |10.9 |10.1 | 58.9 | - | Suffolk |22.0 |17.8 |14.0 |12.0 |11.7 |12.4 |12.5 | 43.2 | - | Surrey | 9.5 | 8.5 | 6.6 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 40.0 | - | Sussex |13.7 |11.5 | 8.7 | 7.2 | 7.0 | 6.5 | 6.4 | 53.3 | - | Warwick |14.9 |13.2 | 9.7 | 7.6 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 6.8 | 54.4 | - | Westmorland |21.9 |17.9 |13.1 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 8.5 | 7.8 | 64.4 | - | Wilts |17.1 |14.7 |10.3 | 9.2 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 9.3 | 45.6 | - | Worcester |16.3 |13.7 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 6.8 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 59.5 | - | Yorks-- | | | | | | | | | - | E. Riding |23.0 |18.2 |14.3 |12.2 |11.7 |12.2 |10.6 | 53.9 | - | N. Riding |27.7 |20.2 |15.4 |12.1 |11.6 |11.9 |10.2 | 63.2 | - | W. Riding |20.4 |16.1 |11.4 | 9.4 | 9.2 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 60.3 | - | Anglesey |19.7 |16.7 |15.7 |16.1 |14.9 |13.3 |12.9 | 34.5 | - | Brecon |19.9 |18.0 |12.5 |10.1 | 9.2 | 9.2 | 8.3 | 58.3 | - | Cardigan |16.0 |14.8 |11.8 | 8.9 | 7.8 | 6.3 | 7.3 | 54.4 | - | Carmarthen |18.2 |13.9 | 9.4 | 7.7 | 8.2 | 7.7 | 8.9 | 51.1 | - | Carnarvon |18.3 |13.9 |12.7 |10.3 | 9.6 | 9.4 |10.5 | 42.6 | - | Denbigh |21.1 |17.6 |13.4 |12.3 |11.6 |13.5 |10.3 | 51.2 | - | Flint |18.7 |18.4 |13.1 | 9.7 |11.2 |11.9 |11.0 | 41.2 | - | Glamorgan |17.7 |13.5 |10.3 | 8.5 | 9.1 | 8.9 | 8.4 | 52.5 | - | Merioneth |24.4 |19.5 |16.4 |13.5 |13.4 |13.2 |12.7 | 48.0 | - | Montgomery |29.5 |24.3 |16.7 |13.1 |13.4 |12.6 |11.7 | 60.3 | - | Pembroke |21.6 |15.9 |12.4 | 8.9 |10.2 |10.7 | 8.4 | 61.1 | - | Radnor |41.8 |33.2 |20.1 |14.4 |13.4 | 8.3 |11.3 | 73.0 | - +---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------+ - - TABLE VII.--_Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births._ - - Belfast 31 | Liverpool 54 - Birmingham 35 | Manchester 28 - Bradford 40 | Middlesboro' 25 - Bristol 31 | Newcastle 36 - Cork 18 | Nottingham 60 - Dublin 28 | Portsmouth 33 - Edinburgh 69 | Salford 28 - Glasgow 63 | Sunderland 30 - Leeds 54 | - - TABLE VIII.--_Scotland 1906._ - - +-------+-----------+-------------+------------+---------------+ - | Total |Legitimate.|Illegitimate.| Births per | Percentage of | - |Births.| | |1000 of pop.|Illegitimate to| - | | | | | Total Births. | - +-------+-----------+-------------+------------+---------------+ - |132,005| 122,699 | 9306 | 27.93 | 7.05 | - +-------+--+--------+-------------+---+--------+---------------+ - | | | Percentage of | - | | Illegitimate | Illegitimate | - | | Births. | to Total | - | | | Births. | - +----------+--------------------------+------------------------+ - | 1860 | 9,736 | 9.22 | - | 1865 | 11,262 | 9.96 | - | 1870 | 11,108 | 9.63 | - | 1875 | 10,786 | 8.73 | - | 1880 | 10,589 | 8.50 | - | 1885 | 10,680 | 8.47 | - | 1890 | 9,241 | 7.60 | - | 1895 | 9,204 | 7.28 | - | 1900 | 8,534 | 6.49 | - | 1901 | 8,359 | 6.32 | - | 1902 | 8,300 | 6.28 | - | 1903 | 8,295 | 6.21 | - | 1904 | 9,010 | 6.79 | - | 1905 | 9,082 | 6.91 | - | 1906 | 9,306 | 7.05 | - +----------+--------------------------+------------------------+ - - TABLE IX.--_Scotland 1906._ - - +------------------+-----------------+-----------------------+ - | | Illegitimate | Illegitimate Births | - | | Births. | per 1000 of Unmarried | - | +------+----------+ Women and | - | | No. | Per 1000 | Widows between | - | | | of Pop. | 15 and 45. | - +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ - | Districts: | | | | - | Principal Town | 4318 | 7.14 | | - | Large Town | 1029 | 5.58 | | - | Small Town | 1724 | 6.23 | | - | Mainland-rural | 2099 | 9.08 | | - | Insular-rural | 136 | 5.88 | | - +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ - | Shetland | 31 | 5.30 | 7.0 | - | Orkney | 29 | 5.99 | 7.7 | - | Caithness | 84 | 9.96 | 19.4 | - | Sutherland | 28 | 6.81 | 10.1 | - | Ross and Cromarty| 74 | 4.40 | 6.9 | - | Inverness | 145 | 8.02 | 11.5 | - | Nairn | 18 | 10.29 | 13.2 | - | Elgin (or Moray) | 169 | 15.66 | 26.3 | - | Banff | 202 | 12.93 | 25.4 | - | Aberdeen | 1083 | 12.38 | 24.2 | - | Kincardine | 93 | 8.15 | 17.0 | - | Forfar | 676 | 9.43 | 14.2 | - | Perth | 215 | 7.93 | 10.8 | - | Fife | 308 | 4.56 | 9.7 | - | Kinross | 20 | 9.95 | 22.2 | - | Clackmannan | 53 | 6.69 | 10.9 | - | Stirling | 235 | 4.91 | 13.2 | - | Dumbarton | 163 | 4.14 | 9.7 | - | Argyll | 148 | 10.07 | 12.7 | - | Bute | 30 | 8.36 | 9.2 | - | Renfrew | 410 | 4.46 | 8.5 | - | Ayr | 499 | 6.23 | 14.3 | - | Lanark | 2872 | 6.28 | 15.9 | - | Linlithgow | 99 | 3.88 | 15.4 | - | Edinburgh | 930 | 7.23 | 11.0 | - | Haddington | 66 | 5.92 | 11.8 | - | Berwick | 60 | 9.63 | 12.7 | - | Peebles | 21 | 6.18 | 7.9 | - | Selkirk | 46 | 9.13 | 11.5 | - | Roxburgh | 83 | 8.67 | 9.8 | - | Dumfries | 218 | 12.51 | 19.9 | - | Kirkcudbright | 92 | 10.71 | 15.7 | - | Wigtoun | 106 | 12.79 | 22.5 | - +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ - | Scotland | 9306 | 7.05 | 14.1 | - +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ - -Table V. gives the illegitimate births to 1000 births in England and -Wales for the ten years 1897-1906 and for the year 1907. Table VI. gives -the "corrected" rate for certain three-year periods. In connexion with -these tables the following extract from the Registrar-General's _Report_ -for 1907 (p. xxx.) is important. - - "It is difficult to explain the variations in the rates of - illegitimacy in the several counties. It may be stated generally that - the proportion of illegitimate children cannot alone serve as a - standard of morality. Broadly speaking, however, the single and - widowed women in London, in the counties south of the Thames, and in - the south-western counties have comparatively few illegitimate - children; on the other hand, the number of illegitimate children is - comparatively high in Shropshire, in Herefordshire, in Staffordshire, - in Nottinghamshire, in Cumberland, in North Wales, and also in nearly - all the counties on the eastern seaboard, viz. Suffolk, Norfolk, - Lincolnshire, the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire, and Durham. In - the Registrar-General's Report for the year 1851 it was assumed that - there was an indirect connexion between female illiteracy and - illegitimacy. This may have been the case in the middle of the last - century, but there is no conclusive evidence that such is the case at - the present day. The proportions of illegitimacy and the proportions - of married women who signed the marriage register by mark are - relatively high in Staffordshire, in North Wales, in Durham and in the - North Riding of Yorkshire; on the other hand, in Norfolk, in Suffolk - and in Lincolnshire there is a comparatively high proportion of - illegitimacy and a low proportion of illiteracy." - - TABLE X.--_Ireland. Proportion per cent of Illegitimate Births._ - - +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | |1903.|1904.|1905.|1906.|1907.| - +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | Ireland | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.5 | - | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | Leinster | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.7 | - | Munster | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.1 | - | Ulster | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.3 | - | Connaught | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | - +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - - TABLE XI.--_Ireland 1907._ - - +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - | | No. of | Per cent of | - | County. |Illegitimate|Total Births.| - | | Births. | | - +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - | Leinster-- | | | - | Carlow | 27 | 3.56 | - | Dublin | 34 | 1.15 | - | Dublin Co. Borough | 314 | 3.29 | - | Kildare | 22 | 1.46 | - | Kilkenny | 54 | 3.29 | - | King's | 24 | 2.07 | - | Longford | 11 | 1.23 | - | Louth | 27 | 2.01 | - | Meath | 30 | 2.27 | - | Queen's | 18 | 1.70 | - | Westmeath | 19 | 1.57 | - | Wexford | 89 | 4.11 | - | Wicklow | 37 | 2.91 | - | Munster-- | | | - | Clare | 23 | 1.04 | - | Cork Co. and Co. Borough | 151 | 1.69 | - | Kerry | 51 | 1.34 | - | Limerick Co. and Co. Borough | 107 | 3.14 | - | Tipperary N.R. | 19 | 1.49 | - | Tipperary S.R. | 66 | 3.32 | - | Waterford Co. and Co. Borough | 68 | 3.69 | - | Ulster-- | | | - | Antrim | 230 | 5.08 | - | Armagh | 99 | 3.49 | - | Belfast Co. Borough | 355 | 3.13 | - | Cavan | 27 | 1.54 | - | Donegal | 54 | 1.36 | - | Fermanagh | 41 | 3.15 | - | Londonderry Co. and Borough | 145 | 4.35 | - | Monaghan | 24 | 1.55 | - | Tyrone | 116 | 3.80 | - | Connaught-- | | | - | Galway | 32 | .80 | - | Leitrim | 10 | .77 | - | Mayo | 21 | .45 | - | Roscommon | 9 | .50 | - | Sligo | 9 | .52 | - +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - | Leinster | 716 | 2.67 | - | Munster | 495 | 2.11 | - | Ulster | 1272 | 3.32 | - | Connaught | 81 | .60 | - | +------------+ | - | | 2564 | | - +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - -This latter conclusion may be carried further by saying that in those -European countries where elementary education is most common, the rate -of illegitimacy is high, and that it is low in the more illiterate -parts, e.g. Ireland and Brittany. - -It has been said that one of the contributory causes of illegitimacy is -the contamination of great cities; statistics, however, disprove this, -there being more illegitimacy in the rural districts. Table VII. gives -the rate of illegitimacy in some of the principal towns of the United -Kingdom. - -That poverty is a determining factor in causing illegitimacy the -following figures, giving the rate of illegitimacy in the poorest parts -of London and in certain well-to-do parts, clearly disprove:-- - - _Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births._ - - +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | London. | 1901. | 1903. | 1905. | 1907. | - +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | Stepney | 12 | 9 | 18 | 10 | - | Bethnal Green | 13 | 15 | 13 | 11 | - | Mile End Old Town | 15 | 13 | 16 | 15 | - | Whitechapel | 22 | 24 | 19 | 19 | - | +-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | St George's, Hanover Sq. | 40 | 45 | 45 | 45 | - | Kensington | 48 | 44 | 49 | 54 | - | Fulham | 43 | 42 | 45 | 40 | - | Marylebone | 182 | 186 | 198 | 182 | - +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - -Tables VIII. and IX. give the rate of illegitimacy for the various -counties of Scotland, and Table X. the rate for Ireland. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Annual _Reports_ of the Registrars-General for - England, Scotland and Ireland; statistical returns of foreign - countries; A. Leffingwell, _Illegitimacy and the Influence of the - Seasons upon Conduct_ (1892). (T. A. I.) - - - - -ILLER, a river of Bavaria, rising in the south-west extremity of the -kingdom, among the Algäuer Alps. Taking a northerly course, it quits the -mountains at Immenstadt, and, flowing by Kempten, from which point it is -navigable for rafts, forms for some distance the boundary between -Bavaria and Württemberg, and eventually strikes the Danube (right bank) -just above Ulm. Its total length is 103 m. - - - - -ILLINOIS, a North Central state of the United States of America, -situated between 37° and 42° 30´ N. lat. and 87° 35´ and 91° 40´ W. -long. It is bounded N. by Wisconsin, E. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, -S.E. and S. by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky, and -S.W. and W. by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Missouri -and Iowa. The Enabling Act of Congress, which provided for the -organization of Illinois Territory into a state, extended its -jurisdiction to the middle of Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river; -consequently the total area of the state is 58,329 sq. m., of which 2337 -sq. m. are water surface, though the official figures of the United -States Geological Survey, which does not take into account this -extension of jurisdiction, are 56,665 sq. m. - - _Physiography._--Physiographically, the state (except the extreme - southern point) lies wholly in the Prairie Plains region. The N.E. - corner is by some placed in the "Great Lakes District." The southern - point touches the Coastal Plain Belt at its northward extension called - the "Mississippi Embayment." The surface of Illinois is an inclined - plane, whose general slope is toward the S. and S.W. The average - elevation above sea-level is about 600 ft.; the highest elevation is - Charles Mound (1257 ft.), on the Illinois-Wisconsin boundary line, one - of a chain of hills that crosses Jo Daviess, Stephenson, Winnebago, - Boone and McHenry counties. An elevation from 6 to 10 m. wide crosses - the southern part of the state from Grand Tower, in Jackson county, on - the Mississippi to Shawneetown, in Gallatin county, on the Ohio, the - highest point being 1047 ft. above the sea; from Grand Tower N. along - the Mississippi to the mouth of the Illinois there is a slight - elevation and there is another elevation of minor importance along the - Wabash. Many of the river bluffs rise to an unusual height, Starved - Rock, near Ottawa, in La Salle county, being 150 ft. above the bed of - the Illinois river. Cave in Rock, on the Ohio, in Hardin county, was - once the resort of river pirates. The country S. of the elevation - (mentioned above) between Grand Tower and Shawneetown was originally - covered with forests. - - The drainage of Illinois is far better than its low elevation and - comparatively level surface would suggest. There are more than 275 - streams in the state, grouped in two river systems, one having the - Mississippi, which receives three-fourths of the waters of Illinois, - as outlet, the other being tributary to the Wabash or Ohio rivers. The - most important river is the Illinois, which, formed by the junction of - the Des Plaines and the Kankakee, in the N.E. part of Grundy county, - crosses the N. central and W. portions of the state, draining 24,726 - sq. m. At some points, notably at Lake Peoria, it broadens into vast - expanses resembling lakes. The Kaskaskia, in the S., notable for its - variations in volume, and the Rock, in the N., are the other important - rivers emptying into the Mississippi; the Embarrass and Little Wabash, - the Saline and Cache in the E., are the important tributaries of the - Wabash and Ohio rivers. The Chicago river, a short stream 1 m. long, - formed by the union of its N. and S. branches, naturally flowed into - Lake Michigan, but by the construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal - its waters were turned in 1900 so that they ultimately flow into the - Mississippi. - - The soil of Illinois is remarkable for its fertility. The surface - soils are composed of drift deposits, varying from 10 to 200 ft. in - depth; they are often overlaid with a black loam 10 to 15 in. deep, - and in a large portion of the state there is a subsoil of yellow clay. - The soil of the prairies is darker and coarser than that of the - forests, but all differences disappear with cultivation. The soil of - the river valleys is alluvial and especially fertile, the "American - Bottom," extending along the Mississippi from Alton to Chester, having - been in cultivation for more than 150 years. Along the river bluffs - there is a silicious deposit called loess, which is well suited to the - cultivation of fruits and vegetables. In general the N. part of the - state is especially suited to the cultivation of hay, the N. and - central parts to Indian corn, the E. to oats, and the S.W. to wheat. - - _Climate._--The climate of Illinois is notable for its extremes of - temperature. The warm winds which sweep up the Mississippi Valley from - the Gulf of Mexico are responsible for the extremes of heat, and the - Arctic winds of the north, which find no mountain range to break their - strength, cause the extremes of cold. The mean annual temperature at - Winnebago, near the N. border, is 47° F., and it increases to the - southward at the rate of about 2° for every degree of latitude, being - 52° F. at Springfield, and 58° F. in Cairo, at the S. extremity. The - lowest temperature ever recorded in the state was -32° F., in February - 1905, at Ashton in the N.W. and the highest was 115° F., in July 1901, - at Centralia, in the S., making a maximum range of 147° F. The range - of extremes is considerably greater in the N. than in the S.; for - example, at Winnebago extremes have ranged from -26° F. to 110° F. or - 136° F., but at Cairo they have ranged only from -16° F. to 106° F. or - 122° F. The mean annual precipitation is about 39 in. in the S. - counties, but this decreases to the northward, being about 36 in. in - the central counties and 34 in. along the N. border. The mean annual - snowfall increases from 12 in. at the S. extremity to approximately 40 - in. in the N. counties. In the N. the precipitation is 44.8% greater - in spring and summer than it is in autumn and winter, but in the S. - only 26.17% greater. At Cairo the prevailing winds are southerly - during all months except February, and as far north as Springfield - they are southerly from April to January; but throughout the N. half - of the state, except along the shore of Lake Michigan, where they vary - from N.E. to S.W., the winds are mostly from the W. or N.W. from - October to March and very variable for the remainder of the year. The - dampness and miasma, to which so many of the early settlers' fatal - "chills and fever" were due, have practically disappeared before - modern methods of sanitary drainage. - - _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna and flora, which are similar to those of - the other North Central States of North America, impressed the early - explorers with their richness and variety. "We have seen nothing like - this for the fertility of the land, its prairies, woods, and wild - cattle," wrote Père Jacques Marquette of the Illinois region, and - later explorers also bore witness to the richness of the country. Many - of the original wild animals, such as the bison, bear, beaver, deer - and lynx, have disappeared; wolves, foxes and mink are rare; but - rabbits, squirrels and raccoons are still common. The fish are mainly - the coarser species, such as carp, buffalo-fish and white perch; of - better food fish, the principal varieties are bass (black, striped and - rock), crappie, pike, "jack salmon" or wall-eyed pike, and sun fish. - The yield of the fisheries in 1900 was valued at $388,876. The most - important fisheries on the Illinois river and its tributaries were at - Havana, Pekin and Peoria, which in 1907-1908 were represented by a - total catch of about 10,000,000 lb., out of a total for this river - system of 17,570,000 lb. The flora is varied. Great numbers of grasses - and flowering plants which once beautified the prairie landscape are - still found on uncultivated lands, and there are about 80 species of - trees, of which the oak, hickory, maple and ash are the most common. - The cypress is found only in the S. and the tamarack only in the N. - The forest area, estimated at 10,200 sq. m. in 1900, is almost wholly - in the southern counties, and nearly all the trees which the northern - half of the state had before the coming of the whites were along the - banks of streams. Among wild fruits are the cherry, plum, grape, - strawberry, blackberry and raspberry. - -_Industry and Commerce._--The fertility of the soil, the mineral wealth -and the transportation facilities have given Illinois a vast economic -development. In 1900 more than seven-tenths of the inhabitants in -gainful occupations were engaged in agriculture (25.6%), manufactures -and mechanical pursuits (26.7%), and trade and transportation (22%). - -[Illustration: Map of Illinois.] - - Historically and comparatively, agriculture is the most important - industry. In 1900 about nine-tenths of the total land area was - inclosed in farms; the value of farm property ($2,004,316,897) was - greater than that of any other state; as regards the total value of - farm products in 1899 Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa; in the - value of crops Illinois led all the states, and the values of property - and of products were respectively 35.6% and 87.1% greater than at the - end of the preceding decade. During the last half of the 19th century - the number of farms increased rapidly, and the average size declined - from 158 acres in 1850 to 127.6 acres in 1870 and 124.2 acres in 1900. - The prevailing form of tenure is that of owners, 60.7% of the farms - being so operated in 1900; but during the decade 1890-1900 the number - of farms cultivated by cash tenants increased 30.8%, and the number by - share tenants 24.5%, while the increase of cultivation by owners was - only 1%. In proportion of farm land improved (84.5%), Illinois was - surpassed only by Iowa among the states. Cereals form the most - important agricultural product (600,107,378 bushels in 1899--in value - about three-fourths of the total agricultural products of the state). - In the production of cereals Illinois surpassed the other states at - the close of each decade during the last half of the 19th century - except that ending in 1890, when Iowa was the leading state. Indian - corn and oats are the most valuable crops. The rank of Illinois in the - production of Indian corn was first in 1899 with about one-fifth of - the total product of the United States, and first in 1907[1] with - nearly one-tenth of the total crop of the country (9,521,000 bushels - out of 99,931,000). In 1879, in 1899 and in 1905 (when it produced - 132,779,762 bushels out of 953,216,197 from the entire country) it was - first among the states producing oats, but it was surpassed by Iowa in - 1889, 1906 and 1907; in 1907 the Illinois crop was 101,675,000 - bushels. From 1850 until 1879 Illinois also led in the production of - wheat; the competition of the more western states, however, caused a - great decline in both acreage and production of that cereal, the - state's rank in the number of bushels produced declining to third in - 1889 and to fourteenth in 1899, but the crop and yield per acre in - 1902 was larger than any since 1894; in 1905 the state ranked ninth, - in 1906 eighth and in 1907 fifth (the crop being 40,104,000 bushels) - among the wheat-growing states of the country. The rank of the state - in the growing of rye also declined from second in 1879 to eighth in - 1899 and to ninth in 1907 (when the crop was 1,106,000 bushels), and - the rank in the growing of barley from third in 1869 to sixteenth in - 1899. In 1907 the barley crop was 600,000 bushels. Hay and forage are, - after cereals, the most important crops; in 1907 2,664,000 acres - produced 3,730,000 tons of hay valued at $41,030,000. Potatoes and - broom corn are other valuable products. The potato crop in 1907 was - 13,398,000 bushels, valued at $9,647,000, and the sugar beet, first - introduced during the last decade of the 19th century, gave promise of - becoming one of the most important crops. From 1889 to 1899 there was - a distinct decline in the production of apples and peaches, but there - was a great increase in that of cherries, plums and pears. The large - urban population of the state makes the animal products very valuable, - Illinois ranking third in 1900 in the number of dairy cows, and in the - farm value of dairy products; indeed, all classes of live stock, - except sheep, increased in number from 1850 to 1900, and at the end of - the latter year Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa in the number of - horses and swine; in 1909 there were more horses in Illinois than in - Iowa. Important influences in the agricultural development of the - state have been the formation of Farmers' Institutes, organized in - 1895, a Corn Breeders' Association in 1898, and the introduction of - fertilizers, the use of which in 1899 was nearly seven times the - amount in 1889, and the study of soils, carried on by the State - Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of - Agriculture. - - The growth of manufacturing in Illinois during the last half of the - 19th century, due largely to the development of her exceptional - transportation facilities, was the most rapid and remarkable in the - industrial history of the United States. In 1850 the state ranked - fifteenth, in 1860 eighth, in 1870 sixth, in 1880 fourth, in 1890 and - again in 1900 third, in the value of its manufactures. The average - increases of invested capital and products for each decade from - 1850-1900 were, respectively, 189.26% and 152.9%; in 1900 the capital - invested ($776,829,598, of which $732,829,771 was in establishments - under the "factory system"), and the product ($1,259,730,168, of which - $1,120,868,308 was from establishments under the "factory system"), - showed unusually small percentages of increase over those for 1890 - (54.7% and 38.6% respectively); and in 1905 the capital and product of - establishments under the "factory system" were respectively - $975,844,799 and $1,410,342,129, showing increases of 33.2% and 25.8% - over the corresponding figures for 1900. - - The most important industry was the wholesale slaughtering and packing - of meats, which yielded 22.9% of the total manufactured product of the - state in 1900, and 22.5% of the total in 1905. From 1870 to 1905 - Illinois surpassed the other states in this industry, yielding in 1900 - and in 1905 more than one-third of the total product of the United - States. The increase in the value of the product in this industry in - Illinois between 1900 and 1905 was over 10%. An interesting phase of - the industry is the secondary enterprises that have developed from it, - nearly all portions of the slaughtered animal being finally put to - use. The blood is converted into clarifying material, the entrails are - used for sausage coverings, the hoofs and small bones furnish the raw - material for the manufacture of glue, the large bones are carved into - knife handles, and the horns into combs, the fats are made to yield - butterine, lard and soap, and the hides and hair are used in the - manufacture of mattresses and felts. - - The manufacture of iron and steel products, and of products depending - upon iron and steel as raw material, is second in importance. The iron - for these industries is secured from the Lake Superior region, the - coal and limestone from mines within the state. Indeed, in the - manufacture of iron and steel, Illinois was surpassed in 1900 only by - Pennsylvania and Ohio, the 1900 product being valued at $60,303,144; - but the value of foundry and machine shop products was even greater - ($63,878,352). In 1905 the iron and steel product had increased in - value since 1900 44.9%, to $87,352,761; the foundry and machine shop - products 25.2%, to $79,961,482; and the wire product showed even - greater increase, largely because of a difference of classification in - the two censuses, the value in 1905 being $14,099,566, as against - $2,879,188 in 1900, showing an increase of nearly 390%. The - development of agriculture, by creating a demand for improved farm - machinery, has stimulated the inventive genius; in many cases - blacksmith shops have been transformed into machinery factories; also - well-established companies of the eastern states have been induced to - remove to Illinois by the low prices of iron and wood, due to cheap - transportation rates on the Great Lakes. Consequently, in 1890, in - 1900 and again in 1905, Illinois surpassed any one of the other states - in the production of agricultural implements, the product in 1900 - being valued at $42,033,796, or 41.5% of the total output of - agricultural machinery in the United States; and in 1905 with a value - of $38,412,452 it represented 34.3% of the product of the entire - country. In the building of railway cars by manufacturing - corporations, Illinois also led the states in 1900 and in 1905, the - product being valued at $24,845,606 in 1900 and at $30,926,464 (an - increase of nearly one-fourth) in 1905; and in construction by railway - companies was second in 1900, with a product valued at $16,580,424, - which had increased 53.7% in 1905, when the product was valued at - $25,491,209. The greatest increase of products between 1890 and 1900 - was in the manufacture of electrical apparatus (2400%), in which the - increase in value of product was 37.2% between 1900 and 1905. - - Another class of manufactures consists of those dependent upon - agricultural products for raw material. Of these, the manufacture of - distilled liquors was in 1900 and in 1905 the most important, Illinois - leading the other states; the value of the 1900 product, which was - nearly 12% less than that of 1890, was increased by 41.6%, to - $54,101,805, in 1905. Peoria, the centre of the industry, is the - largest producer of whisky and high-class wines of the cities in the - United States. There were also, in 1900, 35 direct and other indirect - products made from Indian corn by glucose plants, which consumed - one-fifth of the Indian corn product of the state, and the value of - these products was $18,122,814; in 1905 it was only $14,532,180. Of - other manufactures dependent upon agriculture, flour and grist mill - products declined between 1890 and 1900, but between 1900 and 1905 - increased 39.6% to a value of $39,892,127. The manufacture of cheese, - butter and condensed milk increased 60% between 1890 and 1900, but - between 1900 and 1905 only 3.1%, the product in 1905 being valued at - $13,276,533. - - Other prosperous industries are the manufacture of lumber and timber - products (the raw material being floated down the Mississippi river - from the forests of other states), whose output increased from 1890 to - 1900 nearly 50%, but declined slightly between 1900 and 1905; of - furniture ($22,131,846 in 1905; $15,285,475 in 1900; showing an - increase of 44.8%), and of musical instruments ($13,323,358 in 1905; - $8,156,445 in 1900; an increase of 63.3% in the period), in both of - which Illinois was second in 1900 and in 1905; book and job printing, - in which the state ranked second in 1900 ($28,293,684 in 1905; - $19,761,780 in 1900; an increase of 43.2%), newspaper and periodical - printing ($28,644,981 in 1905; $19,404,955 in 1900; an increase of - 47.6%), in which it ranked third in 1900; and the manufacture of - clothing, boots and shoes. The value of the clothing manufactured in - 1905 was $67,439,617 (men's $55,202,999; women's $12,236,618), an - increase of 30.1% over 1900. The great manufacturing centre is - Chicago, where more than seven-tenths of the manufactured products of - the state were produced in 1900, and more than two-thirds in 1905. - - In this development of manufactures, the mineral resources have been - an important influence, nearly one-fourth (23.6%) of the manufactured - product in 1900 depending upon minerals for raw material. Although the - iron ore, for the iron and steel industry, is furnished by the mines - of the Lake Superior region, bituminous coal and limestone are - supplied by the Illinois deposits. The great central coal field of - North America extends into Illinois from Indiana as far N. as a line - from the N. boundary of Grundy county to Rock Island, W. from Rock - Island to Henderson county, then S.W. to the southern part of Jackson - county, when it runs S. into Kentucky, thus including more than - three-fourths (42,900 sq. m.) of the land surface of the state. In - 1679 Hennepin reported deposits of coal near what is now Ottawa on the - Illinois; there was some mining in 1810 on the Big Muddy river in - Jackson county; and in 1833, 6000 tons were mined. In 1907 (according - to state authorities) coal was produced in 52 counties, Williamson, - Sangamon, St Clair, Macoupin and Madison giving the largest yield. In - that year the tonnage was 51,317,146, and the value of the total - product $54,687,882; in 1908 the value of the state's product of coal - was exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania (nearly six times as great). - Nearly 30% of all coal mined in the state was mined by machinery in - 1907. The output of petroleum in Illinois was long unimportant. The - first serious attempts to find oil and gas in the state were in the - 'fifties of the 19th century. In 1889 the yield of petroleum was 1460 - barrels. In 1902 it was only 200 barrels, nearly all of which came - from Litchfield, Montgomery county (where oil had been found in - commercial quantities in 1886), and Washington, Tazewell county, in - the west central part of the state; at this time it was used locally - for lubricating purposes. There had been some drilling in Clark county - in 1865, and in 1904 this field was again worked at Westfield. In 1905 - the total output of the state was 181,084 barrels; in 1906 the amount - increased to 4,397,050 barrels, valued at $3,274,818; and in 1907, - according to state reports, the output was 24,281,973 barrels, being - nearly as great as that of the Appalachian field. The - petroleum-producing area of commercial importance is a strip of land - about 80 m. long and 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 m. wide in the S.E. part of - the state, centring about Crawford county. In April 1906 the first - pipe lines for petroleum in Illinois were laid; before that time all - shipments had been in tank cars. In connexion with petroleum, natural - gas has been found, especially in Clark and Crawford counties; in 1906 - the state's product of natural gas was valued at $87,211. Limestone is - found in about 30 counties, principally Cook, Will and Kankakee; the - value of the product in 1906 was $2,942,331. Clay and clay products of - the state were valued in 1906 at $12,765,453. Deposits of lead and - zinc have been discovered and worked in Jo Daviess county, near Galena - and Elizabeth, in the N.W. part of the state. A southern district, - including parts of Hardin, Pope and Saline counties, has produced, - incidentally to fluorspar, some lead, the maximum amount being 176,387 - lb. from the Fairview mine in 1866-1867. In 1905 the zinc from the - entire state was valued at $5,499,508; the lead product in 1906 was - valued at $65,208. Sandstone, quarried in 10 counties, was valued in - 1905 at $29,115 and in 1906 at $19,125. Pope and Hardin counties were - the only sources of fluorspar in the United States from 1842 until - 1898, when fluorspar began to be mined in Kentucky; in 1906 the output - was 28,268 tons, valued at $160,623, and in 1905 33,275 tons, valued - at $220,206. The centre of the fluorspar district was Rosiclare in - Hardin county. The cement deposits are also of value, natural cement - being valued at $118,221 and Portland cement at $2,461,494 in 1906. - Iron ore has been discovered. Glass sand is obtained from the Illinois - river valley in La Salle county; in 1906 it was valued at $156,684, - making the state in this product second only to Pennsylvania and West - Virginia (in 1905 it was second only to Pennsylvania). The value of - the total mineral product of the state in 1906 was estimated at - $121,188,306.[2] - -_Communications._--Transportation facilities have been an important -factor in the economic development of Illinois. The first European -settlers, who were French, came by way of the Great Lakes, and -established intimate relations with New Orleans by the Mississippi -river. The American settlers came by way of the Ohio river, and the -immigrants from the New England and Eastern states found their way to -Illinois over the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes. The first -transportation problem was to connect Lake Michigan and the Mississippi -river; this was accomplished by building the Illinois & Michigan canal -to La Salle, at the head of the navigation on the Illinois river, a work -which was begun in 1836 and completed in 1848 under the auspices of the -state. In 1890 the Sanitary District of Chicago undertook the -construction of a canal from Chicago to Joliet, where the new canal -joins the Illinois & Michigan canal; this canal is 24 ft. deep and 160 -ft. wide. The Federal government completed in October 1907 the -construction of a new canal, the Illinois & Mississippi, popularly -known as the Hennepin, from Hennepin to Rock river (just above the mouth -of Green river), 7 ft. deep, 52 ft. wide (at bottom), and 80 ft. wide at -the water-line. This canal provides, with the Illinois & Michigan canal -and the Illinois river, an improved waterway from Chicago to the -Mississippi river, and greatly increases the commercial and industrial -importance of the "twin cities" of Sterling and Rock Falls, where the -Rock river is dammed by a dam nearly 1500 ft. long, making the main -feeder for the canal. This feeder, formally opened in 1907, runs nearly -due S. to a point on the canal N.W. of Sheffield and N.E. of Mineral; -there are important locks on either side of this junction. At the -general election in November 1908 the people of Illinois authorized the -issue of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000 to provide for the -canalizing of the Desplaines and Illinois rivers as far as the city of -Utica, on the latter river, and connecting with the channel of the -Chicago Sanitary District at Joliet. The situation of Illinois between -the Great Lakes and the Appalachian Mountains has made it a natural -gateway for railroads connecting the North Atlantic and the far Western -states. The first railway constructed in the West was the Northern-Cross -railroad from Meredosia on the Illinois river to Springfield, completed -in 1842; during the last thirty years of the 19th century Illinois had a -larger railway mileage than any of the American states, her mileage in -January 1909 amounting to 12,215.63 m., second only to that of Texas. A -Railway and Warehouse Commission has authority to fix freight and -passenger rates for each road. It is the oldest commission with such -power in the United States, and the litigation with railways which -followed its establishment in 1871 fully demonstrated the public -character of the railway business and was the precedent for the policy -of state control elsewhere.[3] - -_Population._--In 1870 and 1880 Illinois was fourth among the states of -the United States in population; but in 1890, in 1900, and in 1910, its -rank was third, the figures for the last three years named being -respectively 3,826,351, 4,821,550, and 5,638,591.[4] The increase from -1880 to 1890 was 24.3%; from 1890 to 1900, 26%. Of the population in -1900, 98.2% was white, 79.9% was native-born, and 51.2% was of foreign -parentage (either one or both parents foreign-born). The principal -foreign element was German, the Teutonic immigration being especially -large in the decade ending in 1860; the immigrants from the United -Kingdom were second in importance, those from the Scandinavian countries -third, and those from southern Europe fourth. The urban population, on -the basis of places having 4000 inhabitants or more, was 51% of the -total; indeed the population of Cook county, in which the city of -Chicago is situated, was two-fifths of the total population of the -state; during the decade of the Civil War (1860-1870) the population of -the state increased only 48.4%, and that of Cook county about 140%, -while from 1870 to 1900 the increase of all counties, excluding Cook, -was about 36%, the increase in Chicago was about 468%. Of the 930 -incorporated cities, towns and villages, 614 had less than 1000 -inhabitants, 27 more than 5000 and less than 10,000, 14 more than 10,000 -and less than 20,000, 4 more than 20,000 and less than 25,000, and 7 -more than 25,000. These seven were Chicago (1,698,575), the second city -in population in the United States, Peoria (56,100), Quincy (36,252), -Springfield (34,159), Rockford (31,051), East St Louis (29,655), and -Joliet (29,353). In 1906 it was estimated that the total number of -communicants of all denominations was 2,077,197, and that of this total -932,084 were Roman Catholics, 263,344 were Methodist (235,092 of the -Northern Church, 7198 of the Southern Church, 9833 of the African -Methodist Episcopal Church, 5512 of the Methodist Protestant Church, and -3597 of the Free Methodist Church of North America), 202,566 were -Lutherans (113,527 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference, -36,366 of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 14,768 -of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and 14,005 of -the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and other states), 152,870 were -Baptists (118,884 of the Northern Convention, 16,081 of the National -(Colored) Baptist Convention, 7755 Free Baptists, 6671 General Baptists, -and 5163 Primitive Baptists), 115,602 were Presbyterian (86,251 of the -Northern Church, 17,208 of the Cumberland Church (now a part of the -Northern Church), and 9555 of the United Presbyterian Church), 101,516 -were Disciples of Christ, 50,973 were members of the German Evangelical -Synod of North America, 54,875 were Congregationalists, and 36,364 were -Protestant Episcopalians. - -_Government._--Illinois has been governed under four constitutions, a -Territorial constitution of 1812, and three State constitutions of 1818, -1848 and 1870 (subsequently amended). Amendments may be made by a -Constitutional Convention or a two-thirds vote of all the members -elected to the legislature, ratification by the people being required in -either instance. To call a Constitutional Convention it is necessary -that a majority popular vote concur in the demand therefor of two-thirds -of the members of each house of the General Assembly. The executive -officials hold office for four years, with the exception of the -treasurer, whose term of service is two years. The governor must be at -least thirty years of age, and he must also have been a citizen of the -United States and of Illinois for the five years preceding his election. -His veto may be over-ridden by a two-thirds vote of all the members -elected to the legislature. Members of the legislature, which meets -biennially, are chosen by districts, three representatives and one -senator from each of the 51 districts, 18 of which are in Cook county. -The term of senators is four years, that of representatives two years; -and in the election of representatives since 1870 there has been a -provision for "minority" representation, under which by cumulative -voting each voter may cast as many votes for one candidate as there are -representatives to be chosen, or he may distribute his votes (giving -three votes to one candidate, or 1½ votes each to two candidates, or one -vote each to three candidates), the candidate or candidates receiving -the highest number of votes being elected. A similar system of -cumulative voting for aldermen may be provided for by ordinance of -councils in cities organized under the general state law of 1872. -Requisites for membership in the General Assembly are citizenship in the -United States; residence in Illinois for five years, two of which must -have been just preceding the candidate's election; and an age of 25 -years for senators, and of 21 years for representatives. Conviction for -bribery, perjury or other infamous crime, or failure (in the case of a -collector or holder of public moneys) to account for and pay over all -moneys due from him are disqualifications; and before entering upon the -duties of his office each member of the legislature must take a -prescribed oath that he has neither given nor promised anything to -influence voters at the election, and that he will not accept, directly -or indirectly, "money or other valuable thing from any corporation, -company or person" for his vote or influence upon proposed legislation. -Special legislation is prohibited when general laws are applicable, and -special and local legislation is forbidden in any of twenty-three -enumerated cases, among which are divorce, changing of an individual's -name or the name of a place, and the grant to a corporation of the right -to build railways or to exercise any exclusive franchise or privilege. -The judiciary consists of a supreme court of 7 members elected for a -term of 9 years; a circuit court of 54 judges, 3 for each of 18 judicial -districts, elected for 6 years; and four appellate courts--one for Cook -county (which has also a "branch appellate court," both the court and -the branch court being presided over by three circuit judges appointed -by the Supreme Court) and three other districts, each with three judges -appointed in the same way. In Cook county a criminal court, and the -supreme court of Cook county (originally the supreme court of Chicago), -supplement the work of the circuit court. There are also county courts, -consisting of one judge who serves for four years; in some counties -probate courts have been established, and in counties of more than -500,000 population juvenile courts for the trial and care of delinquent -children are provided for. - -The local government of Illinois includes both county and township -systems. The earliest American settlers came from the Southern States -and naturally introduced the county system; but the increase of -population from the New England and Middle States led to a recognition -of township organization in the constitution of 1848, and this form of -government, at first prevalent only in the northern counties, is now -found in most of the middle and southern counties. Cook county, although -it has a township system, is governed, like those counties in which -townships are not found, by a Board of Commissioners, elected by the -townships and the city of Chicago. A general law of 1872 provides for -the organization of municipalities, only cities and villages being -recognized, though there are still some "towns" which have failed to -reorganize under the new law. City charters are granted only to such -municipalities as have a population of at least 1000. - -Requirements for suffrage are age of 21 years or more, citizenship in -the United States, and residence in the state for one year, in the -county ninety days, and the election precinct thirty days preceding the -exercise of suffrage. Women are permitted to vote for certain school -officials and the trustees of the State University. Disfranchisement is -brought about by conviction for bribery, felony or infamous crime, and -an attempt to vote after such conviction is a felony. - -The relation of the state to corporations and industrial problems has -been a subject of important legislation. The constitution declares that -the state's rights of eminent domain shall never be so abridged as to -prevent the legislature from taking the property and franchises of -incorporated companies and subjecting them to the public necessity in a -way similar to the treatment of individuals. In 1903 the legislature -authorized the municipal ownership of public service corporations, and -in 1905 the city of Chicago took steps to acquire ownership of its -street railways--a movement which seemed to have spent its force in -1907, when the municipal ownership candidates were defeated in the -city's elections--and in 1902 the right of that city to regulate the -price of gas was recognized by the United States Circuit Court of -Appeals. Railways organized or doing business in the state are required -by the constitution to have a public office where books for public -inspection are kept, showing the amount of stock, its owners, and the -amount of the road's liabilities and assets. No railway company may now -issue stock except for money, labour, or property actually received and -applied to purposes for which the corporation was organized. In 1907 a -law went into effect making two cents a mile a maximum railway fare. An -anti-trust law of 1893 exempted from the definition of trust -combinations those formed by producers of agricultural products and live -stock, but the United States Supreme Court in 1902 declared the statute -unconstitutional as class legislation. According to a revised mining law -of 1899 (subsequently amended), all mines are required to be in charge -of certified mine managers, mine examiners, and hoisting engineers, when -the services of the engineers are necessary; and every mine must have an -escapement shaft distinct from the hoisting shaft. The number of men -permitted to work in any mine not having an escapement shaft cannot, in -any circumstances, exceed ten during the time in which the escapement or -connexion is being completed. - -Economic conditions have also led to an increase of administrative -boards. A State Civil Service Commission was created by an act of the -General Assembly of 1905. A Bureau of Labor Statistics (1879), whose -members are styled Commissioners of Labor, makes a study of economic and -financial problems and publishes biennial reports; a Mining Board (1883) -and an inspector of factories and workshops (since 1893) have for their -duty the enforcement of labour legislation. There are also a State Food -Commission (1899) and a Live Stock Commission (1885). A Board of -Arbitration (1895) has authority to make and publish investigations of -all facts relating to strikes and lock-outs, to issue subpoenas for the -attendance and testifying of witnesses, and "to adjust strikes or -lock-outs by mediation or conciliation, without a formal submission to -arbitration." - -The employment of children under 14 years of age in factories or mines, -and working employees under 16 years of age for more than 60 hours a -week, are forbidden by statute. The state has an excellent "Juvenile -Court Law," which came into force on the 1st of July 1899 and has done -much good, especially in Chicago. The law recognized that a child should -not be treated like a mature malefactor, and provided that there should -be no criminal procedure, that the child should not be imprisoned or -prosecuted, that his interests should be protected by a probation -officer, that he should be discharged unless found dependent, delinquent -or truant, and in such case that he should be turned over to the care of -an approved individual or charitable society. This law applies to -counties having a minimum population of 500,000. The legal rate of -interest is 5%, but this may be increased to 7% by written contract. A -homestead owned and occupied by a householder having a family is exempt -(to the amount of $1000) from liability for debts, except taxes upon, -and purchase money for, the same. Personal property to the value of $300 -also is exempt from liability for debt. Grounds for divorce are -impotence of either party at time of marriage, previous marriage, -adultery, wilful desertion for two years, habitual drunkenness, attempt -on life, extreme and repeated cruelty, and conviction of felony or other -infamous crime. The marriage of cousins of the first degree is declared -incestuous and void. In June 1907 the Supreme Court of Illinois declared -the sale of liquor not a common right and "sale without license a -criminal offence," thus forcing clubs to close their bars or take out -licences. - - The charitable institutions of the state are under the management of - local trustees appointed by the governor. They are under the - supervision of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities - (five non-salaried members appointed by the governor); in 1908 there - were 18 institutions under its jurisdiction. Of these, seven were - hospitals for the insane--six for specific parts of the state, viz. - northern at Elgin, eastern at Kankakee, central at Jacksonville, - southern at Anna, western at Watertown, and general at South - Bartonville, and one at Chester for insane criminals. The others were - the State Psychopathic Institute at Kankakee (established in 1907 as - part of the insane service) for systematic study of mental and nervous - diseases; one at Lincoln having charge of feeble-minded children; two - institutions for the blind--a school at Jacksonville and an industrial - home at Marshall Boulevard and 19th Street, Chicago; a home for - soldiers and sailors (Quincy), one for soldiers' orphans (Normal), and - one for soldiers' widows (Wilmington); a school for the deaf - (Jacksonville), and an eye and ear infirmary (Chicago). The Board of - Charities also had supervision of the State Training School for - (delinquent) Girls (1893) at Geneva, and of the St Charles School for - (delinquent) Boys (1901) at St Charles. - - The trustees of each penal institution are appointed by the governor, - and the commissioners of the two penitentiaries and the managers of - the state reformatory compose a Board of Prison Industries. There were - in 1908 two penitentiaries, one at Joliet and one at Chester, and, in - addition to the two reformatory institutions for young offenders under - the supervision of the Board of Charities, there is a State - Reformatory for boys at Pontiac. The indeterminate sentence and parole - systems are important features of the treatment of criminals. All but - two of the counties have almshouses. In 1908, in some counties, the - care of paupers was still let by contract to the lowest bidder or the - superintendent was paid between $1.00 and $1.80--seldom more than - $1.50--a week for each patient, and he paid a small (or no) rent on - the county farm. Complete state control of the insane and the - introduction of modern hospital and curative treatment in the state - asylums (or hospitals) are gradually taking the place of county care - for the insane and of antiquated custodial treatment in and political - control of the state asylums--changes largely due to the action of - Governor Deneen, who appointed in 1906 a Board of Charities pledged to - reform. By a law of 1905 all employed in such institutions were put on - a civil service basis. In 1907-1908, $1,500,000 was spent in - rehabilitating old buildings and in buying new land and erecting - buildings. - -_Education._--Public education in Illinois had its genesis in the land -of the North-West Territory reserved for educational purposes by the -Ordinance of 1787. The first state school law, which provided for state -taxation for public schools, was enacted in 1825. The section providing -for taxation, however, was repealed, but free schools supported by the -sale of land reserved for education and by local taxation were -established as early as 1834. In 1855 a second school law providing for -a state school tax was enacted, and this is the foundation of the -existing public school system; the constitution of 1870 also requires -the legislature to provide a thorough and efficient system of public -schools. In 1907-1908 the total school revenue, nine-tenths of which was -derived from local taxation and the remainder chiefly from a state -appropriation (for the year in question, $1,057,000) including the -proceeds derived from permanent school funds secured by the gift and -sale of public lands on the part of the United States Government, was -$39,989,510.22. The attendance in some school of all children from 7 to -16 years of age is compulsory, and of the population of school age -(1,500,066) 988,078 were enrolled in public schools. The average length -of the school term in 1908 was 7.8 months, and the average monthly -salary of teachers was $82.12 for men and $60.76 for women. - -The state provides for higher education in the University of Illinois, -situated in the cities of Champaign and Urbana. It was founded in 1867, -through the United States land grant of 1862, as the Illinois Industrial -University, and received its present name in 1885; since 1870 it has -been co-educational. Associated with the University are the State -Laboratory of Natural History, the State Water Survey, the State -Geological Survey, the State Entomologist's Office, and Agricultural and -Engineering Experiment Stations. The University confers degrees in arts, -science, engineering, agriculture, law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, -music, and library science; besides the usual subjects, it has a course -in ceramics. The University publishes _Bulletins_ of the Agricultural -and Engineering Experiment Stations; _Reports_ of the State Water -Survey, of the State Natural History Survey, of the State Geological -Survey, and of the State Entomologist's Office; _University Studies_; -and _The Journal of English and Germanic Philology_. The schools of -medicine, pharmacy and dentistry are in Chicago. The faculty in 1907 -numbered 408, and the total enrolment of students in 1907-1908 was 4743 -(of whom 991 were women), distributed (with 13 duplicates in the -classification) as follows: Graduate School, 203; Undergraduate -Colleges, 2812; Summer Session, 367; College of Law, 186; College of -Medicine, 476; College of Dentistry, 76; School of Pharmacy, 259; -Academy, 377. In 1908 the University had a library of 103,000 volumes. -The trustees of the institution, who have legislative power only, are -the governor, the President of the Board of Agriculture, the State -Superintendent of Public Instruction, and nine others elected by the -people. There were in 1907 more than forty other universities and -colleges in the state, the most important being the University of -Chicago, North-western University at Evanston, Illinois Wesleyan -University at Bloomington, Knox College, Galesburg, and Illinois College -at Jacksonville. There were also six normal colleges, five of them -public: the Southern Illinois State Normal College at Carbondale, the -Eastern Illinois State Normal School at Charleston, the Western Illinois -State Normal School at Macomb, the Chicago Normal School at Chicago, the -Northern Illinois State Normal School at DeKalb, and the Illinois State -Normal University at Normal. - - _Finance._--The total receipts for the biennial period ending the 30th - of September 1908 were $19,588,842.06, and the disbursements were - $21,278,805.27; and on the 1st of October 1908 there was a balance in - the treasury of $3,859,263.44. The bonded debt on the same date was - $17,500; these bonds ceased to bear interest in 1882, but although - called in by the governor they have never been presented for payment. - The system of revenue is based upon the general property tax; the - local assessment of all real and personal property is required, with - the aim of recording all kinds of property upon the assessment rolls. - Boards of Revision and Boards of Supervision then equalize the - assessments in the counties and townships, while a State Board of - Equalization seeks to equalize the total valuation of the various - counties. The tendency is for property valuations to decline, the - estimated valuation from 1873 to 1893 decreasing 27% in Cook county - and 39% in the other counties, while the assessments from 1888 to 1898 - were in inverse ratio to the increase of wealth. There has also been - great inequality in valuations, the increase of valuation in Cook - county made in compliance with the revenue law of 1898 being - $200,000,000, while that for the rest of the state was only - $4,000,000. Among other sources of revenue are an inheritance tax, - which yields approximately $1,000,000 a year, and 7% of the annual - gross earnings of the Illinois Central railway, given in return for - the state aid in the construction of the road. The constitution - prohibits the state from lending its credit or making appropriations - in aid of any corporation, association or individual, and from - constructing internal improvements, and the counties, townships, and - other political units cannot incur indebtedness in excess of 5% of - their assessed property valuation. The legislature may not contract a - debt of more than $250,000 except to suppress treason, war or - invasion, and no legislative appropriation may extend longer than the - succeeding legislature. General banking laws must be submitted to the - people for ratification. - -_History._--Illinois is the French form of Iliniwek, the name of a -confederacy of Algonquian tribes. The first exploration by Europeans was -that of the French. In 1659 Pierre Radisson and Medard Chouart des -Groseilliers seem to have reached the upper Mississippi. It is certain -that in 1673 part of the region known as the Illinois country was -explored to some extent by two Frenchmen, Louis Joliet and Jacques -Marquette, a Jesuit father. Marquette, under orders to begin a mission -to the Indians, who were known to the French by their visits to the -French settlements in the Lake Superior region, and Joliet, who acted -under orders of Jean Talon, Intendant of Canada, ascended the Fox river, -crossed the portage between it and the Wisconsin river, and followed -that stream to the Mississippi, which they descended to a point below -the mouth of the Arkansas. On their return journey they ascended the -Illinois river as far as Lake Peoria; they then crossed the portage to -Lake Michigan, and in 1675 Marquette founded a mission at the Indian -town of Kaskaskia, near the present Utica, Ill. In 1679 the explorer La -Salle, desiring to find the mouth of the Mississippi and to extend the -domain of France in America, ascended the St Joseph river, crossed the -portage separating it from the Kankakee, which he descended to the -Illinois, and built in the neighbourhood of Lake Peoria a fort which he -called Fort Crevecoeur. The vicissitudes of the expedition, the -necessity for him to return to Canada for tools to construct a large -river-boat, and opposition in Canada to his plans, prevented him from -reaching the mouth of the Illinois until the 6th of February 1682. After -such preliminary explorations, the French made permanent settlements, -which had their origin in the missions of the Jesuits and the bartering -posts of the French traders. Chief of these were Kaskaskia, established -near the mouth of the Kaskaskia river, about 1720; Cahokia, a little -below the mouth of the Missouri river, founded at about the same time; -and Fort Chartres, on the Mississippi between Cahokia and Kaskaskia, -founded in 1720 to be a link in a chain of fortifications intended to -extend from the St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. A monument of the -labours of the missionaries is a manuscript dictionary (c. 1720) of the -language of the Illinois, with catechism and prayers, probably the work -of Father Le Boulanger. - -In 1712 the Illinois river was made the N. boundary of the French -province of Louisiana, which was granted to Antoine Crozat (1655-1738), -and in 1721 the seventh civil and military district of that province was -named Illinois, which included more than one-half of the present state, -the country between the Arkansas river and the line 43° N. lat., as well -as the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi; but in -1723 the region around the Wabash river was formed into a separate -district. The trade of the Illinois country was now diverted to the -settlements in the lower Mississippi river, but the French, although -they were successful in gaining the confidence and friendship of the -Indians, failed to develop the resources of the country. By the treaty -of Paris, 1763, France ceded to Great Britain her claims to the country -between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, but on account of the -resistance of Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas who drew into conspiracy -most of the tribes between the Ottawa river and the lower Mississippi, -the English were not able to take possession of the country until 1765, -when the French flag was finally lowered at Fort Chartres. - -The policy of the British government was not favourable to the economic -development of the newly-acquired country, since it was feared that its -prosperity might react against the trade and industry of Great Britain. -But in 1769 and the succeeding years of English control, this policy was -relaxed, and immigration from the seaboard colonies, especially from -Virginia, began. In 1771 the people of the Illinois country, through a -meeting at Kaskaskia, demanded a form of self-government similar to that -of Connecticut. The petition was rejected by General Thomas Gage; and -Thomas Legge, earl of Dartmouth (1731-1801), Secretary of State for -Plantations and President of the Board of Trade, drew up a plan of -government for Illinois in which all officials were appointed by the -crown. This, however, was never operative, for in 1774, by the famous -Quebec Act, the Illinois country was annexed to the province of Quebec, -and at the same time the jurisdiction of the French civil law was -recognized. These facts explain the considerable sympathy in Illinois -for the colonial cause in the War of Independence. Most of the -inhabitants, however, were French, and these were Loyalists. -Consequently, the British government withdrew their troops from the -Illinois country. The English authorities instigated the Indians to make -attacks upon the frontiers of the American colonies, and this led to one -of the most important events in the history of the Illinois country, the -capture of the British posts of Cahokia and Kaskaskia in 1778, and in -the following year of Vincennes (Indiana), by George Rogers Clark -(q.v.), who acted under orders of Patrick Henry, Governor of Virginia. -These conquests had much to do with the securing by the United States of -the country W. of the Alleghanies and N. of the Ohio in the treaty of -Paris, 1783. - -The Virginia House of Delegates, in 1778, extended the civil -jurisdiction of Virginia to the north-west, and appointed Captain John -Todd (1750-1782), of Kentucky, governor of the entire territory north of -the Ohio, organized as "The County of Illinois"; the judges of the -courts at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and Vincennes, who had been appointed -under the British administration, were now chosen by election; but this -government was confined to the old French settlements and was entirely -inefficient. In 1787, Virginia and the other states having relinquished -their claims to the country west of the Alleghanies, the North-West -Territory was organized by Congress by the famous Ordinance of 1787. Two -years later St Clair county was formed out of the S.W. part of the -Illinois country, while the E. portion and the settlements around -Vincennes (Indiana) were united into the county of Knox, and in 1795 the -S. part of St Clair county was organized into Randolph county, with -Kaskaskia as the seat of administration. In 1800 the Illinois country -was included in the Territory of Indiana, and in 1809 the W. part of -Indiana from Vincennes N. to Canada was organized as the Territory of -Illinois; it included, besides the present territory of the state, all -of Wisconsin except the N. part of the Green Bay peninsula, a -considerable part of Michigan, and all of Minnesota E. of the -Mississippi. In 1812, by permission of Congress, a representative -assembly was chosen, a Territorial constitution was adopted, and the -Territorial delegate in Congress was elected directly by the people. - -In 1818 Illinois became a state of the American Union, the Enabling Act -fixing the line 42° 30' as the N. boundary, instead of that provided by -the Ordinance of 1787, which passed through the S. bend of Lake -Michigan. The reason given for this change was that if the Mississippi -and Ohio rivers were the only outlets of Illinois trade, the interests -of the state would become identified with those of the southern states; -but if an outlet by Lake Michigan were provided, closer relations would -be established with the northern and middle states, and so "additional -security for the perpetuity of the Union" would be afforded. - -Among the first problems of the new state were those relating to lands -and Indians. Throughout the Territorial period there was conflict -between French and English land claims. In 1804 Congress established -land offices at Kaskaskia and Vincennes to examine existing claims and -to eliminate conflict with future grants; in 1812 new offices were -established at Shawneetown and Edwardsville for the sale of public -lands; and in 1816 more than 500,000 acres were sold. In 1818, however, -many citizens were in debt for their lands, and "squatters" invaded the -rights of settlers. Congress therefore reduced the price of land from $2 -to $1.25 per acre, and adopted the policy of pre-emption, preference -being given to the claims of existing settlers. The Indians, however, -resisted measures looking toward the extinguishment of their claims to -the country. Their dissatisfaction with the treaties signed in 1795 and -1804 caused them to espouse the British cause in the War of 1812, and in -1812 they overpowered a body of soldiers and settlers who had abandoned -Fort Dearborn (See CHICAGO). For a number of years after the end of the -conflict, the Indians were comparatively peaceful; but in 1831 the delay -of the Sauk and Foxes in withdrawing from the lands in northern -Illinois, caused Governor John Reynolds (1788-1865) to call out the -militia. The following year Black Hawk, a Sauk leader, opened an -unsuccessful war in northern Illinois and Wisconsin (the Black Hawk -War); and by 1833 all Indians in Illinois had been removed from the -state. - -The financial and industrial policy of the state was unfortunate. Money -being scarce, the legislature in 1819 chartered a state bank which was -authorized to do business on the credit of the state. In a few years the -bank failed, and the state in 1831 borrowed money to redeem the -depreciated notes issued by the bank. A second state bank was chartered -in 1835; two years later it suspended payment, and in 1843 the -legislature provided for its liquidation. The state also undertook to -establish a system of internal improvements, granting a loan for the -construction of the Illinois and Michigan canal in 1836, and in 1837 -appropriating $10,000,000 for the building of railroads and other -improvements. The experiment proved unsuccessful; the state's credit -declined and a heavy debt was incurred, and in 1840 the policy of aiding -public improvements was abandoned. Through the efforts of Governor -Thomas Ford (1800-1850) a movement to repudiate the state debt was -defeated, and a plan was adopted by which the entire debt could be -reduced without excessive taxation, and by 1880 practically the entire -debt was extinguished. - -A notable incident in the history of the state was the immigration of -the Mormons from Missouri, about 1840. Their principal settlements were -in Hancock county. They succeeded in securing favours from the -legislature, and their city of Nauvoo had courts and a military -organization that was independent of state control. Political intrigue, -claims of independence from the state, as well as charges of polygamy -and lawless conduct, aroused such intense opposition to the sect that in -1844 a civil war broke out in Hancock county which resulted in the -murder of Joseph Smith and the removal of the Mormons from Illinois in -1846. - -The slavery question, however, was the problem of lasting political -importance. Slaves had been brought into the Illinois country by the -French, and Governor Arthur St Clair (1734-1818) interpreted the article -of the Ordinance of 1787, which forbade slavery in the North-West -Territory, as a prohibition of the introduction of slaves into the -Territory, not an interference with existing conditions. The idea also -arose that while negroes could not become slaves, they could be held as -indentured servants, and such servitude was recognized in the Indiana -Code of 1803, the Illinois constitution of 1818, and Statutes of 1819; -indeed there would probably have been a recognition of slavery in the -constitution of 1818 had it not been feared that such recognition would -have prevented the admission of the state to the Union. In 1823 the -legislature referred to the people a resolution for a constitutional -convention to amend the constitution. The aim, not expressed, was the -legalization of slavery. Although a majority of the public men of the -state, indeed probably a majority of the entire population, was either -born in the Southern states or descended from Southern people, the -resolution of the legislature was rejected, the leader of the opposition -being Governor Edward Coles (1786-1868), a Virginia slave-holder, who -had freed his slaves on coming to Illinois, and at least one half the -votes against the proposed amendment of the constitution were cast by -men of Southern birth. The opposition to slavery, however, was at first -economic, not philanthropic. In 1837 there was only one abolition -society in the state, but chiefly through the agitation of Elijah P. -Lovejoy (see ALTON), the abolition sentiment grew. In 1842 the moral -issue had become political, and the Liberty Party was organized, which -in 1848 united with the Free Soil Party; but as the Whig Party approved -the policy of non-extension of slavery, these parties did not succeed so -well united as under separate existence. In 1854, however, the Liberty -and Free Soil parties, the Democrats opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska -Bill, and some Whigs united, secured a majority in the legislature, and -elected Lyman Trumbull United States senator. Two years later these -elements formally organized as the Republican Party, though that name -had been used locally in 1854, and elected their candidates for state -offices. This was the first time that the Democratic Party had been -defeated, its organization having been in control since the admission of -Illinois to the Union. An important influence in this political -revolution was a change in the character of the population. Until 1848 -the Southern element predominated in the population, but after that year -the immigration from the Northern states was greater than that from the -South, and the foreign element also increased.[5] The opposition to -slavery continued to be political and economic rather than -philanthropic. The constitution of 1848, which abolished slavery, also -forbade the immigration of slaves into the state.[6] In 1858 occurred -the famous contest for the office of United States senator between -Stephen A. Douglas (Democrat) and Abraham Lincoln (Republican). Douglas -was elected, but the vote showed that Illinois was becoming more -Northern in sympathy, and two years later Lincoln, then candidate for -the presidency, carried the state. - -The policy of Illinois in the early period of secession was one of -marked loyalty to the Union; even in the S. part of the state, where -there was a strong feeling against national interference with slavery, -the majority of the people had no sympathy with the pro-slavery men in -their efforts to dissolve the Union. The legislature of 1861 provided -for a war fund of $2,000,000; and Capt. James H. Stokes (1814-1890) of -Chicago transferred a large amount of munitions of war from St Louis, -where the secession sentiment was strong, to Alton. The state -contributed 255,092 men to the Federal armies. From 1862-1864, however, -there was considerable opposition to a continuance of the war. This was -at first political; the legislature of 1862 was Democratic, and for -political purposes that body adopted resolutions against further -conflict, and recommended an armistice, and a national convention to -conclude peace. The same year a convention, whose duty was to revise the -constitution, met. It declared that the law which called it into being -was no longer binding, and that it was supreme in all matters incident -to amending the constitution. Among its acts was the assumption of the -right of ratifying a proposed amendment to the constitution of the -United States which prohibited Congress from interfering with the -institution of slavery within a state, although the right of -ratification belonged to the legislature. The convention also inserted -clauses preventing negroes and mulattoes from immigrating into the state -and from voting and holding office; and although the constitution as a -whole was rejected by the people, these clauses were ratified. In 1863 -more pronounced opposition to the policy of the National Government -developed. A mass meeting, which met at Springfield in July, at the -instance of the Democratic Party, adopted resolutions that condemned -the suspension of the writ of Habeas Corpus, endorsed the doctrine of -state sovereignty, demanded a national assembly to determine terms of -peace, and asked President Lincoln to withdraw the proclamation that -emancipated the slaves, and so to permit the people of Illinois to fight -only for "Union, the Constitution and the enforcement of the laws." The -Knights of the Golden Circle, and other secret societies, whose aims -were the promulgation of state sovereignty and the extension of aid to -the Confederate states, began to flourish, and it is said that in 1864 -there were 50,000 members of the Sons of Liberty in the state. Captain -T. Henry Hines, of the Confederate army, was appointed by Jefferson -Davis to co-operate with these societies. For a time his headquarters -were in Chicago, and an elaborate attempt to liberate Confederate -prisoners in Chicago (known as the Camp Douglas Conspiracy) was thwarted -by a discovery of the plans. In the elections of 1864 the Republicans -and Union Democrats united, and after an exciting campaign they were -successful. The new legislature was the first among the legislatures of -the states to ratify (on the 1st of February 1865) the Thirteenth -Amendment. - -From the close of the Civil War until the end of the 19th century the -Republican Party was generally dominant, but the trend of political -development was not without interest. In 1872 many prominent men of the -state joined the Liberal Republican Party, among them Governor John M. -Palmer, Senator Lyman Trumbull and Gustavus Koerner (1809-1896), one of -the most prominent representatives of the German element in Illinois. -The organization united locally, as in national politics, with the -Democratic Party, with equally ineffective results. Economic depression -gave the Granger Movement considerable popularity, and an outgrowth of -the Granger organization was the Independent Reform Party, of 1874, -which advocated retrenchment of expenses, the state regulation of -railways and a tariff for revenue only. A Democratic Liberal Party was -organized in the same year, one of its leaders being Governor Palmer; -consequently no party had a majority in the legislature elected in 1874. -In 1876 the Greenback Party, the successor in Illinois of the -Independent Reform Party, secured a strong following; although its -candidate for governor was endorsed by the Democrats, the Republicans -regained control of the state administration. - -The relations between capital and labour have resulted in serious -conditions, the number of strikes from 1880-1901 having been 2640, and -the number of lock-outs 95. In 1885 the governor found it necessary to -use the state militia to suppress riots in Will and Cook counties -occasioned by the strikes of quarrymen, and the following year the -militia was again called out to suppress riots in St Clair and Cook -counties caused by the widespread strike of railway employees. The most -noted instance of military interference was in 1894, when President -Grover Cleveland sent United States troops to Chicago to prevent -strikers and rioters from interfering with the transmission of the -United States mails. - -Municipal problems have also reacted upon state politics. From 1897 to -1903 the efforts of the Street Railway Companies of Chicago to extend -their franchise, and of the city of Chicago to secure municipal control -of its street railway system, resulted in the statute of 1903, which -provided for municipal ownership. But the proposed issue under this law -of bonds with which Chicago was to purchase or construct railways would -have increased the city's bonded indebtedness beyond its constitutional -limit, and was therefore declared unconstitutional in April 1907 by the -supreme court of the state. - -A law of 1901 provided for a system of initiative whereby any question -of public policy might be submitted to popular vote upon the signature -of a written petition therefor by one-tenth of the registered voters of -the state; such a petition must be filed at least 60 days before the -election day when it is to be voted upon, and not more than three -questions by initiative may be voted on at the same election; to become -operative a measure must receive a majority of all votes cast in the -election. Under this act, in 1902, there was a favourable vote (451,319 -to 76,975) for the adoption of measures requisite to securing the -election of United States senators by popular and direct vote, and in -1903 the legislature of the state (which in 1891 had asked Congress to -submit such an amendment) adopted a joint resolution asking Congress to -call a convention to propose such an amendment to the Federal -Constitution; in 1904 there was a majority of all the votes cast in the -election for an amendment to the primary laws providing that voters may -vote at state primaries under the Australian ballot. The direct primary -law, however, which was passed immediately afterwards by the -legislature, was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of the -state, as were a second law of the same sort passed soon afterwards and -a third law of 1908, which provided for direct nominations of all -officers and an "advisory" nomination of United States senators. - -AMERICAN GOVERNORS OF ILLINOIS - - _Territorial._ - - Ninian Edwards 1809-1818 - - _State._ - - Shadrach Bond 1818-1822 Democrat - Edward Coles 1822-1826 " - Ninian Edwards 1826-1830 " - John Reynolds 1830-1834 " - Wm. L. D. Ewing (acting) 1834 " - Joseph Duncan 1834-1838 " - Thomas Carlin 1838-1842 " - Thomas Ford 1842-1846 " - Augustus C. French 1846-1853[7] " - Joel A. Matteson 1853-1857 " - William H. Bissell 1857-1860 Republican - John Wood (acting) 1860-1861 " - Richard Yates 1861-1865 " - Richard J. Oglesby 1865-1869 " - John M. Palmer 1869-1873 " - Richard J. Oglesby 1873 " - John L. Beveridge (acting) 1873-1877 " - Shelby M. Cullom 1877-1883 " - John M. Hamilton (acting) 1883-1885 " - Richard J. Oglesby 1885-1889 " - Joseph W. Fifer 1889-1893 " - John P. Altgeld 1893-1897 Democrat - John R. Tanner 1897-1901 Republican - Richard Yates 1901-1905 " - Charles S. Deneen 1905- " - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is no complete bibliography of the varied and - extensive literature relating to Illinois; but Richard Bowker's _State - Publications_, part ii. (New York, 1902), and the chapters of E. B. - Greene's _The Government of Illinois_ (New York, 1904) contain useful - lists of documents, monographs and books. Physiography is well - described in _The Illinois Glacial Lobe_ (U.S. Geological Survey, - Monograph, xxxviii.) and _The Water Resources of Illinois_ (U.S. - Geological Survey, Annual Report, xviii.). The Illinois State - Laboratory of Natural History, connected with the State University, - has published S. A. Forbes and R. E. Richardson's _Fishes of Illinois_ - (Urbana, 1909). Information concerning economic conditions may be - derived from the volumes of the _Twelfth Census of the United States_, - which treat of Agriculture, Manufactures and Mines and Quarries: a - summary of agricultural conditions may be found in _Census Bulletin - No. 213_. Constitutional and administrative problems are discussed in - Elliott Anthony's _Constitutional History of Illinois_; Greene's _The - Government of Illinois_, and H. P. Judson's _The Government of - Illinois_ (New York, 1900). Among the reports of the state officials, - those of the Railroad and Ware House Commission, of the Bureau of - Labor Statistics, and of the Commissioners of Charity are especially - valuable. There is an historical study of the problem of taxation, - entitled, "History of the Struggle in Illinois to realize Equality in - Taxation," by H. B. Hurd, in the _Publications of the Michigan - Political Science Association_ (1901). Local government is described - by Albert Shaw, _Local Government in Illinois_ (Johns Hopkins - University Studies, vol. i. No. 10). The _Blue Book of the State of - Illinois_ (Springfield, 1903); H. B. Hurd's Revised Statutes of - Illinois (Chicago, 1903), and Starr and Curtis, _Annotated Statutes of - the State of Illinois_ (Chicago, 1896), are also of value. - - The standard histories of the state are J. Moses, _Illinois, - Historical and Statistical_ (2 vols., Chicago, 1889); and H. Davidson - and B. Stuvé, _Complete History of Illinois_ (Springfield, 1874). - Edward G. Mason's _Chapters from Illinois History_ (Chicago, 1901) is - of interest for the French explorations and the colonial period. C. - E. Boyd in "The County of Illinois" (_American Hist. Rev._ vol. iv.), - "Record Book and Papers of John Todd" (_Chicago Historical Society, - Collections_, iv.), C. E. Carter, _Great Britain and the Illinois - Country, 1763-1774_ (Washington, 1910), R. L. Schuyler, _The - Transition of Illinois to American Government_ (New York, 1909), and - W. H. Smith in _The St Clair Papers_ (Cincinnati, 1882), and the - _Territorial Records of Illinois_ ("Publications of the State - Historical Library," No. 3) are important for the period until 1818. - Governor Thomas Ford's _History of Illinois_ (Chicago, 1854), and - Governor John Reynolds's _My Own Times_ (1855), are contemporary - sources for 1818-1846; they should be supplemented by N. W. Edwards's - _History of Illinois (1778-1833)_ and _Life of Ninian Edwards_ - (Springfield, 1870), E. B. Washburne's _Edwards Papers_ (Chicago, - 1884), C. H. Garnett's _State Banks of Issue in Illinois_ (Univ. of - Ill., 1898), and N. G. Harris's _History of Negro Servitude in - Illinois_ (Chicago, 1904). C. E. Carr's _The Illini_ (Chicago, 1904) - is a study of conditions in Illinois from 1850-1860. W. W. Lusk's - _Politics and Politicians of Illinois, the Illinois Constitutional - Convention_ (1862), _the Granger Movement in Illinois_, and _Illinois - Railway Legislation and Common Control_ (University of Illinois - Studies), _Street Railway Legislation in Illinois_ (_Atlantic - Monthly_, vol. xciii.), are of value for conditions after 1860. The - publications of the Chicago Historical Society, of the "Fergus - Historical" series, of the State Historical Library, of the Wisconsin - Historical Society, also the Michigan Pioneer Collections, contain - valuable documents and essays. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The statistics for years prior to 1900 are taken from reports of - the U.S. Census, those for years after 1900 from the _Year Books_ of - the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It should be borne in mind that - in census years, when comparison can be made, the two sets of - statistics often vary considerably. - - [2] According to the report of the State Geological Survey, the value - of the total mineral product in the state for 1907 was $152,122,648, - the values of the different minerals being as follows: coal, - $54,687,382; pig iron, about $52,228,000; petroleum, $16,432,947; - clay and clay products, $13,351,362; zinc, $6,614,608; limestone, - $4,333,651; Portland cement, $2,632,576; sand and gravel, $1,367,653; - natural slag, $174,282; fluorspar, $141,971; mineral waters, $91,700; - lead ore, $45,760; sandstone, $14,996; and pyrite, $5700. - - [3] See the so-called _McLean County Case_ (67 Ill. 11), the _Neal - Ruggles Case_ (91 Ill. 256), _The People_ v. _The Illinois Central - Railroad Co._ (95 Ill. 313), and _Munn_ v. _Ill._ (94 U.S. 113). - - [4] The populations in other census years were: (1810), 12,282; - (1820), 55,211; (1830), 157,445; (1840), 476,183; (1850), 851,470; - (1860), 1,711,951; (1870), 2,539,891; (1880), 3,077,871. - - [5] The influence of immigration and sectionalism upon Illinois - politics is well illustrated by the fact that the first six governors - (1818-1838) were born in the Southern states, six of the eight United - States senators of that period were also Southern born, and all of - the representatives, with one exception, also came to Illinois from - the Southern states. After 1838 the Eastern states began to be - represented among the governors, but until 1901 no governor was - elected who was a native of Illinois. See E. B. Greene, _Sectional - Forces in the History of Illinois_ (Publications of the Historical - Library of Illinois, No. 8, 1903). - - [6] In the slavery issue of 1848 the sentiment for abolition centred - in the northern counties, the opposition in the southern. - - [7] Mr French's service of seven years is due to the fact that the - Constitutional Convention of 1848 ordered a new election of state - officials. French was re-elected Governor, beginning his new term in - 1849. - - - - -ILLORIN, a province of British West Africa in the protectorate of -Nigeria. It has an area of 6300 m., with an estimated population of -about 250,000. Its inhabitants are of various tribes, among which the -Yoruba now predominate. There are two minor emirates, Shonga and Lafiagi -in this province, and a number of semi-independent towns of which the -chief are Awton, Ajassa, Offa and Patiji. Under British administration -the province is divided into three divisions, Illorin (central), Offa -(southern) and Patiji (northern). The province is rich in agricultural -and sylvan products. Among the former are tobacco, cotton, rice, -peppers, ground-nuts and kolas. The latter include great quantities of -shea as well as palm-oil and rubber. The capital is a town of the same -name as the province. It is 160 m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Lagos, and -50 m. S.S.W. of Jebba, a port on the Niger, being connected with both -places by railway. The town is surrounded by a mud wall partly in ruins, -which has a circuit of some 10 m. Illorin is a great trading centre, -Hausa caravans bringing goods from central Africa, and merchandise from -the coasts of the Mediterranean, which is distributed from Illorin to -Dahomey, Benin and the Lagos hinterland, while from the Guinea coast the -trade is in the hands of the Yoruba and comes chiefly through Lagos. A -variety of manufactures are carried on, including the making of leather -goods, carved wooden vessels, finely plaited mats, embroidered work, -shoes of yellow and red leather and pottery of various kinds. Before the -establishment of British administration traders from the south, with a -few selected exceptions, were prohibited from entering the city. Illorin -middlemen transacted all business between the traders from the north, -who were not allowed to pass to the south, and those from the south. -Since the establishment of British authority the town has been thrown -open, crowds of petty traders from Lagos have flocked into Illorin, and -between 4000 and 5000 trade licences are issued yearly. The British -resident estimated in 1904 that at least 3000 loads of British cotton -goods, which he valued at £5 a load, were imported. The population of -the town is estimated at from 60,000 to 70,000. The chief buildings are -the palace of the emir and the houses of the _baloguns_ (war chiefs). -From the centre of the town roads radiate like spokes of a wheel to the -various gates. Baobabs and other shade trees are numerous. There are a -number of mosques in the town, and the Mahommedans are the dominant -power, but the Yoruba, who constitute the bulk of the people, are -pagans. - -The town of Illorin was founded, towards the close of the 18th century, -by Yoruba, and rose to be the capital of one of the Yoruba kingdoms. -About 1825 the kingdom, which had come under Mahommedan influence, -ceased its connexion with the Yoruba states and became an emirate of the -Sokoto empire. The Fula, however, maintained the Yoruba system of -government, which places the chief power in a council of elders. In -1897 Illorin was occupied by the forces of the Royal Niger Company, and -the emir placed himself "entirely under the protection and power of the -company." After the assumption of authority by the British government in -1900, Illorin was organized for administration on the same system as the -remainder of northern Nigeria. The emir took the oath of allegiance to -the sovereign of Great Britain. A resident was placed at his court. -Courts of justice have been established and British garrisons quartered -at various places in the province. (See also NIGERIA and LAGOS.) - - - - -ILLUMINATED MSS.--"Illumination," in art, is a term used to signify the -embellishment of written or printed text or design with colours and -gold, rarely also with silver. The old form of the verb "to illuminate" -was "to enlumine" (O. Fr. _enluminer_; Lat. _illuminare_, "to throw -light on," "to brighten"), as used by Chaucer (_A.B.C._, 73), "kalendres -enlumyned ben they," and other medieval writers. Joinville likens the -action of St Louis in adorning his kingdom with monastic foundations to -a writer "qui a fait son livre qui l'enlumine d'or et d'azur"; while -Dante (_Purgat._ xi. 79) alludes to this kind of decoration as "quell' -arte che alluminare chiamata è in Parisi." But while the term should be -strictly applied to the brilliant book-ornamentation which was developed -in the later middle ages, it has been extended, by usage, to the -illustration and decoration of early MSS. in general. - - - Early. - -From remote times the practice of illustrating texts by means of -pictorial representations was in vogue. The survival of papyrus rolls -containing the text of the Egyptian ritual known as _The Book of the -Dead_, dating back fifteen centuries B.C., and accompanied with numerous -scenes painted in brilliant colours, proves how ancient was this very -natural method of elucidating a written text by means of pictures. There -are many passages in the writings of Latin authors showing that -illustrated books were not uncommon in Rome at least in the early period -of the empire; and the oldest extant paintings in ancient classical MSS. -may with little hesitation be accepted as representative of the style of -illustration which was practised very much earlier. But such paintings -are rather illustrative than decorative, and the only strictly -ornamental adjuncts are the frames in which they are set. Yet -independent decoration appears in a primitive form in the papyri and the -earliest vellum MSS. At the head or at the end of the text designs -composed of cross-hatchings, cables, dotted patterns and scrolls, -sometimes with birds or simple domestic objects, are found. The early -practice of writing the initial lines or even the entire text of a -volume in gold or coloured inks, and of staining with purple and of -gilding the vellum, while it undoubtedly enhanced the decorative aspect, -does not properly fall within the scope of this article; it concerns the -material rather than the artistic element of the MS. (See MANUSCRIPTS, -PALAEOGRAPHY.) - -It will be seen, then, that in the earliest examples of book decorations -we find the germs of the two lines on which that decoration was destined -to develop in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages: the illustrative -picture was the precursor of the medieval miniature (the technical term -for a picture in an illuminated MS.); and the independent simple -ornament was to expand into the brilliant initial letters and borders of -illumination. And yet, while the miniature has a career of its own in -artistic development which may be more conveniently dealt with under a -separate heading (see MINIATURE), its decorative qualities are so -closely bound up with those of the initial and border that an historical -description of illumination must give full recognition to its prominent -position in the general scheme of book-ornamentation of the middle ages. - -The first examples to come under consideration are the few surviving -MSS. of early origin which, preserving as they do the classical -tradition, form the connecting link between the art of the Roman empire -and that of the middle ages. The most ancient of these, it is now -agreed, is the fragmentary copy of the _Iliad_, on vellum, in the -Ambrosian Library of Milan, which consists of cuttings of the coloured -drawings with which the volume was adorned in illustration of the -various scenes of the poem. The MS. may have been executed in Italy, -and there is good reason to assign the fragments to the 3rd century. The -character of the art is quite classical, bearing comparison with that of -the wall-paintings of Pompeii and the catacombs. Equally classical in -their style are the fifty illustrative pictures of the Vatican Virgil, -known as the _Schedae Vaticanae_, of the 4th century; but in these we -find an advance on the Homeric fragments in the direction of decoration, -for gilt shading is here employed to heighten the lights, and the frames -in which the pictures are set are ornamented with gilt lozenges. A -second famous MS. of Virgil in the Vatican library is the _Codex -Romanus_, a curious instance of rough and clumsy art, with its series of -illustrations copied by an unskilful hand from earlier classical models. -And a still later example of persistence of the classical tradition is -seen in the long roll of the book of Joshua, also in the Vatican, -perhaps of the 10th century, which is filled with a series of outline -drawings of considerable merit, copied from an earlier MS. But all such -MSS. exhibit little tendency to decoration, and if the book -ornamentation of the early middle ages had been practised only in the -western empire and not also at Constantinople, it is very doubtful if -the brilliant illumination which was afterwards developed would have -ever existed. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - - THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.--ABOUT A.D. 700. - - (British Museum. Cotton MS., Nero D. iv. f. 211.)] - - - Byzantine. - -When the centre of government passed eastward, Roman art came under -Oriental influence with its sense of splendour, and developed the style -known as Byzantine which, in its earlier stages, and until it became -stereotyped in character, was broad in its drawing, on classical lines, -and brilliant in its colouring, and which introduced a profuse -application of gold in the details of ornament. Reacting on the art of -the west, the influence of the Byzantine or Greek school is not only -prominent in such early works as the mosaics of Ravenna, but it has also -left its mark in the peculiar character of Italian pictorial art of the -middle ages. - -Very few examples of early Byzantine work in MSS. have survived; but two -fragmentary leaves (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 5111) of tables of the Eusebian -canons, which must have stood at the beginning of a copy of the Gospels, -executed no doubt in the Eastern capital in the 6th century, are -sufficient to exemplify the splendour of ornament which might be -lavished on book decoration at that date. The surface of the vellum is -entirely gilt, and the ornamental designs are in classical style and -painted in bright colours. Two well-known MSS., the Genesis of the -Imperial Library of Vienna, of the latter part of the 6th century, and -the Gospels of Rossano in southern Italy, of the same period, both -containing series of illustrative paintings of a semi-classical type, -are very interesting specimens of Byzantine art; but they depend on -their purple vellum and their silver-written texts to claim a place -among highly ornamented MSS., for the paintings themselves are devoid of -gold. On the other hand, the Greek MS. of Genesis, of the 5th or 6th -century, which once formed part of the Cottonian collection in the -British Museum, but which was almost totally destroyed by fire, was of a -more artistic character: the drawing of its miniatures was of great -merit and classical in style, and gold shading was largely employed in -the details. The famous MS. of Dioscorides at Vienna, executed in the -year 472, is another excellent example of the early Byzantine school, -its series of paintings at the beginning of the volume well maintaining -the classical sentiment. - -From such early examples Byzantine art advanced to a maturer style in -the 9th and 10th centuries, two MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale of -Paris being types of the best work of this time. These are: the copy of -the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen (MS. _Grec._ 510), executed about the -year 880 and containing a series of large miniatures, some being of the -highest excellence; and a psalter of the 10th century (MS. Grec. 139), -among whose miniatures are examples which still maintain the old -sentiment of classical art in a remarkable degree, one in particular, -representing David as the psalmist, being an adapted copy of a classical -scene of Orpheus and the Muses. The same scene is repeated in a later -Psalter in the Vatican: an instance of the repetition of favourite -subjects from one century to another which is common throughout the -history of medieval art. At the period of the full maturity of the -Byzantine school great skill is displayed in the best examples of -figure-drawing, and a fine type of head and features is found in the -miniatures of such MSS. as the _Homilies of Chrysostom_ at Paris, which -belonged to the emperor Nicephorus III., 1078-1081, and in the best -copies of the Gospels and Saints' Lives of that period, some of them -being of exquisite finish. By this time also the scheme of decoration -was established. Brilliant gilded backgrounds, give lustre to the -miniatures. Initial letters in gold and colours are in ordinary use; -but, it is to be observed, they never become very florid, but are rather -meagre in outline, nor do they develop the pendants and borders which -are afterwards so characteristic of the illuminated MSS. of the west. By -way of general decoration, the rectangular head-pieces, which are such -prominent features in Greek MSS. from the 10th to the 13th centuries, -flourish in flowered and tesselated and geometric patterns in bright -colours and gold. These are palpably of Oriental design, and may very -well have been suggested by the woven fabrics of western Asia. - -But Byzantine art was not destined to have a great history. Too -self-contained and, under ecclesiastical influence, too much secluded -from the contact with other ideas and other influences which are vitally -necessary for healthy growth and expansion, it fell into stereotyped and -formal convention and ran in narrow grooves. A general tendency was set -up to paint the flesh tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate -the limbs, to stiffen the gait, and generally to employ sombre colours -in the miniatures, the depressing effect of which the artist seems to -have felt himself compelled to relieve by rather startling contrasts of -bright vermilion and lavish employment of gold. Still the initials and -head-pieces continued to retain their brilliancy, of which they could -scarcely be deprived without losing their _raison d'être_ as decorative -adjuncts. But, with all faults, fine and delicate drawing, with -technical finish in the applied colours, is still characteristic of the -best Greek miniatures of the 10th to 12th centuries, and the fine type -of head and features of the older time remains a tradition. For example, -in the Gospel lectionary, Harleian MS. 1810, in the British Museum, of -the 12th century, there is a series of scenes from the life of Christ -which are more than usually free from the contemporary conventionalism -and which contain many figures of noble design. After the 12th century -there is little in the art of Greek MSS. to detain us. The later -examples, as far as they exist, are decadent and are generally lifeless -copies of the earlier MSS. - -Byzantine art, as seen in Greek MSS., stands apart as a thing of itself. -But we shall have to consider how far and in what manner it had an -influence on western art. Its reaction and influence on Italian art have -been mentioned. That that influence was direct is manifest both in the -style of such works as the mosaics of Italy and in the character of the -paintings of the early Italian masters, and eventually in the earliest -examples of the illuminated MSS. of central and southern Italy. But it -is not so obvious how the influence which the eastern art of the Greek -school undoubtedly exercised on the illuminated MSS. of the Frankish -empire was conveyed. All things considered, however, it seems more -probable that it passed westward through the medium of Italian art -rather than by actual contact, except perhaps in accidental instances. - - - Franco-Lombardic. - -We turn to the west of Europe, and we shall see how in the elaborately -ornamented Frankish MSS. of the Carolingian school was combined the -lingering tradition of the classical style with a new and independent -element which had grown up spontaneously in the north. This new factor -was the Celtic art which had its origin and was brought to perfection in -the illuminated MSS. of Ireland and afterwards of Britain. It will -therefore be convenient to trace the history of that school of book -ornamentation. But before doing so we must dispose, in few words, of the -more primitive style which preceded the Carolingian development in -western continental Europe. This primitive style, which we may call the -native style, as distinguished from the more artificially compounded -art of the revival under Charlemagne, seems to have been widely extended -throughout the Frankish empire and to have been common in Lombardy, and -to some degree in Spain, as well as in France, and is known as -Merovingian and Franco-Lombardic. This kind of ornamentation appears -chiefly in the form of initial letters composed of birds, fishes and -animals contorted into the shapes of the alphabetical letters; and in a -less degree of head-pieces and borders filled with interlacings, or -bands, or geometrical patterns, and even details of animal life. In -these patterns, barbarous as they usually are, the influence of such -artistic objects as mosaics and enamels is evident. The prevailing -colours are crude green, red, orange and yellow, which hold their place -with persistence through successive generations of MSS. This native -style also, in course of time, came under Celtic influence, and adopted -into its scheme the interlaced designs of animal forms and other details -of the ornament of the north. It is therefore necessary to bear in mind -that, side by side with the great series of Carolingian MSS., executed -with all possible magnificence, there was existent this native school -producing its examples of a more rustic character, which must be taken -into account when studying the development of the later national style -in France, in the 10th and succeeding centuries. - - - Celtic - -To turn now to the Celtic style of ornament in MSS. This we find in full -development in Ireland as early as the 7th century. The Irish school of -book ornamentation was essentially a native school working out its own -ideas, created and fostered by the early civilization of the country and -destined to have a profound influence on the art of Britain and -eventually on that of the continent. It may be described as a mechanical -art brought to the highest pitch of perfection by the most skilful and -patient elaboration. Initials, borders and full-page designs are made up -of interlaced ribbons, interlaced and entangled zoomorphic creatures, -intricate knots, spirals, zig-zag ornaments, and delicate interwoven -patterns, together with all kinds of designs worked out in red dots--all -arranged and combined together with mathematical accuracy and with -exquisite precision of touch; and painted in harmonious colours in thick -pigments, which lend to the whole design the appearance of enamel. Gold -is never used. In the production of his designs the Irish artist -evidently took for his models the objects of early metal work in which -the Celtic race was so skilled, and probably, too, the classical enamels -and mosaics and jewelry which had been imported and copied in the -country. The finest example of early Celtic book ornamentation is the -famous copy of the Gospels known as the _Book of Kells_, of the latter -part of the 7th century, preserved in Trinity College, Dublin: a miracle -of minute and accurate workmanship, combining in its brilliant pages an -endless variety of design. - -But, with all his artistic excellence, the Irish artist failed -completely in figure drawing; in fact he can hardly be said to have -seriously attempted it. When we contemplate, for example, the rude -figures intended to represent the evangelists in early copies of the -Gospels, their limbs contorted and often composed of extraordinary -interlacings and convolutions, we wonder that the sense of beauty which -the Irish artist indubitably possessed in an eminent degree was not -shocked by such barbarous productions. The explanation is probably to be -found in tradition. These figures in course of time had come to be -regarded rather as details to be worked into the general scheme of the -ornament of the pages in which they occur than representations of the -human form, and were accordingly treated by the artist as subjects on -which to exercise his ingenuity in knotting them into fantastic shapes. - - - Lindisfarne Gospels. - -Passing from Ireland, the Celtic style of book ornamentation was -naturally practised in the monastic settlements of Scotland, and -especially in St Columba's foundation in the island of Iona. Thence it -spread to other houses in Britain. In the year 635, at the request of -Oswald, king of Northumbria, Aidan, a monk of Iona, was sent to preach -Christianity in that kingdom, and became the founder of the abbey and -see of Lindisfarne in Holy Isle off the Northumbrian coast. Here was -established by the brethren who accompanied the missionary the famous -school of Lindisfarne, from which issued a wonderful series of finely -written and finely ornamented MSS. in the Celtic style, some of which -still survive. The most perfect is the _Lindisfarne Gospels_ or _St -Cuthbert's Gospels_ or the _Durham Book_, as it is more commonly called -from the fact of its having rested for some time at Durham after early -wanderings. This MS., written in honour of St Cuthbert and completed -early in the 8th century, is in the Cottonian collection in the British -Museum--a beautiful example of writing, and of the Celtic style of -ornament, and in perfect condition. The contact with foreign influences, -unknown in Ireland, is manifested in this volume by the use of gold, but -in very sparing quantity, in some of the details. An interesting point -in the artistic treatment of the MS. is the style in which the figures -of the four evangelists are portrayed. Here the conventional Irish -method, noticed above, is abandoned; the figures are mechanical copies -from Byzantine models. The artist was unskilled in such drawing and has -indicated the folds of the draperies, not by shading, but by streaks of -paint of contrasting colours. Explanations of such instances of the -unexpected adoption of a foreign style are rarely forthcoming; but in -this case there is one. The sections of the text have been identified as -following the Neapolitan use. The Greek Theodore, archbishop of -Canterbury, arrived in Britain in the year 688 and was accompanied by -Adrian, abbot of a monastery in the island of Nisita near Naples; and -they both visited Lindisfarne. There can therefore be little doubt that -the Neapolitan MS. from which the text of the _Durham Book_ was derived, -was one which Abbot Adrian had brought with him; and it may also be -assumed that his MS. also contained paintings of the evangelists in the -Byzantine style, which served as models to the Northumbrian artist. - - - Carolingian. - -The Celtic style was thus established through the north of England, and -thence it spread to the southern parts of the country. But, for the -moment, the account of its further development in Britain must be -suspended in order to resume the thread of the story of the later -classical influence on the illumination of MSS. of the Frankish empire. -Under Charlemagne, who became emperor of the West in the year 800, art -revived in many branches, and particularly in that of the writing and -the illumination of MSS. During the reigns of this monarch and his -immediate successors was produced a series of magnificent volumes, -mostly biblical and liturgical, made resplendent by a lavish use of -gold. The character of the decoration runs still, as of old, in the two -lines of illustration and of pure ornament. We find a certain amount of -general illustration, usually of the biblical narrative, in pictorial -scenes drawn in freehand in the later classical style, and undoubtedly -inspired by the western art of Rome. But those illustrations are small -in number compared with the numerous examples of pure ornament. Such -ornament was employed in the tables of the Eusebian canons, in the -accessories of the traditional pictures of the evangelists, in the -full-page designs which introduced the opening words of the several -books of Bibles or Gospels, in the large initial letters profusely -scattered through the volumes, in the infinite variety of borders which, -in some MSS., adorned page after page. In all this ornament the debased -classical element is prominently in evidence, columns and arches of -variegated marbles, and leaf mouldings and other architectural details -are borrowed from the Roman basilicas, to serve as decorations for text -and miniature. The conventional portrait-figures of the evangelists are -modelled on the Byzantine pattern, but with differences which appear to -indicate an intervening influence, such as would be exercised on the -eastern art by its transmission through Italy. Such figures, which -indeed become, in course of time, so formal as almost to be decorative -details along with their settings, grew stereotyped and passed on -monotonously from artist to artist, always subject to deterioration, and -were perpetuated especially in MSS. of German origin down to the 11th -and 12th centuries. - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - PSALTER OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.--LATE TWELFTH CENTURY. - - (British Museum. _Royal MS._ 2A. xxii.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - - LECTIONARY, OF THE USE OF PARIS. LATE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. (British - Museum. Add. M.S. 17,341.)] - -But it is not the debased classical decoration alone which marks the -illumination of the Carolingian school. The influence of the Celtic art, -which has been described, imposed itself and combined with it. This -combination was due to the Englishman, Alcuin of York, who became abbot -of the Benedictine house of St Martin of Tours, and who did so much to -aid Charlemagne in the revival of letters. Thus, in the finest examples -of the Carolingian illuminated MSS., Celtic interlaced patterns stand -side by side with the designs of classical origin; and, at the same -time, it is interesting to observe that the older native Merovingian -style of ornament makes its presence felt, now and again, in this or -that detail. But with all the artistic effort bestowed upon it, it must -be conceded that Carolingian illumination, as presented in the MSS., is -not always pleasing. Indeed, it is often coarse and monotonous, and -there is a tendency to conceal inferiority under a dazzling abundance of -gold. The leading idea of the ornament of the great MSS. was splendour. -Gold was used in profusion even in the writing of the text, and silver -also in a minor degree; and the vellum, stained or painted purple, -enhanced the gorgeous effect of the illumination. But undoubtedly the -purer style of the Celtic school balanced and restrained the tendency to -coarseness; and this foreign influence naturally was stronger in some -centres than in others. For example, in the abbey of Saint-Denis, near -Paris, if we may draw conclusions from surviving examples, the Celtic -style was in great favour. Another peculiarity in the decoration of the -Carolingian MSS. is the tendency of the artist to mix his styles, and to -attach details on a small scale, such as delicate sprays and flourishes, -and minute objects, to large-scale initial letters, as though he felt -that grossness required a corrective contrast. The art became more -refined under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, and under Charles -the Bald it culminated. The most famous MSS. of the Carolingian school -are the _Evangeliarium_, written and illuminated by the scribe Godescalc -for Charlemagne in the year 787; the _Sacramentarium_ written for -Drogon, son of Charlemagne and bishop of Metz; the Gospels of the -emperor Lothair, once at Tours; the first Bible of Charles the Bald, -presented by Count Vivien, abbot of St Martin of Tours; the second -Bible, called the Bible of Saint Denis, in Franco-Saxon style; and the -so-called Gospels of Francis II. There are also in the British Museum -(Harleian MS. 2788) an Evangeliarium written in gold and known as the -_Codex aureus_, of this school; and a Bible of Alcuin's recension, -probably executed at Tours in the middle of the 9th century, with -illustrative miniatures and initial letters, but of a less elaborate -degree of ornament. - -After this brilliant period decadence sets in; and in the course of the -11th century Frankish illumination sinks to its lowest point, the -miniatures being for the most part coarse and clumsy copies of earlier -models. The colours become harsh, often assuming an unpleasant chalky -appearance. - -We have now to trace the development of another kind of book decoration, -quite different from the florid style of gold and colours just now -described, which had a lasting influence on the early art of England, -where it was specially cultivated, and where it developed a character -which at length became distinctively national. This is the style of -outline drawing which fills so large a space in the Anglo-Saxon MSS. of -the 10th and 11th centuries. - - - Anglo-Saxon. - -We have already seen how the Celtic style of ornamentation was -introduced into the north of England. Thence it appears to have spread -rapidly southward. As early as the beginning of the 8th century it was -practised at Canterbury, as is testified by a famous psalter in the -British Museum (Cott. MS. Vespasian A. 1), in which much of the ornament -is of Celtic type. But the same MS. is also witness to the presence of -another influence in English art, that of the classical style of Rome, -certain details of the ornament being of that character and a miniature -in the MS. being altogether of the classical type. With little -hesitation this element may be ascribed to MSS. brought from Rome, in -the first instance by St Augustine, and afterwards by the incoming -missionaries who succeeded him, and deposited in such centres as -Canterbury and Winchester. But this importation of MSS. from Italy was -not confined to the south. We have distinct evidence that they were -brought into northern monasteries, such as those of Jarrow and Wearmouth -and York. Thus the English artists of both south and north were in a -position to take advantage of material from two sources; and they -naturally did so. Thus we find that mingling of the Celtic and classical -styles just noticed. In this way, early grown accustomed to take -classical models for their drawings, the Anglo-Saxon artists were the -more susceptible to the later development of the classical style of -outline drawing which was next introduced into the country from the -continent. The earliest MS. in which this style of drawing is exhibited -in fullest detail is the volume known as the _Utrecht Psalter_, once in -the Cottonian Library, in which the text of the psalms is profusely -illustrated with minute pen-sketches remarkably full of detail. The -period of the MS. is about the year 800; and it was probably executed in -the north or north-east of France. But the special interest of the -drawings is that they are evidently copies of much older models and -provide a valuable link with the late classical art of some two or three -centuries earlier. The work is very sketchy, the movement of the -draperies indicated by lightly scribbled strokes of the pen, the limbs -elongated, the shoulders humped--all characteristic features which are -repeated in the later Anglo-Saxon work. The drawings of the _Utrecht -Psalter_ are clearly typical examples of a style which, founded on Roman -models, must at one time have been widely practised in western Europe. -For instance, there are traces of it in such a centre as St Gallen in -Switzerland, and there are extant MSS. of the _Psychomachia_ of -Prudentius (a favourite work) with drawings of this character which were -executed in France in the 10th century. But the style does not appear to -have taken much hold on the fancy of continental artists. It was -reserved for England to welcome and to make this free drawing her own, -and to develop it especially in the great school of illumination at -Winchester. Introduced probably in such examples as the _Utrecht -Psalter_ and copies of the _Psychomachia_, this free drawing of -semi-classical origin had fully established itself here in the course of -the 10th century, and by that time had assumed a national character. A -fair number of MSS. of the 10th and 11th centuries which issued from the -Winchester school are still to be seen among the collections of the -British museum, in most of which the light style of outline drawing with -the characteristic fluttering drapery is more or less predominant, -although body colours were also freely employed in many examples. But -the most elaborate specimen of Anglo-Saxon illumination of the 10th -century is one belonging to the duke of Devonshire: the _Benedictional_ -of the see of Winchester, executed under the direction of Æthelwold, -bishop from 963 to 984, which contains a series of miniatures, in this -instance in body colours, but drawn in the unmistakable style of the new -school. In the scheme of decoration, however, another influence is at -work. As England had sent forth its early Celtic designs to modify the -art of the Frankish empire, so the Carolingian style of ornament now, in -its turn, makes its way into this country, and appears in the purely -ornamental details of the Anglo-Saxon illuminated volumes. The frames of -the miniatures are chiefly composed of conventional foliage, and the -same architectural leaf-mouldings of classical origin which are seen in -the foreign MSS. are here repeated. Profuse gilding also, which is -frequently applied, sometimes with silver, is due to foreign influence. -But this character of decoration soon assumed a national cast. Under the -hands of the Anglo-Saxon artist the conventional foliage flourished with -greater freedom; and the colouring which he applied was generally softer -and more harmonious than that which was employed abroad. Examples of -outline drawing of the best type exist in the Harleian _Psalter_ (No. -2904), of the same period as the Æthelwold _Benedictional_; in the -register of New Minster (Stowe MS. 944), A.D. 1016-1020; and in the -Prudentius (Cotton MS. Cleop. C. viii.), executed early in the 11th -century. - - - Norman. - -With the Norman Conquest naturally great changes were effected in the -illumination of English MSS., as in other branches of art; no doubt to -the ultimate improvement of English draughtsmanship. Left to itself the -outline drawing of the Anglo-Saxons, inclining as it did to affectation, -would probably have sunk into fantastic exaggeration and feebleness. -Brought more directly under Norman domination it resulted in the fine, -bold freehand style which is conspicuous in MSS. executed in England in -the next three centuries. Then we come to the period when the art of -illumination is brought into line in the countries of western Europe, in -England and in France, in Flanders and in western Germany, by the -splendid outburst of artistic sentiment of the 12th century. This -century is the period of large folios providing ample space in their -pages for the magnificent initial letters drawn on a grand scale which -are to be seen in the great Bibles and psalters of the time. The leading -feature is a wealth of foliage with twining and interlacing branches, -among which human and animal life is freely introduced, the whole design -being thrown into relief by brilliant colours and a generous use of -gold. The figure drawing both in miniatures and initials is stiff, the -figures elongated but bold, and with sweeping lines in the draperies; -and a tendency to represent the latter clinging closely to the limbs is -a legacy of the tradition of the later classical style. In England the -school of Winchester appears to have maintained the same excellence -after the Norman Conquest as before it. A remarkable MS. (Cotton, Nero -C. iv.), a psalter of about the year 1160, with a series of fine -miniatures, is a good example of its work. In France, Flanders and -western Germany we find the same energy in producing boldly ornamented -volumes, as in England; a certain heaviness of outline distinguishing -the work of the Flemish and German artists from that of the English and -French schools. Such MSS. as the Stavelot Bible (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. -28,107), of the close of the 11th century, the Bible of Floreffe (Add. -MS. 17,737-17,738), of about the year 1160, and the Worms Bible (Harl. -MS. 2803-2804), of the same time, are fine specimens of Flemish and -German work. - - - 13th Century. - -It is towards the close of the 12th century and in the beginning of the -13th century that the character of illumination settles down on more -conventional lines. Hitherto gold had been applied in a liquid state; -now it is laid on in leaf and is highly burnished, a process which lends -a brilliant effect to initial and miniature. A great change passes over -the face of things. The large, bold style gives place to the minute. -Volumes decrease in size; the texts are written in close-packed -characters; the large and simple is superseded by the small and -decorated. The period has arrived when book ornamentation becomes more -settled and accurately defined within limits, and starts on the course -of regulated expansion which was to run for three hundred years down to -the close of the 15th century. In the 13th century the historiated or -miniature initial, that is, the initial letter containing within its -limits a miniature illustrating the subject of the immediate text, is -established as a favourite detail of ornamentation, in addition to the -regular independent miniature. Such initials form a prominent feature in -the pretty little Bibles which were produced in hundreds at this period. -But a still more interesting subject for study is the development of the -border which was to have such a luxuriant growth in the 13th, 14th and -15th centuries. Commencing as a pendant from the initial, with terminal -in form of bud or cusp, it gradually pushes its way along the margins, -unfolding foliage as it proceeds, and in course of time envelopes the -entire page of text in a complete framework formulating in each country -a national style. - -In the miniatures of the 13th century the art of England, of France, and -of the Low Countries runs very much in one channel. The Flemish art, -however, may be generally distinguished from the others by the heavier -outline already noticed. The French art is exquisitely exact and -clean-cut, and in its best examples it is the perfection of -neat-handedness. English art is perhaps less exact, but makes up for any -deficiency in this direction by its gracefulness. However, there is -often little to choose between the productions of the three countries, -and they are hard to distinguish. As an aid for such distinction, among -small differences, we may notice the copper tone of French gold -contrasting with the purer metal in English MSS.; and the favour shown -to deep ultramarine appears to mark French work. But, besides actual -illuminated miniature painting, there is also a not inconsiderable -amount of freehand illustrative drawing in the MSS. In this particular -the English artist maintains the excellence of work which distinguished -his ancestors. Such series of delicate drawings, slightly tinted, as -those to be seen in the famous Queen Mary's Psalter (Royal MS. 2 B. -vii.), and in other MSS. of the 13th and 14th centuries in the British -Museum, are not surpassed by any similar drawings done at the same -period in any other country. In the 13th century also comes into vogue -the highly decorated diaper-work, generally of lozenges or chequered -patterns in brilliant colours and brightly burnished gold. These fill -the backgrounds of miniatures and initials, together with other forms of -decoration, such as sheets of gold stippled or surface-drawn in various -designs. Diapering continued to be practised in all three countries down -into the 15th century; and in particular it is applied with exquisite -effect in many of the highly-finished MSS. of the artists of Paris. - -To return to the growth of the borders: these continue to be generally -of one style in both England and France and in Flanders during the 13th -century; but, when with the opening of the 14th century the conventional -foliage begins to expand, a divergence ensues. In France and Flanders -the three-pointed leaf, or ivy leaf, appears, which soon becomes fixed -and flourishes as a typical detail of ornament in French illumination of -the 14th and 15th centuries. In England there is less convention, and -along with formal branches and leafage, natural growths, such as -daisy-buds, acorns, oak leaves, nuts, &c., are also represented. - - - German. - -Meanwhile German illumination, which in the large MSS. of the 12th -century had given high promise, in the following centuries falls away -and becomes detached from the western schools, and is, as a general -rule, of inferior quality, although in the 13th century fine examples -are still to be met with. Dark outlines and backgrounds of -highly-burnished gold are in favour. At present, however, there is not -sufficient published material to enable us to pass a definite judgment -on the value of German illumination in the later middle ages. But the -researches of scholars are beginning to localize particular styles in -certain centres. For example, in Bohemia there was a school of -illumination of a higher class, which seems later to have had an -influence on English art, as will be noticed presently. - - - Italian. - -We must now turn to Italy, which has been left on one side during our -examination of the art of the more western countries. In attempting to -bridge the gap which severs the later classical style of Rome from the -medieval art of Italy, much must be left to conjecture. That a debased -classical style of drawing was employed in the earlier centuries of the -middle ages we cannot doubt. Such a MS. as the Ashburnham Genesis of the -7th century, which contains pictures of a somewhat rude character but -based apparently upon a recollection of the classical drawing of earlier -times, and which appears to be of Italian origin, serves as a link, -however slight. Coming down to a later period, the primitive native art -of the Frankish empire, as we have seen, extended into northern Italy -under the name of Franco-Lombardic ornamentation; and we have also seen -how the art of the Byzantine school reacted on the art of the southern -portion of the country. Hence, in the middle ages, the ornamentation of -Italian MSS. appears to move on two leading lines. The first, which we -owe to the Byzantine influence, in which figure-drawing is the leading -idea, follows the old classical method and, showing a distinctly Greek -impress, leads to the style which we recognize as Italian _par -excellence_, and which is seen most effectively manifested in the works -of Cimabue and Giotto and of allied schools. In this style the colouring -is generally opaque: the flesh tints being laid over a foundation of -deep olive green, which imparts a swarthy complexion to the features--a -practice also common in Byzantine art. The other line is that of the -Lombardic style which, like the Celtic school of the British Isles, -was an art almost exclusively of pure ornament, of intricate -interlacings of arabesques and animal forms, with bright colouring and -ample use of gold. The Lombardic style was employed in certain centres, -as, for example, at Monte Cassino, where in the 11th, 12th and 13th -centuries brilliant examples were produced. But it was not destined to -stand before the other, stronger and inherently more artistic, style -which was to become national. Still, its scheme of brighter colouring -and of general ornament seems to have had an effect upon later -productions, if we are not mistaken in recognizing something of its -influence in such designs as the interlaced white vine-branch borders -which are so conspicuous in Italian MSS. of the period of the -Renaissance. - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - DURANDUS. DE DlVINIS OFFICIIS. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Italian School. - (British Museum. Add. MS. 31,032.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE V. - - VALERIUS MAXIMUS. ABOUT A.D. 1475. Executed for Philippe de Comines. - (British Museum. _Harley M.S._ 4374.)] - - - 14th Century. - -The progress of Italian illumination in the style influenced by the -Byzantine element is of particular interest in the general history of -art, on account of the rapidity with which it grew to maturity, and the -splendour to which it attained in the 15th century. Of the earlier -centuries the existing examples are not many. That Italian artists were -capable of great things as far back as the 12th century is evident from -their frescoes. We may notice the curious occurrence of two very -masterly paintings, the death of the Virgin and the Virgin enthroned, -drawn with remarkable breadth in the Italian style, in the _Winchester -Psalter_ (Cottonian MS. Nero C. iv.) of the middle of that century, as a -token of the possibilities of Italian illumination at that date; but -generally there is little to show. Even at the beginning of the 14th -century most of the specimens are of an ordinary character and betray a -want of skill in striking contrast with the highly artistic productions -of the Northern schools of England and France at the same period. But, -though inferior artistically, Italian book ornamentation had by this -time been so far influenced by the methods of those schools as to fall -into line with them in the general system of decoration. The miniature, -the initial, the miniature-initial and the border--all have their place -and are subject to the same laws of development as in the other schools. -But, once started, Italian illumination in the 14th century, especially -in Florence, expanded with extraordinary energy. We may cite the Royal -MS. 6, E. ix., containing an address to Robert of Anjou, king of Sicily, -1334-1342, and the Add. MS. 27,428 of legends of the saints, of about -the year 1370, as instances of very fine miniature-work of the -Florentine type. As the century advances, Italian illumination becomes -more prolific and is extended to all classes of MSS., the large volumes -of the Decretals and other law books, and still more the great folio -choral books, in particular affording ample space for the artist to -exercise his fancy. As was natural from the contiguity of the two -countries, as well as from political causes, France and Italy influenced -each other in the art. In many MSS. of the Florentine school the French -influence is very marked, and on the other hand, Italian influence is -exercised especially in MSS. of the southern provinces of France. -Italian art of this period also in some degree affected the illumination -of southern German MSS. - -We have also to note the occurrence in Italy in the 14th century of good -illustrative outline drawings, generally tinted in light colours, and -occasionally we meet with a wonderfully bright style of illumination of -a lighter cast of colouring than usually prevails in Italian art: such -as may be seen in a MS. of Durandus _De divinis oficiis_ (Brit. Mus., -Add. MS. 31,032) containing an exquisite series of initials and borders. - -Taking a general view of the character of European illumination in the -14th century it may be described as an art of great invention and -flexibility. The rigid exactness of the 13th century is replaced by -flowing lines, just as the stiff, formal strokes of the handwriting of -that century was exchanged for a more cursive and easy style. The art of -each individual country now developed a national type of its own, which -again branched off into the different styles of provincial schools. For -example, in the eastern counties of England a very fine school of -illumination, the East Anglian, was established in the first half of the -century and produced a series of beautiful MSS., such as the _Arundel -Psalter_ (No. 83) in the British Museum. - - - Distinctive Borders. - -By the end of the century the borders had developed on national lines so -fully as to become, more than any other detail in the general scheme, -the readiest means of identifying the country of origin. First as to the -English border: the favour shown to the introduction of natural growths -among the conventional foliage thrown out from the frame into which the -border had by this time expanded has already been noticed. But now a new -feature is introduced. The frame up to this time had consisted generally -of conventional branches with bosses at the corners. Now it is divided -more into compartments within which twining coils of ornament resembling -cut feather-work are common details; and feathery scrolls fill the -corner-bosses and are attached to other parts of the frame; while the -foliage thrown out into the margin takes the form of sprays of curious -lobe- or spoon-shaped and lozenge-shaped leaves or flowers, with others -resembling curled feathers, and with cup- and trumpet-shaped flowers. -This new style of border is contemporaneous with the appearance of a -remarkably brilliant style in the miniatures, good in drawing and rich -in colouring; and an explanation for the change has been sought in -foreign influence. It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that -this influence comes from the school of Prague, through the marriage of -Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia in 1382. However this may be, there -certainly is a decidedly German sentiment in the feathery scrolls just -described. - -Turning to the French border, we find towards the close of the 14th -century that the early ivy-leaf pendant has now invaded all the margins -and that the page is set in a conventional frame throwing off on every -side sprigs and waving scrolls of the conventional ivy foliage, often -also accompanied with very delicate compact tracery of minute -flower-work filling the background of the frame. Nothing can be more -charming than the effect of such borders, in which the general design is -under perfect control. The character, too, of the French miniature of -this period harmonizes thoroughly with the brilliant border, composed as -it is very largely of decorative elements, such as diapered patterns and -details of burnished gold. In the Low Countries, as was natural, the -influence of French art continued to have great weight, at least in the -western provinces where the style of illumination followed the French -lead. - -The Italian border in its ordinary form was of independent character, -although following the methods of the West. Thrown out from the initial, -it first took the form of pendants of a peculiarly heavy conventional -curling foliage, associated, as progress was made, with slender rods -jointed at intervals with bud-like ornaments and extending along the -margins; at length expanding into a frame. The employment of gilt spots -or pellets to fill spaces in the pendants and borders becomes very -marked as the century advances. They are at first in a simple form, but -they gradually throw out rays, and in the latter shape they become the -chief constituents of one kind of border of the 15th century. - - - 15th Century. - -Illumination in the 15th century enters on a new phase. The balance is -no longer evenly maintained between the relative values of the miniature -and the border as factors in the general scheme of decoration. The -influence of a new sentiment in art makes itself felt more and more; the -flat treatment of the miniature gradually gives place to true laws of -perspective and of figure-drawing, and to the depth and atmospheric -effects of modern painting. Miniature painting in the decoration of MSS. -now became more of a trade; what in old times had been done in the -cloister was now done in the shop; and the professional miniaturist, -working for his own fame, took the place of the nameless monk who worked -for the credit of his house. Henceforth the miniature occupies a more -important place than ever in the illuminated MS.; while the border, with -certain important exceptions, is apt to recede into an inferior position -and to become rather an ornamental adjunct to set off the miniature than -a work of art claiming equality with it. - -Continuing the survey of the several national styles, we shall have to -witness the final supersession of the older styles of England and -France by the later developments of Italy and Flanders. We left English -illumination at the close of the 14th century strengthened by a fresh -infusion of apparently a foreign, perhaps Bohemian, source. The style -thus evolved marks a brilliant but short-lived epoch in English art. It -is not confined to MSS., but appears also in the paintings of the time, -as, for example, in the portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey and -in that in the Wilton triptych belonging to the earl of Pembroke. -Delicate but brilliant colouring, gold worked in stippled patterns and a -careful modelling of the human features are its characteristics. In MSS. -also the decorative borders, of the new pattern already described, are -of exceptional richness. Brilliant examples of the style, probably -executed for Richard himself, may be seen in a magnificent Bible (Royal -MS. 1, E. ix.), and in a series of cuttings from a missal (Add. MS. -29,704-29,705) in the British Museum. But the promise of this new school -was not to be fulfilled. The same style of border decoration was carried -into the 15th century, and good examples are found down to the middle of -it, but a general deterioration soon sets in. Two MSS. must, however, be -specially mentioned as surviving instances of the fine type of work -which could still be turned out early in the century; and, curiously, -they are both the productions of one and the same illuminator, the -Dominican, John Siferwas. The first is a fragmentary Lectionary (Brit. -Mus., Harl. MS., 7026) executed for John, Lord Lovel of Tichmersh, who -died in 1408; the other is the famous Sherborne Missal, the property of -the duke of Northumberland, a large volume completed about the same time -for the Benedictine abbey of Sherborne in Dorsetshire. Certainly other -MSS. of equal excellence must have existed; but they have now perished. -After the middle of the 15th century English illumination may be said to -have ceased, for the native style disappears before foreign imported -art. This failure is sufficiently accounted for by the political state -of the country and the distractions of the War of the Roses. - -In France the 15th century opened more auspiciously for the art of -illumination. Brilliant colouring and the diapered background glittering -with gold, the legacy of the previous century, still continue in favour -for some time; the border, too, of ivy-leaf tracery still holds its own. -But in actual drawing there are signs, as time advances, of growing -carelessness, and the artist appears to think more of the effect of -colour than of draughtsmanship. This was only natural at a time when the -real landscape began to replace the background of diaper and -conventional rocks and trees. In the first quarter of the century the -school of Paris comes prominently to the front with such magnificent -volumes as the Book of Hours of the regent, John Plantagenet, duke of -Bedford, now in the British Museum; and the companion MS. known as the -Sobieski Hours, at Windsor. In these examples, as is always the case -with masterpieces, we see a great advance upon earlier methods. The -miniatures are generally exquisitely painted in brilliant colours and -the drawing is of a high standard; and in the borders now appear natural -flowers intermingled with the conventional tracery--a new idea which was -to be carried further as the century advanced. The Psalter executed at -Paris for the boy-king Henry VI. (Cotton MS. Domitian A. xviii.) is -another example of this school, rather of earlier type than the Bedford -MS., but beautifully painted. In all three MSS. the borders show no lack -of finish; they are of a high standard and are worthy of the miniatures. -But perhaps the very finest miniature-work to be found in any MS. of -French origin of this period is the breviary (Harl. MS. 2897) -illuminated for John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, who was -assassinated in 1419. It could hardly be surpassed in refinement and -minuteness of detail. - -Development towards the modern methods of painting moves on rapidly with -the century. First, the border in the middle period grows florid; the -simpler ivy-spray design, which had held its position so long, is -gradually pushed away by a growth of flowering scrolls, with flowers, -birds and animal and insect life introduced in more or less profusion. -But henceforward deterioration increases, and the border becomes -subsidiary. In the case of miniatures following the old patterns of the -devotional and liturgical books, a certain restraint still prevails; but -with those in other works, histories and romances and general -literature, where the paintings are devised by the fancy of the artist, -the advance is rapid. The recognition of the natural landscape, the -perception of atmospheric effects now guide the artist's brush, and the -modern French school of the second half of the 15th century is fairly -established. The most celebrated leaders of this school were Jean -Foucquet of Tours and his sons, many of whose works still bear witness -to their skill. In the MSS. of this school the influence of the Flemish -contemporary art is very obvious; and before the advance of that art -French illumination receded. A certain hardness of surface and want of -depth characterize the French work of this time, as well as the practice -of employing gilt hatching to obtain the high lights. This practice is -carried to excess in the latest examples of French illumination in the -early part of the 16th century, when the art became mechanical and -overloaded with ornament, and thus expired. - -It has been seen that the Flemish school of illumination in the 13th and -14th centuries followed the French model. In the 15th century, while the -old tradition continued in force for a while, the art developed on an -independent line; and in the second half of the century it exercised a -widespread influence on the neighbouring countries, on France, on -Holland and on Germany. This development was one of the results of the -industrial and artistic activity of the Low Countries at this period, -when the school of the Van Eycks and their followers, and of other -artists of the great and wealthy cities, such as Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, -were so prolific. The Flemish miniatures naturally followed on the lines -of painting. The new style was essentially modern, freeing itself from -the traditions of medieval illumination and copying nature. Under the -hand of the Flemish artist the landscape attained to great perfection, -softness and depth of colouring, the leading attribute of the school, -lending a particular charm and sense of reality to his out-door scenes. -His closer observation of nature is testified also in the purely -decorative part of his work. Flowers, insects, birds and other natural -objects now frequent the border, the origin of which is finally -forgotten. It ceases to be a connected growth wandering round the page; -it becomes a flat frame of dull gold or colour, over which isolated -objects, flowers, fruits, insects, butterflies, are strewn, painted with -naturalistic accuracy and often made, by means of strong shadows, to -stand out in relief against the background. This practice was soon -carried to florid excess, and all kinds of objects, including jewels and -personal ornaments, were pressed into the service of the border, in -addition to the details copied from nature. The soft beauty of the later -Flemish style proved very attractive to the taste of the day, with the -result that it maintained a high standard well on into the 16th century, -the only rivals being the MSS. of Italian art. The names of celebrated -miniaturists, such as Memlinc, Simon Bening of Ghent, Gerard of Bruges, -are associated with its productions; and many famous extant examples -bear witness to the excellence to which it attained. The Grimani -Breviary at Venice is one of the best known MSS. of the school; but -almost every national library has specimens to boast of. Among those in -the British Museum may be mentioned the breviary of Queen Isabella of -Spain (Add. MS. 18,851); the Book of Hours of Juana of Castille (Add. -MS. 18,852); a very beautiful Book of Hours executed at Bruges (Egerton -MS. 2125); another exquisite but fragmentary MS. of the same type (Add. -MS. 24,098) and cuttings from a calendar of the finest execution (Add. -MS. 18,855) ascribed to Bening of Ghent; a series of large sheets of -genealogies of the royal houses of Portugal and Spain (Add. MS. 12,531) -by the same master and others; and late additions to the Sforza Book of -Hours (Add. MS. 34,294). - -But, besides the brilliantly coloured style of Flemish illumination -which has been described, there was another which was practised with -great effect in the 15th century. This was the simpler style of drawing -in white delicately shaded to indicate the contour of figures and the -folds of drapery, &c., known as _grisaille_ or _camaïeu gris_. It was -not indeed confined to the Flemish schools, but was practised also to -some extent and to good effect in northern France, and also in Holland -and other countries; but the centre of its activity appears to have been -in the Low Countries. The excellence to which it attained may be seen in -the MSS. of the _Miracles de Nostre Dame_ now in Paris and the Bodleian -Library, which were executed for Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in -the middle of the 15th century. - -Of the Dutch school of illumination, which was connected with that of -Flanders, there is little to be said. Judging from existing examples, -the art was generally of a more rustic and coarser type. There are, -however, exceptions. A MS. in the British Museum (King's MS. 5) of the -beginning of the 15th century contains scenes from the life of Christ in -which the features are carefully modelled, very much after the style of -English work of the same time; and some of the specimens of Dutch work -in _camaïeu gris_ are excellent. - -German illumination in the 15th century appears to have largely copied -the Flemish style; but it lost the finer qualities of its pattern, and -in decoration it inclined to extravagance. Where the Flemish artist was -content with single flowers gracefully placed, the German filled his -borders with straggling plants and foliage and with large flourished -scrolls. - -Italian illumination, which had developed so rapidly in the 14th -century, now advanced with accelerated pace and expanded into a variety -of styles, more or less local, culminating in the exquisite productions -of the classical renaissance in the latter half of the 15th century. As -in the other national styles of France and Flanders, the Italian -miniaturist quickly abandoned the conventional for the natural -landscape; but with more character both in the figure-drawing and in the -actual representation of scenery. The colouring is brilliant, not of the -softness of the Flemish school, but of stronger and harder body; the -outlines are firm and crisp and details well delineated. The Florentine, -the Lombard, the Venetian, the Neapolitan and other schools flourished; -and, though they borrowed details from each other, each had something -distinctive in its scheme of colouring. The border developed on several -lines. The rayed gold spots or studs or pellets, which were noticed in -the 14th century, are now grouped in profusion along the margins and in -the interstices of delicate flowering and other designs. Another -favourite detail in the composition of both initials and borders was the -twining vine tendril, generally in white or gold upon a coloured ground, -apparently a revival of the interlacing Lombardic work of the 11th and -12th centuries. At first, restrained and not too complex, it fills the -body of initials and short borders; then it rapidly expands, and the -convolutions and interlacings become more and more elaborate. Lastly -came the completed solid frame into which are introduced arabesques, -vignettes, candelabras, trophies, vases, medallions, antique gems, -cupids, fawns, birds, &c., and all that the fancy led by the spirit of -classical renaissance could suggest. Among the principal Italian MSS. of -the 15th century in the British Museum there are: a copy of _Plutarch's -Lives_, with miniatures in a remarkable style (Add. MS. 22,318); -Aristotle's _Ethics_, translated into Spanish by Charles, prince of -Viana, probably executed in Sicily about 1458 (Add. MS. 21,120); a -breviary of Santa Croce at Florence, late in the century (Add. MS. -29,735); Livy's _History of the Macedonian War_, of the Neapolitan -school, late in the century (Harl. MS. 3694); and, above all, the -remarkable Book of Hours of Bona Sforza of Savoy of about the year 1490 -(Add. MS. 34,291); besides a fair number of MSS. exhibiting the rich -colouring of the Venetian school. - -Like that of the French and Flemish schools, Italian illumination -survived into the 16th century, and for a time showed vigour. Very -elaborate borders of the classical type and of good design were still -produced. But, as in other countries, it was then a dying art. The -attempt to graft illumination on to books produced by the printing -press, which were now displacing the hand-written volumes with which the -art had always been associated, proved, except in a few rare instances, -a failure. The experiment did not succeed; and the art was dead. - - - Spain. - -It remains to say a few words respecting the book ornamentation of the -Peninsula. In the earlier centuries of the middle ages there appears to -have been scarcely anything worthy of note. The Mozarabic liturgies and -biblical MSS. of the 9th to 12th centuries are adorned with initial -letters closely allied to the primitive specimens of the Merovingian and -Franco-Lombardic pattern, and coloured with the same crude tints; the -larger letters also being partly composed of interlaced designs. But the -style is barbaric. Such illustrative drawings as are to be found are -also of a most primitive character. Moorish influence is apparent in the -colours, particularly in the yellows, reds and blacks. In the later -middle ages no national school of illumination was developed, owing to -political conditions. When in the 15th century a demand arose for -illuminated MSS., recourse was had to foreign artists. Flemish art -naturally was imported, and French art on the one side and Italian art -on the other accompanied it. In the breviary executed for Queen Isabella -of Spain about the year 1497 (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 18,851) we find a -curious random association of miniatures and borders in both the French -and the Flemish styles, the national taste for black, however, asserting -itself in the borders where, in many instances, the usual coloured -designs are replaced by black-tinted foliage and scrolls. - -In other outlying countries of Europe the art of illumination can -scarcely be said to have existed. In Slavonic countries a recollection -of the Byzantine school lingered in book ornamentation, but chiefly in a -degraded and extravagant system of fantastic interlacings. In the 16th -century there was a revival in Russia of the Byzantine style, and the -head-pieces and other ornamental details of the 11th and 12th centuries -were successfully imitated. - -The consideration of oriental art does not come within the scope of this -article. It may, however, be noted that in Arabic and Persian MSS. of -the 13th to 16th centuries there are many examples of exquisitely drawn -title-pages and other ornament of intricate detail, resplendent with -colour and gold, which may be ranked with western illuminations. - - AUTHORITIES.--Medieval and later works dealing in part with the - technicalities of illumination are collected by Mrs Merrifield, - _Original Treatises dating from the 12th to 18th Centuries on the Art - of Painting_ (1849); see also Theophilus, _De diversis Artibus_, ed. - R. Hendrie (1847). Text-books and collections of facsimiles are Count - A. de Bastard, _Peintures et ornaments des manuscrits_, a magnificent - series of facsimiles, chiefly from Carolingian MSS. (1832-1869); Shaw - and Madden, _Illuminated Ornaments from MSS. and early Printed Books_ - (1833); Noel Humphreys and Jones, _The Illuminated Books of the Middle - Ages_ (1849); H. Shaw, _Handbook of Medieval Alphabets_ (1853), and - _The Art of Illumination_ (1870); Tymms and Digby Wyatt, _The Art of - Illumination_ (1860); Birch and Jenner, _Early Drawings and - Illuminations_, with a dictionary of subjects in MSS. in the British - Museum (1879); J. H. Middleton, _Illuminated MSS. in Classical and - Medieval Times_ (1892); G. F. Warner, _Illuminated MSS. in the British - Museum_ (official publication, 1903); H. Omont, _Facsimilés des - miniatures des plus anciens MSS. grecs de la Bibl. Nationale_ (1902); - V. de Boutovsky, _Histoire de l'ornement russe du X^e au XVI^e - siècle_, including facsimiles from Byzantine MSS. (1870); J. O. - Westwood, _Facsimiles of Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and - Irish MSS._ (1868); E. M. Thompson, _English Illuminated MSS._ (1895); - _Paleografia artistica di Montecassino_ (1876-1884); _Le Miniature nei - codici Cassinesi_ (1887); A. Haseloff, _Eine thüringisch-sächsische - Malereischule des 13. Jahrhunderts_ (1897); G. Schwarzenski, _Die - Regensburger Buchmalerei des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts_ (1901); - Sauerland and Haseloff, _Der Psalter Erzbischof Egberts von Trier_ - (1901). - - Several of the most ancient illustrated or illuminated MSS. have been - issued wholly or partially in facsimile, viz. The _Ambrosian Homer_, - by A. Ceriani; the _Schedae Vaticanae_ and the _Codex Romanus_ of - Virgil, by the Vatican Library; the Vienna Dioscorides, in the Leiden - series of facsimiles; the Vienna Genesis, by Hartel and Wickhoff; the - Greek Gospels of Rossano, by A. Haseloff; the Ashburnham Pentateuch, - by B. von Gebhart; the Utrecht Psalter, by the Palaeographical - Society. - - Facsimiles from illuminated MSS. are also included in large - palaeographical works such as Silvestre, _Universal Palaeography_, ed. - Madden (1850); the _Facsimiles_ of the Palaeographical Society - (1873-1894) and of the New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and - the _Collezione paleografia Vaticana_, the issue of which was - commenced in 1905. Excellent photographic reproductions on a reduced - scale are being issued by the British Museum and by the Bibliothèque - Nationale in Paris. (E. M. T.) - - - - -ILLUMINATI (Lat. _illuminare_), a designation in use from the 15th -century, and applied to, or assumed by, enthusiasts of types distinct -from each other, according as the "light" claimed was viewed as directly -communicated from a higher source, or as due to a clarified and exalted -condition of the human intelligence. To the former class belong the -_alumbrados_ of Spain. Menendez Pelayo first finds the name about 1492 -(in the form _aluminados_, 1498), but traces them back to a Gnostic -origin, and thinks their views were promoted in Spain through influences -from Italy. One of their earliest leaders, born in Salamanca, a -labourer's daughter, known as La Beata de Piedrahita, came under the -notice of the Inquisition in 1511, as claiming to hold colloquies with -our Lord and the Virgin; having high patrons, no decision was taken -against her (_Los Heterodoxos Españoles_, 1881, lib. v.). Ignatius -Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527) was brought before an -ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the _alumbrados_, -but escaped with an admonition. Others were not so fortunate. In 1529 a -congregation of unlettered adherents at Toledo was visited with -scourging and imprisonment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a -century the _alumbrados_ afforded many victims to the Inquisition, -especially at Cordova. The movement (under the name of _Illuminés_) -seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623, and attained some -proportions in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre Guérin, curé of -Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as Guérinets, were -suppressed in 1635 (Hermant, _Hist. des hérésies_, 1717). Another and -obscure body of _Illuminés_ came to light in the south of France in -1722, and appears to have lingered till 1794, having affinities with -those known contemporaneously in this country as "French Prophets," an -offshoot of the Camisards. Of different class were the so-called -Illuminati, better known as Rosicrucians, who claimed to originate in -1422, but rose into notice in 1537; a secret society, combining with the -mysteries of alchemy the possession of esoteric principles of religion. -Their positions are embodied in three anonymous treatises of 1614 -(Richard et Giraud, _Dict. de la théol. cath._). A short-lived movement -of republican freethought, to whose adherents the name Illuminati was -given, was founded on May-day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt (d. 1830), -professor of Canon Law at Ingolstadt, an ex-Jesuit. The chosen title of -this Order or Society was Perfectibilists (_Perfektibilisten_). Its -members, pledged to obedience to their superiors, were divided into -three main classes; the first including "novices," "minervals" and -"lesser illuminati"; the second consisting of freemasons, "ordinary," -"Scottish" and "Scottish knights"; the third or "mystery" class -comprising two grades of "priest" and "regent" and of "magus" and -"king." Relations with masonic lodges were established at Munich and -Freising in 1780. The order had its branches in most countries of the -European continent, but its total numbers never seem to have exceeded -two thousand. The scheme had its attraction for literary men, such as -Goethe and Herder, and even for the reigning dukes of Gotha and Weimar. -Internal rupture preceded its downfall, which was effected by an edict -of the Bavarian government in 1785. Later, the title Illuminati was -given to the French Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis, -and to their imitators, the Russian Martinists, headed about 1790 by -Professor Schwartz of Moscow; both were Cabalists and allegorists, -imbibing ideas from Jakob Boehme and Emmanuel Swedenborg (Bergier, -_Dict. de théol._). - - See (especially for details of the movement of Weishaupt,) P. - Tschackert, in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1901). (A. Go.*) - - - - -ILLUMINATION, in optics, the intensity of the light falling upon a -surface. The measurement of the illumination is termed photometry -(q.v.). The fundamental law of illumination is that if the medium be -transparent the intensity of illumination which a luminous point can -produce on a surface directly exposed to it is inversely as the square -of the distance. The word transparent implies that no light is absorbed -or stopped. Whatever, therefore, leaves the source of light must in -succession pass through each of a series of spherical surfaces described -round the source as centre. The same _amount_ of light falls -perpendicularly on all these surfaces in succession. The amount received -in a given time by a unit of surface on each is therefore inversely as -the number of such units in each. But the surfaces of spheres are as the -squares of their radii,--whence the proposition. (We assume here that -the velocity of light is constant, and that the source gives out its -light uniformly.) When the rays fall otherwise than perpendicularly on -the surface, the illumination produced is proportional to the cosine of -the angle of obliquity; for the area seen under a given spherical angle -increases as the secant of the obliquity, the distance remaining the -same. - -As a corollary to this we have the further proposition that the apparent -brightness of a luminous surface (seen through a transparent homogeneous -medium) is the same at all distances. - -The word brightness is here taken as a measure of the amount of light -falling on the pupil per unit of spherical angle subtended by the -luminous surface. The spherical angle subtended by any small surface -whose plane is at right angles to the line of sight is inversely as the -square of the distance. So also is the light received from it. Hence the -brightness is the same at all distances. - -The word brightness is often used (even scientifically) in another sense -from that just defined. Thus we speak of a bright star, of the -question--When is Venus at its brightest? &c. Strictly, such expressions -are not defensible except for sources of light which (like a star) have -no apparent surface, so that we cannot tell from what amount of -spherical angle their light appears to come. In that case the spherical -angle is, for want of knowledge, assumed to be the same for all, and -therefore the brightness of each is now estimated in terms of the -_whole_ quantity of light we receive from it. - -The function of a telescope is to increase the "apparent magnitude" of -distant objects; it does not increase the "apparent brightness." If we -put out of account the loss of light by reflection at glass surfaces (or -by imperfect reflection at metallic surfaces) and by absorption, and -suppose that the magnifying power does not exceed the ratio of the -aperture of the object-glass to that of the pupil, under which condition -the pupil will be filled with light, we may say that the "apparent -brightness" is absolutely unchanged by the use of a telescope. In this -statement, however, two reservations must be admitted. If the object -under examination, like a fixed star, have no sensible apparent -magnitude, the conception of "apparent brightness" is altogether -inapplicable, and we are concerned only with the total quantity of light -reaching the eye. Again, it is found that the visibility of an object -seen against a black background depends not only upon the "apparent -brightness" but also upon the apparent magnitude. If two or three -crosses of different sizes be cut out of the same piece of white paper, -and be erected against a black background on the further side of a -nearly dark room, the smaller ones become invisible in a light still -sufficient to show the larger. Under these circumstances a suitable -telescope may of course bring also the smaller objects into view. The -explanation is probably to be sought in imperfect action of the lens of -the eye when the pupil is dilated to the utmost. Lord Rayleigh found -that in a nearly dark room he became distinctly short-sighted, a defect -of which there is no trace whatever in a moderate light. If this view be -correct, the brightness of the image on the retina is really less in the -case of a small than in the case of a large object, although the -so-called apparent brightnesses may be the same. However this may be, -the utility of a night-glass is beyond dispute. - -The general law that (apart from the accidental losses mentioned above) -the "apparent brightness" depends only upon the area of the pupil filled -with light, though often ill understood, has been established for a long -time, as the following quotation from Smith's _Optics_ (Cambridge, -1738), p. 113, will show:-- - - "Since the magnitude of the pupil is subject to be varied by various - degrees of light, let NO be its semi-diameter when the object PL is - viewed by the naked eye from the distance OP; and upon a plane that - touches the eye at O, let OK be the semi-diameter of the greatest - area, visible through all the glasses to another eye at P, to be found - as PL was; or, which is the same thing, let OK be the semi-diameter of - the greatest area inlightened by a pencil of rays flowing from P - through all the glasses; and when this area is not less than the area - of the pupil, the point P will appear just as bright through all the - glasses as it would do if they were removed; but if the inlightened - area be less than the area of the pupil, the point P will appear less - bright through the glasses than if they were removed in the same - proportion as the inlightened area is less than the pupil. And these - proportions of apparent brightness would be accurate if all the - incident rays were transmitted through the glasses to the eye, or if - only an insensible part of them were stopt." - -A very important fact connected with our present subject is: The -brightness of a self-luminous surface does not depend upon its -inclination to the line of sight. Thus a red-hot ball of iron, free from -scales of oxide, &c., appears flat in the dark; so, also, the sun, seen -through mist, appears as a flat disk. This fact, however, depends -ultimately upon the second law of thermodynamics (see RADIATION). It may -be stated, however, in another form, in which its connexion with what -precedes is more obvious--The amount of radiation, in any direction, -from a luminous surface is proportional to the cosine of the obliquity. - - The flow of light (if we may so call it) in straight lines from the - luminous point, with constant velocity, leads, as we have seen, to the - expression [mu]r^(-2) (where r is the distance from the luminous - point) for the quantity of light which passes through unit of surface - perpendicular to the ray in unit of time, [mu] being a quantity - indicating the rate at which light is emitted by the source. This - represents the illumination of the surface on which it falls. The flow - through unit of surface whose normal is inclined at an angle [theta] - to the ray is of course [mu]r^(-2) cos [theta], again representing the - illumination. These are precisely the expressions for the gravitation - force exerted by a particle of mass [mu] on a unit of matter at - distance r, and for its resolved part in a given direction. Hence we - may employ an expression V = [Sigma][mu]r^(-1), which is exactly - analogous to the gravitation or electric potential, for the purpose of - calculating the effect due to any number of separate sources of light. - - And the fundamental proposition in potentials, viz. that, if n be the - external normal at any point of a closed surface, the integral - [int][int](dV/dn)dS, taken over the whole surface, has the - value--4[pi][mu]0, where [mu]0 is the sum of the values of [mu] for - each source lying within the surface, follows almost intuitively from - the mere consideration of what it means as regards light. For every - source external to the closed surface sends in light which goes out - again. But the light from an internal source goes wholly out; and the - amount per second from each unit source is 4[pi], the total area of - the unit sphere surrounding the source. - - It is well to observe, however, that the analogy is not quite - complete. To make it so, all the sources must lie on the same side of - the surface whose illumination we are dealing with. This is due to the - fact that, in order that a surface may be illuminated at all, it must - be capable of scattering light, i.e. it must be to some extent opaque. - Hence the illumination depends mainly upon those sources which are on - the same side as that from which it is regarded. - - Though this process bears some resemblance to the heat analogy - employed by Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson) for investigations in - statical electricity and to Clerk Maxwell's device of an - incompressible fluid without mass, it is by no means identical with - them. Each method deals with a substance, real or imaginary, which - flows in conical streams from a source so that the same amount of it - passes per second through every section of the cone. But in the - present process the velocity is constant and the density variable, - while in the others the density is virtually constant and the velocity - variable. There is a curious reciprocity in formulae such as we have - just given. For instance, it is easily seen that the light received - from a uniformly illuminated surface is represented by - [int][int]r^(-2) cos [theta] dS. - - As we have seen that this integral vanishes for a closed surface which - has no source inside, its value is the same for all shells of equal - uniform brightness whose edges lie on the same cone. - - - - -ILLUSTRATION. In a general sense, illustration (or the art of -representing pictorially some idea which has been expressed in words) is -as old as Art itself. There has never been a time since civilization -began when artists were not prompted to pictorial themes from legendary, -historical or literary sources. But the art of illustration, as now -understood, is a comparatively modern product. The tendency of modern -culture has been to make the interests of the different arts overlap. -The theory of Wagner, as applied to opera, for making a combined appeal -to the artistic emotions, has been also the underlying principle in the -development of that great body of artistic production which in painting -gives us the picture containing "literary" elements, and, in actual -association with literature in its printed form, becomes what we call -"illustration." The illustrator's work is the complement of expression -in some other medium. A poem can hardly exist which does not awaken in -the mind at some moment a suggestion either of picture or music. The -sensitive temperament of the artist or the musician is able to realize -out of words some parallel idea which can only be conveyed, or can be -best conveyed, through his own medium of music or painting. Similarly, -music or painting may, and often does, suggest poetry. It is from this -inter-relation of the emotions governing the different arts that -illustration may be said to spring. The success of illustration lies, -then, in the instinctive transference of an idea from one medium to -another; the more spontaneous it be and the less laboured in -application, the better. - -Leaving on one side the illuminated manuscripts of the middle ages (see -ILLUMINATED MSS.) we start with the fact that illustration was -coincident with the invention of printing. Italian art produced many -fine examples, notably the outline illustrations to the _Poliphili -Hypneratomachia_, printed by Aldus at Venice in the last year of the -15th century. Other early works exist, the products of unnamed artists -of the French, German, Spanish and Italian schools; while of more -singular importance, though not then brought into book form, were the -illustrations to Dante's _Divine Comedy_ made by Botticelli at about the -same period. The sudden development of engraving on metal and wood drew -many painters of the Renaissance towards illustration as a further -opportunity for the exercise of their powers; and the line-work, either -original or engraved by others, of Pollajuolo, Mantegna, Michelangelo -and Titian has its place in the gradual enlargement of illustrative art. -The German school of the 16th century committed its energies even more -vigorously to illustration; and many of its artists are now known -chiefly through their engravings on wood or copper, a good proportion of -which were done to the accompaniment of printed matter. The names of -Dürer, Burgmair, Altdorfer and Holbein represent a school whose engraved -illustrations possess qualities which have never been rivalled, and -remain an invaluable aid to imitators of the present day. - - - Progress in England. - -Illustration has generally flourished in any particular age in -proportion to the health and vigour of the artistic productions in other -kinds. No evident revival in painting has come about, no great school -has existed during the last four centuries, which has not set its mark -upon the illustration of the period and quickened it into a medium for -true artistic expression. The etchers of the Low Countries during the -17th century, with Rembrandt at their head, were to a great extent -illustrators in their choice of subjects. In France the period of -Watteau and Fragonard gave rise to a school of delicately engraved -illustration, exquisite in detail and invention. In England Hogarth came -to be the founder of many new conditions, both in painting and -illustration, and was followed by men of genius so distinct as Reynolds -on the one side and Bewick on the other. With Reynolds one connects the -illustrators and engravers for whom now Bartolozzi supplies a surviving -name and an embodiment in his graceful but never quite English art. But -it is from Thomas Bewick that the wonderfully consistent development of -English illustration begins to date. Bewick marks an important period in -the technical history of wood-engraving as the practical inventor of the -"tint" and "white line" method of wood-cutting; but he also happened to -be an artist. His artistic device was to give local colour and texture -without shadow, securing thereby a precision of outline which allowed no -form to be lost. And though, in consequence, many of his best designs -have somewhat the air of a specimen plate, he succeeded in bringing into -black-and-white illustration an element of colour which had been wholly -absent from it in the work of the 15th and 16th century German and -Italian schools. Bewick's method started a new school; but the more racy -qualities of his woodcuts were entirely dependent on the designer being -his own cutter; and the same happy relationship gave distinct -characteristics to the nearly contemporary work of William Blake and of -Calvert. Blake's wonderful _Illustrations to the Book of Job_, while -magnificent in their conventional rendering of light and shade, still -retain the colourlessness of the old masters, as do also the more -broadly handled designs to his own books of prophecy and verse; but in -his woodcuts to Philips's _Pastorals_ the modern tendency towards local -colour makes itself strongly felt. So wonderfully, indeed, have colour -and tone been expressed in these rough wood-blocks, that more vivid -impressions of darkness and twilight falling across quiet landscape have -never been produced through the same materials. The pastoral designs -made by Edward Calvert on similar lines can hardly be over-praised. -Technically these engravings are far more able than those from which -they drew their inspiration. - -With the exception of the two artists named, and in a minor degree of -Thomas Stothard and John Flaxman, who also produced original -illustrations, the period from the end of the 18th century till about -the middle of the 19th was less notable for the work of the designer -than of the engraver. The delicate plates to Rogers's _Italy_ were done -from drawings which Turner had not produced for purposes of -illustration; and the admirable lithographs of Samuel Prout and Richard -Bonington were merely studies of architecture and landscape made in a -material that admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that -Géricault came over to England about the year 1820 to draw the English -race-horse and other studies of country life, which were published in -London in 1821, and that other fine work in lithography was done by -James Ward, G. Cattermole, and somewhat later by J. F. Lewis. But -illustration proper, subject-illustration applied to literature, was -mainly in the hands of the wood-engravers; and these, forming a really -fine school founded on the lines which Bewick had laid down, had for -about thirty years to content themselves with rendering the works of -ephemeral artists, among whom Benjamin R. Haydon and John Martin stand -out as the chief lights. It must not be forgotten, however, that while -the day of a serious English school of illustration had not yet come, -Great Britain possessed an indigenous tradition of gross and lively -caricature; a tradition of such robust force and vulgarity that, by the -side of some choicer specimens of James Gillray and Henry W. Bunbury, -the art of Rowlandson appears almost refined. This was the school in -which George Cruikshank, John Leech, and the Dickens illustrators had -their training, from which they drew more and more away; until, with the -help of _Punch_, just before the middle of the 19th century, English -caricaturists had learned the secret of how to be apposite and amusing -without scurrility and without libel. (See CARICATURE.) - - - Influence of Wood-engraving. - -Under NEWSPAPERS will be found some account of the rise of _illustrated -journalism_. It was in about the year 1832 that the illustrated weekly -paper started on its career in England, and almost by accident -determined under what form a great national art was to develop itself. -While in France the illustrators were making their triumphs by means of -lithography, English illustration was becoming more and more identified -with wood-engraving. The demand for a method of illustration, easy to -produce and easy to print, for books and magazines of large circulation -and moderate price, forced the artist before long into drawing upon the -wood itself; and so soon as the artist had asserted his preference for -facsimile over "tint," the school which came to be called "of the -'sixties" was in embryo, and waited only for artistic power to give it -distinction. The engraver's translation of the artist's painting or -wash-drawing into "tint" had largely exalted the individuality of the -engraver at the expense of the artist. But from the moment when the -designer began to put his own lines upon the wood, new conditions shaped -themselves; and though the artist at times might make demands which the -engraver could not follow, or the engraver inadequately fulfil the -expectation of the artist, the general tendency was to bring designer -and engraver into almost ideal relations--an ideal which nothing short -of the artist being his own engraver could have equalled. Out of an -alliance cemented by their common use and understanding of the material -on which they worked came the school of facsimile or partial-facsimile -engraving which flourished during the 'sixties, and lasted just so long -as its conditions were unimpaired--losing its flavour only at the moment -when "improved" mechanical appliances enabled the artist once more to -dissociate himself from the conditions which bound the engraver in his -craft. - - - Pre-Raphaelite movement. - - Influence of Millais. - -Before the fortunate circumstances which governed the work of the -'sixties became decisive, illustrations of a transitional character, but -tending to the same end, had been produced by John Tenniel, John -Gilbert, Birket Foster, Harrison Weir, T. Creswick, W. Mulready and -others; but their methods were too vague and diffuse to bear as yet the -mark of a school; no single influence gave a unity to their efforts. On -some of them Adolf von Menzel's illustrations to Kügler's _Frederick the -Great_, published in England in 1844, may have left a mark; Gilbert -certainly shows traces of the influence of Delacroix and Bonington in -the free, loose method of his draughtsmanship, independent of accurate -modelling, and with here and there a paint-like dab of black to relieve -a generally colourless effect; while Tenniel, with cold, precise lines -of wire-drawn hardness, remained the representative of the past academic -style, influencing others by the dignity of his fine technique, but with -his own feeling quite untouched by the Pre-Raphaelite and romantic -movement which was soon to occupy the world of illustration. In greater -or less degree it may be said of the work of all these artists that, as -it antedates, so to the end does it stand somewhat removed in character -from, the school with which for a time it became contemporary. The year -which decisively marked the beginning of new things in illustration was -1857, the year of the Moxon _Tennyson_ and of Wilmott's _Poets of the -Nineteenth Century_, with illustrations by Rossetti, Millais, Holman -Hunt and Ford Madox Brown. In these artists we get the germ of the -movement which afterwards came to have so wide a popularity. At the -beginning, Pre-Raphaelite in name, poetic and literary in its choice of -subjects, the school quickly expanded to an acceptance of those open-air -and everyday subjects which one connects with the names of Frederick -Walker, Arthur B. Houghton, G. F. Pinwell and M. North. The -illustrations of the Pre-Raphaelites were eminently thoughtful, full of -symbolism, and with a certain pressure of interest to which the epithet -of "intense" came to be applied. As an example of their method of -thought-transference from word to form, Madox Brown's drawing for the -Dalziel Bible of "Elijah and the Widow's Son" may be taken. The -restoration of life to a dead body, of a child to its mother, is there -conveyed with many illustrative touches and asides, which become clumsy -when stated in words. The hen bearing her chicken between her wings is a -perfectly direct and appropriate pictorial symbol, but a far more -imaginative stroke is the shadow on the wall of a swallow flying back to -the clay bottle where it has made its nest. Here is illustration full of -literary symbolism, yet wholly pictorial in its means; and in this it is -entirely characteristic of Pre-Raphaelite feeling, with its method of -suggesting, through externals, consideration as opposed to mere outlook. -Of this phase Rossetti must be accounted the leader, but it was Millais -who, by the sheer weight of his personality, carried English -illustration along with him from Pre-Raphaelitism to the freer -romanticism and naturalistic tendencies of the 'sixties. Rossetti, with -his poetic enthusiasm, his strong personal magnetism and dramatic power -of composition, may be said to have brought about the awakening; it was -Millais who, by his rapid development of style, his original and daring -technique, turned it into a movement. When he started, there were many -influences behind him and his fellow-workers--among older foreign -contemporaries, those of Menzel and Rethel; and behind these again -something of the old masters. But through a transitional period, -represented by his twelve drawings of "The Parables," which appeared -first in _Good Words_, Millais emerged in to the perfect independence of -his illustrations to Trollope's novels, _Framley Parsonage_, and _The_ -_Small House at Allington_, his own master and the master of a new -school. Depicting the ugly fashions of his day with grave dignity and -distinction, and with a broad power of rendering type in work which had -the aspect of genre, he drew the picture of his age in a summary so -embracing that his illustrations attain the rank almost of historical -art. For art of this sort the symbolism of the Pre-Raphaelites lost its -use: the realization in form of a character conveyed by an author's -words, the happy suggestion of a locality helping to fix the writer's -description, the verisimilitudes of ordinary life, even to trivial -detail, carried out with real pictorial conviction, were the things most -to be aimed at. Pictorial conviction was the great mark of the -illustrative school of the 'sixties. The work of its artists has -absorbed so completely the interest and reality of the letterpress that -the results are a model of what faithful yet imaginative illustration -should be. In the illustrated magazines of this period, _Once a Week_, -_Good Words_, _Cornhill_, _London Society_, _The Argosy_, _The Leisure -Hour_, _Sunday at Home_, _The Quiver_ and _The Churchman's Family -Magazine_, as well as others, is to be found the best work of this new -school of illustrators; and with the greater number of them it cannot be -mistaken that Millais is the prevailing force. - -By their side other men were working, more deeply influenced by the old -masters, and by the minuteness and hard, definite treatment of form -which the Pre-Raphaelite school had inculcated. Foremost of these was -Frederick Sandys. His illustrations, scattered through nearly all the -magazines which have been named, show always a decorative power of -design and are full of fine drawing and fine invention, but remain -resolutely cold in handling and lacking in imaginative ardour. The few -illustrations done by Burne-Jones at this period show a whole-hearted -following of Rossetti, but a somewhat struggling technique; and the same -qualities are to be found in the work of Arthur Hughes, whose -illustrations in _Good Words for the Young_ (1869) have a charm of -tender poetic invention showing through the faults and persistent -uncertainty of his draughtsmanship. The illustrations of Frederick -Shields to Defoe's _History of the Plague_ have a certain affinity to -the work of Sandys; but, with less power over form, they show a more -dramatic sense of light and shade, and at their best can claim real and -original beauty. The formality of feeling and composition, and the -strained, stiff quality of line in Lord Leighton's designs to _Romola_ -(1863), do a good deal to mar one's enjoyment of their admirable -draughtsmanship. Many fine drawings done at this period by Leighton, -Poynter, Henry Armstead and Burne-Jones did not appear until the year -1880 in the "Dalziel Bible Gallery," when the methods of which they were -the outcome had fallen almost out of use. - - - "The 'sixties." - -Deeply influenced by the broad later phases of Millais's black-and-white -work were those artists whose tendency lay in the direction of idyllic -naturalism and popular romance, the men to whom more particularly is -given the name of the period and school "the 'sixties," and whose more -immediate leader, as far as popular estimation goes, was Frederick -Walker. With his, one may roughly group the names of Pinwell, Houghton, -North, Charles Keene, Lawless, Matthew J. Mahoney, Morten and, with a -certain reservation, W. Small and G. du Maurier. In no very separate -category stand two other artists whose contributions to illustration -were but incidental, John Pettie and J. M'Neill Whistler. The broad -characteristics of this variously related group were a loose, easy line -suggestive of movement, a general fondness for white spaces and open-air -effects, and in the best of them a thorough sense of the serious beauty -of domestic and rural life. They treated the present with a feeling -rather idyllic than realistic; when they touched the past it was with a -courteous sort of realism, and a wonderful inventiveness of detail which -carried with it a charm of conviction. Walker's method shows a broad and -vivid use of black and white, with a fine sense of balance, but very -little preoccupation for decorative effect. Pinwell had a more delicate -fancy, but less freedom in his technique--less ease, but more -originality of composition. In Houghton's work one sees a swift, -masterful technique, full of audacity, noble in its economy of means, -sometimes rough and careless. His temperament was dramatic, passionate, -satiric and witty. Some of his best work, his "Scenes from American -Life," appeared in the pages of the _Graphic_ as late as the years -1873-1874. There are indications in the work of Lawless that he might -have come close to Millais in his power of infusing distinction into the -barest materials of everyday life, but he died too soon for his work to -reach its full accomplishment. North was essentially a landscape -illustrator. The delicate sense of beauty in du Maurier's early work -became lost in the formal but graceful conventions of his later _Punch_ -drawings. It was in the pages of _Punch_ that Keene secured his chief -triumphs. The two last-named artists outstayed the day which saw the -break-up of the school of which these are the leading names. It ran its -course through a period when illustrated magazines formed the staple of -popular consumption, before the illustrated newspapers, with their -hungry rush for the record of latest events, became a weekly feature. -Its waning influence may be plainly traced through the early years of -the _Graphic_, which started in 1869 with some really fine work, done -under transitional conditions before the engraver's rendering of -tone-drawings once more ousted facsimile from its high place in -illustration. - -In connexion with this transitional period, drawings for the _Graphic_ -by Houghton, Pinwell, Sir Hubert von Herkomer, E. J. Gregory, H. Woods, -Charles Green, H. Paterson (Mrs Allingham) and William Small deserve -honourable mention. Yet it was the last-named who was mainly -instrumental in bringing about the change from line-work to pigment, -which depressed the artistic value of illustration during the 'seventies -and the 'eighties to almost absolute mediocrity. Several artists of -great ability practised illustration during this period: in addition to -those _Graphic_ artists already mentioned there were Luke Fildes, Frank -Holl, S. P. Hall, Paul Renouard and a few others of smaller merit. But -the interest was for the time shifting from black-and-white work and -turning to colour. Kate Greenaway began to produce her charming idyllic -renderings of children in mob-caps and long skirts. Walter Crane on -somewhat similar lines designed his illustrated nursery rhymes; while -Randolph Caldecott took the field with his fresh and breezy scenes of -hunting life and carousal in the times most typical of the English -squirearchy. Working with a broad outline, suggestive of the brush by -its easy freedom, and adding washes of conventional colour for -embellishment, he was one of the first in England to show the beginnings -of Japanese influence. Even more dependent upon colour were his -illustrated books for children; while in black and white, in his -illustrations to _Bracebridge Hall_ (1876), for instance, pen and ink -began to replace the pencil, and to produce a new and more independent -style of draughtsmanship. This style was taken up and followed by many -artists of ability, by Harry Furniss, Hugh Thomson and others, till the -influence of E. A. Abbey's more mobile and more elaborate penmanship -came to produce a still further development in the direction of fineness -and illusion, and that of Phil May, with Linley Sambourne for his -teacher, to simplify and make broad for those who aimed rather at a -journalistic and shorthand method of illustration. (See also CARICATURE -and CARTOON.) - - Under the absolutely liberating conditions of "process reproduction" - (see PROCESS) the latest developments in illustration on its lighter - and more popular side are full of French influences, or ready to - follow the wind in any fresh direction, whether to America or Japan; - but on the graver side they show a strong leaning towards the older - traditions of the 'sixties and of Pre-Raphaelitism. The founding by - William Morris of the Kelmscott Press in 1891, through which were - produced a series of decorated and illustrated books, aimed frankly at - a revival of medieval taste. In Morris's books decorative effect and - sense of material claimed mastery over the whole scheme, and subdued - the illustrations to a sort of glorious captivity into which no breath - of modern spirit could be breathed. The illustrations of Burne-Jones - filled with a happy touch of archaism the decorative borders of - William Morris; and only a little less happy, apart from their - imaginative inferiority, were the serious efforts of Walter Crane and - one or two others. Directly under the Morris influence arose the - "Birmingham school," with an entire devotion to decorative methods and - still archaic effects which tended sometimes to rather inane - technical results. Among its leaders may be named Arthur Gaskin, C. M. - Gere and E. H. New; while work not dissimilar but more independent in - spirit had already been done by Selwyn Image and H. P. Horne in the - _Century Guild Hobby-Horse_. But far greater originality and force - belonged to the work of a group, known for a time as the - neo-Pre-Raphaelites, which joined to an earnest study of the past a - scrupulously open mind towards more modern influences. Its earliest - expression of existence was the publication of an occasional - periodical, the _Dial_ (1889-1897), but before long its influence - became felt outside its first narrow limits. The technical influence - of Abbey, but still more the emotional and intellectual teaching of - Rossetti and Millais, together with side-influences from the few great - French symbolists, were, apart from their own originality, the forces - which gave distinction to the work of C. S. Ricketts, C. H. Shannon, - R. Savage and their immediate following. Beauty of line, languorous - passion, symbolism full of literary allusions, and a fondness for the - life of any age but the present, are the characteristics of the - school. Their influence fell very much in the same quarters where - Morris found a welcome; but an affinity for the Italian rather than - the German masters (shown especially in the "Vale Press" - publications), and a studied note of world-weariness, kept them - somewhat apart from the sturdy medievalism of Morris, and linked them - intellectually with the decadent school initiated by the wayward - genius of Aubrey Beardsley. But though broadly men may be classed in - groups, no grouping will supply a formula for all the noteworthy work - produced when men are drawn this way and that by current influences. - Among artists resolutely independent of contemporary coteries may be - named W. Strang, whose grave, rugged work shows him a pupil, through - Legros, of Dürer and others of the old masters; T. Sturge Moore, an - original engraver of designs which have an equal affinity for Blake, - Calvert and Hokusai; W. Nicholson, whose style shows a dignified - return to the best part of the Rowlandson tradition; and E. J. - Sullivan. In the closing years of the 19th century Aubrey Beardsley - became the creator of an entirely novel style of decorative - illustration. Drawing inspiration from all sources of European and - Japanese art, he produced, by the force of a vivid personality and - extraordinary technical skill, a result which was highly original and - impressive. To a genuine liking for analysis of repulsive and vicious - types of humanity he added an exquisite sense of line, balance and - mass; and partly by _succès de scandale_, partly by genuine artistic - brilliance, he gathered round him a host of imitators, to whom, for - the most part, he was able to impart only his more mediocre qualities. - - - United States. - - In America, until a comparatively recent date, illustration bowed the - knee to the superior excellence of the engraver over the artist. Not - until the brilliant pen-drawing of E. A. Abbey carried the day with - the black-and-white artists of England did any work of real moment - emanate from the United States, unless that of Elihu Vedder be - regarded as an exception. Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of - Dürer; he has also the ability to adapt himself to draughtsmanship of - a more modern tendency. C. S. Reinhart was an artist of directness and - force, in a style based upon modern French and German examples; while - of greater originality as a whole, though derivative in detail, is the - fanciful penmanship of Alfred Brennan. Other artists who stand in the - front rank of American illustrators, and whose works appear chiefly in - the pages of _Scribner's_, _Harper's_ and the _Century Magazine_, are - W. T. Smedley, F. S. Church, R. Blum, Wenzell, A. B. Frost, and in - particular C. Dana Gibson, the last of whom gained a reputation in - England as an American du Maurier. - - - France. - - The record of modern French illustration goes back to the day when - political caricature and the Napoleonic legend divided between them - the triumphs of early lithography. The illustrators of France at that - period were also her greatest artists. Of the historical and romantic - school were D. Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, Géricault, Delacroix, J. - B. Isabey and Achille Devéria, many of whose works appeared in - _L'Artiste_, a paper founded in 1831 as the official organ of the - romanticists; while the realists were led in the direction of - caricature by two artists of such enormous force as Gavarni and Honoré - Daumier, whose works, appearing in _La Lithographie Mensuelle_, _Le - Charivari_ and _La Caricature_, ran the gauntlet of political - interference and suppression during a troubled period of French - politics--which was the very cause of their prosperity. Behind these - men lay the influence of the great Spanish realist Goya. Following - upon the harsh satire and venomous realism of this famous school of - pictorial invective, the influence of the Barbizon school came as a - milder force; but the power of its artists did not show in the - direction of original lithography, and far more value attaches to the - few woodcuts of J. F. Millet's studies of peasant life. In these we - see clearly the tendency of French illustrative art to keep as far as - possible the authentic and sketch-like touch of the artist; and it was - no doubt from this tendency that so many of the great French - illustrators retained lithography rather than commit themselves to the - middleman engraver. Nevertheless, from about the year 1830 many French - artists produced illustrations which were interpreted upon the wood - for the most part by English engravers. Cunier's editions of _Paul et - Virginie_ and _La Chaumière Indienne_, illustrated by Huet, Jacque, - Isabey, Johannot and Meissonier, were followed by Meissonier's more - famous illustrations to _Contes rémois_. After Meissonier came J. B. - E. Detaille and Alphonse M. de Neuville and, with a voluminous style - of his own, L. A. G. Doré. By the majority of these artists the - drawing for the engraver seems to have been done with the pen; and the - tendency to penmanship was still more accentuated when from Spain came - the influence of M. J. Fortuny's brilliant technique; while after him, - again, came Daniel Vierge, to make, as it were, the point of the pen - still more pointed. During the middle period of the 19th century the - best French illustration was serious in character; but among the later - men, when we have recognized the grave beauty of Grasset's _Les Quatre - Fils d'Aymon_ (in spite of his vicious treatment of the page by - flooding washes of colour through the type itself), and the delicate - grace of Boutet de Monvel's _Jeanne d'Arc_, also in colours, it is to - the illustrators of the comic papers that we have to go for the most - typical and most audacious specimens of French art. In the pages of - _Gil Blas_, _Le Pierrot_, _L'Écho de Paris_, _Le Figaro Illustré_, _Le - Courrier Français_, and similar publications, are to be found, - reproduced with a dexterity of process unsurpassed in England, the - designs of J. L. Forain, C. L. Léandre, L. A, Willette and T. A. - Steinlen, the leaders of a school enterprising in technique, and with - a mixture of subtlety and grossness in its humour. Caran d'Ache also - became celebrated as a draughtsman of comic drama in outline. - - - Germany. - - Among illustrators of Teutonic race the one artist who seems worthy of - comparison with the great Menzel is Hans Tegner, if, indeed, he be not - in some respects his technical superior; but apart from these two, the - illustrators respectively of Kügler's _Frederick the Great_ and - Holberg's _Comedies_, there is no German, Danish or Dutch illustrator - who can lay claim to first rank. Max Klinger, A. Böcklin, W. Trübner, - Franz Stück and Hans Thoma are all symbolists who combine in a - singular degree force with brutality; the imaginative quality in their - work is for the most part ruined by the hard, braggart way in which it - is driven home. The achievements and tendency of the later school of - illustration in Germany are best seen in the weekly illustrated - journal, _Jugend_, of Munich. Typical of an older German school is the - work of Adolf Oberländer, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist, - whose illustrations are at times so monumental that the humour in them - seems crushed out of life. Others who command high qualities of - technique are W. Dietz, L. von Nagel, Hermann Vogel, H. Lüders and - Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or less degree lies the - influence of Menzel's coldly balanced and dry-lighted realism; but - wherever the influence of Menzel ceases, the merit of German - illustration for the most part tends to disappear or become mediocre. - - AUTHORITIES.--W. J. Linton, _The Masters of Wood Engraving_ (London, - 1889); C. G. Harper, _English Pen Artists of To-day_ (London, 1892); - Joseph Pennell, _Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ (London, 1894), - _Modern Illustration_ (London, 1895); Walter Crane, _The Decorative - Illustration of Books_ (London, 1896); Gleeson White, _English - Illustration: "The 'Sixties": 1855-1870_ (Westminster, 1897); W. A. - Chatto, _A Treatise on Wood Engraving_ (London, n.d.); Bar-le-Duc, - _Les Illustrations du XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1882); T. Kutschmann, - _Geschichte der deutschen Illustration vom ersten Auftreten des - Formschnittes bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1899). (L. Ho.) - - -_Technical Developments._ - -The history of illustration, apart from the merits of individual -artists, during the period since the year 1875, is mainly that of the -development of what is called Process (q.v.), the term applied to -methods of reproducing a drawing or photograph which depend on the use -of some mechanical agency in the making of the block, as distinguished -from such products of manual skill as steel or wood-engraving, -lithography and the like. There is good reason to believe that the art -of stereotyping--the multiplication of an already existing block by -means of moulds and casts--is as old as the 15th century; and the early -processes were, in a measure, a refinement upon this: with the -difference that they aimed at the making of a metal block by means of a -cast of the lines of the drawing itself, the background of which had -been cut away so as to leave the design in a definite relief. -Experiments of this nature may be said to have assumed practical shape -from the time of the invention of Palmer's process called at first -_Glyphography_, about the year 1844; this was afterwards perfected and -used to a considerable extent under the name of _Dawson's Typographic -Etching_, and its results were in many cases quite admirable, and often -appear in books and periodicals of the first part of the period with -which we are now concerned. The _Graphic_, for instance, published its -first process block in 1876, and the _Illustrated London News_ also made -similar experiments at about the same time. - - From this time begins the gradual application of photography to the - uses of illustration, the first successful line blocks made by its - help being probably those of Gillot, at Paris, in the early 'eighties. - The next stage was to be the invention of some means of reproducing - wash drawings. To do this it was necessary for the surface of the - block to be so broken up that every tone of the drawing should be - represented thereon by a grain holding ink enough to reproduce it. - This was finally accomplished by the insertion of a screen, in the - camera, between the lens and the plate--the effect of which was to - break up the whole surface of the negative into dots, and so secure, - when printed on a zinc plate and etched, an approximation to the - desired result. Half-tone blocks (as they were called) of this nature - (see PROCESS) were used in the _Graphic_ from 1884 and the - _Illustrated London News_ from 1885 onwards, the methods at first in - favour being those of Meisenbach and Boussod Valadon and Co.'s - phototype. Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Göschl of Vienna, - and F. Ives of Philadelphia also perfected processes giving a similar - result, a block by the latter appearing in the _Century_ magazine as - early as 1882. Processes of this description had, however, been used - for some years before by Henry Blackburn in his _Academy Notes_. - - During the decade 1875-1885, however, the main body of illustration - was accomplished by wood-engraving, which a few years earlier had - achieved such splendid results. Its artistic qualities were now at a - rather low ebb, although good facsimile engravings of pen-drawings - were not infrequent. The two great illustrated periodicals already - referred to during that period relied more upon pictorial than - journalistic work. An increasing tendency towards the illustration of - the events of the day was certainly shown, but the whole purpose of - the journal was not, as at present, subordinated thereto. The chief - illustrated magazines of the time, _Harper's_, the _Century_, the - _English Illustrated_, were also content with the older methods, and - are filled with wood-engravings, in which, if the value of the simple - line forming the chief quality of the earlier work has disappeared, a - most astonishing delicacy and success were obtained in the - reproduction of tone. - - Perhaps the most notable and most characteristic production of the - time in England was colour-printing. The _Graphic_ and the - _Illustrated London News_ published full-page supplements of high - technical merit printed from wood-blocks in conjunction with metal - plates, the latter sometimes having a relief aquatint surface which - produced an effect of stipple upon the shading; metal was also used in - preference to wood for the printing of certain colours. The children's - books illustrated by Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane and Kate - Greenaway at this time are among the finest specimens of - colour-printing yet seen outside of Japan; in them the use of flat - masses of pleasant colour in connexion with a bold and simple outline - was carried to a very high pitch of excellence. These plates were - generally printed by Edmund Evans. In 1887 the use of process was - becoming still more general; but its future was by no means adequately - foreseen, and the blocks of this and the next few years are anything - but satisfactory. This, it soon appeared, was due to inefficient - printing on the one hand, and, on the other, to a want of recognition - by artists of the special qualities of drawing most suitable for - photographic reproduction. The publication of Quevedo's _Pablo de - Segovia_ with illustrations by Daniel Vierge in 1882, although hardly - noticed at the time, was to be a revelation of the possibilities of - the new development; and a serious study of pen-drawing from this - point of view was soon inaugurated by the issue of Joseph Pennell's - _Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ in 1889, followed in by C. G. - Harper's _English Pen Artists of To-day_ and in 1896 by Walter Crane's - _Decorative Illustration of Books_. At this time also the influence of - Aubrey Beardsley made itself strongly felt, not merely as a matter of - style, but, by the use of simple line or mass of solid black, as an - almost perfect type of the work most suitable to the needs of process. - Wider experience of printing requirements, and finer workmanship in - the actual making of the blocks, in Paris, Vienna, New York and - London, soon brought the half-tone process into great vogue. The - spread of education has enormously increased the demand for ephemeral - literature, more especially that which lends itself to pictorial - illustration; and the photograph or drawing in wash reproduced in - half-tone has of late to a great extent ousted line work from the - better class of both books and periodicals. - - Improvements in machinery have made it possible to print illustrations - at a very high speed; and the facility with which photographs can now - be taken of scenes such as the public delight to see reproduced in - pictures has brought about an almost complete change in pictorial - journalism. In addition, reference must be made to an extraordinary - increase in the numbers and circulation of cheap periodical - publications depending to a very large extent for popularity on their - illustrations. Several of these, printed on the coarsest paper, from - rotary machines, sell to the extent of hundreds of thousands of copies - per week. It was inevitable that this cheapening process should not be - permitted to develop without opposition, and the _Dial_ (1889-1897) - must be looked on as a protest by the band of artists who promoted it - against the unintelligent book-making now becoming prevalent. Much - more effective and far-reaching in the same direction was the - influence of William Morris, as shown in the publications of the - Kelmscott Press (dating from 1891). In these volumes the aim was to - produce illustrations and ornaments which were of their own nature - akin to, and thus able to harmonize with the type, and to do this by - pure handicraft work. As a result, a distinct improvement is to be - found in the mere book-making of Great Britain; and although the main - force of the movement soon spent itself in somewhat uninspired - imitations, there can be no doubt of the survival of a taste for - well-produced volumes, in which the relationship of type, paper, - illustration and binding has been a matter of careful and artistic - consideration. Under this influence, a notable feature has been the - re-issue, in an excellent form, of illustrated editions of the works - of most of the famous writers. - - In France the general movement has proceeded upon lines on the whole - very similar. Process--especially what was called "Gillotage"--was - adopted earlier, and used at first with greater liberality than in - England, although wood-engraving has persisted effectively even up to - our own time. In the various types of periodicals of which the _Revue - Illustrée_, _Figaro Illustré_ and _Gil Blas Illustré_ may be taken as - examples, the most noticeable feature is a use of colour-printing, - which is far in advance of anything generally attempted in Great - Britain. A favourite and effective process is that employed for the - reproduction of chalk drawings (as by Steinlen), which consists of the - application of a surface-tint of colour from a metal plate to a print - from an ordinary process block. - - In Germany, _Jugend_, _Simplicissimus_, and other publications devoted - to humour and caricature, employ colour-printing to a great extent - with success. The organ of the artists of the younger German schools, - Pan (1895), makes use of every means of illustration, and has - especially cultivated lithography and wood-cuts, using these arts - effectively but with some eccentricity. Holland has also employed - coloured lithography for a remarkable series of children's books - illustrated by van Hoytema and others. The Viennese _Kunst und - Kunsthandwerk_ is an art publication which is exceptionally well - produced and printed. - - Illustration in the United States has some few characteristics which - differentiate it from that of other countries. The later school of - fine wood-engraving is even yet in existence. American artists also - introduced an effective use of the process block, namely, the - engraving or working over of the whole or certain portions of it by - hand. This is generally done by an engraver, but in certain cases it - has been the work of the original draughtsman, and its possibilities - have been foreseen by him in making his drawing. The only other - variant of note is the use of half-tone blocks superimposed for - various colours. (E. F. S.) - - - - -ILLUSTRES, the Latin name given to the highest magistrates of the later -Roman Empire. The designation was at first informal, and not strictly -differentiated from other marks of honour. From the time of Valentinian -I. it became an official title of the consuls, the chief praefecti or -ministers, and of the commanders-in-chief of the army. Its usage was -eventually extended to lower grades of the imperial service, and to -pensionaries from the order of the _spectabiles_. The Illustres were -privileged to be tried in criminal cases by none but the emperor or his -deputy, and to delegate procuratores to represent them in the courts. - - See O. Hirschfeld in _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_ (1901), - p. 594 sqq.; and T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892), - i. 603-617. - - - - -ILLYRIA, a name applied to part of the Balkan Peninsula extending along -the eastern shore of the Adriatic from Fiume to Durazzo, and inland as -far as the Danube and the Servian Morava. This region comprises the -modern provinces or states of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and -Montenegro, with the southern half of Croatia-Slavonia, part of western -Servia, the sanjak of Novibazar, and the extreme north of Albania. As -the inhabitants of Illyria never attained complete political unity its -landward boundaries were never clearly defined. Indeed, the very name -seems originally to have been an ethnological rather than a geographical -term; the older Greek historians usually wrote of "the Illyrians" -([Greek: hoi Illyrioi]), while the names Illyris ([Greek: Illyris]) or -less commonly Illyria ([Greek: Illyria]) came subsequently to be used of -the indeterminate area inhabited by the Illyrian tribes, i.e. a region -extending eastward from the Adriatic between Liburnia on the N. and -Epirus on the S., and gradually shading off into the territories of -kindred peoples towards Thrace. The Latin name Illyricum was not, unless -at a very early period, synonymous with Illyria; it also may originally -have signified the land inhabited by the Illyrians, but it became a -political expression, and was applied to various divisions of the Roman -Empire, the boundaries of which were frequently changed and often -included an area far larger than Illyria properly so called. Vienna and -Athens at different times formed part of Illyricum, but no geographer -would ever have included these cities in Illyria. - -_Ethnology._--Little can be learned from written sources of the origin -and character of the Illyrians. The Greek legend that Cadmus and -Harmonia settled in Illyria and became the parents of Illyrius, the -eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people, has been interpreted as -an indication that the Greeks recognized some affinity between -themselves and the Illyrians; but this inference is based on -insufficient data. Herodotus and other Greek historians represent the -Illyrians as a barbarous people, who resembled the ruder tribes of -Thrace. Both are described as tattooing their persons and offering human -sacrifices to their gods. The women of Illyria seem to have occupied a -high position socially and even to have exercised political power. -Queens are mentioned among their rulers. Fuller and more trustworthy -information can be obtained from archaeological evidence. In Bosnia the -lake-dwellings at Butmir, the cemeteries of Jezerine and Glasinac and -other sites have yielded numerous stone and horn implements, iron and -bronze ornaments, weapons, &c., and objects of more recent date -fashioned in silver, tin, amber and even glass. These illustrate various -stages in the development of primitive Illyrian civilization, from the -neolithic age onward. The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially -well represented. (See W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901; R. -Munro, _Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, Edinburgh, 1900; and W. -Radimský, _Die neolithische Station von Butmir_, Vienna, 1895-1898.) -Similar discoveries have been made in Dalmatia, as among the tumuli on -the Sabbioncello promontory, and in Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert ("Über -den Volkstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p. 114) -sought to prove that the Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory -was supported by E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted. In Dalmatia -there appears to have been a large Celtic element, and Celtic -place-names are common. The ancient Illyrian languages fall into two -groups, the northern, closely connected with Venetic, and the southern, -perhaps allied to Messapian and now probably represented by Albanian. - - See K. Brugmann, _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der Indogermanischen - Sprachen_ (Strassburg, 1904); and his larger _Grundriss der - vergleichenden Grammatik_ (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1897), with the - authorities there quoted, especially P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die - Geschichte der Griechischen Sprachen_ (Göttingen, 1896): see also - ALBANIA. - -_History._--Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably began -late in the 7th century B.C. or early in the 6th century. The most -important settlements appear to have been at Epidamnus (Durazzo), -Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato), -Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and on the islands of Curzola, Lesina -and Lissa. There is a collection of Greek coins from Illyria in the -museum at Agram, and the researches of Professor F. Bulié and others at -Salona (see Spalato) have brought to light Greek inscriptions, Greek -pottery, &c. dating from 600 B.C. But Greek influence seems never to -have penetrated far into the interior, and even on the coast it was -rapidly superseded by Latin civilization after the 3rd century B.C. -Until then the Illyrian tribes appear to have lived in a state of -intermittent warfare with their neighbours and one another. They are -said by Herodotus (ix. 43) to have attacked the temple of Delphi. -Brasidas with his small army of Spartans was assaulted by them on his -march (424 B.C.) across Thessaly and Macedonia to attack the Athenian -colonies in Thrace. The earlier history of the Macedonian kings is one -constant struggle against the Illyrian tribes. The migrations of the -Celts at the beginning of the 4th century disturbed the country between -the Danube and the Adriatic. The Scordisci and other Celtic tribes -settled there, and forced the Illyrians towards the south. The -necessities of defence seem to have united the Illyrians under a chief -Bardylis (about 383 B.C.) and his son Clitus. Bardylis nearly succeeded -in destroying the rising kingdom of Macedonia; King Amyntas II was -defeated, and a few years later Perdiccas was defeated and slain (359). -But the great Philip crushed the Illyrians completely, and annexed part -of their country. During the next century we hear of them as pirates. -Issuing from the secluded harbours of the coast, they ravaged the shores -of Italy and Greece, and preyed on the commerce of the Adriatic. The -Greeks applied to Rome for help. Teuta, the Illyrian queen, rejected the -Roman demands for redress, and murdered the ambassadors; but the two -Illyrian Wars (229 and 219 B.C.) ended in the submission of the -Illyrians, a considerable part of their territory being annexed by the -conquerors. Illyria, however, remained a powerful kingdom with its -capital at Scodra (Scutari in Albania), until 180 B.C., when the -Dalmatians declared themselves independent of Gentius or Genthius, the -king of Illyria, and founded a republic with its capital at Delminium -(see DALMATIA: _History_, on the site of Delminium). In 168 Gentius came -into conflict with the Romans, who conquered and annexed his country. -Dalmatia was invaded by a Roman army under Gaius Marcius Figulus in 156, -but Figulus was driven back to the Roman frontier, and in Dalmatia the -Illyrians were not finally subdued until 165 years afterwards. Publius -Scipio Nasica, who succeeded Figulus, captured Delminium, and in 119 L. -Caecilius Metellus overran the country and received a triumph and the -surname _Dalmaticus_. But in 51 a Dalmatian raid on Liburnia led to a -renewal of hostilities; the Roman armies were often worsted, and -although in 39 Asinius Pollio gained some successes (see Horace, _Odes_ -ii. 1. 15) these appear to have been exaggerated, and it was not until -Octavian took the field in person that the Dalmatians submitted in 33. -(For an account of the war see Appian, _Illyrica_, 24-28; Dio Cassius -xlix. 38; Livy, _Epit._ 131, 132). They again revolted in 16 and 11, and -in A.D. 6-9 joined the rebel Pannonians. Suetonius (_Tiberius_, 16) -declares that they were the most formidable enemies with whom the Romans -had had to contend since the Punic Wars. In A.D. 9, however, Tiberius -entirely subjugated them, for which he was awarded a triumph in 12 (Dio -Cass. lv. 23-29, lvi. 11-17; Vell. Pat. ii. 110-115). Thenceforward -Dalmatia, Iapydia and Liburnia were united as the province of Illyricum. - -Latin civilization spread rapidly, the cultivation of the vine was -introduced, gold-mining was carried on in Bosnia, and flourishing -commercial cities arose along the coast. Illyria became one of the best -recruiting grounds for the Roman legions; and in troubled times many -Illyrian soldiers fought their way up from the ranks to the imperial -purple. Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and Maximian were all -sons of Illyrian peasants. It is probable, however, that most of the -highland tribes now represented by the Albanians remained almost -unaffected by Roman influence. The importance of Illyricum caused its -name to be extended to many neighbouring districts; in the 2nd century -A.D. the _Illyricus Limes_ included Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia and -Thrace. In the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian (285) the -diocese of Illyricum was created; it comprised Pannonia, Noricum and -Dalmatia, while Dacia and Macedonia, together called Eastern Illyricum, -were added later. Either Diocletian or after him Constantine made -Illyricum one of the four prefectures, each governed by a _praefectus -praetorio_, into which the empire was divided. This prefecture included -Pannonia, Noricum, Crete and the entire Balkan peninsula except Thrace, -which was attached by Constantine to the prefecture of the East. From -the partition of the empire in 285 until 379 Illyricum was included in -the Western Empire, but thenceforward Eastern Illyricum was annexed to -the Eastern Empire; its frontier was almost identical with the line of -demarcation between Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking peoples, and -roughly corresponded to the boundary which now severs Latin from Greek -Christianity in the Balkan peninsula. The whole peninsula except Thrace -was still known as Illyricum, but was subdivided into Illyris Barbara or -Romana and Illyris Graeca (Eastern Illyricum with Greece and Crete). The -Via Egnatia, the great line of road which connected Rome with -Constantinople and the East, led across Illyricum from Dyrrachium to -Thessalonica. - -In the 5th century began a series of invasions which profoundly modified -the ethnical character and the civilization of the Illyrians. In 441 and -447 their country was ravaged by the Huns. In 481 Dalmatia was added to -the Ostrogothic kingdom, which already included the more northerly parts -of Illyricum, i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. Dalmatia was partially -reconquered by Justinian in 536, but after 565 it was devastated by the -Avars, and throughout the century bands of Slavonic invaders had been -gradually establishing themselves in Illyria, where, unlike the earlier -barbarian conquerors, they formed permanent settlements. Between 600 and -650 the main body of the immigrants occupied Illyria (see SERVIA: -_History_; and SLAVS). It consisted of Croats and Serbs, two groups of -tribes who spoke a single language and were so closely related that the -origin of the distinction between them is obscure. The Croats settled in -the western half of Illyria, the Serbs in the eastern; thus the former -came gradually under the influence of Italy and Roman Catholicism, the -latter under the influence of Byzantium and the Greek Church. Hence the -distinction between them became a marked difference of civilization and -creed, which has always tended to keep the Illyrian Slavs politically -disunited. - -The Croats and Serbs rapidly absorbed most of the Latinized Illyrians. -But the wealthy and powerful city-states on the coast were strong enough -to maintain their independence and their distinctively Italian -character. Other Roman provincials took refuge in the mountains of the -interior; these Mavrovlachi, as they were called (see DALMATIA: -_Population_; and VLACHS), preserved their language and nationality for -many centuries. The Illyrian tribes which had withstood the attraction -of Roman civilization remained unconquered among the mountains of -Albania and were never Slavonized. With these exceptions Illyria became -entirely Serbo-Croatian in population, language and culture. - -The name of Illyria had by this time disappeared from history. In -literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare's comedy, -_Twelfth Night_, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name was revived in -1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given to Carniola, Dalmatia, -Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, with parts of Carinthia -and Croatia; these territories were ceded by Austria to Italy at the -peace of Schönnbrun (14th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were -occupied by French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the -republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about the end of -1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective and the provinces -reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria, which was constituted in -1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Görz and -Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until 1849 a kingdom of the Austrian -crown. For the political propaganda known as Illyrism, see -CROATIA-SLAVONIA: _History_. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the authorities quoted above, see G. - Zippel, _Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus_ - (Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, _Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz - Illyrien_ (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, - i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, "The Illyrian Emperors and their - Land" (_Historical Essays_, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in - Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyklopädie_, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, - _The Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909). - - - - -ILMENAU, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the grand-duchy of -Saxe-Weimar, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, on the river -Ilm, 30 m. by rail south of Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 11,222. The town, which -stands picturesquely among wooded hills, is much frequented by visitors -in the summer. It was a favourite resort of Goethe, who wrote here his -_Iphigenie_, and often stayed at Gabelbach in the neighbourhood. It has -a grand-ducal palace, a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a -sanatorium for nervous disorders, and several educational -establishments. Its chief manufactures are glass and porcelain, toys, -gloves and chemicals, and the town has tanneries and saw-mills. Formerly -a part of the county of Henneberg, Ilmenau came in 1631 into the -possession of electoral Saxony, afterwards passing to Saxe-Weimar. - - See R. Springer, _Die klassischen Stätten von Jena und Ilmenau_ - (Berlin, 1869); Pasig, _Goethe und Ilmenau_ (2nd ed., Weimar, 1902); - and Fils, _Bad Ilmenau und seine Umgebung_ (Hildburghausen, 1886). - - - - -ILMENITE, a mineral known also as titanic iron, formerly regarded as an -iron and titanium sesquioxide (Fe, Ti)2O3 isomorphous with haematite -(Fe2O3), but now generally considered to be an iron titanate FeTiO3 -isomorphous with pyrophanite (MnTiO3) and geikielite (MgTiO3). It -crystallizes in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral -system, thus having the same degree of symmetry as phenacite and -pyrophanite, but differing from that of haematite. The angles between -the faces are very nearly the same as between the corresponding faces of -haematite; but it is to be noted that the rhombohedral angle (94° 29´) -of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of haematite (94° 0´) and -of the artificially prepared crystals of titanium sesquioxide (92° 40´), -which should be the case if the three substances were isomorphous. -Analyses show wide variations in chemical composition, and there is a -gradation from normal ilmenite FeTiO3 (with titanium dioxide 52.7, and -ferrous oxide 47.3%) to titaniferous haematite and titaniferous -magnetite. Frequently also, magnesia and manganous oxide are present in -small amounts, the former reaching 16%. The formula (Fe, Mg)TiO3 is then -analogous to those of geikielite and pyrophanite. Many analyses show the -presence of TiO2 and (Fe, Mg)O in this ratio of 1:1, yet there is often -an excess of ferric oxide to be accounted for; this may perhaps be -explained by the regular intergrowth on a minute scale of ilmenite with -haematite, like the intergrowth of such substances as calcite and sodium -nitrate, which are similar crystallographically but not chemically. - -[Illustration] - -In many of its external characters ilmenite is very similar to -haematite; the crystals often have the same tabular or lamellar habit; -the twin-laws are the same, giving rise to twin-lamellae and planes of -parting parallel to the basal plane and the primitive rhombohedron; the -colour is iron-black with a submetallic lustre; finally, the conchoidal -fracture is the same in both minerals. Ilmenite has a black streak; it -is opaque, but in very thin scales sometimes transparent with a -clove-brown colour. It is slightly magnetic, but without polarity. The -hardness is 5½, and the specific gravity varies with the chemical -composition from 4.3 to 5.0. - -Owing to the wide variations in composition, which even yet are not -properly understood, several varieties of the mineral have been -distinguished by special names. Crichtonite occurs as small and -brilliant crystals of acute rhombohedral habit on quartz at Le Bourg -d'Oisans in Dauphiné; it agrees closely in composition with the formula -FeTiO3 and has a specific gravity of 4.7. Manaccanite (or Menaccanite) -is a black sandy material, first found in 1791 in a stream at Manaccan -near Helston in Cornwall. Iserite, from Iserwiese in the Iser Mountains, -Bohemia, is a similar sand, but containing some octahedral crystals, -possibly of titaniferous magnetite. Washingtonite is found as large -tabular crystals at Washington, Connecticut. Uddevallite is from -Uddevalla in Sweden. Picrotitanite or picroilmenite (Gr. [Greek: pikros], -"bitter") is the name given to varieties containing a considerable -amount of magnesia. Other varieties are kibdelophane, hystatite, &c. The -name ilmenite, proposed by A. T. Kupffer in 1827, is after the Ilmen -Mountains in the southern Urals, whence come the best crystals of the -mineral. The largest crystals, sometimes as much as 16 lb. in weight, -are from Kragerö and Arendal in Norway. - -Ilmenite occurs, often in association with magnetite, in gneisses and -schists, sometimes forming beds of considerable extent, but of little or -no economic value. It is a common accessory constituent of igneous rocks -of all kinds, more especially basic rocks such as gabbro, diabase and -basalt. In these rocks it occurs as platy crystals, and is frequently -represented by a white, opaque alteration product known as leucoxene. - (L. J. S.) - - - - -ILOILO, a town, port of entry and the capital of the province of Iloilo, -Panay, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of Iloilo river, on the S.E. -coast. Pop. (1903) 19,054. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the -population of the town was more than doubled by the addition of the -municipalities of La Paz (pop. 5724), Mandurriao (pop. 4482), Molo (pop. -8551) and Jaro (pop. 10,681); in 1908 Jaro again became a separate town. -The town is built on low sandy ground, is irregularly laid out, and its -streets are not paved. It has a good government house and a fine church. -The harbour, suitable for ships of 15 ft. draught, is well protected by -the island of Guimaras, and ocean-going vessels can lie in the channel. -The surrounding country, which is traversed by gravel roads leading to -the principal towns of the province, is fertile and well cultivated, -producing sugar, tobacco and rice in abundance. In commercial importance -Iloilo ranks next to Manila among Philippine cities; it has manufactures -of piña, jusi, coconut oil, lime, vinegar and various articles made from -palm wood. Much of the town was burned by Filipino insurgents soon after -its capture by American troops in February 1899. - - - - -ILSENBURG, a village and health resort of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, -romantically situated under the north foot of the Harz Mountains, at the -entrance to the Ilsethal, 6 m. N.W. from Wernigerode by the railway to -Goslar. Pop. (1900) 3868. It has an Evangelical church, a modern château -of the princes of Stolberg, with pretty grounds, and a high grade -school, and manufactures metal wares, machines and iron screws and -bolts. - -Owing to its charming surroundings and its central position in the -range, Ilsenburg is one of the most frequented tourist resorts in the -Harz Mountains, being visited annually by some 6000 persons. The old -castle, Schloss Ilsenburg, lying on a high crag above the town, was -originally an imperial stronghold and was probably built by the German -king Henry I. The emperor Otto III. resided here in 995, Henry II. -bestowed it in 1003 upon the bishop of Halberstadt, who converted it -into a Benedictine monastery, and the school attached to it enjoyed a -great reputation towards the end of the 11th century. After the -Reformation the castle passed to the counts of Wernigerode, who restored -it and made it their residence until 1710. Higher still, on the edge of -the plateau rises the Ilsenstein, a granite peak standing about 500 ft. -above the valley, crowned by an iron cross erected by Count Anton von -Stolberg-Wernigerode in memory of his friends who fell in the wars of -1813-1815. Around this rock cluster numerous legends. - - See Jacobs, _Urkundenbuch des Klosters Ilsenburg_ (Halle, 1875); - Brandes, _Ilsenburg als Sommeraufenthalt_ (Wernigerode, 1885); and H. - Herre, _Ilsenburger Annalen_ (Leipzig, 1890). - - - - -IMAGE (Lat. _imago_, perhaps from the same root as _imitari_, copy, -imitate), in general, a copy, representation, exact counterpart of -something else. Thus the reflection of a person in a mirror is known as -his "image"; in popular usage one person is similarly described as "the -very image" of another; so in entomology the term is applied in its -Latin form _imago_ to an insect which, having passed through its larval -stages, has achieved its full typical development. The term is in fact -susceptible of two opposite connotations; on the one hand, it implies -that the thing to which it is applied is only a copy; on the other that -as a copy it is faithful and accurate. - -Psychology (q.v.) recognizes two uses of the term. The simplest is for -the impression made by an observed object on the retina, the eye; in -this connexion the term "after-image" (better "after-sensation") is used -for an image which remains when the eye is withdrawn from a brilliantly -lighted object; it is called positive when the colour remains the same, -negative when the complementary colours are seen. The strict -psychological use of the term "image" is by analogy from the -physiological for a purely mental idea which is taken as being observed -by the eye of the mind. These images are created or produced not by an -external stimulus, such as is necessary for a visual image (even the -after-image is due to the continued excitement of the same organ), but -by a mental act of reproduction. The simplest ideational image, which -has been described as the primary memory-image, is "the peculiarly vivid -and definite ideal representation of an object which we can maintain or -recall by a suitable effort of attention immediately after perceiving -it" (Stout). For this no external stimulus is required, and as compared -with the after-image it represents the objects in perspective just as -they might be seen in perception. This is characteristic of all mental -images. The essential requisite for this primary image is that the -attention should have been fixed upon the impressions. - -The relation between sense-impressions and mental images is a highly -complicated one. Difference in intensity is not a wholly satisfactory -ground of distinction; abnormal physical conditions apart, an image may -have an intensity far greater than that of a sense-given impression. On -the other hand, Hume is certainly right in holding that the distinctive -character of a percept as compared with an image is in all ordinary -cases the force and liveliness with which it strikes the mind--the -distinction, therefore, being one of quality, not of degree. A -distinction of some importance is found in the "superior steadiness" -(Ward) of impressions; while looking at any set of surroundings, images -of many different scenes may pass through the mind, each one of which is -immediately distinguished from the impression of the actual scene before -the eyes. This arises partly, no doubt, from the fact that the -perception has clear localization, which the image has not. In many -cases indeed an image even of a most familiar scene is exceedingly vague -and inaccurate. - -In Art the term is used for a representation or likeness of an animate -or inanimate object, particularly of the figure of a person in sculpture -or painting. The most general application of the word is to such a -representation when used as an object of religious worship or adoration, -or as a decorative or architectural ornament in places of religious -worship. The worship of images, or idolatry, from the point of view of -comparative religion, is treated in the article IMAGE-WORSHIP, and the -history of the attitude of the Christian church, outside the -post-Reformation church of England, towards the use of images as objects -of worship and religion in the article ICONOCLASTS. With regard to the -Pre-Reformation period in England, it is of interest to note that by the -constitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, 1305, it was the duty of the -parish to provide for the parish church, among other objects, the images -of Christ on the Cross, of the saint to whom the church was dedicated, -to be placed in the chancel, and of other saints. The injunctions of -Edward VI., 1547, ordered the destruction of all images that had been -the objects of superstitious use, and the act of 1549 (3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. -10) declared all such images illegal. This act, repealed in Mary's -reign, was revived in 1604 (1 James I. c. 25) and is still in force. The -present effect of this unrepealed act, as stated in _Boyd_ v. -_Philpotts_ (L.R. 6 P.C. 449), is that it only referred to the images -then subject to abuse, which had been ordered to be removed, and did not -refer to the subsequent use or abuse of other images. In Article XXII. -of the Articles of Religion it is laid down that "the Romish Doctrine -concerning ... Worshipping and Adoration as well of Images as of -Reliques ... is a fond thing mainly invented and grounded on no warranty -of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God." The law in -regard to images, which in this connexion include pictures and -stained-glass windows, but not sculptured effigies on monuments or -merely ornamental work, is contained in various judicial decisions, and -is not defined by statute. The effect of these decisions is thus -summarized in the report of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical -Discipline, 1906: "Such images are lawful as objects of decoration in a -church, but are unlawful if they are made, or are in danger of being -made, objects of superstitious reverence, contrary to Article XXII. -against the worshipping and adoration of images. In accordance with this -view, crosses, if not placed on the Holy Table, and also crucifixes, if -part only of a sculptured design or architectural decoration, have been -declared lawful. The question whether a crucifix or rood standing alone -or combined with figures of the Blessed Virgin and St John can, in any -circumstances, be regarded as merely decorative, has given rise to a -difference of judicial opinion and appears to be unsettled." Speaking -generally, articles of decoration and embellishment not used in the -services cannot lawfully be introduced into a church without the consent -of the ordinary given by a faculty, the granting of which is subject to -the judicial discretion of the chancellor or commissary, sitting as -judge of the bishop's court. By section 8 of the Public Worship -Regulation Act 1874, complainants may take proceedings if it is -considered that "any alteration in, or addition to, the fabric, -ornaments or furniture has been made without legal authority, or that -any decoration forbidden by law has been introduced into such church ... -provided that no proceedings shall be taken ... if such alteration or -addition has been completed five years before the commencement of such -proceedings." The following are the principal cases on the subject: in -_Boyd_ v. _Philpotts_, 1874 (L.R., 4 _Ad. & Ec._ 297; 6 P.C. 435), the -Exeter reredos case, the privy council, reversing the bishop's judgment, -allowed the structure, which contained sculptures in high relief of the -Ascension, Transfiguration and Descent of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost, -together with a cross and angels; in _R._ v. _the Bishop of London_, -1889 (23 _Q.B.D._ 414, 24 _Q.B.D._ 213), the St Paul's reredos case, the -bishop refused further proceedings against the legality of a structure -containing sculptured figures of Christ on the Cross and the Virgin and -Child. In _Clifton_ v. _Ridsdale_, 1876 (1 P. & D., 316), a metal -crucifix on the centre of the chancel screen was declared illegal as -being in danger of being used superstitiously, and in the same case -pictures or rather coloured reliefs representing the "Stations of the -Cross" were ordered to be removed on the ground that they had been -erected without a faculty, and were also considered unlawful by Lord -Penzance as connected with certain superstitious devotion authorized by -the Roman church. - - - - -IMAGE WORSHIP. It is obvious that two religious votaries kneeling -together before a statue may entertain widely different conceptions of -what the image is and signifies, although their outward attitude is the -same. The one may regard it as a mere image, picture or representation -of the higher being, void in itself of value or power. It is to him, -like the photograph hung on a wall of one we love, cherished as a -picture and no more. But the other may regard it, as a little girl -regards her doll, as an animated being, no mere picture, but as tenement -and vehicle of the god and fraught with divine influence. The former is -the attitude which the Latin Church officially inculcates towards sacred -pictures and statues; they are intended to convey to the eyes of the -faithful, especially to the illiterate among them, the history of Jesus, -of the Virgin and of the saints. The other attitude, however, is that -into which simple-minded Latin peasants actually lapse, as it is also -that which characterizes other religions ancient or modern which use -pictures or sculptures of gods, demons, men, brutes, or of particular -parts and organs of the same. With the latter attitude alone does the -present article deal, and it may conveniently be called idolatry or -image worship. For the history of the use of images in Christian worship -see ICONOCLASTS. - -The image or idol differs from the fetish, charm, talisman, phylactery -or miraculous relic, only in this, that either in the flat or the round -it _resembles_ the power adored; it has a prototype capable of being -brought before the eye and visualized. This is not necessarily the case -with the worshipper of _aniconic_ or unshaped gods. The Semite or savage -who sets up a sacred stone or Bethel believes indeed that a divine power -or influence enters the stone and dwells in it, and he treats the stone -as if it were the god, kisses it, anoints it with oil, feeds the god in -it by pouring out over it the blood of victims slain. But he is not an -idolater, for he has not "made unto himself any graven image, nor the -likeness of anything that is in heaven above or in the water beneath or -in the water under the earth." - -The question arises: must the stage of aniconic gods historically -precede and lead up to that of pictures and images? Are the latter a -development of the former? In the history of human religions can we -trace, as it were, a law of transition from sacred stock and stone up to -picture and image? Is it true to say that the latter is characteristic -of a later and higher stage of religious development? It was perhaps the -facility with which a pillar of stone or wood can be turned into an -image by painting or sculpturing on it eyes, ears, mouth, marks of sex -and so on, which led anthropologists of an earlier generation to -postulate such a law of development; but facts do not bear it out. In -the first place, what we are accustomed to call higher religions -deliberately attach greater sanctity to aniconic gods than to iconic -ones, and that from no artistic incapacity. The Jews were as well able -as their neighbours to fashion golden calves, snakes and the minor idols -called teraphim, when their legislator, in the words we have just cited, -forbade the ancillary use of all plastic and pictorial art for religious -purposes. And of our own Christianity, Robertson Smith remarks as -follows: "The host in the Mass is artistically as much inferior to the -Venus of Milo as a Semitic _Masseba_ was, but no one will say that -medieval Christianity is a lower form of religion than Aphrodite -worship." - -Here then in the most marked manner the aniconic sacrament has ousted -pictures and statues. It is the embodiment and home of divine -personality and power, and not they. Equally contradictory of any such -law of development is the circumstance that the Greeks of the 5th and -4th centuries B.C., although Pheidias and other artists were embodying -their gods and goddesses in the most perfect of images, nevertheless -continued to cherish the rude aniconic stocks and stones of their -ancestors. If any such law ever operated in human religious development, -how can we explain the following facts. In the shadowy age which -preceded the Stone age and hardly ended later than 10,000 B.C., the -cave-dwellers of the Dordogne could draw elks, bisons, elephants and -other animals at rest or in movement, with a freshness and realism which -to-day only a Landseer can rival. And yet in the European Stone age -which followed, the age in which the great menhirs and cromlechs were -erected, in which the domestication of animals began and the first corn -was sown, we find in the strata no image of man or beast, big or little. - -Whence this seeming blight and decay of art? Salomon Reinach, guided by -the analogy of similar practices among the aborigines of Australia, and -noticing that these primitive pictures represent none but animals that -formed the staple food of the age and place, and that they are usually -found in the deepest and darkest recesses of the caves where they could -only be drawn and seen by torchlight, has argued that they were not -intended for artistic gratification (a late motive in human art), but -were magical representations destined to influence and perhaps attract -the hunter's quarry. In a word this earliest art was ancillary to the -chase. It is a common practice in the magic of all ages and countries to -acquire control and influence over men and animals by making images of -them. The prototype is believed to suffer whatever is done to the image. -Reinach, therefore, supposes that in the Stone age which succeeded, -pictorial art was banned because it had got into the hands of magicians -and had come to be regarded as inevitably uncanny and malefic. This is -certainly the secret of the ordinary Mahommedan prohibition of pictures -and statues, which goes even to the length of denying to poor little -Arab girls the enjoyment of having dolls. It is felt that if you have -got a picture of any one, you have some power of harming him through it; -you can bind or loose him, just as you can a Djinn whose name you have -somehow learned. It is as dangerous for your enemy to have a picture of -you as for him to know your name. The old Hebrew prohibition of graven -images was surely based on a like superstition, so far as it was not -merely due to the physical impossibility for nomads of heavy statues -that do not admit of being carried from camp to camp and from pasture to -pasture. Possessing no images of Yahweh the Jews were also not exposed -to the same risk as were idolaters of having their gods stolen by their -foes and used against them. Lastly, the restriction to aniconic worship -saved them from much superstition, for there is nothing which so much -stimulates the growth of a mythology as the manufacture of idols. The -artist must indeed start with imaginative types, revealed to him in -visions or borrowed from current myths. But the tendency of his art is -to give rise to new tales of the gods. There is perpetual action and -reaction between picture and myth; and a legislator desiring to purify -and raise his countrymen's religion must devote no less attention to -their plastic art than to their hymnology. - -Motives drawn from homoeopathic magic may thus explain the occasional -disuse and prohibition of pictorial and plastic art in cult; they may -equally explain its genesis and rise in certain ages and countries. -Prayer is much more hopeful and efficacious for a worshipper who has -means of bringing near to himself, and even coercing the god he -worships. An image fashioned like a god, and which has this advantage -over a mere stock and stone that it declares itself and reveals at a -glance to what god it is sacred, must surely attract and influence the -god to choose it as his home and tenement. And having the god thus at -hand and imprisoned in matter, the simple-minded worshipper can punish -him if his prayers are left unanswered. Dr E. B. Tylor accordingly (in -his chapter on "Idolatry" in _Primitive Culture_, ii. 170), reminds us -of "the negro who feeds ancestral images and brings them a share of his -trade profits, but will beat an idol or fling it into the fire if it -cannot give him luck or preserve him from sickness." So Augustus Caesar, -having lost some ships in a storm, punished Neptune by forbidding his -image to be carried in procession at the Circensian games (Sueton. -_Aug._ 16). - -In certain cases the wish to carry elsewhere the cult of a favourite or -ancestral cult, may have dictated the manufacture of images that declare -themselves and reveal at a glance whose they are. Thus a Phoenician -colonist might desire to carry abroad the cult of a certain Baal or -Astarte who lived in a conical stone or pillar. Pilgrims visiting -Paphos, the original home and temple of Astarte, could of course be in -no doubt about which of the heavenly powers inhabited the cone of stone -in which she was there held to be immanent; nor was any Semite ever -ignorant as to which Baal he stood before. It was necessarily the Baal -or Lord of the region. But small portrait statues must surely have been -made to be carried about or used in private worship. Meanwhile the -shapeless cone remained the object of public adoration and pilgrimage. - -The Egyptian writer Hermes Trismegistus (c. 250), in a work called -_Asclepius_ (cited by Augustine, _De civit. Dei_, viii. 26), claims that -his ancestors discovered the art of making gods, and since they could -not create souls, they called up the souls of demons or angels and -introduced them into the holy images and divine mysteries, that through -these souls the idols might possess powers of doing good and harm. This -was the belief of the pagans, and the Christians for centuries shared it -with them. Not a few Christian martyrs sought and won the palm by -smashing the idols in order to dislodge the indwelling devil; -occasionally their zeal was further gratified by beholding it pass away -like smoke from its ruined home. - -Image worship then is a sort of animism. It is a continuance by adults -of their childish games with dolls. In the Roman religion, on a feast of -thanksgiving for a great victory, couches were spread in the temples for -the gods, whose images were taken down from their pedestals and laid on -the couches, and tables set before them loaded with delicate viands. -This was called a _Lectisternium_. So Marco Polo (i. chap. 53) relates -how the Tatars had each a figure of Natigay, the god of the earth, who -watched over their children, cattle and crops. The image was made of -felt and cloth, and similar images of his wife and children were set on -his left hand and in front of him. "And when they eat, they take the fat -of the meat and grease the god's mouth withal, as well as the mouths of -his wife and children." The old Greek statues moved of themselves, shook -their spears, kneeled down, spoke, walked, wept, laughed, winked, and -even bled and sweated,--a mighty portent. Images of Christ, of the -Virgin and saints have achieved many a similar miraculous portent. A -figure of Christ has been known even to give its shoes to a poor man, -and a Virgin to drop a ring off her finger to a suppliant. In Umbrian -villages on Easter Sunday the images of Jesus and His Mother are carried -in rival processions from their respective chapels, and are made to bow -when they meet face to face. The spectators applaud or hiss according as -they make their bow well or ill. In antiquity it was a common ceremony -to arrange a holy marriage between male and female images, and such -unions acted on the earth as a fertility charm. Much of a priest's time -was given up to the toilet of the god or goddess. Thus Isis was dressed -and coiffed every day by her special attendants according to Apuleius -(_Met._ xi. 9). Like the statue of St Agatha of Catania to-day, her -image was loaded with jewels, and an inscription of Cadiz (_C.I.L._ ii. -3386) contains an inventory of the jewels with which Isis had been -endowed by Spanish devotees. - -Idolatrous cults repose so largely on make-believe and credulity that -the priests who administered them, perhaps oftener than we know, fell -into the kind of imposture and trickery of which the legend of Bel and -the dragon represents a classical example. "Thinkest thou not," said -King Astyages, "that Bel is a living god? Or seest thou not how much he -eateth and drinketh every day? Then Daniel laughed, and said, O King, be -not deceived: for this is but clay within, and brass without, and did -never eat or drink anything." In the sequel Daniel proves to the king -that the priests with their wives and children came in through privy -doors and consumed the viands set before the god; and the king, angered -at their trickery, slew them all and gave Bel over to Daniel for -destruction. - -The invectives against idolatry of the early Jewish and Christian -apologists, of Philo, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Arnobius, Lactantius -and others, are very good reading and throw much light on the question -how an ancient pagan conceived of his idols. One capital argument of the -Christians was the absurdity of a man making an idol and then being -afraid of or adoring the work of his own hands. Lactantius preserves the -answer of the pagans so attacked (_De origine Erroris_, ii. 2): We do -not, they said, fear the images themselves, but those beings after whose -likeness they were fashioned and by whose names they were consecrated. -Few such rites of consecration remain, but they must have been similar -to those used in India to-day. There the Brahmin invites the god to -dwell within the image, specially made hollow to contain him, -"performing the ceremony of _adhivasa_ or inhabitation, after which he -puts in the eyes and the _prana_, i.e. breath, life or soul."[1] -Similarly Augustine (_De civ. Dei_, viii. 23) relates how, according to -Hermes, the spirits entered by invitation (_spiritus invitatos_), so -that the images became bodies of the gods (_corpora deorum_). Thus the -invisible spirits by a certain art are so joined unto the visible -objects of corporeal matter that the latter become as it were animated -bodies, images dedicated to those spirits and controlled by them (see -CONSECRATION). Such statues were animated with sense and full of spirit, -they foresaw the future, and foretold it by lot, through their priests, -in dreams and in other ways. - - See E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ed. 1903 (list of authorities - and sources vol., p. 171); L. R. Farnell, _The Evolution of Religion_ - (London, 1905); Jacob Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, translation by J. - S. Stallybrass. (F. C. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Tylor, _Prim. Culture_, ii. 178. - - - - -IMAGINATION, in general, the power or process of producing mental -pictures or ideas. The term is technically used in psychology for the -process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in -sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of -ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this -process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as -opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination (see IMAGE and -PSYCHOLOGY). The common use of the term is for the process of forming in -the mind new images which have not been previously experienced, or at -least only partially or in different combinations. Thus the image of a -centaur is the result of combining the common percepts of man and horse: -fairy tales and fiction generally are the result of this process of -combination. Imagination in this sense, not being limited to the -acquisition of exact knowledge by the requirements of practical -necessity, is up to a certain point free from objective restraints. In -various spheres, however, even imagination is in practice limited: thus -a man whose imaginations do violence to the elementary laws of thought, -or to the necessary principles of practical possibility, or to the -reasonable probabilities of a given case is regarded as insane. The same -limitations beset imagination in the field of scientific hypothesis. -Progress in scientific research is due largely to provisional -explanations which are constructed by imagination, but such hypotheses -must be framed in relation to previously ascertained facts and in -accordance with the principles of the particular science. In spite, -however, of these broad practical considerations, imagination differs -fundamentally from belief in that the latter involves "objective control -of subjective activity" (Stout). The play of imagination, apart from the -obvious limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), is -conditioned only by the general trend of the mind at a given moment. -Belief, on the other hand, is immediately related to practical activity: -it is perfectly possible to _imagine_ myself a millionaire, but unless I -_believe_ it I do not, therefore, act as such. Belief always endeavours -to conform to objective conditions; though it is from one point of view -subjective it is also objectively conditioned, whereas imagination as -such is specifically free. The dividing line between imagination and -belief varies widely in different stages of mental development. Thus a -savage who is ill frames an ideal reconstruction of the causes of his -illness, and attributes it to the hostile magic of an enemy. In -ignorance of pathology he is satisfied with this explanation, and -actually _believes_ in it, whereas such a hypothesis in the mind of -civilized man would be treated as a pure effort of imagination, or even -as a hallucination. It follows that the distinction between imagination -and belief depends in practice on knowledge, social environment, -training and the like. - -Although, however, the absence of objective restraint, i.e. a certain -unreality, is characteristic of imagination, none the less it has great -practical importance as a purely ideational activity. Its very freedom -from objective limitation makes it a source of pleasure and pain. A -person of vivid imagination suffers acutely from the imagination of -perils besetting a friend. In fact in some cases the ideal construction -is so "real" that specific physical manifestations occur, as though -imagination had passed into belief or the events imagined were actually -in progress. - - - - -IMAM, an Arabic word, meaning "leader" or "guide" in the sense of a -"pattern whose example is followed, whether for good or bad." Thus it is -applied to the Koran, to a builder's level and plumb-line, to a road, to -a school-boy's daily task, to a written record. It is used in several of -these, senses in the Koran, but specifically several times of leaders -and (ii. 118) of Abraham, "Lo, I make thee a pattern for mankind." -_Imam_ thus became the name of the head of the Moslem community, whose -leadership and patternhood, as in the case of Mahomet himself, is to be -regarded as of the widest description. His duty is to be the lieutenant, -the Caliph (q.v.) of the Prophet, to guard the faith and maintain the -government of the state. Round the origin and basis of his office all -controversies as to the Moslem state centre. The Sunnites hold that it -is for men to appoint and that the basis is obedience to the general -usage of the Moslem peoples from the earliest times. The necessity for -leaders has always been recognized, and a leader has always been -appointed. The basis is thus agreement in the technical sense (see -MAHOMMEDAN LAW), not Koran nor tradition from Mahomet nor analogy. The -Shi'ites in general hold that the appointment lies with God, through the -Prophet or otherwise, and that He always has appointed. The Kharijites -theoretically recognize no absolute need of an Imam; he is convenient -and allowable. The Motazilites held that reason, not agreement, dictated -the appointment. Another distinction between the Sunnites and the -Shi'ites is that the Sunnites regard the Imam as liable to err, and to -be obeyed even though he personally sins, provided he maintains the -ordinances of Islam. Effective leadership is the essential point. But -the Shi'ites believe that the divinely appointed Imam is also divinely -illumined and preserved (_ma'sum_) from sin. The above is called the -greater Imamate. The lesser Imamate is the leadership in the Friday -prayers. This was originally performed by the Imam in the first sense, -who not only led in prayers but delivered a sermon (_khutba_); but with -the growth of the Moslem empire and the retirement of the caliph from -public life, it was necessarily given over to a deputy--part of a -gradual process of putting the Imamate or caliphate into commission. -These deputy Imams are, in Turkey, ministers of the state, each in -charge of his own parish; they issue passports, &c., and perform the -rites of circumcision, marriage and burial. In Persia among Shi'ites -their position is more purely spiritual, and they are independent of the -state. A few of their leaders are called _Mujtahids_, i.e. capable of -giving an independent opinion on questions of religion and canon law. A -third use of the term Imam is as an honorary title. It is thus applied -to leading theologians, e.g. to Abu Hanifa, ash-Shafi'i, Malik ibn Anas, -Ahmad ibn Hanbal (these are called "the four Imams"), Ghazali. - - See McG. de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khaldun's _Prolégomènes_, i. 384 - seq., 402 seq., 426 seq., 445; iii. 35, 58 seq.; Ostrorog's transl. of - Mawardi's _Ahkam_ i. 89 seq.; Haarbrücker's transl. of Shahrastani by - index; Juynboll's _De Mohammedanische Wet_, 316 seq.; Sell's _Faith of - Islam_, 95 seq.; Macdonald's _Development of Muslim Theology_, 56 seq. - (D. B. Ma.) - - - - -IMBECILE (through the French from Lat. _imbecillus_ or _imbecillis_, -weak, feeble; of unknown origin), weak or feeble, particularly in mind. -The term "imbecility" is used conventionally of a condition of mental -degeneration less profound than "idiotcy" (see INSANITY). - - - - -IMBREX (Latin for "tile"), in architecture the term given to the -covering tile of the ancient roof: the plain tile is turned up on each -side and the imbrex covers the joint. In the simpler type of roof the -imbrex is semicircular, but in some of the Greek temples it has vertical -sides and an angular top. In the temple of Apollo at Bassae, where the -tiles were in Parian marble, the imbrex on one side of the tile and the -tile were worked in one piece out of the solid marble. - - - - -IMBROS, a Turkish island in the Aegean, at the southern end of the -Thracian Chersonese peninsula. It forms with Samothrace, about 17 m. -distant, a caza (or canton) in the sanjak of Lemnos and province of the -Archipelago Isles. Herodotus (v. 26) mentions it as an abode of the -historic Pelasgians (q.v.). It was, like Samothrace, a seat of the -worship of the Cabeiri (q.v.). The island is now the seat of a Greek -bishopric. There is communication with the mainland by occasional -vessels. The island is of great fertility--wheat, oats, barley, olives, -sesame and valonia being the principal products, in addition to a -variety of fruits. Pop. about 92,000, nearly all Turks. - - - - -IMERETIA, or IMERITIA a district in Russian Transcaucasia, extends from -the left bank of the river Tskheniz-Tskhali to the Suram range, which -separates it from Georgia on the east, and is bounded on the south by -Akhaltsikh, and thus corresponds roughly to the eastern part of the -modern government of Kutais. Anciently a part of Colchis, and included -in Lazia during the Roman empire, Imeretia was nominally under the -dominion of the Greek emperors. In the early part of the 6th century it -became the theatre of wars between the Byzantine emperor Justinian and -Chosroes, or Khosrau, king of Persia. Between 750 and 985 it was ruled -by a dynasty (Apkhaz) of native princes, but was devastated by hostile -incursions, reviving only after it became united to Georgia. It -flourished until the reign of Queen Thamar, but after her death (1212) -the country became impoverished through strife and internal dissensions. -It was reunited with Georgia from 1318 to 1346, and again in 1424. But -the union only lasted forty-five years; from 1469 until 1810 it was -governed by a Bagratid dynasty, closely akin to that which ruled over -Georgia. In 1621 it made the earliest appeal to Russia for aid; in 1650 -it acknowledged Russian suzerainty and in 1769 a Russian force expelled -the Turks. In 1803 the monarch declared himself a vassal of Russia, and -in 1810 the little kingdom was definitively annexed to that empire. (See -GEORGIA.) - - - - -IMIDAZOLES, or GLYOXALINES, organic chemical compounds containing the -ring system - - / CH = CH - HN / | . - \ CH = N - -Imidazole itself was first prepared by H. Debus (_Ann._ 1858, 107, p. -254) by the action of ammonia on glyoxal, 2C2H2O2 + 2NH3 = C3H4N2 + -H2CO2 + 2H2O. The compounds of this series may be prepared by the -condensation of ortho-diketones with ammonia and aldehydes - - R·C - N \\ - R·CO·CO·R + 2NH3 + R´·CHO = 3H2O + || \\ C·R´; - R·C - NH / - -from thioimidazolones by oxidation with dilute nitric acid (W. -Marckwald, _Ber._, 1892, 25, p. 2361); by distillation of hydrobenzamide -and similarly constituted bodies; and by the action of phosphorus -pentachloride on symmetrical dimethyloxamide, a methylchlorglyoxaline -being formed (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1877, 184, p. 500). - -The glyoxalines are basic in character, and the imide hydrogen is -replaceable by metals and alkyl groups. They are stable towards reducing -agents, and acidyl groups are only introduced with difficulty. - - _Imidazole_ (glyoxaline), C3H4N2, crystallizes in thick prisms which - melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in - alcohol and in water. It is unaffected by chromic acid, but potassium - permanganate oxidizes it to formic acid. It forms salts with acids. - - _Lophine_ (triphenylglyoxaline), - - C6H5·C-N \\ - || \\ C·C6H5, - C6H5·C-NH / - - is formed by the dry distillation of hydrobenzamide, or by saturating - an alcoholic solution of benzil and benzaldehyde (at a temperature of - 40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at 275° C. - It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic acid and - hydrochloric acid, in the presence of some red phosphorus, it yields - benzoic acid. - - The keto-glyoxalines are known as imidazolones and are prepared by the - action of acids on acetalyl thioureas (W. Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, - p. 2357). _Benzimidazole_, - - / N \\ - C6H4 / \\ CH, - \ NH / - - is the simplest representative of the benzoglyoxalines and is prepared - by the condensation of formic acid with ortho-phenylene diamine. It - forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in character, - and on oxidation with potassium permanganate yields a small amount of - glyoxaline dicarboxylic acid, - - HOOC·C - N \\ - || \\ CH. - HOOC·C - NH / - - (E. Bamberger, _Ann._, 1893, 273, p. 338). - - - - -IMITATION (Lat. _imitatio_, from _imitari_, to imitate), the -reproduction or repetition of an action or thought as observed in -another person or in oneself, or the construction of one object in the -likeness of another. By some writers (e.g. Preyer and Lloyd Morgan) the -term "imitation" is limited to cases in which one person copies the -action or thought of another; others have preferred a wider use of the -term (i.e. including "self-imitation"), and have attempted to classify -imitative action into various groupings, e.g. as cases of "conscious -imitation," "imitative suggestion," "plastic imitation" (as when the -members of a crowd subconsciously reproduce one another's modes of -thought and action), and the like. The main distinction is that which -takes into account the question of attention (q.v.). In _conscious_ -imitation, the attention is fixed on the act and its reproduction: in -_unconscious_ imitation the reproduction is entirely mechanical and the -agent does not "attend" to the action or thought which he is copying: in -_subconscious_ imitation the action is not deliberate, though the -necessary train of thought would immediately follow if the attention -were turned upon it under normal conditions. Imitation plays an -extremely important part in human and animal development, and a clear -understanding of its character is important both for the study of -primitive peoples, and also in the theories of education, art and -sociology. The child's early development is in large measure imitative: -thus the first articulate sounds and the first movements are mainly -reproductions of the words and actions of parents, and even in the later -stages that teacher is likely to achieve the best results who himself -gives examples of how a word should be pronounced or an action done. The -impulse to imitate is, however, not confined to children: there is among -the majority of adults a tendency to assimilate themselves either to -their society or to those whom they especially admire or respect: this -tendency to shun the eccentric is rooted deeply in human psychology. -Moreover, even among highly developed persons the imitative impulse -frequently overrides the reason, as when an audience, a crowd, or even -practically a whole community is carried away by a panic for which no -adequate ground has been given, or when a cough or a yawn is imitated by -a company of people. Such cases may be compared with those of persons -in mesmeric trances who mechanically copy a series of movements made by -the mesmerist. The universality of the imitative impulse has led many -psychologists to regard it as an instinct (so William James, _Principles -of Psychology_, ii. 408; cf. INSTINCT), and in that large class of -imitative actions which have no obvious ulterior purpose the impulse -certainly appears to be instinctive in character. On the other hand -where the imitator recognizes the particular effect of a process and -imitates with the deliberate intention of producing the same effect, his -action can scarcely be classed as instinctive. A considerable number of -psychologists have distinguished imitative from instinctive actions -(e.g. Baldwin, and Sully). According to Darwin the imitative impulse -begins in infants at the age of four months. It is to be noted, however, -that the child imitates, not every action indiscriminately, but -especially those towards which it has a congenital tendency. The same is -true of animals: though different kinds of animals may live in close -proximity, the young of each kind imitate primarily the actions of their -own parents. - -Among primitive man imitation plays a very important part. The savage -believes that he can bring about events by imitating them. He makes, for -instance, an image of his enemy and pierces it with darts or burns it, -believing that by so doing he will cause his enemy's death: similarly -sailors would whistle, or farmers would pour water on the ground, in the -hope of producing wind or rain. This form of imitation is known as -sympathetic magic (see MAGIC). The sociological importance of imitation -is elaborately investigated by Gabriel Tarde (_Les Lois de l'imitation_, -2nd ed., 1895), who bases all social evolution on the imitative impulse. -He distinguishes "custom imitations," i.e. imitations of ancient or even -forgotten actions, and "mode imitations," i.e. imitations of current -fashions. New discoveries are, in his scheme, the product of the -conflict of imitations. This theory, though of great value, seems to -neglect original natural similarities which, by the law of causation, -produce similar consequences, where imitation is geographically or -chronologically impossible. - -The term "imitation" has also the following special uses:-- - -1. _In Art-theory._--According to Plato all artistic production is a -form of imitation ([Greek: mimêsis]). That which really exists is the -idea or type created by God; of this type all concrete objects are -representations, while the painter, the tragedian, the musician are -merely imitators, thrice removed from the truth (_Rep._ x. 596 seq.). -Such persons are represented by Plato as a menace to the moral fibre of -the community (_Rep._ iii.), as performing no useful function, drawing -men away from reality and pandering to the irrational side of the soul. -All art should aim at moral improvement. Plato clearly intends by -"imitation" more than is connotated by the modern word: though in -general he associates with it all that is bad and second-rate, he in -some passages admits the value of the imitation of that which is good, -and thus assigns to it a certain symbolic significance. Aristotle, -likewise regarding art as imitation, emphasizes its purely artistic -value as purging the emotions ([Greek: katharsis]), and producing -beautiful things as such (see AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS). - -2. _In Biology_, the term is sometimes applied to the assimilation by -one species of certain external characteristics (especially colour) -which enable them to escape the notice of other species which would -otherwise prey upon them. It is a form of protective resemblance and is -generally known as mimicry (q.v.; see also COLOURS OF ANIMALS). - -3. _In Music_, the term "imitation" is applied in contrapuntal -composition to the repetition of a passage in one or more of the other -voices or parts of a composition. When the repetition is note for note -with all the intervals the same, the imitation is called "strict" and -becomes a canon (q.v.); if not it is called "free," the latter being -much the more common. There are many varieties of imitation, known as -imitation "by inversion," "by inversion and reversion," "by -augmentation," "by diminution" (see _Grove's Dictionary of Music, s. -v._, and textbooks of musical theory). - - - - -IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE (_Imitatio Christi_), the title of a famous -medieval Christian devotional work, much used still by both Catholics -and Protestants and usually ascribed to Thomas à Kempis. The -"Contestation" over the author of the _Imitation of Christ_ is probably -the most considerable and famous controversy that has ever been carried -on concerning a purely literary question. It has been going on almost -without flagging for three centuries, and nearly 200 combatants have -entered the lists. In the present article nothing is said on the history -of the controversy, but an attempt is made to summarize the results that -may be looked on as definitely acquired. - -Until quite recently there were three candidates in the field--Thomas à -Kempis (1380-1471), a canon regular of Mount St Agnes in Zwolle, in the -diocese of Utrecht, of the Windesheim Congregation of Augustinian -Canons; John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor of the University of Paris; -and an abbot, John Gersen, said to have been abbot of a Benedictine -monastery at Vercelli in the 12th century. Towards the end of the 15th -century the _Imitation_ circulated under the names of the first two; but -Gerson is an impossible author, and his claims have never found -defenders except in France, where they are no longer urged. The -Benedictine abbot Gersen is an absolutely mythical personage, a mere -"double" of the chancellor. Consequently at the present day the question -is narrowed to the issue: Thomas à Kempis, or an unknown author. - -The following is a statement of the facts that may be received as -certain:-- - -1. The earliest-known dated MS. of the _Imitation_ is of 1424--it -contains only Bk. I.; the earliest MSS. of the whole work of certain -date are of 1427. Probably some of the undated MSS. are older; but it is -the verdict of the most competent modern expert opinion that there is no -palaeographical reason for suspecting that any known MS. is earlier than -the first quarter of the 15th century. - -2. A Latin letter of a Dutch canon regular, named Johann van -Schoonhoven, exhibits such a close connexion with Bk. I. that plagiarism -on the one side or the other is the only possible explanation. It is -capable of demonstration that the author of the _Imitation_ was the -borrower, and that the opposite hypothesis is inadmissible. Now, this -letter can be shown to have been written after 1382. Therefore Bk. I. -was beyond controversy written between the years 1382 and 1424. - -3. It is not here assumed that the four treatises formed a single work, -or even that they are all by the same author; and the date of the other -three books cannot be fixed with the same certainty. But, on the one -hand, before the beginning of the 15th century there is no trace -whatever of their existence--a strong argument that they did not yet -exist; and on the other hand, after 1424 nearly each year produces its -quota of MSS. and other signs of the existence of these books become -frequent. Moreover, as a matter of fact, the four treatises did commonly -circulate together. The presumption is strong that Bks. II., III., IV., -like Bk. I., were composed shortly before they were put into -circulation. - -It may then be taken as proved that the _Imitation_ was composed between -1380 and 1425, and probably towards the end rather than the beginning of -that period. Having ascertained the date, we must consider the -birthplace. - -4. A number of idioms and turns of expression throughout the book show -that its author belonged to some branch of the Teutonic race. Further -than this the argument does not lead; for when the dialects of the early -15th century are considered it cannot be said that the expressions in -question are Netherlandic rather than German--as a matter of fact, they -have all been paralleled out of High German dialects. - -5. Of the 400 MSS. of the _Imitation_ 340 come from the Teutonic -countries--another argument in favour of its Teutonic origin. Again, 100 -of them, including the earliest, come from the Netherlands. This number -is quite disproportionate to the relative size of the Netherlands, and -so points to Holland as the country in which the _Imitation_ was first -most widely circulated and presumably composed. - -6. There is a considerable body of early evidence, traceable before -1450, that the author was a canon regular. - -7. Several of the MSS. were written in houses belonging to the -Windesheim Congregation of canons regular, or, in close touch with it. -Moreover there is a specially intimate literary and spiritual -relationship between the _Imitation_ and writings that emanated from -what has been called the "Windesheim Circle." - -To sum up: the indirect evidence points clearly to the conclusion that -the _Imitation_ was written by a Teutonic canon regular, probably a -Dutch canon regular of the Windesheim Congregation, in the first quarter -of the 15th century. These data are satisfied by Thomas à Kempis. - -We pass to the direct evidence, neglecting that of witnesses who had no -special sources of information. - -8. There can be no question that in the Windesheim Congregation itself -there was already, during Thomas à Kempis's lifetime, a fixed tradition -that he was the author of the _Imitation_. The most important witness to -this tradition is Johann Busch. It is true that the crucial words are -missing in one copy of his "Chronicle"; but it is clear there were two -redactions of the work, and there are no grounds whatever for doubting -that the second with its various enlargements came from the hands of -Busch himself--a copy of it containing the passage exists written in -1464, while both Busch and Thomas à Kempis were still alive. Busch -passed a great part of his life in Windesheim, only a few miles from -Mount St Agnes where Thomas lived. It would be hard to find a more -authentic witness. Another witness is Hermann Rhyd, a German member of -the Windesheim Congregation, who also had personally known Thomas. -Besides, two or three MSS. originating in the Windesheim Congregation -state or imply the same tradition. - -9. More than this: the tradition existed in Thomas à Kempis's own -monastery shortly after his death. For John Mauburne became a canon in -Mount St Agnes within a few years of Thomas's death, and he states more -than once that Thomas wrote the _Imitation_. - -10. The earliest biographer of Thomas à Kempis was an anonymous -contemporary: the _Life_ was printed in 1494, but it exists in a MS. of -1488. The biographer says he got his information from the brethren at -Mount St Agnes, and he states in passing that Bk. III. was written by -Thomas. Moreover, he appends a list of Thomas's writings, 38 in number, -and 5-8 are the four books of the _Imitation_. - -It is needless to point out that such a list must be of vastly greater -authority than those given by St Jerome or Gennadius in their _De Viris -Illustribus_, and its rejection must, in consistency, involve methods of -criticism that would work havoc in the history of early literature of -what king soever. The domestic tradition in the Windesheim Congregation, -and in Mount St Agnes itself, has a weight that cannot be legitimately -avoided or evaded. Indeed the external authority for Thomas's authorship -is stronger than that for the authorship of most really anonymous -books--such, that is, as neither themselves claim to be by a given -author, nor have been claimed by any one as his own. A large proportion -of ancient writings, both ecclesiastical and secular, are -unquestioningly assigned to writers on far less evidence than that for -Thomas's authorship of the _Imitation_. - -Internal arguments have been urged against Thomas's authorship. It has -been said that his certainly authentic writings are so inferior that the -_Imitation_ could not have been written by the same author. But only if -they were of the most certain and peremptory nature could such internal -arguments be allowed to weigh against the clear array of facts that make -up the external argument in favour of à Kempis. And it cannot be said -that the internal difficulties are such as this. Let it be granted that -Thomas was a prolific writer and that his writings vary very much in -quality; let it be granted also that the _Imitation_ surpasses all the -rest, and that some are on a level very far below it; still, when at -their best, some of the other works are not unworthy of the author of -the _Imitation_. - -In conclusion, it is the belief of the present writer that the -"Contestation" is over, and that Thomas à Kempis's claims to the -authorship of the _Imitation_ have been solidly established. - - The best account in English of the Controversy is that given by F. R. - Cruise in his _Thomas à Kempis_ (1887). Works produced before 1880 are - in general, with the exception of those of Eusebius Amort, - superannuated, and deal in large measure with points no longer of any - living interest. A pamphlet by Cruise, _Who was the Author of the - Imitation?_ (1898) contains sufficient information on the subject for - all ordinary needs; it has been translated into French and German, and - may be regarded as the standard handbook. - - It has been said that the _Imitation of Christ_ has had a wider - religious influence than any book except the Bible, and if the - statement be limited to Christendom, it is probably true. The - _Imitation_ has been translated into over fifty languages, and is said - to have run through more than 6000 editions. The other statement, - often made, that it sums up all that is best of earlier Western - mysticism--that in it "was gathered and concentered all that was - elevating, passionate, profoundly pious in all the older mystics" - (Milman) is an exaggeration that is but partially true, for it - depreciates unduly the elder mystics and fails to do justice to the - originality of the _Imitation_. For its spiritual teaching is - something quite different from the mysticism of Augustine in the - _Confessions_, or of Bernard in the _Sermons on the Song of Songs_; it - is different from the scholastic mysticism of the St Victors or - Bonaventure; above all, it is different from the obscure mysticism, - saturated with the pseudo-Dionysian Neoplatonism of the German school - of Eckhart, Suso, Tauler and Ruysbroek. Again, it is quite different - from the later school of St Teresa and St John of the Cross, and from - the introspective methods of what may be called the modern school of - spirituality. The _Imitation_ stands apart, unique, as the principal - and most representative utterance of a special phase of religious - thought--non-scholastic, non-platonic, positive and merely religious - in its scope--herein reflecting faithfully the spirit of the movement - initiated by Gerhard Groot (q.v.), and carried forward by the circles - in which Thomas à Kempis lived. In contrast with more mystical - writings it is of limpid clearness, every sentence being easily - understandable by all whose spiritual sense is in any degree awakened. - No doubt it owes its universal power to this simplicity, to its - freedom from intellectualism and its direct appeal to the religious - sense and to the extraordinary religious genius of its author. - Professor Harnack in his book _What is Christianity?_ counts the - _Imitation_ as one of the chief spiritual forces in Catholicism: it - "kindles independent religious life, and a fire which burns with a - flame of its own" (p. 266). - - The best Latin edition of the _Imitation_ is that of Hirsche (1874), - which follows closely the autograph of 1441 and reproduces the - rhythmical character of the book. Of English translations the most - interesting is that by John Wesley, under the title _The Christian's - Pattern_ (1735). (E. C. B.) - - - - -IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE. This dogma of the Roman Catholic Church was -defined, as "of faith" by Pope Pius IX. on the 8th of December 1854 in -the following terms: "The doctrine which holds that the Blessed Virgin -Mary, from the first instant of her conception, was, by a most singular -grace and privilege of Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus -Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, preserved from all stain of -Original Sin, is a doctrine revealed, by God, and therefore to be firmly -and steadfastly believed by all the faithful."[1] These words presuppose -the distinction between original, or racial, and actual, or personally -incurred sin. There is no dispute that the Church has always held the -Blessed Virgin to be sinless, in the sense of actual or personal sin. -The question of the Immaculate Conception regards original or racial sin -only. It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX. was not -explicitly mooted before the 12th century. But it is claimed that it is -implicitly contained in the teaching of the Fathers. Their expressions -on the subject of the sinlessness of Mary are, it is pointed out, so -ample and so absolute that they must be taken to include original sin as -well as actual. Thus we have in the first five centuries such epithets -applied to her as "in every respect holy," "in all things unstained," -"super-innocent" and "singularly holy"; she is compared to Eve before -the fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is "the earth before -it was accursed."[2] The well-known words of St Augustine (d. 430) may -be cited: "As regards the mother of God," he says, "I will not allow any -question whatever of sin."[3] It is true that he is here speaking -directly of actual or personal sin. But his argument is that all men are -sinners; that they are so through original depravity; that this original -depravity may be overcome by the grace of God, and he adds that he does -not know but that Mary may have had sufficient grace to overcome sin "of -every sort" (_omni ex parte_). - -It seems to have been St Bernard who, in the 12th century, explicitly -raised the question of the Immaculate Conception. A feast of the -Conception of the Blessed Virgin had already begun to be celebrated in -some churches of the West. St Bernard blames the canons of the -metropolitan church of Lyons for instituting such a festival without the -permission of the Holy See. In doing so, he takes occasion to repudiate -altogether the view that the Conception of Mary was sinless. It is -doubtful, however, whether he was using the term "Conception" in the -same sense in which it is used in the definition of Pius IX. In speaking -of conception one of three things may be meant: (1) the mother's -co-operation; (2) the formation of the body, or (3) the completion of -the human being by the infusion of the rational or spiritual soul. In -early times conception was very commonly used in the first -sense--"active" conception as it was called. But it is in the second, or -rather the third, sense that the word is employed in modern usage, and -in the definition of Pope Pius IX. But St Bernard would seem to have -been speaking of conception in the first sense, for in his argument he -says, "How can there be absence of sin where there is concupiscence -(_libido_)?" and stronger expressions follow, showing that he is -speaking of the mother and not of the child.[4] - -St Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the medieval scholastics, refused to -admit the Immaculate Conception, on the ground that, unless the Blessed -Virgin had at one time or other been one of the sinful, she could not -justly be said to have been redeemed by Christ.[5] St Bonaventura (d. -1274), second only to St Thomas in his influence on the Christian -schools of his age, hesitated to accept it for a similar reason.[6] The -celebrated John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), a Franciscan like St Bonaventura, -argued, on the contrary, that from a rational point of view it was -certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that -Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that she -first contracted it and then was delivered.[7] His arguments, combined -with a better acquaintance with the language of the early Fathers, -gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In 1387 the -university of Paris strongly condemned the opposite view. In 1483 Pope -Sixtus IV., who had already (1476) emphatically approved of the feast of -the Conception, condemned those who ventured to assert that the doctrine -of the Immaculate Conception was heretical, and forbade either side to -claim a decisive victory until further action on the part of the Holy -See. The council of Trent, after declaring that in its decrees on the -subject of original sin it did not include "the blessed and immaculate -Virgin Mary, Mother of God," renewed this prohibition.[8] Pope Paul V. -(d. 1651) ordered that no one, under severe penalties, should dare to -assent in public "acts" or disputations that the Blessed Virgin was -conceived in original sin. Pope Gregory XV., shortly afterwards, -extended this prohibition to private discussions, allowing, however, the -Dominicans to argue on the subjects among themselves. Clement XI., in -1708, extended the feast of the Conception to the whole Church as a holy -day of obligation. Long before the middle of the 19th century the -doctrine was universally taught in the Roman Catholic Church. During the -reign of Gregory XVI. the bishops in various countries began to press -for a definition. Pius IX., at the beginning of his pontificate, and -again after 1851, appointed commissions to investigate the whole -subject, and he was advised that the doctrine was one which could be -defined and that the time for a definition was opportune. On the 8th of -December 1854 in a great assembly of bishops, in the basilica of St -Peter's at Rome, he promulgated the Bull _Ineffabilis Deus_, in which -the history of the doctrine is summarily traced, and which contains the -definition as given above. - -The festival of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin, as distinct from -her Nativity, was certainly celebrated in the Greek Church in the 7th -century, as we learn from one of the canons of St Andrew of Crete (or of -Jerusalem) who died about A.D. 700.[9] There is some evidence that it -was kept in Spain in the time of St Ildefonsus of Toledo (d. 667) and in -southern Italy before A.D. 1000. In England it was known in the 12th -century; a council of the province of Canterbury, in 1328, ascribes its -introduction to St Anselm. It spread to France and Germany in the same -century. It was extended to the whole church, as stated above, in 1708. -It is kept, in the Western Church, on the 8th of December; the Greeks -have always kept it one day later. - - The chief répertoire of Patristic passages, both on the doctrine and - on the festival, is Father Charles Passaglia's great collection, - entitled _De immaculato Deiparae semper Virginis conceptu Caroli - Passaglia sac. S.J. commentarius_ (3 vols., Romae, 1854-1855). - - A useful statement of the doctrine with numerous references to the - Fathers and scholastics is found in Hürter's _Theologia Dogmatica_ - (5th ed.), tom. i. tract. vii. cap. 6, p. 438. - - The state of Catholic belief in the middle of the 19th century is well - brought out in _La Croyance générale el constante de l'Église touchant - l'immaculée conception de la bienheureuse Vierge Marie_, published in - 1855 by Thomas M. J. Gousset (1792-1866), professor of moral theology - at the grand seminary of Besançon, and successively archbishop of - Besançon and cardinal archbishop of Reims. - - For English readers the doctrine, and the history of its definition, - is clearly stated by Archbishop Ullathorne in _The Immaculate - Conception of the Mother of God_ (2nd ed., London, 1904). Dr F. G. - Lee, in _The Sinless Conception of the Mother of God; a Theological - Essay_ (London, 1891) argued that the doctrine of the Immaculate - Conception is a legitimate development of early church teaching. - (+J. C. H.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] From the Bull _Ineffabilis Deus._ - - [2] See Passaglia's work, referred to below. - - [3] _De natura et gratia_, cap. xxxvi. - - [4] S. Bernardi Epist. clxxiv. 7. - - [5] _Summa theologia_, part iii., quaest. 27, art. 3. - - [6] _In librum III. sententiarum distinct._ 3 quaest. i. art. 2. - - [7] _In librum III. sententiarum dist._ 3 quaest. i. n. 4; _Cfr. - Distinct_. 18 n. 15. Also the _Summa theologia_ of Scotus (compiled - by a disciple), part iii., quaest. 27, art. 2. - - [8] Sess. v. _De peccato originale_. - - [9] _P. G._, tom. cxvii. p. 1305. - - - - -IMMANENCE (from Lat. _in-manere_ to dwell in, remain), in philosophy and -theology a term applied in contradistinction to "transcendence," to the -fact or condition of being entirely within something. Its most important -use is for the theological conception of God as existing in and -throughout the created world, as opposed, for example, to Deism (q.v.), -which conceives Him as separate from and above the universe. This -conception has been expressed in a great variety of forms (see THEISM, -PANTHEISM). It should be observed that the immanence doctrine need not -preclude the belief in the transcendence of God: thus God may be -regarded as above the world (transcendent) and at the same time as -present in and pervading it (immanent). The immanence doctrine has -arisen from two main causes, the one metaphysical, the other religious. -Metaphysical speculation on the relation of matter and mind has -naturally led to a conviction of an underlying unity of all existence, -and so to a metaphysical identification of God and the universe: when -this identification proceeds to the length of expressing the universe as -merely a mode or form of deity the result is pantheism (cf. the -Eleatics): when it regards the deity as simply the sum of the forces of -nature (cf. John Toland) the result is naturalism. In either case, but -especially in the former, it frequently becomes pure mysticism (q.v.). -Religious thinkers are faced by the problem of the Creator and the -created, and the necessity for formulating a close relationship between -God and man, the Infinite and Perfect with the finite and imperfect. The -conception of God as wholly external to man, a purely mechanical theory -of the creation, is throughout Christendom regarded as false to the -teaching of the New Testament as also to Christian experience. The -contrary view has gained ground in some quarters (cf. the so-called "New -Theology" of Rev. R. J. Campbell) so far as to postulate a divine -element in human beings, so definitely bridging over the gap between -finite and infinite which was to some extent admitted by the bulk of -early Christian teachers. In support of such a view are adduced not only -the metaphysical difficulty of postulating any relationship between the -infinite and the purely finite, but also the ethical problems of the -nature of human goodness--i.e. how a merely human being could appreciate -the nature of or display divine goodness--and the epistemological -problem of explaining how finite mind can cognize the infinite. The -development of the immanence theory of God has coincided with the deeper -recognition of the essentially spiritual nature of deity as contrasted -with the older semi-pagan conception found very largely in the Old -Testament of God as primarily a mighty ruler, obedience to whom is -comparable with that of a subject to an absolute monarch: the idea of -the dignity of man in virtue of his immediate relation with God may be -traced in great measure to the humanist movement of the 14th and 15th -centuries (cf. the Inner Light doctrine of Johann Tauler). In later -times the conception of conscience as an inward monitor is symptomatic -of the same movement of thought. In pure metaphysics the term -"immanence-philosophy" is given to a doctrine held largely by German -philosophers (Rehmke, Leclair, Schuppe and others) according to which -all reality is reduced to elements immanent in consciousness. This -doctrine is derived from Berkeley and Hume on the one hand and from -Kantianism on the other, and embodies the principle that nothing can -exist for the mind save itself. The natural consequence of this theory -is that the individual consciousness alone exists (solipsism): this -position is, however, open to the obvious criticism that in some cases -individual consciousnesses agree in their content. Schuppe, therefore, -postulates a general consciousness (_Bewusstsein überhaupt_). - - - - -IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON (c. 1265-c. 1330), Hebrew poet, was born in Rome. -He was a contemporary and friend of Dante, and his verse shows the -influence of the "divine poet." Immanuel's early studies included -science, mathematics and philosophy; and his commentaries on Proverbs, -Psalms, Job and other Biblical books are good examples of the current -symbolical methods which Dante so supremely used. Immanuel's fame -chiefly rests on his poems, especially the collection (in the manner of -Harizi, q.v.) entitled _Mehabberoth_, a series of 27 good-natured -satires on Jewish life. Religious and secular topics are -indiscriminately interwoven, and severe pietists were offended by -Immanuel's erotic style. Most popular is an additional section numbered -28 (often printed by itself) called _Hell and Paradise_ (_ha-Tophet -veha-Eden_). The poet is conducted by a certain Daniel (doubtfully -identified with Dante) through the realms of torture and bliss, and -Immanuel's pictures and comments are at once vivid and witty. - - See J. Chotzner, _Hebrew Humour_ (Lond., 1905), pp. 82-102. (I. A.) - - - - -IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT (1796-1840), German dramatist and novelist, -was born on the 24th of April 1796 at Magdeburg, the son of a government -official. In 1813 he went to study law at Halle, where he remained, -after the suppression of the university by Napoleon in the same year, -until King Frederick William's "Summons to my people" on March 17th. He -responded with alacrity, but was prevented by illness from taking part -in the earlier campaign; he fought, however, in 1815 at Ligny and -Waterloo, and marched into Paris with Blücher. At the conclusion of the -war he resumed his studies at Halle, and after being _Referendar_ in -Magdeburg, was appointed in 1819 _Assessor_ at Münster in Westphalia. -Here he made the acquaintance of Elise von Lützow, Countess von -Ahlefeldt, wife of the leader of the famous "free corps" (see Lützow). -This lady first inspired his pen, and their relationship is reflected in -several dramas written about this time. In 1823 Immermann was appointed -judge at Magdeburg, and in 1827 was transferred to Düsseldorf as -_Landgerichtsrat_ or district judge. Thither the countess, whose -marriage had in the meantime been dissolved, followed him, and, though -refusing his hand, shared his home until his marriage in 1839 with a -grand-daughter of August Hermann Niemeyer (1754-1828), chancellor and -_rector perpetuus_ of Halle university. In 1834 Immermann undertook the -management of the Düsseldorf theatre, and, although his resources were -small, succeeded for two years in raising it to a high level of -excellence. The theatre, however, was insufficiently endowed to allow of -him carrying on the work, and in 1836 he returned to his official -duties and literary pursuits. He died at Düsseldorf on the 25th of -August 1840. - -Immermann had considerable aptitude for the drama, but it was long -before he found a congenial field for his talents. His early plays are -imitations, partly of Kotzebue's, partly of the Romantic dramas of Tieck -and Müllner, and are now forgotten. In 1826, however, appeared _Cardenio -und Celinde_, a love tragedy of more promise; this, as well as the -earlier productions, awakened the ill-will of Platen, who made Immermann -the subject of his wittiest satire, _Der romantische Oedipus_. Between -1827 and 1832 Immermann redeemed his good name by a series of historical -tragedies, _Das Trauerspiel in Tirol_ (1827), _Kaiser Friedrich II._ -(1828) and a trilogy from Russian history, Alexis (1832). His -masterpiece is the poetic mystery, _Merlin_ (1831), a noble poem, which, -like its model, _Faust_, deals with the deeper problems of modern -spiritual life. Immermann's important dramaturgic experiments in -Düsseldorf are described in detail in _Düsseldörfer Anfänge_ (1840). -More significant is his position as a novelist. Here he clearly stands -on the boundary line between Romanticism and modern literature; his -_Epigonen_ (1836) might be described as one of the last Romantic -imitations of Goethe's _Wilhelm Meister_, while the satire and realism -of his second novel, _Münchhausen_ (1838), form a complete break with -the older literature. As a prose-writer Immermann is perhaps best -remembered to-day by the admirable story of village life, _Der Oberhof_, -which is embedded in the formless mass of _Münchhausen_. His last work -was an unfinished epic, _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840). - - Immermann's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published in 14 vols. in - 1835-1843; a new edition, with biography and introduction by R. - Boxberger, in 20 vols. (Berlin, 1883); selected works, edited by M. - Koch (4 vols., 1887-1888) and F. Muncker (6 vols., 1897). See G. zu - Putlitz, _Karl Immermann, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (2 vols., 1870); - F. Freiligrath, _Karl Immermann, Blätter der Erinnerung an ihn_ - (1842); W. Müller, _K. Immermann und sein Kreis_ (1860); R. Fellner, - _Geschichte einer deutschen Musterbühne_ (1888); _K. Immermann: eine - Gedächtnisschrift_ (1896). - - - - -IMMERSION (Lat. _immersio_, dipping), the act of being plunged into a -fluid, or being overwhelmed by anything; in astronomy, the disappearance -of a heavenly body in the shadow of another, especially of a satellite -in the shadow of its primary. - - - - -IMMIGRATION (from Lat. _in_, into, and _migrare_, to depart), the -movement of population, other than that of casual visitors or -travellers, _into_ one country _from_ another (see MIGRATION). - - - - -IMMORTALITY (Lat. _in_-, not, _mortalis_, mortal, from _mors_, death), -the condition or quality of being exempt from death or annihilation. -This condition has been predicated of man, both body and soul, in many -senses; and the term is used by analogy of those whose deeds or writings -have made a lasting impression on the memory of man. The belief in human -immortality in some form is almost universal; even in early animistic -cults the germ of the idea is present, and in all the higher religions -it is an important feature. This article is confined to summarizing the -philosophical or scientific arguments for, and objections to, the -doctrine of the persistence of the human soul after death. For the -Christian doctrine, see ESCHATOLOGY; and for other religions see the -separate articles. - -In the Orphic mysteries "the soul was regarded as a part of the divine, -a _particula aurae divinae_, for which the body in its limited and -perishable condition was no fit organ, but a grave or prison ([Greek: to -sôma sêma]). The existence of the soul in the body was its punishment -for sins in a previous condition; and the doom of its sins in the body -was its descent into other bodies, and the postponement of its -deliverance" (Salmond's _Christian Doctrine of Immortality_, p. 109). -This deliverance was what the mysteries promised. A remarkable passage -in Pindar (_Thren._ 2) is thus rendered by J. W. Donaldson (_Pindar's -Epinician or Triumphal Odes_, p. 372). "By a happy lot, all persons -travel to an end free of toil. And the body, indeed, is subject to the -powerful influence of death; but a shadow of vitality is still left -alive, and this alone is of divine origin; while our limbs are in -activity it sleeps; but, when we sleep, it discloses to the mind in many -dreams the future judgment with regard to happiness and misery." - -The belief of Socrates is uncertain. In the _Apology_ he is represented -as sure that "no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after -death," but as not knowing whether "death be a state of nothingness and -utter unconsciousness, or a change or migration of the soul from this -world to the next" (i. 40, 41). In the _Phaedo_ a confident expectation -is ascribed to him. He is not the body to be buried; he will not remain -with his friends after he has drunk the poison, but he will go away to -the happiness of the blessed. The silence of the _Memorabilia_ of -Xenophon must be admitted as an argument to the contrary; but the -probability seems to be that Plato did not in the _Phaedo_ altogether -misrepresent the Master. In Plato's thought the belief held a prominent -position. "It is noteworthy," says Professor D. G. Ritchie, "that, in -the various dialogues in which Plato speaks of immortality, the -arguments seem to be of different kinds, and most of them quite -unconnected with one another." In the _Phaedrus_ (245 c) the argument -is, that the soul is self-moving, and, therefore, immortal; and this -argument is repeated in the _Laws_ (x. 894, 895). It is an argument that -Plato probably inherited from Alcmaeon, the physician of Croton (Arist. -_De An._ i. 2, § 17 405 A 29), whose views were closely connected with -those of the Pythagoreans. In the _Phaedo_ the main argument up to which -all the others lead is that the soul participates in the idea of life. -Recollection (_anamnesis_) alone would prove pre-existence, but not -existence after death. In the tenth book of the _Republic_ we find the -curious argument that the soul does not perish like the body, because -its characteristic evil, sin or wickedness does not kill it as the -diseases of the body wear out the bodily life. In the _Timaeus_ (41 A) -the immortality even of the gods is made dependent on the will of the -Supreme Creator; souls are not in their own nature indestructible, but -persist because of His goodness. In the _Laws_ (xii. 959 A) the notion -of a future life seems to be treated as a salutary doctrine which is to -be believed because the legislator enacts it (Plato, p. 146). The -estimate to be formed of this reasoning has been well stated by Dr A. M. -Fairbairn, "Plato's arguments for immortality, isolated, modernized, may -be feeble, even valueless, but allowed to stand where and as he himself -puts them, they have an altogether different worth. The ratiocinative -parts of the _Phaedo_ thrown into syllogisms may be easily demolished by -a hostile logician; but in the dialogue as a whole there is a subtle -spirit and cumulative force which logic can neither seize nor answer" -(_Studies in the Philosophy of Religion_, p. 226, 1876). - -Aristotle held that the [Greek: nous] or active intelligence alone is -immortal. The Stoics were not agreed upon the question. Cleanthes is -said to have held that all survive to the great conflagration which -closes the cycle, Chrysippus that only the wise will. Marcus Aurelius -teaches that even if the spirit survive for a time it is at last -"absorbed in the generative principle of the universe." Epicureanism -thought that "the wise man fears not death, before which most men -tremble; for, if we are, it is not; if it is, we are not." Death is -extinction. Augustine adopts a Platonic thought when he teaches that the -immortality of the soul follows from its participation in the eternal -truths. The Apologists themselves welcomed, and commended to others, the -Christian revelation as affording a certainty of immortality such as -reason could not give. The Aristotelian school in Islam did not speak -with one voice upon the question; Avicenna declared the soul immortal, -but Averroes assumes only the eternity of the universal intellect. -Albertus Magnus argued that the soul is immortal, as _ex se ipsa causa_, -and as independent of the body; Pietro Pomponazzi maintained that the -soul's immortality could be neither proved nor disproved by any natural -reasons. Spinoza, while consistently with his pantheism denying personal -immortality, affirms that "the human mind cannot be absolutely destroyed -with the body, but there remains of it something which is eternal" -(_Eth._ v. prop, xxiii.). The reason he gives is that, as this something -"appertains to the essence of the mind," it is "conceived by a certain -eternal necessity through the very essence of God." - -Leibnitz, in accord with the distinctive principle of his philosophy, -affirmed the absolute independence of mind and body as distinct monads, -the parallelism of their functions in life being due to the -pre-established harmony. For the soul, by its nature as a single monad -indestructible and, therefore, immortal, death meant only the loss of -the monads constituting the body and its return to the pre-existent -state. The argument of Ernst Platner (_Philos. Aphor._ i. 1174, 1178) is -similar. "If the human soul is a force in the narrower sense, a -substance, and not a combination of substances, then, as in the nature -of things there is no transition from existence to non-existence, we -cannot naturally conceive the end of its existence, any more than we can -anticipate a gradual annihilation of its existence." He adds a reason -that recalls one of Plato's, "As manifestly as the human soul is by -means of the senses linked to the present life, so manifestly it -attaches itself by reason, and the conceptions, conclusions, -anticipations and efforts to which reason leads it, to God and -eternity." - -Against the first kind of argument, as formulated by Moses Mendelssohn, -Kant advances the objection that, although we may deny the soul -extensive quantity, division into parts, yet we cannot refuse to it -intensive quantity, degrees of reality; and consequently its existence -may be terminated not by decomposition, but by gradual diminution of its -powers (or to use the term he coined for the purpose, by -_elanguescence_). This denial of any reasonable ground for belief in -immortality in the _Critique of Pure Reason_ (_Transcendental -Dialectic_, bk. ii. ch. i.) is, however, not his last word on the -subject. In the _Critique of the Practical Reason_ (_Dialectic_, ch. i. -sec. iv) the immortality of the soul is shown to be a postulate. -_Holiness_, "the perfect accordance of the will with the moral law," -demands an _endless progress_; and "this endless progress is only -possible on the supposition of an _endless_ duration of the _existence_ -and _personality_ of the same rational being (which is called the -immortality of the soul)." Not demonstrable as a theoretical -proposition, the immortality of the soul "is an inseparable result of an -unconditional a priori practical law." The moral interest, which is so -decisive on this question in the case of Kant, dominates Bishop Butler -also. A future life for him is important, because our happiness in it -may depend on our present conduct; and therefore our action here should -take into account the reward or punishment that it may bring on us -hereafter. As he maintains that probability may and ought to be our -guide in life, he is content with proving in the first chapter of the -_Analogy_ that "a future life is probable from similar changes (as -death) already undergone in ourselves and in others, and from our -present powers, which are likely to _continue_ unless death destroy -them." While we may fear this, "there is no proof that it will, either -from the nature of death," of the effect of which on our powers we are -altogether ignorant, "or from the analogy of nature, which shows only -that the _sensible proof_ of our powers (not the powers themselves) may -be destroyed." The imagination that death will destroy these powers is -unfounded, because (1) "this supposes we are compounded, and so -discerptible, but the contrary is probable" on _metaphysical_ grounds -(the indivisibility of the subject in which consciousness as indivisible -inheres, and its distinction from the body) and also _experimental_ (the -persistence of the living being in spite of changes in the body or even -losses of parts of the body); (2) this also assumes that "our present -living powers of reflection" must be affected in the same way by death -"as those of sensation," but this is disproved by their relative -independence even in this life; (3) "even the suspension of our present -powers of reflection" is not involved in "the idea of death, which is -simply dissolution of the body," and which may even "be like birth, a -continuation and perfecting of our powers." "Even if suspension were -involved, we cannot infer destruction from it" (analysis of chapter i. -in Angus's edition). He recognizes that "reason did, as it well might, -conclude that it should finally, and upon the whole, be well with the -righteous and ill with the wicked," but only "revelation teaches us that -the next state of things after the present is appointed for the -execution of this justice" (ch. ii. note 10). He does not use this -general anticipation of future judgment, as he might have done, as a -positive argument for immortality. - -Adam Ferguson (_Institutes of Moral Philosophy_, p. 119, new ed., 1800) -argues that "the desire for immortality is an instinct, and can -reasonably be regarded as an indication of that which the author of this -desire wills to do." From the standpoint of modern science John Fiske -confirms the validity of such an argument; for what he affirms in regard -to belief in the divine is equally applicable to this belief in a future -life. "If the relation thus established in the morning twilight of man's -existence between the human soul and a world invisible and immaterial is -a relation of which only the subjective term is real and the objective -term is non-existent; then I say it is something utterly without -precedent in the whole history of creation" (_Through Nature to God_, -1899, p. 188, 189). Whatever may have been Hegel's own belief in regard -to personal immortality, the logical issue of his absolute idealism has -been well stated by W. Windelband (_History of Philosophy_, p. 633). "It -became clear that in the system of perpetual Becoming and of the -dialectical passing over of all forms into one another, the finite -personality could scarcely raise a plausible claim to the character of a -substance and to immortality in the religious sense." F. D. -Schleiermacher applies the phrase "the immortality of religion" to the -religious emotion of oneness, amid finitude, with the infinite and, amid -time, with the eternal; denies any necessary connexion between the -belief in the continuance of personal existence and the consciousness of -God; and rests his faith on immortality altogether on Christ's promise -of living fellowship with His followers, as presupposing their as well -as His personal immortality. A. Schopenhauer assigns immortality to the -universal will to live; and Feuerbach declares spirit, consciousness -eternal, but not any individual subject. R. H. Lotze for the decision of -the question lays down the broad principle, "All that has once come to -be will eternally continue so soon as for the organic unity of the world -it has an unchangeable value, but it will obviously again cease to be, -when that is not the case" (_Gr. der Psy._ p. 74). - -Objections to the belief in immortality have been advanced from the -standpoints of materialism, naturalism, pessimism and pantheism. -_Materialism_ argues that, as life depends on a material organism, -thought is a function of the brain, and the soul is but the sum of -mental states, to which, according to the theory of psychophysical -parallelism, physical changes always correspond; therefore, the -dissolution of the body carries with it necessarily the cessation of -consciousness. That, as now constituted, mind does depend on brain, life -on body, must be conceded, but that this dependence is so absolute that -the function must cease with the organ has not been scientifically -demonstrated; the connexion of the soul with the body is as yet too -obscure to justify any such dogmatism. But against this inference the -following considerations may be advanced: (1) Man does distinguish -himself from his body; (2) he is conscious of his personal identity, -through all the changes of his body; (3) in the exercise of his will he -knows himself not controlled by but controlling his body; (4) his -consciousness warrants his denying the absolute identification of -himself and his body. It may further be added that materialism can be -shown to be an inadequate philosophy in its attempts to account even for -the physical universe, for this is inexplicable without the assumption -of mind distinct from, and directive of, matter. The theory of -psychophysical parallelism has been subjected to a rigorous examination -in James Ward's _Naturalism and Agnosticism_, part iii., in which the -argument that mind cannot be derived from matter is convincingly -presented. Sir Oliver Lodge in his reply to E. Haeckel's _Riddle of the -Universe_ maintains that "life may be something not only -ultra-terrestrial, but even immaterial, something outside our present -categories of matter and energy; as real as they are, but different, and -utilizing them for its own purpose" (_Life and Matter_, 1906, p. 198). -He rejects the attempt to explain human personality as "generated by -the material molecular aggregate of its own unaided latent power," and -affirms that the "universe where the human spirit is more at home than -it is among these temporary collocations of matter" is "a universe -capable of infinite development, of noble contemplation, and of lofty -joy, long after this planet--nay the whole solar system--shall have -fulfilled its present spire of destiny, and retired cold and lifeless -upon its endless way" (pp. 199-200). - -In his lecture on _Human Immortality_ (3rd ed., 1906), Professor William -James deals with "two supposed objections to the doctrine." The first is -"the law that thought is a function of the brain." Accepting the law he -distinguishes _productive_ from _permissive_ or _transmissive_ function -(p. 32), and, rejecting the view that brain produces thought, he -recognizes that in our present condition brain transmits thought, -thought needs brain for its organ of expression; but this does not -exclude the possibility of a condition in which thought will be no -longer so dependent on brain. He quotes (p. 57) with approval Kant's -words, "The death of the body may indeed be the end of the sensational -use of our mind, but only the beginning of the intellectual use. The -body would thus be not the cause of our thinking, but merely a condition -restrictive thereof, and, although essential to our sensuous and animal -consciousness, it may be regarded as an impeder of our pure spiritual -life" (_Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, 2nd ed., p. 809). - -Further arguments in the same direction are derived from the modern -school of psychical research (see especially F. W. H. Myers' _Human -Personality_, 1903). - -Another objection is advanced from the standpoint of _naturalism_, -which, whether it issues in materialism or not, seeks to explain man as -but a product of the process of nature. The universe is so immeasurably -vast in extension and duration, and man is so small, his home but a -speck in space, and his history a span in time that it seems an arrogant -assumption for him to claim exemption from the universal law of -evolution and dissolution. This view ignores that man has ideals of -absolute value, truth, beauty, goodness, that he consciously communes -with the God who is in all, and through all, and over all, that it is -his mind which recognizes the vastness of the universe and thinks its -universal law, and that the mind which perceives and conceives cannot be -less, but must be greater than the object of its knowledge and thought. - -_Pessimism_ suggests a third objection. The present life is so little -worth living that its continuance is not to be desired. James Thomson -("B.V.") speaks "of the restful rapture of the inviolate grave," and -sings the praises of _death_ and of _oblivion_. We cannot admit that the -history of mankind justifies his conclusion; for the great majority of -men life is a good, and its continuance an object of hope. - -For pantheism personal immortality appears a lesser good than -reabsorption in the universal life; but against this objection we may -confidently maintain that worthier of God and more blessed for man is -the hope of a conscious communion in an eternal life of the Father of -all with His whole family. - -Lastly positivism teaches a corporate instead of an individual -immortality; man should desire to live on as a beneficent influence in -the race. This conception is expressed in George Eliot's lines: - - "O, may I join the choir invisible - Of those immortal dead who live again - In minds made better by their presence: live - In pulses stirred to generosity, - In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn - For miserable aims that end with self, - In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars, - And with their mild persistence urge man's search - To vaster issues." - -But these possibilities are not mutually exclusive alternatives. A man -may live on in the world by his teaching and example as a power for -good, a factor of human progress, and he may also be continuing and -completing his course under conditions still more favourable to all most -worthy in him. Consciously to participate as a person in the progress of -the race is surely a worthier hope than unconsciously to contribute to -it as an influence; ultimately to share the triumph as well as the -struggle is a more inspiring anticipation. - -In stating constructively the doctrine of immortality we must assign -altogether secondary importance to the metaphysical arguments from the -nature of the soul. It is sufficient to show, as has already been done, -that the soul is not so absolutely dependent on the body, that the -dissolution of the one must necessarily involve the cessation of the -other. Such arguments as the indivisibility of the soul and its -persistence can at most indicate the _possibility_ of immortality. - -The _juridical argument_ has some force; the present life does not show -that harmony of condition and character which our sense of justice leads -us to expect; the wicked prosper and the righteous suffer; there is -ground for the expectation that in the future life the anomalies of this -life will be corrected. Although this argument has the support of such -great names as Butler and Kant, yet it will repel many minds as an -appeal to the motive of self-interest. - -The _ethical argument_ has greater value. Man's life here is incomplete, -and the more lofty his aims, the more worthy his labours, the more -incomplete will it appear to be. The man who lives for fame, wealth, -power, may be satisfied in this life; but he who lives for the ideals of -truth, beauty, goodness, lives not for time but for eternity, for his -ideals cannot be realized, and so his life fulfilled on this side of the -grave. Unless these ideals are mocking visions, man has a right to -expect the continuance of his life for its completion. This is the line -of argument developed by Professor Hugo Münsterberg in his lecture on -_The Eternal Life_ (1905), although he states it in the terms peculiar -to his psychology, in which personality is conceived as primarily will. -"No endless duration is our goal, but complete repose in the perfect -satisfaction which the will finds when it has reached the significance, -the influence, and the value at which it is aiming" (p. 83). - -More general in its appeal still is the argument from the _affections_, -which has been beautifully developed in Tennyson's _In Memoriam_. The -heart protests against the severance of death, and claims the -continuance of love's communion after death; and as man feels that love -is what is most godlike in his nature, love's claim has supreme -authority. - -There is a _religious argument_ for immortality. The saints of the -Hebrew nation were sure that as God had entered into fellowship with -them, death could not sever them from his presence. This is the argument -in Psalms xvi. and xvii., if, as is probable, the closing verses do -express the hope of a glorious and blessed immortality. This too is the -proof Jesus himself offers when he declares God to be the God of the -living and not of the dead (Matt. xxii. 32). God's companions cannot -become death's victims. - -Josiah Royce in his lecture on _The Conception of Immortality_ (1900) -combines this argument of the soul's union with God with the argument of -the incompleteness of man's life here:-- - - "Just because God is One, all our lives have various and unique places - in the harmony of the divine life. And just because God attains and - wins and finds this uniqueness, all our lives win in our union with - Him the individuality which is essential to their true meaning. And - just because individuals whose lives have uniqueness of meaning are - here only objects of pursuit, the attainment of this very - individuality, since it is indeed real, occurs not in our present form - of consciousness, but in a life that now we see not, yet in a life - whose genuine meaning is continuous with our own human life, however - far from our present flickering form of disappointed human - consciousness that life of the final individuality may be. Of this our - true individual life, our present life is a glimpse, a fragment, a - hint, and in its best moments a visible beginning. That this - individual life of all of us is not something limited in its temporal - expression to the life that now we experience, follows from the very - fact that here nothing final or individual is found expressed" (pp. - 144-146). - -R. W. Emerson declares that "the impulse to seek proof of immortality is -itself the strongest proof of all." We expect immortality not merely -because we desire it; but because the desire itself arises from all that -is best and truest and worthiest in ourselves. The desire is reasonable, -moral, social, religious; it has the same worth as the loftiest ideals, -and worthiest aspirations of the soul of man. The loss of the belief -casts a dark shadow over the present life. "No sooner do we try to get -rid of the idea of Immortality--than Pessimism raises its head.... Human -griefs seem little worth assuaging; human happiness too paltry (at the -best) to be worth increasing. The whole moral world is reduced to a -point. Good and evil, right and wrong, become infinitesimal, ephemeral -matters. The affections die away--die of their own conscious feebleness -and uselessness. A moral paralysis creeps over us" (_Natural Religion_, -Postscript). The belief exercises a potent moral influence. "The day," -says Ernest Renan, "in which the belief in an after-life shall vanish -from the earth will witness a terrific moral and spiritual decadence. -Some of us perhaps might do without it, provided only that others held -it fast. But there is no lever capable of raising an entire people if -once they have lost their faith in the immortality of the soul" (quoted -by A. W. Momerie, _Immortality_, p. 9). To this belief, many and good as -are the arguments which can be advanced for it, a confident certainty is -given by Christian faith in the Risen Lord, and the life and immortality -which he has brought to light in his Gospel. - - In addition to the works referred to above, see R. K. Gaye, _The - Platonic Conception of Immortality and its Connexion with the Theory - of Ideas_ (1904); R. H. Charles, _A Critical History of the Doctrine - of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism and in Christianity_ (1899); E. - Pétavel, _The Problem of Immortality_ (Eng. trans. by F. A. Freer, - 1892); J. Fiske, _The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his - Origin_ (1884); G. A. Gordon, _Immortality and the New Theodicy_ - (1897); Henry Buckle, _The After Life_ (1907). (A. E. G.*) - - - - -IMMUNITY (from Lat. _immunis_, not subject to a _munus_ or public -service), a general term for exemption from liability, principally used -in the legal sense discussed below, but also in recent times in -pathology (for which see BACTERIOLOGY). In international law the term -("not serving," "not subject") implies exemption from the jurisdiction -of the state which otherwise exercises jurisdiction where the immunity -arises. It is thus applied to the exceptional position granted to -sovereigns and chiefs of states generally, and their direct -representatives in the states to which they are accredited. - -Under EXTERRITORIALITY is treated the inviolability of embassies and -legations and the application of the material side of the doctrine of -immunity. As a right appertaining to the persons of those who enjoy it, -the doctrine has grown out of the necessity for sovereigns of respecting -each other's persons in their common interest. To be able to negotiate -without danger of arrest or interference of any kind with their persons -was the only condition upon which sovereigns would have been able to -meet and discuss their joint interests. With the development of states -as independent entities and of intercourse between them and their -"nationals," the work of diplomatic missions increased to such an extent -that instead of having merely occasional ambassadors as at the -beginning, states found it expedient to have resident representatives -with a permanent residence. Hence the sovereign's inviolability becomes -vested in the person of the sovereign's delegate, and with it as a -necessary corollary the exterritoriality of his residence. Out of the -further expansion of the work of diplomatic missions came duplication of -the _personnel_ and classes of diplomatic secretaries, who as forming -part of the embassy or legation also had to be covered by the diplomatic -immunity. - -In no branch of international intercourse have states shown so laudable -a respect for tradition as in the case of this immunity, and this in -spite of the hardship which frequently arises for private citizens -through unavoidable dealings with members of embassies and legations. -The Institute of International Law (see PEACE) at their Cambridge -session in 1895 drew up the following rules,[1] which may be taken to be -the only precise statement of theory on the subject, for the guidance of -foreign offices in dealing with it:-- - - ART. 1.--Public ministers are inviolable. They also enjoy - "exterritoriality," in the sense and to the extent hereinafter - mentioned and a certain number of immunities. - - ART. 2.--The privilege of inviolability extends: (1) To all classes - of public ministers who regularly represent their sovereign or their - country; (2) To all persons forming part of the official staff of a - diplomatic mission; (3) To all persons forming part of its - non-official staff, under reserve, that if they belong to the country - where the mission resides they only enjoy it within the official - residence. - - ART. 3.--The government to which the minister is accredited must - abstain from all offence, insult or violence against the persons - entitled to the privilege, must set an example in the respect which is - due to them and protect them by specially rigorous penalties from all - offence, insult or violence on the part of the inhabitants of the - country, so that they may devote themselves to their duties in perfect - freedom. - - ART. 4.--Immunity applies to everything necessary for the fulfilment - by ministers of their duties, especially to personal effects, papers, - archives and correspondence. - - ART. 5.--It lasts during the whole time which the minister or - diplomatic official spends, in his official capacity, in the country - to which he has been sent. - - It continues even in time of war between the two powers during the - period necessary to enable the minister to leave the country with his - staff and effects. - - ART. 6.--Inviolability cannot be claimed: (1) In case of legitimate - defence on the part of private persons against acts committed by the - persons who enjoy the privilege; (2) In case of risks incurred by any - of the persons in question voluntarily or needlessly; (3) In case of - improper acts committed by them, provoking on the part of the state to - which the minister is accredited measures of defence or precaution; - but, except in a case of extreme urgency, this state should confine - itself to reporting the facts to the minister's government, requesting - the punishment or the recall of the guilty agent and, if necessary, to - surrounding the official residence to prevent unlawful communications - or manifestations. - - _Immunity with Respect to Taxes._ - - ART. 11.--A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries - officially attached to his mission and the members of their families - residing with them, are exempt from paying: (1) Personal direct taxes - and sumptuary taxes; (2) General taxes on property, whether on capital - or income; (3) War contributions; (4) Customs duties in respect of - articles for their personal use. - - Each government shall indicate the grounds (_justifications_) to which - these exemptions from taxation shall be subordinated. - - _Immunity from Jurisdiction._ - - ART. 12.--A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries - officially attached to his mission and the members of their families - residing with them, are exempt from all jurisdiction, civil or - criminal, of the state to which they are accredited; in principle, - they are only subject to the civil and criminal jurisdiction of their - own country. A claimant may apply to the courts of the capital of the - country of the minister, subject to the right of the minister to prove - that he has a different domicile in his country. - - ART. 13.--With respect to crimes, persons indicated in the preceding - article remain subject to the penal laws of their own country, as if - they had committed the acts in their own country. - - ART. 14.--The immunity attaches to the function in respect of acts - connected with the function. As regards acts done not in connexion - with the function, immunity can only be claimed so long as the - function lasts. - - ART. 15.--Persons of the nationality of the country to the government - of which they are accredited cannot claim the privilege of immunity. - - ART. 16.--Immunity from jurisdiction cannot be invoked: (1) In case of - proceedings taken by reason of engagements entered into by the exempt - person, not in his official or private capacity, but in the exercise - of a profession carried on by him in the country concurrently with his - diplomatic functions; (2) In respect of real actions, including - possessory actions, relating to anything movable or immovable in the - country. - - It exists even in case of a breach of the law which may endanger - public order or safety, or of crime against the safety of the state, - without prejudice to such steps as the territorial government may take - for its own protection. - - ART. 17.--Persons entitled to immunity from jurisdiction may refuse to - appear as witnesses before a territorial court on condition that, if - required by diplomatic intervention, they shall give their testimony - in the official residence to a magistrate of the country appointed for - the purpose. - -Further questions connected with Immunity and Exterritoriality (q.v.) -arise out of the different industrial enterprises undertaken by states, -such as posts, telegraphs, telephones, railways, steamships, &c., which -require regulation to prevent conflicts of interest between the state -owners and the private interests involved in these enterprises. - (T. Ba.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The rules were drawn up in French. The author of this article is - responsible for the translation of them. - - - - -IMOLA (anc. _Forum Cornelii_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, -Italy, in the province of Bologna, from which it is 21 m. S.E. by rail, -140 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,058 (town); 33,144 (commune). -The cathedral of S. Cassiano has been modernized; it possesses -interesting reliquaries, and contains the tomb of Petrus Chrysologus, -archbishop of Ravenna (d. 451), a native of Imola. S. Domenico has a -fine Gothic portal and S. Maria in Regola an old campanile. The town -also contains some fine palaces. The communal library has some MSS., -including a psalter with miniatures, that once belonged to Sir Thomas -More. The citadel is square with round towers at the angles; it dates -from 1304, and is now used as a prison. Imola has a large lunatic asylum -with over 1200 inmates. Innocenzo Francucci (Innocenzo da Imola), a -painter of the Bolognese school (1494-1549), was a native of Imola, and -two of his works are preserved in the Palazzo del Comune. The Madonna -del Piratello, 2 m. outside the town to the N.W., is in the early -Renaissance style (1488); the campanile was probably built from -Bramante's plans in 1506. - -The ancient Forum Cornelii, a station on the Via Aemilia, is said by -Prudentius, writing in the 5th century A.D., to have been founded by -Sulla; but the fact that it belonged to the _Tribus Pollia_ shows that -it already possessed Roman citizenship before the Social war. In later -times we hear little of it; Martial published his third book of epigrams -while he was there. In the Lombard period the name Imolas begins to -appear. In 1480, after a chequered history, the town came into the -possession of Girolamo Riario, lord of Forli, as the dowry of his wife -Caterina Sforza, and was incorporated with the States of the Church by -Caesar Borgia in 1500. - - - - -IMP (O. Eng. _impa_, a graft, shoot; the verb _impian_ is cognate with -Ger. _impfen_, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. _enter_; the ultimate -origin is probably the Gr. [Greek: emphyein], to implant, cf. [Greek: -emphytos], engrafted), originally a slip or shoot of a plant or tree -used for grafting. This use is seen in Chaucer (_Prologue to the Monk's -Tale_, 68) "Of fieble trees ther comen wrecched ympes." The verb "to -imp" in the sense of "to graft" was especially used of the grafting of -feathers on to the wing of a falcon or hawk to replace broken or damaged -plumage, and is frequently used metaphorically. Like "scion," "imp" was -till the 17th century used of a member of a family, especially of high -rank, hence often used as equivalent to "child." The _New English -Dictionary_ quotes an epitaph (1584) in the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick, -"Heere resteth the body of the noble Impe Robert of Dudley ... sonne of -Robert Erle of Leycester." The current use of the word for a small devil -or mischievous sprite is due to the expressions "imp of Satan, or of the -devil or of hell," in the sense of "child of evil." It was thus -particularly applied to the demons supposed to be the "familiar" spirits -of witches. - - - - -IMPATIENS, in botany, a genus of annual or biennial herbs, sometimes -becoming shrubby, chiefly natives of the mountains of tropical Asia and -Africa, but also found widely distributed in the north temperate zone -and in South Africa. The flowers, which are purple, yellow, pink or -white and often showy, are spurred and irregular in form and borne in -the leaf-axils. The name is derived from the fact that the seed-pod when -ripe discharges the seeds by the elastic separation and coiling of the -valves. _Impatiens Noli-me-tangere,_ touch-me-not, an annual succulent -herb with yellow flowers, is probably wild in moist mountainous -districts in north Wales, Lancashire and Westmorland. _I. Roylei,_ a -tall hardy succulent annual with rose-purple flowers, a Himalayan -species, is common in England as a self-sown garden plant or garden -escape. _I. Balsamina,_ the common balsam of gardens, a well-known -annual, is a native of India; it is one of the showiest of summer and -autumn flowers and of comparatively easy cultivation. _I. Sultani,_ a -handsome plant, with scarlet flowers, a native of Zanzibar, is easily -grown in a greenhouse throughout the summer, but requires warmth in -winter. - - - - -IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. _empechement, empeschement,_ from _empecher_ or -_empescher,_ to hinder, Late Lat. _impedicare,_ to entangle, _pedica,_ -fetter, _pes_, foot), the English form of judicial parliamentary -procedure against criminals, in which the House of Commons are the -prosecutors and the House of Lords the judges. It differs from bills of -attainder (q.v.) in being strictly judicial. When the House of Commons -has accepted a motion for impeachment, the mover is ordered to proceed -to the bar of the House of Lords, and there impeach the accused "in the -name of the House of Commons, and of all the Commons of the United -Kingdom." The charges are formulated in articles, to each of which the -accused may deliver a written answer. The prosecution must confine -itself to the charges contained in the articles, though further articles -may be adhibited from time to time. The Commons appoint managers to -conduct the prosecution, but the whole House in committee attends the -trial. The defendant may appear by counsel. The president of the House -of Lords is the lord high steward, in the case of peers impeached for -high treason; in other cases the lord chancellor. The hearing takes -place as in an ordinary trial, the defence being allowed to call -witnesses if necessary, and the prosecution having a right of reply. At -the end of the case the president "puts to each peer, beginning with the -junior baron, the questions upon the first article, whether the accused -be guilty of the crimes charged therein. Each peer in succession rises -in his place when the question is put, and standing uncovered, and -laying his right hand upon his breast, answers, 'Guilty' or 'Not -guilty,' as the case may be, 'upon my honour.' Each article is proceeded -with separately in the same manner, the lord high steward giving his own -opinion the last" (May's _Parliamentary Practice,_ c. xxiii.). Should -the accused be found guilty, judgment follows if the Commons move for -it, but not otherwise. The Commons thus retain the power of pardon in -their own hands, and this right they have in several cases expressly -claimed by resolution, declaring that it is not parliamentary for their -lordships to give judgment "until the same be first demanded by this -House." Spiritual peers occupy an anomalous position in the trial of -peers, as not being themselves ennobled in blood; on the impeachment of -Danby it was declared by the Lords that Spiritual peers have the right -to stay and sit during proceedings for impeachment, but it is customary -for them to withdraw before judgment is given, entering a protest -"saving to themselves and their successors all such rights in judicature -as they have by law, and by right ought to have." An impeachment, unlike -other parliamentary proceedings, is not interrupted by prorogation, nor -even by dissolution. Proceedings in the House of Commons preliminary to -an impeachment are subject to the ordinary rules, and in the Warren -Hastings case an act was passed to prevent the preliminary proceedings -from discontinuance by prorogation and dissolution. A royal pardon -cannot be pleaded in bar of an impeachment, though it is within the -royal prerogative to pardon after the lords have pronounced judgment. -The point was raised in the case of the earl of Danby in 1679, and the -rule was finally settled by the Act of Settlement. Persons found guilty -on impeachment may be reprieved or pardoned like other convicts. -Impeachment will lie against all kinds of crimes and misdemeanours, and -against offenders of all ranks. In the case of Simon de Beresford, tried -before the House of Lords in 1330, the House declared "that the judgment -be not drawn into example or consequence in time to come, whereby the -said peers may be charged hereafter to judge others than their peers," -from which Blackstone and others have inferred that "a commoner cannot -be impeached before the Lords for any capital offence, but only for high -misdemeanours." In the case of Edward Fitzharris in 1681, the House of -Commons in answer to a resolution of the Lords suspending the -impeachment, declared it to be their undoubted right "to impeach any -peer or commoner for treason or any other crime or misdemeanour." And -the House of Lords has in practice recognized the right of the Commons -to impeach whomsoever they will. The procedure has, however, been -reserved for great political offenders whom the ordinary powers of the -law might fail to reach. It has now fallen into desuetude. The last -impeachments were those of Warren Hastings (1788-1795) and Lord Melville -(1806), but an unsuccessful attempt was made by Thomas C. Anstey to -impeach Lord Palmerston in 1848. The earliest recorded instances of -impeachment are those of Lord Latimer in 1376 and of Pole, earl of -Suffolk, in 1386. From the time of Edward IV. to Elizabeth it fell into -disuse, "partly," says Hallam, "from the loss of that control which the -Commons had obtained under Richard II. and the Lancastrian kings, and -partly from the preference the Tudor princes had given to bills of -attainder or pains and penalties when they wished to turn the arm of -parliament against an obnoxious subject." Revived in the reign of James -I., it became an instrument of parliamentary resistance to the crown, -and it was not unfrequently resorted to in the first three reigns after -the Revolution. - -In the United States the procedure of impeachment both in the national -and in almost all of the state governments is very similar to that -described above. The national constitution prescribes that the House of -Representatives "shall have the sole power of impeachment" and that "the -Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments." The House -appoints managers to conduct the prosecution at the bar of the Senate, -and the vote of the Senate is taken by putting the question separately -to each member, who, during the trial, must be on oath or affirmation. -In ordinary cases the president or president _pro tempore_ of the Senate -presides, but when the president of the United States is on trial the -presiding officer must be the chief justice of the United States Supreme -Court. A two-thirds vote is necessary for conviction. The president, -vice-president or any civil officer of the United States may be -impeached for "treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanours," -and if convicted, is removed from office and may be disqualified for -holding any office under the government in future. The officer after -removal is also "liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and -punishment, according to law." The term "civil officers of the United -States" has been construed as being inapplicable to members of the -Senate and the House of Representatives. The president's pardoning power -does not extend to officers convicted, on impeachment, of offences -against the United States. Since the organization of the Federal -government there have been only eight impeachment trials before the -United States Senate, and of these only two--the trials of Judge John -Pickering, a Federal District judge for the District of New Hampshire, -in 1803, on a charge of making decisions contrary to law and of -drunkenness and profanity on the bench, and of Judge W. H. Humphreys, -Judge of the Federal District Court of Tennessee, in 1863, on a charge -of making a secession speech and of accepting a judicial position under -the Confederate Government--resulted in convictions. The two most famous -cases are those of Justice Samuel Chase of the United States Supreme -Court in 1805, and of President Andrew Johnson, the only chief of the -executive who has been impeached, in 1868. There is a conflict of -opinion with regard to the power of the House to impeach a Federal -officer who has resigned his office, and also with regard to the kind of -offences for which an officer can be impeached, some authorities -maintaining that only indictable offences warrant impeachment, and -others that impeachment is warranted by any act highly prejudicial to -the public welfare or subversive of any essential principle of -government. The latter view was adopted by the House of Representatives -when it impeached President Johnson. - - - - -IMPERIAL CHAMBER (_Reichskammergericht_), the supreme judicial court of -the Holy Roman Empire, during the period between 1495 and the -dissolution of the Empire in 1806. From the early middle ages there had -been a supreme court of justice for the Empire--the _Hofgericht_ (or -_curia imperatoris_, as it were), in which the emperor himself presided. -By his side sat a body of assessors (_Urtheilsfinder_), who must be at -least seven in number, and who might, in solemn cases, be far more -numerous,[1] the assessors who acted varying from time to time and from -case to case. The Hofgericht was connected with the person of the -emperor; it ceased to act when he was abroad; it died with his death. -Upon him it depended for its efficiency; and when, in the 15th century, -the emperor ceased to command respect, his court lost the confidence of -his subjects. The dreary reign of Frederick III. administered its -deathblow and after 1450 it ceased to sit. Its place was taken by the -_Kammergericht_, which appeared side by side with the Hofgericht from -1415, and after 1450 replaced it altogether. The king (or his deputy) -still presided in the Kammergericht and it was still his personal court; -but the members of the court were now officials--the _consiliarii_ of -the imperial _aula_ (or _Kammer_, whence the name of the court). It was -generally the legal members of the council who sat in the Kammergericht -(see under AULIC COUNCIL); and as they were generally doctors of civil -law, the court which they composed tended to act according to that law, -and thus contributed to the "Reception" of Roman law into Germany -towards the end of the 15th century. The old Hofgericht had been filled, -as it were, by amateurs (provided they knew some law, and were peers of -the person under trial), and it had acted by old customary law; the -Kammergericht, on the contrary, was composed of lawyers, and it acted by -the written law of Rome. Even the Kammergericht, however, fell into -disuse in the later years of the reign of Frederick III.; and the -creation of a new and efficient court became a matter of pressing -necessity, and was one of the most urgent of the reforms which were -mooted in the reign of Maximilian I. - -This new court was eventually created in 1495; and it bore the name of -_Reichskammergericht_, or Imperial Chamber. It was distinguished from -the old Kammergericht by the essential fact that it was not the personal -court of the emperor, but the official court of the Empire (or -_Reich_--whence its name). This change was a natural result of the -peculiar character of the movement of reform which was at this time -attempted by the electors, under the guidance of Bertold, elector of -Mainz. Their aim was to substitute for the old and personal council and -court appointed and controlled by the emperor a new and official -council, and a new and official court, appointed and controlled by the -diet (or rather, in the ultimate resort, by the electors). The members -of the Imperial Chamber, which was created by the diet in 1495 in order -to serve as such a court,[2] were therefore the agents of the Empire, -and not of the emperor. The emperor appointed the president; the Empire -nominated the assessors, or judges.[3] There were originally sixteen -assessors (afterwards, as a rule, eighteen): half of these were to be -doctors of Roman law, while half were to be knights; but after 1555 it -became necessary that the latter should be learned in Roman law, even if -they had not actually taken their doctorate. - -Thus the Empire at last was possessed of a court, a court resting on the -enactment of the diet, and not on the emperor's will; a court paid by -the Empire, and not by the emperor; a court resident in a fixed place -(until 1693, Spires, and afterwards, from 1693 to 1806, Wetzlar), and -not attached to the emperor's person. The original intention of the -court was that it should repress private war (_Fehde_), and maintain the -public peace (_Landfriede_). The great result which in the issue it -served to achieve was the final "Reception" of Roman law as the common -law of Germany. That the Imperial Chamber should itself administer Roman -law was an inevitable result of its composition; and it was equally -inevitable that the composition and procedure of the supreme imperial -court should be imitated in the various states which composed the -Empire, and that Roman law should thus become the local, as it was -already the central, law of the land. - -The province of the Imperial Chamber, as it came to be gradually defined -by statute and use, extended to breaches of the public peace, cases of -arbitrary distraint or imprisonment, pleas which concerned the treasury, -violations of the emperor's decrees or the laws passed by the diet, -disputes about property between immediate tenants of the Empire or the -subjects of different rulers, and finally suits against immediate -tenants of the Empire (with the exception of criminal charges and -matters relating to imperial fiefs, which went to the Aulic Council). It -had also cognizance in cases of refusal to do justice; and it acted as -a court of appeal from territorial courts in civil and, to a small -extent, in criminal cases, though it lost its competence as a court of -appeal in all territories which enjoyed a _privilegium de non -appellando_ (such as, e.g. the territories of the electors). The -business of the court was, however, badly done; the delay was -interminable, thanks, in large measure, to the want of funds, which -prevented the maintenance of the proper number of judges. In all its -business it suffered from the competition of the Aulic Council (q.v.); -for that body, having lost all executive competence after the 16th -century, had also devoted itself exclusively to judicial work. Composed -of the personal advisers of the emperor, the Aulic Council did justice -on his behalf (the erection of a court to do justice for the Empire -having left the emperor still possessed of the right to do justice for -himself through his _consiliarii_); and it may thus be said to be the -descendant of the old Kammergericht. The competition between the Aulic -Council and the Imperial Chamber was finally regulated by the treaty of -Westphalia, which laid it down that the court which first dealt with a -case should alone have competence to pursue it. - - See R. Schröder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, - 1904); J. N. Harpprecht, _Staatsarchiv des Reichskammergerichts_ - (1757-1785); and G. Stobbe, _Reichshofgericht und Reichskammergericht_ - (Leipzig, 1878). (E. Br.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For instance, all the members of the diet might serve as - Urtheilsfinder in a case like the condemnation of Henry the Lion, - duke of Saxony, in the 12th century. - - [2] The attempt to create a new and official council ultimately - failed. - - [3] More exactly, the emperor nominates, according to the regular - usage of later times, a certain number of members, partly as emperor, - and partly as the sovereign of his hereditary estates; while the - rest, who form the majority, are nominated partly by the electors and - partly by the six ancient circles. - - - - -IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS, the usual English translation of -_Reichsstädte_, an expression of frequent occurrence in German history. -These were cities and towns subject to no authority except that of the -emperor, or German king, in other words they were immediate; the -earliest of them stood on the demesne land of their sovereign, and they -often grew up around his palaces. A distinction was thus made between a -_Reichsstadt_ and a _Landstadt_, the latter being dependent upon some -prince, not upon the emperor direct. The term _Freie Reichsstadt_, which -is sometimes used in the same sense as _Reichsstadt_, is rightly only -applicable to seven cities, Basel, Strassburg, Spires, Worms, Mainz, -Cologne and Regensburg. Having freed themselves from the domination of -their ecclesiastical lords these called themselves _Freistädte_ and in -practice their position was indistinguishable from that of the -_Reichsstädte_. - -In the middle ages many other places won the coveted position of a -_Reichsstadt_. Some gained it by gift and others by purchase; some won -it by force of arms, others usurped it during times of anarchy, while a -number secured it through the extinction of dominant families, like the -Hohenstaufen. There were many more free towns in southern than in -northern Germany, but their number was continually fluctuating, for -their liberties were lost much more quickly than they were gained. Mainz -was conquered and subjected to the archbishop in 1462. Some free towns -fell into the hands of various princes of the Empire and others placed -themselves voluntarily under such protection. Some, like Donauwörth in -1607, were deprived of their privileges by the emperor on account of -real, or supposed, offences, while others were separated from the Empire -by conquest. In 1648 Besançon passed into the possession of Spain, Basel -had already thrown in its lot with the Swiss confederation, while -Strassburg, Colmar, Hagenau and others were seized by Louis XIV. - -Meanwhile the free towns had been winning valuable privileges in -addition to those which they already possessed, and the wealthier among -them, like Lübeck and Augsburg, were practically _imperia in imperio_, -waging war and making peace, and ruling their people without any outside -interference. But they had also learned that union is strength. They -formed alliances among themselves, both for offence and for defence, and -these _Städtebünde_ had an important influence on the course of German -history in the 14th and 15th centuries. These leagues were frequently at -war with the ecclesiastical and secular potentates of their district and -in general they were quite able to hold their own in these quarrels. The -right of the free towns to be represented in the imperial diet was -formally recognized in 1489, and about the same time they divided -themselves into two groups, or benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian. By -the peace of Westphalia in 1648 they were formally constituted as the -third college of the diet. A list drawn up in 1422 mentions 75 free -cities, another drawn up in 1521 mentions 84, but at the time of the -French Revolution the number had decreased to 51. At this time the -Rhenish free cities were: Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Lübeck, Worms, -Spires, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Goslar, Bremen, Hamburg, Mühlhausen, -Nordhausen, Dortmund, Friedberg and Wetzlar. The Swabian free cities -were: Regensburg, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, -Nördlingen, Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, Schwäbisch-Hall, Rottweil, -Ueberlingen, Heilbronn, Memmingen, Gmünd, Dinkelsbühl, Lindau, Biberach, -Ravensburg, Schweinfurt, Kempten, Windsheim, Kaufbeuern, Weil, Wangen, -Isny, Pfullendorf, Offenburg, Leutkirch, Wimpfen, Weissenburg, Giengen, -Gengenbach, Zell, Buchorn, Aalen, Buchau and Bopfingen. But a large -proportion of them had as little claim to their exceptional positions as -the pocket boroughs of Great Britain and Ireland had before the passing -of the Reform Bill of 1832. - -By the peace of Lunéville in 1801 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Worms and -Spires were taken by France, and by the decision of the imperial -deputation of 1803 six cities only: Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, -Frankfort-on-Main and Nuremberg, were allowed to keep their -_Reichsfreiheit_, or in other words to hold directly of the Empire. This -number was soon further reduced. On the dissolution of the Empire in -1806 Augsburg and Nuremburg passed under the sovereignty of Bavaria, and -Frankfort was made the seat of a duchy for Karl Theodor von Dalberg, -elector and archbishop of Mainz, who was appointed prince primate of the -Confederation of the Rhine. When the German Confederation was -established in 1815 Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfort were -recognized as free cities, and the first three hold that position in the -modern German empire; but Frankfort, in consequence of the part it took -in the war of 1866, lost its independence and was annexed by Prussia. - -In the earlier years of their existence the free cities were under the -jurisdiction of an imperial officer, who was called the _Reichsvogt_ or -imperial advocate, or sometimes the _Reichsschultheiss_ or imperial -procurator. As time went on many of the cities purchased the right of -filling these offices with their own nominees; and in several instances -the imperial authority fell practically into desuetude except when it -was stirred into action by peculiar circumstances. The internal -constitution of the free cities was organized after no common model, -although several of them had a constitution drawn up in imitation of -that of Cologne, which was one of the first to assert its independence. - - For the history of the free cities, see J. J. Moser, - _Reichsstädtisches Handbuch_ (Tübingen, 1732); D. Hänlein, - _Anmerkungen über die Geschichte der Reichsstädte_ (Ulm, 1775); A. - Wendt, _Beschreibung der kaiserlichen freien Reichsstädte_ (Leipzig, - 1804); G. W. Hugo, _Die Mediatisirung der deutschen Reichsstädte_ - (Carlsruhe, 1838); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Kiel, - 1844 fol.); G. L. von Maurer, _Geschichte der Städteverfassung in - Deutschland_ (Erlangen, 1869-1871); W. Arnold, _Verfassungsgeschichte - der deutschen Freistädte_ (Gotha, 1854); P. Brülcke, _Die Entwickelung - der Reichsstandschaft der Städte_ (Hamburg, 1881); A. M. Ehrentraut, - _Untersuchungen über die Frage der Frei- und Reichsstädte_ (Leipzig, - 1902); and S. Rietschel, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der deutschen - Stadtverfassung_ (Leipzig, 1905). See also the article COMMUNE. - (A. W. H.*) - - - - -IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH (1732-1809), chief justice of Bengal, was born on the -13th of June 1732, and educated at Westminster with Warren Hastings, who -was his intimate friend throughout life. In 1773 he was appointed the -first chief justice of the new supreme court at Calcutta, and in 1775 -presided at the trial of Nuncomar (q.v.) for forgery, with which his -name has been chiefly connected in history. His impeachment was -unsuccessfully attempted in the House of Commons in 1787, and he is -accused by Macaulay of conspiring with Hastings to commit a judicial -murder; but the whole question of the trial of Nuncomar has been -examined in detail by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, who states that "no -man ever had, or could have, a fairer trial than Nuncomar, and Impey in -particular behaved with absolute fairness and as much indulgence as was -compatible with his duty." - - See E. B. Impey, _Sir Elijah Impey_ (1846); and Sir James Stephen, - _The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey_ - (1885). - - - - -IMPHAL, the capital of the state of Manipur (q.v.) in eastern Bengal and -Assam, on the north-east frontier of India, situated at the confluence -of three rivers. Pop. (1901) 67,903. It is really only a collection of -villages buried amid trees, with a clearing containing the palace of the -raja, the cantonments, and the houses of the few European residents. - - - - -IMPLEMENT (Lat. _implementum_, a filling up, from _implere_, to fill), -in ordinary usage, a tool, especially in the plural for the set of tools -necessary for a particular trade or for completing a particular piece of -work (see TOOLS). It is also the most general term applied to the -weapons and tools that remain of those used by primitive man. The Late -Lat. _implementum_, more usually in the plural, _implementa_, was used -for all the objects necessary to stock or "fill up" a house, farm, &c.; -it was thus applied to furniture of a house, the vestments and sacred -vessels of a church, and to articles of clothing, &c. The transition to -the necessary outfit of a trade, &c., is easy. In its original Latin -sense of "filling up," the term survives in Scots law, meaning full -performance or "fulfilment" of a contract, agreement, &c.; "to -implement" is thus also used in Scots law for to carry out, perform. - - - - -IMPLUVIUM, the Latin term for the sunk part of the floor in the atrium -of a Greek or Roman house, which was contrived to receive the water -passing through the compluvium (q.v.) of the roof. The impluvium was -generally in marble and sunk about a foot below the floor of the atrium. - - - - -IMPOSITION (from Lat. _imponere_, to place or lay upon), in -ecclesiastical usage, the "laying on" of hands by a bishop at the -services of confirmation and ordination as a sign that some special -spiritual gift is conferred, or that the recipient is set apart for some -special service or work. The word is also used of the levying of a -burdensome or unfair tax or duty, and of a penalty, and hence is applied -to a punishment task given to a schoolboy. From "impose" in the sense of -"to pass off" on some one, imposition means also a trick or deception. -In the printing trade the term is used of the arrangement of pages of -type in the "forme," being one of the stages between composing and -printing. - - - - -IMPOST (through the O. Fr. from Lat. _impositum_, a thing laid upon -another; the modern French is _impôt_), a tax or tribute, and -particularly a duty levied on imported or exported merchandise (see -TAXATION, CUSTOMS DUTIES, EXCISE, &c.). In architecture, "impost" (in -German _Kaempfer_) is a term applied in Italian to the doorpost, but in -English restricted to the upper member of the same, from which the arch -springs. This may either be in the same plane as the arch mould or -projecting and forming a plain band or elaborately moulded, in which -case the mouldings are known as impost mouldings. Sometimes the complete -entablature of a smaller order is employed, as in the case of the -Venetian or Palladian window, where the central opening has an arch -resting on the entablature of the pilasters which flank the smaller -window on each side. In Romanesque and Gothic work the capitals with -their abaci take the place of the impost mouldings. - - - - -IMPOTENCE (Lat. _impotentia_, want of power), the term used in law for -the inability of a husband or wife to have marital intercourse. In -English matrimonial law if impotence exists in either of the parties to -a marriage at the time of its solemnization the marriage is voidable _ab -initio_. A suit for nullity on the ground of impotence can only be -brought by the party who suffers the injury. Third persons--however -great their interest--cannot sue for a decree on this ground, nor can a -marriage be impeached after the death of one of the parties. The old -rule of the ecclesiastical courts was to require a triennial -cohabitation between the parties prior to the institution of the suit, -but this has been practically abrogated (_G._ v. _G._, 1871, L.R. 2 -P.C.D. 287). In suits for nullity on the ground of impotence, medical -evidence as to the condition of the parties is necessary and a -commission of two medical inspectors is usually appointed by the -registrar of the court for the purpose of examining the parties; such -cases are heard _in camera_. In the United States impotence is a ground -for nullity in most states. In Germany it is recognized as a ground for -annulment, but not so in France. - - - - -IMPRESSIONISM. The word "Impressionist" has come to have a more general -application in England than in France, where it took currency as the -nickname of a definite group of painters exhibiting together, and was -adopted by themselves during the conflict of opinion which the novelty -of their art excited. The word therefore belongs to the class of -nicknames or battle-names, like "Romanticist," "Naturalist," "Realist," -which preceded it, words into which the acuteness of controversy infuses -more of theoretical purport than the work of the artists denoted -suggests to later times. The painters included in such a "school" differ -so much among themselves, and so little from their predecessors compared -with the points of likeness, that we may well see in these recurring -effervescences of official and popular distaste rather the shock of -individual force in the artist measured against contemporary mediocrity -than the disturbance of a new doctrine. The "Olympia" of Manet, hooted -at the Salon of 1865 as subversive of all tradition, decency and beauty, -strikes the visitor to the Luxembourg rather as the reversion to a theme -of Titian by an artist of ruder vision than as the demonstration of a -revolutionary in painting. Later developments of the school do appear to -us revolutionary. With this warning in a matter still too near us for -final judgment, we may give some account of the Impressionists proper, -and then turn to the wider significance sometimes given to the name. - -The words _Impressioniste_, _Impressionisme_, are said to have arisen -from a phrase in the preface to Manet's catalogue of his pictures -exhibited in 1867 during the Exposition Universelle, from which he was -excluded. "It is the effect," he wrote, "of sincerity to give to a -painter's works a character that makes them resemble a protest, whereas -the painter has only thought of rendering his impression." An -alternative origin is a catalogue in which Claude Monet entitled a -picture of sunrise at sea "Une Impression." The word was probably much -used in the discussions of the group, and was caught up by the critics -as characteristic.[1] At the earlier date the only meaning of the word -was a claim for individual liberty of subject and treatment. So far as -subject went, most, though not all of Manet's pictures were modern and -actual of his Paris, for his power lay in the representation of the -thing before his eye, and not in fanciful invention. His simplicity in -this respect brought him into collision with popular prejudice when, in -the "Déjeuner sur l'herbe" (1863), he painted a modern _fête champêtre_. -The actual characters of his painting at this period, so fancifully -reproached and praised, may be grouped under two heads. (1) The -expression of the object by a few carefully chosen values in flattish -patches. Those patches are placed side by side with little attenuation -of their sharp collision. This simplification of colour and tone recalls -by its broad effects of light and silhouette on the one hand Velasquez, -on the other the extreme simplification made by the Japanese for the -purposes of colour-printing. Manet, like the other painters of his -group, was influenced by these newly-discovered works of art. The image, -thus treated, has remarkable hardiness and vigour, and also great -decorative breadth. Its vivacity and intensity of aspect is gained by -the sacrifice of many minor gradations, and by the judgment with which -the leading values have been determined. This matching of values -produces, technically, a "solid" painting, without glazing or elaborate -transparency in shadows. (2) During this period Manet makes constant -progress towards a fair, clear colour. In his early work the patches of -blond colour are relieved against black shadows; later these shadows -clear up, and in place of an indeterminate brown sauce we find shadows -that are colours. A typical picture of this period is the "Musique aux -Tuileries," refused by the Salon of 1863. In this we have an actual -out-of-doors scene rendered with a frankness and sharp taste of -contemporary life surprising to contemporaries, with an elision of -detail in the treatment of a crowd and a seizing on the chief colour -note and patch that characterize each figure equally surprising, an -effort finally to render the total high-pitched gaiety of the spectacle -as a banquet of sunlight and colour rather than a collection of separate -dramatic groups. - - For life of Édouard Manet (1832-1883) see Edmond Bazire, _Manet_ - (Paris, 1884). An idea of the state of popular feeling may be gained - by reading Zola's eloquent defence in _Mon Salon_, which appeared in - _L'Événement_ (1866) and _Édouard Manet_ (1867), both reprinted in - _Mes Haines_ (Paris, 1880). The same author has embodied many of the - impressionist ideals in Claude Lantier, the fictitious hero of - _L'Oeuvre_. Other writers belonging to Manet's group are Théodore - Duret, author of _Les Peintres français en 1867_ and _Critique - d'avant-garde_, articles and catalogue-prefaces reprinted 1885. See - also, for Manet and others, J. K. Huysman's _L'Art moderne_ (1883) and - _Certains_. Summaries of the literature of the whole period will be - found in R. Muther, _The History of Modern Painting_ (tr. London, - 1896), not always trustworthy in detail, and Miss R. G. Kingsley, _A - History of French Art_ (1899). For an interesting critical account see - W. C. Brownell, _French Art_ (1892). - -The second period, to which the name is sometimes limited, is -complicated by the emergence of new figures, and it is difficult as yet, -and perhaps will always remain difficult, to say how much of originality -belongs to each artist in the group. The main features are an intenser -study of illumination, a greater variety of illuminations, and a -revolution in _facture_ with a view to pressing closer to a high pitch -of light. Manet plays his part in this development, but we shall not be -wrong probably in giving to Claude Monet (b. 1840) the chief rôle as the -instinctive artist of the period, and to Camille Pissarro (b. 1830) a -very large part as a painter, curious in theory and experiment. Monet at -the early date of 1866 had painted a picture as daring in its naïve -brutality of out-of-door illumination as the "Déjeuner sur l'herbe." But -this picture has the breadth of patch, solidity and suavity of paste of -Manet's practice. During the siege of Paris (1870-71) Monet and Pissarro -were in London, and there the study of Turner's pictures enlarged their -ideas of the pitch in lighting and range of effect possible in painting, -and also suggested a new handling of colour, by small broken touches in -place of the large flowing touches characteristic of Manet. This method -of painting occupied much of the discussion of the group that centred -round Manet at the Café Guerbois, in the Batignolles quarter (hence -called _L'École de Balignolles_). The ideas were: (1) Abolition of -conventional brown tonality. But all browns, in the fervour of this -revolt, went the way of conventional brown, and all ready-made mixtures -like the umbers, ochres, siennas were banished from the palette. Black -itself was condemned. (2) The idea of the spectrum, as exhibiting the -series of "primary" or "pure" colours, directed the reformed palette. -Six colours, besides white, were admitted to represent the chief hues of -the spectrum. (3) These colours were laid on the canvas with as little -previous mixture on the palette as possible to maintain a maximum of -luminosity, and were fused by touch on the canvas as little as possible, -for the same reason. Hence the "broken" character of the touch in this -painting, and the subordination of delicacies of form and suave -continuity of texture to the one aim of glittering light-and-colour -notation. Justification of these procedures was sought in occasional -features of the practice of E. Delacroix, of Watteau, of J. B. Chardin, -in the hatchings of pastel, the stipple of water-colour. With the -ferment of theory went a _parti pris_ for translating all effects into -the upper registers of tone (cf. Ruskin's chapter on Turner's practice -in _Modern Painters_), and for emphasizing the colour of shadows at the -expense of their tone. The characteristic work of this period is -landscape, as the subject of illumination strictly observed and followed -through the round of the day and of the seasons. Other pictorial motives -were subordinated to this research of effect, and Monet, with a -haystack, group of poplars, or church front, has demonstrated the -variety of lighting that the day and the season bring to a single scene. -Besides Pissarro, Alfred Sisley (1840-1899) is a member of the group, -and Manet continues his progress, influenced by the new ideas in -pictures like "Le Linge" and "Chez le Père Lathuille." - -Edmond Degas (b. 1834), a severe and learned draughtsman, is associated -with this landscape group by his curiosity in the expression of -momentary action and the effects of artificial illumination, and by his -experiments in broken colour, more particularly in pastel. The novelty -of his matter, taken from unexplored corners of modern life, still more -the daring and irony of his observation and points of view, and the -strangeness of his composition, strongly influenced by Japanese art, -enriched the associations now gathering about the word "impressionist." -Another name, that of Auguste Renoir (b. 1841), completes the leading -figures of the group. Any "school" programme would be strained to -breaking-point to admit this painter, unless on the very general grounds -of love of bright colour, sunlit places and independence of vision. He -has no science of drawing or of tone, but wins a precarious charm of -colour and expression. - - The landscape, out-of-doors line, which unites in this period with - Manet's line, may be represented by these names: J. B. Corot, J. B. - Jongkind, Boudin, Monet. Monet's real teacher was Eugène Boudin - (1824-1898), (See Gustave Cahen's _Eugène Boudin_, Paris, 1900). They, - and others of the group, worked together in a painters' colony at - Saint Simeon, near Honfleur. It is usual to date the origin of - _plein-air_ painting, i.e. painting out-of-doors, in an out-of-doors - key of tone, from a picture Manet painted in the garden of de Nittis, - just before the outbreak of war in 1870. This dates only Manet's - change to the lighter key and looser handling. It was Monet who - carried the practice to a logical extreme, working on his canvas only - during the effect and in its presence. The method of Degas is - altogether different, viz., a combination in the studio from - innumerable notes and observations. It will be evident from what has - been said above that impressionistic painting is an artistic ferment, - corresponding to the scientific research into the principles of light - and colour, just as earlier movements in painting coincided with the - scientific study of perspective and anatomy. Chevreul's famous book, - already referred to, _De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs_ - (1838), established certain laws of interaction for colours adjacent - to one another. He still, however, referred the sensations of colour - to the three impossible "primaries" of Brewster--red, blue and yellow. - The Young-Helmholtz theory affected the palette of the Impressionists, - and the work of Ogden Rood, _Colour_ (Internat. Scientific Series, - 1879-1881), published in English, French and German, furnished the - theorists with formulae measuring the degradation of pitch suffered by - pigments in mixture. - - The Impressionist group (with the exception of Manet, who still fought - for his place in the Salon) exhibited together for the first time as - L'Exposition des Impressionistes at Nadar's, Boulevard des Capucines, - in 1874. They were then taken up by the dealer Durand-Ruel, and the - succeeding exhibitions in 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882 and 1886 - were held by him in various galleries. The full history of these - exhibitions, with the names of the painters, will be found in two - works: Félix-Fénéon, _Les Impressionistes en 1886_ (Paris, 1886), and - G. Geffroy, _La Vie artistique_ ("Histoire de l'impressionisme," in - vol. for 1894). See also G. Lecomte, _L'Art impressionists d'après la - collection privée de M. Durand-Ruel_ (Paris, 1892); Duranty, _La - Peinture nouvelle_ (1876). Besides the names already cited, some - others may be added: Madame Berthe Morisot, sister-in-law of Manet; - Paul Cézanne, belonging to the Manet-Pissarro group; and, later, - Gauguin. J. F. Raffaëlli applied a "characteristic" drawing, to use - his word, to scenes in the dismal suburbs of Paris; Forain, the - satiric draughtsman, was a disciple of Degas, as also Zandomeneghi. - Miss Mary Cassatt was his pupil. Caillebotte, who bequeathed the - collection of Impressionist paintings now in the Luxembourg, was also - an exhibitor; and Boudin, who linked the movement to the earlier - schools. - - The first exhibitions of the Impressionists in London were in 1882 and - 1883, but their fortunes there cannot be pursued in the present - article, nor the history of the movement beyond its originators. This - excludes notable figures, of which M. Besnard may be chosen as a type. - -In Manet's painting, even in the final steps he took towards "la -peinture claire," there is nothing of the "decomposition of tones" that -logically followed from the theories of his followers. He recognized the -existence in certain illuminations of the violet shadow, and he adopted -in open-air work a looser and more broken touch. The nature of his -subjects encouraged such a handling, for the painter who attempts to -note from nature the colour values of an elusive effect must treat form -in a summary fashion, still more so when the material is in constant -movement like water. Moreover, in the river-side subjects near Paris -there was a great deal that was only pictorially tolerable when its tone -was subtracted from the details of its form. Monet's painting carries -the shorthand of form and broken colour to extremity; the flowing touch -of Manet is chopped up into harsher, smaller notes of tone, and the -pitch pushed up till all values approach the iridescent end of the -register. It was in 1886 that the _doctrinaire_ ferment came to a head, -and what was supposed to be a scientific method of colour was -formulated. This was _pointillisme_, the resolution of the colours of -nature back into six bands of the rainbow or spectrum, and their -representation on the canvas by _dots_ of unmixed pigment. These dots, -at a sufficient distance, combine their hues in the eye with the effect -of a mixture of coloured _lights_, not of pigments, so that the result -is an increase instead of a loss of luminosity. There are several -fallacies, however, theoretical and practical, in this "spectral -palette" and pointillist method. If we depart from the three primaries -of the Helmholtz hypothesis, there is no reason why we should stop at -six hues instead of six hundred. But pigments follow the spectrum series -so imperfectly that the three primaries, even if we could exactly locate -them, limit the palette considerably in its upper range. The sacrifice -of black is quite illogical, and the lower ranges suffer accordingly. -Moreover, it is doubtful whether many painters have followed the laws of -mixture of lights in their dotting, e.g. dotting green and red together -to produce yellow. It may be added that dotting with oil pigment is in -practice too coarse and inaccurate a method. This innovation of -_pointillisme_ is generally ascribed to George Seurat (d. 1890), whose -picture, "La Grande Jatte," was exhibited at the Rue Laffitte in 1886. -Pissarro experimented in the new method, but abandoned it, and other -names among the _Pointillistes_ are Paul Signac, Vincent van Gogh, and -van Rysselberghe. The theory opened the way for endless casuistries, and -its extravagances died out in the later exhibition of the _Indépendants_ -or were domesticated in the Salon by painters like M. Henri Martin. - - The first modern painter to concern himself scientifically with the - reactions of complementary colours appears to have been Delacroix (J. - Leonardo, it should be remembered, left some notes on the subject). It - is claimed for Delacroix that as early as 1825 he observed and made - use of these reactions, anticipating the complete exposition of - Chevreul. He certainly studied the treatise, and his biographers - describe a dial-face he constructed for reference. He had quantities - of little wafers of each colour, with which he tried colour effects, a - curious anticipation of pointillist technique. The pointillists claim - him as their grandfather. See Paul Signac, "D'Eugène Delacroix au - Néo-Impressionnisme" (_Revue Blanche_, 1898). For a fuller discussion - of the spectral palette see the _Saturday Review_, 2nd, 9th and 23rd - February and 23rd March 1901. - -In England the ideas connected with the word Impressionism have been -refracted through the circumstances of the British schools. The -questions of pitch of light and iridescent colour had already arisen -over the work of Turner, of the Pre-Raphaelites, and also of G. F. -Watts, but less isolated and narrowed, because the art of none of these -limited itself to the pursuit of light. _Pointillisme_, after a fashion, -existed in British water-colour practice. But the Pre-Raphaelite school -had accustomed the English eye to extreme definition in painting and to -elaboration of detail, and it happened that the painting of James -M'Neill Whistler (Grosvenor Gallery, 1878) brought the battle-name -Impressionism into England and gave it a different colour. Whistler's -method of painting was in no way revolutionary, and he preferred to -transpose values into a lower key rather than compete with natural -pitch, but his vision, like that of Manet under the same influences, -Spanish and Japanese, simplified tone and subordinated detail. These -characteristics raised the whole question of _the science and art of -aspect in modern painting_, and the field of controversy was extended -backwards to Velasquez as the chief master of the moderns. -"Impressionism" at first had meant individualism of vision, later the -notation of fugitive aspects of light and of movement; now it came to -mean breadth in pictorial vision, all the simplifications that arise -from the modern analysis of aspect, and especially the effect produced -upon the parts of a picture-field by attending to _the impression of the -whole_. Ancient painting analyses aspect into three separate acts as -form, tone and colour. All forms are made out with equal clearness by a -conventional outline; over this system of outlines a second system of -light and shade is passed, and over this again a system of colours. Tone -is conceived as a difference of black or white added to the tints, and -the colours are the definite local tints of the objects (a blue, a red, -a yellow, and so forth). In fully developed modern painting, instead of -an object analysed into sharp outlines covered with a uniform colour -darkened or lightened in places, we find an object analysed into a -number of surfaces or planes set at different angles. On each of these -facets the character of the object and of the illumination, with -accidents of reflection, produces a patch called by modern painters a -"value," because it is colour of a particular value or tone. (With each -difference of tone, "value" implies a difference of hue also, so that -when we speak of a different tone of the same colour we are using the -word "same" in a loose or approximate sense.) These planes or facets -define themselves one against another with greater or less sharpness. -Modern technique follows this modern analysis of vision, and in one act -instead of three renders by a "touch" of paint the shape and value of -these facets, and instead of imposing a uniform ideal outline at all -their junctions, allows these patches to define themselves against one -another with variable sharpness. - -Blurred definition, then, as it exists in our natural view of things, is -admitted into painting; a blurring that may arise from distance, from -vapour or smoke, from brilliant light, from obscurity, or simply from -the nearness in value of adjacent objects. Similarly, much detail that -in primitive art is elaborated is absorbed by rendering the aspect -instead of the facts known to make up that aspect. Thus hair and fur, -the texture of stuffs, the blades of grass at a little distance, become -patches of tone showing only their larger constructive markings. But the -blurring of definitions and the elimination of detail that we find in -modern pictorial art are not all of this ready-made character. We have -so far only the scientific analysis of a field of view. If the painter -were a scientific reporter he would have to pursue the systems of -planes, with their shapes and values, to infinity. Impressionism is the -art that surveys the field and determines which of the shapes and tones -are of chief importance to the _interested_ eye, enforces these, and -sacrifices the rest. Construction, the logic of the object rendered, -determines partly this action of the eye, and also decoration, the -effects of rhythm in line and harmony in fields of colour. These motives -belong to all art, but the specially impressionist motive is the act of -_attention_ as it affects the aspect of the field. We are familiar, in -the ordinary use of the eye, with two features of its structure that -limit clearness of vision. There is, first, the spot of clear vision on -the retina, outside of which all falls away into blur; there is, -secondly, the action of _focus_. As the former limits clear definition -to one spot in the field extended vertically and laterally, so focus -limits clear definition to one plane in the third dimension, viz. depth. -If three objects, A, B and C, stand at different depths before the eye, -we can at will fix A, whereupon B and C must fall out of focus, or B, -whereupon A and C must be blurred, or C, sacrificing the clearness of A -and B. All this apparatus makes it impossible to see everything at once -with equal clearness, enables us, and forces us for the uses of real -life, to frame and limit our picture, according to the immediate -interest of the eye, whatever it may be. The painter instinctively uses -these means to arrive at the emphasis and neglect that his choice -requires. If he is engaged on a face he will now screw his attention to -a part and now relax it, distributing the attention over the whole so as -to restore the bigger relations of aspect. Sir Joshua Reynolds describes -this process as seeing the whole "with the dilated eye"; the commoner -precept of the studios is "to look with the eyes half closed"; a third -way is to throw the whole voluntarily out of focus. In any case the -result is that minor planes are swamped in bigger, that smaller patches -of colour are swept up into broader, that markings are blurred. The -final result of these tentative reviews records, in what is blurred and -what is clear, the attention that has been distributed to different -parts, and to parts measured against the whole. The Impressionist -painter does not allot so much detail to a face in a full-length -portrait as to a head alone, nor to twenty figures on a canvas as to -one. Again, he indicates by his treatment of planes and definitions -whether the main subject of his picture is in the foreground or the -distance. He persuades the eye to slip over hosts of near objects so -that, as in life, it may hit a distant target, or concentrate its attack -on what is near, while the distance falls away into a dim curtain. All -those devices by which attention is directed and distributed, and the -importance in space of an object established, affect impressionistic -composition. - -It is an inevitable misunderstanding of painting which plays the game of -art so closely up to the real aspects of nature that its aim is that of -mere exact copying. Painting like Manet's, accused of being realistic in -this sense, sufficiently disproves the accusation when examined. Never -did painting show a _parti pris_ more pronounced, even more violent. The -elisions and assertions by which Manet selects what he finds significant -and beautiful in the complete natural image are startling to the stupid -realist, and the Impressionist may best be described as the painter who -out of the completed contents of vision constructs an image moulded upon -his own interest in the thing seen and not on that of any imaginary -schoolmaster. Accepting the most complex terms of nature with their -special emotions, he uses the same freedom of sacrifice as the man who -at the other end of the scale expresses his interest in things by a few -scratches of outline. The perpetual enemy of both is the eclectic, who -works for possible interests not his own. - - Some of the points touched on above will be found amplified in - articles by the writer in _The Albemarle_ (September 1892), the - _Fortnightly Review_ (June 1894), and _The Artist_ (March-July 1896). - An admirable exposition of Impressionism in this sense is R. A. M. - Stevenson's _The Art of Velasquez_ (1895). Mr Stevenson was trained in - the school of Carolus Duran, where impressionist painting was reduced - to a system. Mr Sargent's painting is a brilliant example of the - system. (D. S. M.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Mr H. P. Hain Friswell has pointed out that the word "impression" - occurs frequently in Chevreul's book on colour; but it is also - current among the critics. See Ruskin's chapter on Turner's - composition--"impression on the mind." - - - - -IMPRESSMENT, the name given in English to the exercise of the authority -of the state to "press"[1] or compel the service of the subject for the -defence of the realm. Every sovereign state must claim and at times -exercise this power. The "drafting" of men for service in the American -Civil War was a form of impressment. All the monarchical, or republican, -governments of Europe have employed the press at one time or another. -All forms of conscription, including the English ballot for the militia, -are but regulations of this sovereign right. In England impressment may -be looked upon as an erratic, and often oppressive, way of enforcing the -common obligation to serve in "the host" or in the _posse comitatus_ -(power of the county). In Scotland, where the feudal organization was -very complete in the Lowlands, and the tribal organization no less -complete in the Highlands, and where the state was weak, impressment was -originally little known. After the union of the two parliaments in 1707, -no distinction was made between the two divisions of Great Britain. In -England the kings of the Plantagenet dynasty caused Welshmen to be -pressed by the Lords Marchers, and Irish kerns to be pressed by the -Lords Deputy, for their wars in France. Complaints were made by -parliament of the oppressive use of this power as early as the reign of -Edward III., but it continued to be exercised. Readers of Shakespeare -will remember Sir John Falstaff's commission to press soldiers, and the -manner, justified no doubt by many and familiar examples of the way in -which the duty was performed. A small sum called imprest-money, or coat -and conduct money, was given to the men when pressed to enable them to -reach the appointed rendezvous. Soldiers were secured in this way by -Queen Elizabeth, by King Charles I., and by the parliament itself in the -Civil War. The famous New Model Army of Cromwell was largely raised by -impressment. Parliament ordered the county committees to select recruits -of "years meet for their employment and well clothed." After the -Revolution of 1688 parliament occasionally made use of this resource. In -1779 a general press of all rogues and vagabonds in London to be drafted -into the regiments was ordered. It is said that all who were not too -lame to run away or too destitute to bribe the parish constable were -swept into the net. As they were encouraged to desert by the undisguised -connivance of the officers and men who were disgusted with their -company, no further attempt to use the press for the army was made. - -A distinction between the liability of sailors and of other men dates -from the 16th century. From an act of Philip and Mary (1556) it appears -that the watermen of the Thames claimed exemption from the press as a -privileged body. They were declared liable, and the liability was -clearly meant to extend to service as a soldier on shore. In the fifth -year of Queen Elizabeth (1563) an act was passed to define the liability -of the sailors. It is known as "an Act touching politick considerations -for the maintenance of the Navy." By its term all fishermen and mariners -were protected from being compelled "to serve as any soldiers upon the -Land or upon the Sea, otherwise than as a mariner, except it shall be to -serve under any Captain of some ship or vessel, for landing to do some -special exploit which mariners have been used to do." The operation of -the act was limited to ten years, but it was renewed repeatedly, and was -at last indefinitely prolonged in the sixteenth year of the reign of -Charles I. (1631). By the Vagrancy Act of the close of Queen Elizabeth's -reign (1597), disorderly serving-men and other disreputable characters, -of whom a formidable list is given, were declared to be liable to be -impressed for service in the fleet. The "Takers," as they were called in -early times, the Press Gang of later days, were ordered to present their -commission to two justices of the peace, who were bound to pick out -"such sufficient number of able men, as in the said commission shall be -contained, to serve Her Majesty as aforesaid." The justices of the peace -in the coast districts, who were often themselves concerned in the -shipping trade, were not always zealous in enforcing the press. The -pressed sailors often deserted with the "imprest money" given them. Loud -complaints were made by the naval officers of the bad quality of the men -sent up to serve in the king's ships. On the other hand, the Press Gangs -were accused of extorting money, and of making illegal arrests. In the -reign of Queen Anne (1703) an act was passed "for the increase of Seamen -and the better encouragement of navigation, and the protection of the -Coal Trade." The act which gave parish authorities power to apprentice -boys to the sea exempted the apprentices from the press for three years, -and until the age of eighteen. It especially reaffirmed the part of the -Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth's reign which left rogues and vagabonds -subject to be pressed for the sea service. By the act for the "Increase -of Mariners and Seamen to navigate Merchant Ships and other trading -ships or vessels," passed in the reign of George II. (1740), all men -over fifty-five were exempted from the press together with lads under -eighteen, foreigners serving in British ships (always numerous in war -time), and landsmen who had gone to sea during their first two years. -The act for "the better supplying of the cities of London and -Westminster with fish" gave exemption to all masters of fishing-boats, -to four apprentices and one mariner to each boat, and all landsmen for -two years, except in case of actual invasion. By the act for the -encouragement of insurance passed in 1774, the fire insurance companies -in London were entitled to secure exemption for thirty watermen each in -their employment. Masters and mates of merchant vessels, and a -proportion of men per ship in the colliers trading from the north to -London, were also exempt. - -Subject to such limitations as these, all seafaring men, and watermen -on rivers, were liable to be pressed between the ages of eighteen and -fifty-five, and might be pressed repeatedly for so long as their -liability lasted. The rogue and vagabond element were at the mercy of -the justices of the peace. The frightful epidemics of fever which -desolated the navy till late in the 18th century were largely due to the -infection brought by the prisoners drafted from the ill-kept jails of -the time. As service in the fleet was most unpopular with the sailors, -the press could often only be enforced by making a parade of strength -and employing troops. The men had many friends who were always willing -to conceal them, and they themselves became expert in avoiding capture. -There was, however, one way of procuring them which gave them no chance -of evasion. The merchant ships were stopped at sea and the sailors taken -out. This was done to a great extent, more especially in the case of -homeward-bound vessels. On one occasion, in 1802, an East Indiaman on -her way home was deprived of so many of her crew by a man of war in the -Bay of Biscay that she was unable to resist a small French privateer, -and was carried off as a prize with a valuable cargo. The press and the -jails failed to supply the number of men required. In 1795 it was found -necessary to impose on the counties the obligation to provide "a quota" -of men, at their own expense. The local authorities provided the -recruits by offering high bounties, often to debtors confined in the -prisons. These desperate men were a very bad element in the navy. In -1797 they combined with the United Irishmen, of whom large numbers had -been drafted into the fleet as vagabonds, to give a very dangerous -political character to the mutinies at the Nore and on the south of -Ireland. After the conclusion of the great Napoleonic wars in 1815 the -power of the press was not again exercised. In 1835 an act was passed -during Sir James Graham's tenure of office as first lord of the -admiralty, by which men who had once been pressed and had served for a -period of five years were to be exempt from impressment in future. Sir -James, however, emphatically reaffirmed the right of the crown to -enforce the service of the subject, and therefore to impress the seamen. -The introduction of engagements for a term of five years in 1853, and -then of long service, has produced so large a body of voluntary -recruits, and service in the navy is so popular, that the question has -no longer any interest save an historical one. If compulsory service in -the fleet should again become necessary it will not be in the form of -the old system of impressment, which left the sailor subject to -compulsory service from the age of eighteen to fifty-five, and flooded -the navy with the scum of the jails and the workhouse. - - AUTHORITIES.--Grose's _Military Antiquities_, for the general subject - of impressment, vol. ii. p. 73 et seq. S. R. Gardiner gives many - details in his history of James I. and Charles I., and in _The Civil - War_. The acts relating to the navy are quoted in _A Collection of the - Statutes relating to the Admiralty_, &c., published in 1810. Some - curious information is in the papers relating to the Brest Blockade - edited by John Leyland for the Navy Record Society. Sir James Graham's - speech is in Hansard for 1835. (D. H.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] It is now accepted generally that "to press" is a corruption of - "prest," as "impress" is of "imprest," but the word was quite early - connected with "press," to squeeze, crush, hence to compel or force. - The "prest" was a sum of money advanced (O. Fr. _prester_, modern - _prêter_, to lend, Lat. _praestare_, to stand before, provide, become - surety for, &c.) to a person to enable him to perform some - undertaking, hence used of earnest money given to soldiers on - enlistment, or as the "coat and conduct" money alluded to in this - article. The methods of compulsion used to get men for military - service naturally connected the word with "to press" (Lat. - _pressare_, frequentative of _premere_) to force, and all reference - to the money advanced was lost (see _Skeat, Etym. Dict._, 1898, and - the quotation from H. Wedgwood, _Dict. of Eng. Etym._). - - - - -IMPROMPTU (from _in promptu_, on the spur of the moment), a short -literary composition which has not been, or is not supposed to have -been, prepared beforehand, but owes its merit to the ready skill which -produces it without premeditation. The word seems to have been -introduced from the French language in the middle of the 17th century. -Without question, the poets have, from earliest ages, made impromptus, -and the very art of poetry, in its lyric form, is of the nature of a -modified improvisation. It is supposed that many of the epigrams of the -Greeks, and still more probably those of the Roman satirists, -particularly Martial, were delivered on the moment, and gained a great -part, at least, of their success from the evidence which they gave of -rapidity of invention. But it must have been difficult then, as it has -been since, to be convinced of the value of that evidence. Who is to be -sure that, like Mascarille in _Les Précieuses ridicules_, the -impromptu-writer has not employed his leisure in sharpening his arrows? -James Smith received the highest praise for his compliment to Miss Tree, -the cantatrice:-- - - On this tree when a nightingale settles and sings, - The Tree will return him as good as he brings. - - -This was extremely neat, but who is to say that James Smith had not -polished it as he dressed for dinner? One writer owed all his fame, and -a seat among the Forty Immortals of the French Academy, to the -reputation of his impromptus. This was the Marquis François Joseph de St -Aulaire (1643-1742). The piece which threw open the doors of the Academy -to him in 1706 was composed at Sceaux, where he was staying with the -duchess of Maine, who was guessing secrets, and who called him Apollo. -St Aulaire instantly responded:-- - - La divinité qui s'amuse - A me demander mon secret, - Si j'étais Apollon, ne serait pas ma muse, - Elle serait Thétis--et le jour finirait. - -This is undoubtedly as neat as it is impertinent, and if the duchess had -given him no ground for preparation, this is typical of the impromptu at -its best. Voltaire was celebrated for the savage wit of his impromptus, -and was himself the subject of a famous one by Young. Less well known -but more certainly extemporaneous is the couplet by the last-mentioned -poet, who being asked to put something amusing in an album, and being -obliged to borrow from Lord Chesterfield a pencil for the purpose, -wrote:-- - - Accept a miracle instead of wit,-- - See two dull lines with Stanhope's pencil writ. - -The word "impromptu" is sometimes used to designate a short dramatic -sketch, the type of which is Molière's famous _Impromptu du Versailles_ -(1663), a miniature comedy in prose. - - - - -IMPROVISATORE, a word used to describe a poet who recites verses which -he composes on the spur of the moment, without previous preparation. The -term is purely Italian, although in that language it would be more -correctly spelt _improvvisatore_. It became recognized as an English -word in the middle of the eighteenth century, and is so used by Smollett -in his _Travels_ (1766); he defines an improvisatore as "an individual -who has the surprising talent of reciting verses extempore, on any -subject you propose." In speaking of a woman, the female form -_improvisatrice_ is sometimes used in English. - -Improvisation is a gift which properly belongs to those languages in -which a great variety of grammatical inflections, wedded to simplicity -of rhythm and abundance of rhyme, enable a poet to slur over -difficulties in such a way as to satisfy the ear of his audience. In -ancient times the greater part of the popular poetry with which the -leisure of listeners was beguiled was of this rhapsodical nature. But in -modern Europe it was the troubadours, owing to the extreme flexibility -of the languages of Provence, who distinguished themselves above all -others as improvisatores. It is difficult to believe, however, that the -elaborate compositions of these poets, which have come down to us, in -which every exquisite artifice of versification is taken advantage of, -can have been poured forth without premeditation. These poets, we must -rather suppose, took a pride in the ostentation of a prodigious memory, -most carefully trained, and poured forth in public what they had -laboriously learned by heart in private. The Italians, however, in the -16th century, cultivated what seems to have been a genuine -improvisation, in which the bards rhapsodized, not as they themselves -pleased, but on subjects which were unexpected by them, and which were -chosen on the spot by their patrons. Of these, the most extraordinary is -said to have been Silvio Antoniano (1540-1603), who from the age of ten -was able to pour out melodious verse on any subject which was suggested -to him. He was brought to Rome, where successive popes so delighted in -his talent that in 1598 he was made a cardinal. In the 17th century the -celebrated Metastasio first attracted attention by his skill as an -improvisatore. But he was excelled by Bernardino Perfetti (1681-1747), -who was perhaps the most extraordinary genius of this class who has ever -lived. He was seized, in his moments of composition, with a transport -which transfigured his whole person, and under this excitement he poured -forth verses in a miraculous flow. It was his custom to be attended by a -guitarist, who played a recitative accompaniment. In this way Perfetti -made a triumphal procession through the cities of Italy, ending up with -the Capitol of Rome, where Pope Benedict XIII. crowned him with laurel, -and created him a Roman citizen. One of the most remarkable -improvisatores of modern times appeared in Sweden, in the person of Karl -Mikael Bellman (1740-1795), who used to take up a position in the public -gardens and parks of Stockholm, accompanying himself on a guitar, and -treating metre and rhythm with a virtuosity and originality which place -him among the leading poets of Swedish literature. In England, somewhat -later, Theodore Hook (1788-1841) developed a surprising talent for this -kind, but his verses were rarely of the serious or sentimental character -of which we have hitherto spoken. Hook's animal spirits were -unfortunately mingled with vulgarity, and his clever _jeux d'esprit_ had -little but their smartness to recommend them. A similar talent, -exercised in a somewhat more literary direction, made Joseph Méry -(1798-1865) a delightful companion in the Parisian society of his day. -It is rare indeed that the productions of the improvisatore, taken down -in shorthand, and read in the cold light of criticism, are found to -justify the impression which the author produced on his original -audience. Imperfections of every kind become patent when we read these -transcripts, and the reader cannot avoid perceiving weaknesses of style -and grammar. The eye and voice of the improvisatore so hypnotize his -auditors as to make them incapable of forming a sober judgment on -matters of mere literature. - - - - -IN-ANTIS, the architectural term given to those temples the entrance -part of which consisted of two columns placed between the antae or -pilasters (see TEMPLE). - - - - -INAUDI, JACQUES (1867- ), Italian calculating prodigy, was born at -Onorato, Piedmont, on the 15th of October 1867. When between seven and -eight years old, at which time he was employed in herding sheep, he -already exhibited an extraordinary aptitude for mental calculation. His -powers attracted the notice of various showmen, and he commenced to give -exhibitions. He was carefully examined by leading French scientists, -including Charcot, from the physiological, psychological and -mathematical point of view. The secret of his arithmetical powers -appeared to reside in his extraordinary memory, improved by continuous -practice. It appeared to depend upon hearing rather than sight, more -remarkable results being achieved when figures were read out than when -they were written. - - - - -INCANTATION, the use of words, spoken, sung or chanted, usually as a set -formula, for the purpose of obtaining a result by their supposed magical -power. The word is derived from the Latin _incantare_, to chant a -magical formula; cf. the use of _carmen_, for such a formula of words. -The Latin use is very early; thus it appears in a fragment of the XII. -Tables quoted in Pliny (_N.H._ xxviii. 2, 4, 17), "Qui malum carmen -incantasset." From the O. Fr. derivative of _incantare_, _enchanter_, -comes "enchant," "enchantment," &c., properly of the exercise of magical -powers, hence to charm, to fascinate, words which also by origin are of -magical significance. The early magi of Assyria and Babylonia were -adepts at this art, as is evident from the examples of Akkadian spells -that have been discovered. Daniel (v. 11) is spoken of as "master of the -enchanters" of Babylon. In Egypt and in India many formulas of religious -magic were in use, witness especially the Vedic _mantras_, which are -closely akin to the Maori _karakias_ and the North American _matamanik_. -Among the holy men presented by the king of Korea to the mikado of Japan -in A.D. 577 was a reciter of _mantras_, who would find himself at home -with the _majinahi_ or incantation practised by the ancient Japanese for -dissipating evil influences. One of the most common, widespread and -persistent uses of incantation was in healing wounds, instances of which -are found in the _Odyssey_ and the _Kalevala_, and in the traditional -folk-lore of almost every European country. Similar songs were sung to -win back a faithless lover (cf. the second _Idyll_ of Theocritus). - - See further MAGIC. - - - - -INCE, WILLIAM, English 18th century furniture designer and cabinetmaker. -He was one of the most successful imitators of Chippendale, although his -work was in many respects lighter. He helped, indeed, to build the -bridge between the massive and often florid style of Chippendale and -the more boudoir-like forms of Hepplewhite. Although many of his designs -were poor and extravagant, his best work was very good indeed. His -chairs are sometimes mistaken for those of Chippendale, to which, -however, they are much inferior. He greatly affected the Chinese and -Gothic tastes of the second half of the 18th century. He was for many -years in partnership in Broad Street, Golden Square, London, with Thomas -Mayhew (q.v.), in collaboration with whom he published a folio volume of -ninety-five plates, with letterpress in English and French under the -title of _The Universal System of Household Furniture_ (undated, but -probably about 1762). - - - - -INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary division -of Lancashire, England, adjoining the borough of Wigan. Pop. (1901) -21,262. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal intersects the township. There are -large collieries, ironworks, forges, railway wagon works, and cotton -mills. There is preserved here the Old Hall, a beautiful example of -half-timbered architecture. - - - - -INCENDIARISM (Lat. _incendere_, to set on fire, burn), in law, the -wilful or malicious burning of the house or property of another, and -punishable as arson (q.v.). It may be noted that in North Carolina it is -provided in case of fires that there is to be a preliminary -investigation by local authorities: all towns and cities have to make an -annual inspection of buildings and a quarterly inspection within fire -limits and report to the state insurance commissioner; all expenses so -incurred are met by a tax of 1/5% on the gross receipts of the insurance -companies (L. 1903, ch. 719). - - - - -INCENSE,[1] the perfume (fumigation) arising from certain resins and -gum-resins, barks, woods, dried flowers, fruits and seeds, when burnt, -and also the substances so burnt. In its literal meaning the word -"incense" is one with the word "perfume," the aroma given off with the -smoke (_per fumum_[2]) of any odoriferous substance when burnt. But, in -use, while the meaning of the word "perfume" has been extended so as to -include everything sweet in smell, from smoking incense to the invisible -fresh fragrance of fruits and exquisite scent of flowers, that of the -word "incense," in all the languages of modern Europe in which it -occurs, has, by an opposite process of limitation, been gradually -restricted almost exclusively to frankincense (see FRANKINCENSE). -Frankincense has always been obtainable in Europe in greater quantity -than any other of the aromatics imported from the East; it has therefore -gradually come to be the only incense used in the religious rites and -domestic fumigations of many countries of the West, and at last to be -properly regarded as the only "true" or "genuine" (i.e. "franc") incense -(see Littré's _Fr. Dict._ and Skeat's _Etym. Dict. of Engl. Lang._).[3] - - The following is probably an exhaustive list of the substances - available for incense or perfume mentioned in the Hebrew - Scriptures:--Algum or almug wood (almug in 1 Kings x. 11, 12; algum - in 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11), generally identified with - sandalwood (_Santalum album_), a native of Malabar and Malaya; aloes, - or lign aloes (Heb. _ahalim_, _ahaloth_), produced by the _Aloexylon - Agallochum_ (Loureiro), a native of Cochin-China, and _Aquilaria - Agallocha_ (Roxburgh), a native of India beyond the Ganges; balm (Heb. - _tsori_), the oleo-resin of _Balsamodendron opobalsamum_ and _B. - gileadense_; bdellium (Heb. _bdolah_), the resin produced by - _Balsamodendron roxburghii_, _B. Mukul_ and _B. pubescens_, all - natives of Upper India (Lassen, however, identifies _bdolah_ with - musk); calamus (Heb. _kaneh_; sweet calamus, _keneh bosem_, Ex. xxx. - 23; Ezek. xxvii. 19; sweet cane, _kaneh hattob_, Jer. vi. 20; Isa. - xliii. 24), identified by Royle with the _Andropogon Calamus - aromaticus_ or roosa grass of India; cassia (Heb. _kiddah_) the - _Cinnamomum Cassia_ of China; cinnamon (Heb. _kinnamon_), the - _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ of the Somali country, but cultivated largely - in Ceylon, where also it runs wild, and in Java; costus (Heb. - _ketzioth_), the root of the _Aucklandia Costus_ (Falconer), native of - Kashmir; frankincense (Heb. _lebonah_), the gum-resin of _Bosiwellia - Frereana_ and _B. Bhau-Dajiana_ of the Somali country, and of _B. - Carterii_ of the Somali country and the opposite coast of Arabia (see - "The Genus Boswellia" by Sir George Birdwood, _Transactions of the - Linnean Society_, xxi. 1871); galbanum (Heb. _helbenah_), yielded by - _Opoidia galbanifera_ (Royle) of Khorassan, and _Galbanum officinale_ - (Don) of Syria and other _Ferulas_; ladanum (Heb. _lot_, translated - "myrrh" in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11), the resinous exudation of - _Cistus creticus_, _C. ladaniferus_ and other species of "rock rose" - or "rose of Sharon"; myrrh (Heb. _mor_), the gum-resin of the - _Balsamodendron Myrrha_ of the Somali country and opposite shore of - Arabia; onycha (Heb. _sheheleth_), the celebrated odoriferous shell of - the ancients, the operculum or "nail" of a species of _Strombus_ or - "wing shell," formerly well known in Europe under the name of _Blatta - byzantina_; it is still imported into Bombay to burn with frankincense - and other incense to bring out their odours more strongly; saffron - (Heb. _karkom_), the stigmata of _Crocus sativus_, a native originally - of Kashmir; spikenard (Heb. _nerd_), the root of the _Nardostachys - Jatamansi_ of Nepal and Bhutan; stacte (Heb. _nataf_), generally - referred to the _Styrax officinalis_ of the Levant, but Hanbury has - shown that no stacte or storax is now derived from _S. officinalis_, - and that all that is found in modern commerce is the product of the - _Liquidambar orientalis_ of Cyprus and Anatolia. - - Besides these aromatic substances named in the Bible, the following - must also be enumerated on account of their common use as incense in - the East; benzoin or gum benjamin, first mentioned among Western - writers by Ibn Batuta (1325-1349) under the name of _lubân d' Javi_ - (i.e. olibanum of Java), corrupted in the parlance of Europe into - benjamin and benzoin; camphor, produced by _Cinnamomum Camphora_, the - "camphor laurel" of China and Japan, and by _Dryobalanops aromatica_, - a native of the Indian Archipelago, and widely used as incense - throughout the East, particularly in China; elemi, the resin of an - unknown tree of the Philippine Islands, the elemi of old writers being - the resin of _Boswellia Frereana_; gum-dragon or dragon's blood, - obtained from _Calamus Draco_, one of the ratan palms of the Indian - Archipelago, _Dracaena Draco_, a liliaceous plant of the Canary - Island, and _Pterocarpus Draco_, a leguminous tree of the island of - Socotra; rose-malloes, a corruption of the Javanese _rasamala_, or - liquid storax, the resinous exudation of _Liquidambar Altingia_, a - native of the Indian Archipelago (an American _Liquidambar_ also - produces a rose-malloes-like exudation); star anise, the starlike - fruit of the _Illicum anisatum_ of Yunan and south-western China, - burnt as incense in the temples of Japan; sweet flag, the root of - _Acorus Calamus_, the bach of the Hindus, much used for incense in - India. An aromatic earth, found on the coast of Cutch, is used as - incense in the temples of western India. The animal excreta, musk and - civet, also enter into the composition of modern European pastils and - _clous fumants_. Balsam of Tolu, produced by _Myroxylon toluiferum_, a - native of Venezuela and New Granada; balsam of Peru, derived from - _Myroxylon Pereirae_, a native of San Salvador in Central America; - Mexican and Brazilian elemi, produced by various species of _Icica_ or - "incense trees," and the liquid exudation of an American species of - _Liquidambar_, are all used as incense in America. Hanbury quotes a - faculty granted by Pope Pius V. (August 2, 1571) to the bishops of the - West Indies permitting the substitution of balsam of Peru for the - balsam of the East in the preparation of the chrism to be used by the - Catholic Church in America. The _Sangre del drago_ of the Mexicans is - a resin resembling dragon's blood obtained from a euphorbiaceous tree, - _Croton Draco_. - -Probably nowhere can the actual historical progress from the primitive -use of animal sacrifices to the later refinement of burning incense be -more clearly traced than in the pages of the Old Testament, where no -mention of the latter rite occurs before the period of the Mosaic -legislation; but in the monuments of ancient Egypt the authentic traces -of the use of incense that still exist carry us back to a much earlier -date. From Meroe to Memphis the commonest subject carved or painted in -the interiors of the temples is that of some contemporary Phrah or -Pharaoh worshipping the presiding deity with oblations of gold and -silver vessels, rich vestments, gems, the firstlings of the flock and -herd, cakes, fruits, flowers, wine, anointing oil and incense. Generally -he holds in one hand the censer, and with the other casts the pastils or -osselets of incense into it: sometimes he offers incense in one hand and -makes the libation of wine with the other. One of the best known of -these representations is that carved on the memorial stone placed by -Tethmosis (Thothmes) IV. (1533 B.C.) on the breast of the Sphinx at -Gizeh.[4] The tablet represents Tethmosis before his guardian deity, the -sun-god Rê, pouring a libation of wine on one side and offering incense -on the other. The ancient Egyptians used various substances as incense. -They worshipped Rê at sunrise with resin, at mid-day with myrrh and at -sunset with an elaborate confection called _kuphi_, compounded of no -fewer than sixteen ingredients, among which were honey, wine, raisins, -resin, myrrh and sweet calamus. While it was being mixed, holy writings -were read to those engaged in the operation. According to Plutarch, -apart from its mystic virtues arising from the magical combination of 4 -× 4, its sweet odour had a benign physiological effect on those who -offered it.[5] The censer used was a hemispherical cup or bowl of -bronze, supported by a long handle, fashioned at one end like an open -hand, in which the bowl was, as it were, held, while the other end -within which the pastils of incense were kept was shaped into the hawk's -head crowned with a disk, as the symbol of Rê.[6] In embalming their -dead the Egyptians filled the cavity of the belly with every sort of -spicery except frankincense (Herod, ii. 86), for it was regarded as -specially consecrated to the worship of the gods. In the burnt-offerings -of male kine to Isis, the carcase of the steer, after evisceration, was -filled with fine bread, honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh and -other aromatics, and thus stuffed was roasted, being basted all the -while by pouring over it large quantities of sweet oil, and then eaten -with great festivity. - -How important the consumption of frankincense in the worship of the gods -became in Egypt is shown by two of its monuments, both of the greatest -interest and value for the light they throw on the early history of the -commerce of the Indian Ocean. One is an inscription in the rocky valley -of Hammamat, through which the desert road from the Red Sea to the -valley of Egypt opens on the green fields and palm groves of the river -Nile near Coptos. It was cut on the rocks by an Egyptian nobleman named -Hannu, who states that he was sent by Pharaoh Sankhkere, Menthotp IV., -with a force gathered out of the Thebaid, from Coptos to the Red Sea, -there to take command of a naval expedition to the Holy Land of Punt -(Puoni), "to bring back odoriferous gums." Punt is identified with the -Somali country, now known to be the native country of the trees that -yield the bulk of the frankincense of commerce. The other bears the -record of a second expedition to the same land of Punt, undertaken by -command of Queen Hatshepsut, 1600 B.C. It is preserved in the vividly -chiselled and richly coloured decorations portraying the history of the -reign of this famous Pharaoh on the walls of the "Stage Temple" at -Thebes. The temple is now in ruins, but the entire series of gorgeous -pictures recording the expedition to "the balsam land of Punt," from its -leaving to its returning to Thebes, still remains intact and -undefaced.[7] These are the only authenticated instances of the export -of incense trees from the Somali country until Colonel Playfair, then -political agent at Aden, in 1862-1864, collected and sent to Bombay the -specimens from which Sir George Birdwood prepared his descriptions of -them for the Linnean Society in 1868. King Antigonus is said to have had -a branch of the true frankincense tree sent to him. - -Homer tells us that the Egyptians of his time were emphatically a nation -of druggists (_Od._ iv. 229, 230). This characteristic, in which, as in -many others, they so remarkably resemble the Hindus, the Egyptians have -maintained to the present day; and, although they have changed their -religion, the use of incense among them continues to be as familiar and -formal as ever. The _kohl_ or black powder with which the modern, like -the ancient, Egyptian ladies paint their languishing eyelids, is nothing -but the smeeth of charred frankincense, or other odoriferous resin -brought with frankincense, and phials of water, from the well of -Zem-zem, by the pilgrims returning from Mecca. They also melt -frankincense as a depilatory, and smear their hands with a paste into -the composition of which frankincense enters, for the purpose of -communicating to them an attractive perfume. Herodotus (iv. 75) -describes a similar artifice as practised by the women of Scythia -(compare also Judith x. 3, 4). In cold weather the Egyptians warm their -rooms by placing in them a brazier, "chafing-dish," or "standing-dish," -filled with charcoal, whereon incense is burnt; and in hot weather they -refresh them by occasionally swinging a hand censer by a chain through -them--frankincense, benzoin and aloe wood being chiefly used for the -purpose.[8] - -In the authorized version of the Bible, the word "incense" translates -two wholly distinct Hebrew words. In various passages in the latter -portion of Isaiah (xl.-lxvi.), in Jeremiah and in Chronicles, it -represents the Hebrew _lebonah_, more usually rendered "frankincense"; -elsewhere the original word is _ketoreth_ (Ex. xxx. 8, 9; Lev. x. 1; -Num. vii. 14, &c.), a derivative of the verb _kitter_ (Pi.) or _hiktir_ -(Hiph.), which verb is used, not only in Ex. xxx. 7, but also in Lev. i. -9, iii. 11, ix. 13, and many other passages, to denote the process by -which the "savour of satisfaction" in any burnt-offering, whether of -flesh or of incense, is produced. Sometimes in the authorized version -(as in 1 Kings iii. 3; 1 Sam. ii. 28) it is made to mean explicitly the -burning of incense with only doubtful propriety. The expression "incense -(_ketoreth_) of rains" in Ps. lxvi. 15 and the allusion in Ps. cxli. 2 -ought both to be understood, most probably, of ordinary -burnt-offerings.[9] The "incense" (_ketoreth_), or "incense of sweet -scents" (_ketoreth sammim_), called, in Ex. xxx. 35, "a confection after -the art of the apothecary," or rather "a perfume after the art of the -perfumer," which was to be regarded as most holy, and the imitation of -which was prohibited under the severest penalties, was compounded of -four "sweet scents" (_sammim_),[10] namely stacte (_nataph_), onycha -(_sheheleth_), galbanum (_helbenah_) and "pure" or "fine" frankincense -(_lebonah zaccah_), pounded together in equal proportions, with -(perhaps) an admixture of salt (_memullah_).[11] It was then to be "put -before the testimony" in the "tent of meeting." It was burnt on the -altar of incense by the priest every morning when the lamps were trimmed -in the Holy Place, and every evening when they were lighted or "set up" -(Ex. xxx. 7, 8). A handful of it was also burnt once a year in the Holy -of Holies by the high priest on a pan of burning coals taken from the -altar of burnt-offering (Lev. xvi. 12, 13). Pure frankincense -(_lebonah_) formed part of the meat-offering (Lev. ii. 16, vi. 15), and -was also presented along with the shew bread (Lev. xxiv. 7) every -Sabbath day (probably on two golden saucers; see Jos. _Ant._ iii. 10, -7). The religious significance of the use of incense, or at least of its -use in the Holy of Holies, is distinctly set forth in Lev. xvi. 12, 13. - -The Jews were also in the habit of using odoriferous substances in -connexion with the funeral obsequies of distinguished persons (see 2 -Chron. xvi. 14, xxi. 19; Jer. xxxiv. 5). In Amos vi. 10 "he that burneth -him" probably means "he that burns perfumes in his honour." References -to the domestic use of incense occur in Cant. iii. 6; Prov. xxvii. 9; -cf. vii. 17. - -The "marbles" of Nineveh furnish frequent examples of the offering of -incense to the sun-god and his consort (2 Kings xxiii. 5). The kings of -Assyria united in themselves the royal and priestly offices, and on the -monuments they erected they are generally represented as offering -incense and pouring out wine to the Tree of Life. They probably carried -the incense in the sacred bag so frequently seen in their hands and in -those also of the common priests. According to Herodotus (i. 183), -frankincense to the amount of 1000 talents' weight was offered every -year, during the feast of Bel, on the great altar of his temple in -Babylon. - -The monuments of Persepolis and the coins of the Sassanians show that -the religious use of incense was as common in ancient Persia as in -Babylonia and Assyria. Five times a day the priests of the Persians -(Zoroastrians) burnt incense on their sacred fire altars. In the Avesta -(_Vendidad_, Fargard xix. 24, 40), the incense they used is named _vohu -gaono_. It has been identified with benzoin, but was probably -frankincense. Herodotus (iii. 97) states that the Arabs brought every -year to Darius as tribute 1000 talents of frankincense. The Parsees -still preserve in western India the pure tradition of the ritual of -incense as followed by their race from probably the most ancient times. - -The _Ramayana_ and _Mahabharata_ afford evidence of the employment of -incense by the Hindus, in the worship of the gods and the burning of the -dead, from the remotest antiquity. Its use was obviously continued by -the Buddhists during the prevalence of their religion in India, for it -is still used by them in Nepal, Tibet, Ceylon, Burma, China and Japan. -These countries all received Buddhism from India, and a large proportion -of the porcelain and earthenware articles imported from China and Japan -into Europe consists of innumerable forms of censers. The Jains all over -India burn sticks of incense before their Jina. The commonest incense in -ancient India was probably frankincense. The Indian frankincense tree, -_Boswellia thurifera_, Colebrooke (which certainly includes _B. glabra_, -Roxburgh), is a doubtful native of India. It is found chiefly where the -Buddhist religion prevailed in ancient times, in Bihar and along the -foot of the Himalayas and in western India, where it particularly -flourishes in the neighbourhood of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta. It is -quite possible therefore that, in the course of their widely extended -commerce during the one thousand years of their ascendancy, the -Buddhists imported the true frankincense trees from Africa and Arabia -into India, and that the accepted Indian species are merely varieties of -them. Now, however, the incense in commonest use in India is benzoin. -But the consumption of all manner of odoriferous resins, gum resins, -roots, woods, dried leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds in India, in -social as well as religious observances, is enormous. The grateful -perfumed powder _abir_ or _randa_ is composed either of rice, flour, -mango bark or deodar wood, camphor and aniseed, or of sandalwood or wood -aloes, and zerumbet, zedoary, rose flowers, camphor and civet. The -incense sticks and pastils known all over India under the names of -_ud-buti_ ("benzoin-light") or _aggar-ki-buti_ ("wood aloes light") are -composed of benzoin, wood aloes, sandalwood, rock lichen, patchouli, -rose-malloes, _talispat_ (the leaf of _Flacourtia Cataphracta_ of -Roxburgh), mastic and sugar-candy or gum. The _abir_ and _aggir butis_ -made at the Mahommedan city of Bijapur in the Mahratta country are -celebrated all over western India. The Indian Mussulmans indeed were -rapidly degenerating into a mere sect of Hindus before the Wahabi -revival, and the more recent political propaganda in support of the -false caliphate of the sultans of Turkey; and we therefore find the -religious use of incense among them more general than among the -Mahommedans of any other country. They use it at the ceremonies of -circumcision, _bismillah_ (teaching the child "the name of God"), -virginity and marriage. At marriage they burn benzoin with _nim_ seeds -(_Melia Azadirachta_, Roxburgh) to keep off evil spirits, and prepare -the bride-cakes by putting a quantity of benzoin between layers of -wheaten dough, closed all round, and frying them in clarified butter. -For days the bride is fed on little else. In their funeral ceremonies, -the moment the spirit has fled incense is burnt before the corpse until -it is carried out to be buried. The begging fakirs also go about with a -lighted stick of incense in one hand, and holding out with the other an -incense-holder (literally, "incense chariot"), into which the coins of -the pious are thrown. Large "incense trees" resembling our Christmas -trees, formed of incense-sticks and pastils and osselets, and alight all -over, are borne by the Shiah Mussulmans in the solennial procession of -the Mohurrum, in commemoration of the martyrdom of the sons of Ali. The -worship of the _tulsi_ plant, or holy basil (_Ocymum sanctum_, Don), by -the Hindus is popularly explained by its consecration to Vishnu and -Krishna. It grows on the four-horned altar before the house, or in a pot -placed in one of the front windows, and is worshipped every morning by -all the female members of every Hindu household. It is possible that its -adoration has survived from the times when the Hindus buried their dead -in their houses, beneath the family hearth. When they came into a hot -climate the fire of the sacrifices and domestic cookery was removed out -of the house; but the dead were probably still for a while buried in or -near it, and the _tulsi_ was planted over their graves, at once for the -salubrious fragrance it diffuses and to represent the burning of incense -on the altar of the family Lar. The rich land round about the holy city -of Pandharpur, sacred to Vithoba the national Mahratta form of -(Krishna)-Vishnu, is wholly restricted to the cultivation of the tulsi -plant. - -As to the [Greek: thyea] mentioned in Homer (_Il._ ix. 499, and -elsewhere) and in Hesiod (_Works and Days_, 338), there is some -uncertainty whether they were incense offerings at all, and if so, -whether they were ever offered alone, and not always in conjunction with -animal sacrifices. That the domestic use, however, of the fragrant wood -[Greek: thyon] (the _Arbor vitae_ or _Cailitris quadrivalvis_ of -botanists, the source of the resin sandarach) was known in the Homeric -age, is shown by the case of Calypso (_Od._ v. 60), and the very -similarity of the word [Greek: thyon] to [Greek: thyos] may be taken as -almost conclusively proving that by that time the same wood was also -employed for religious purposes. It is not probable that the -sweet-smelling gums and resins of the countries of the Indian Ocean -began to be introduced into Greece before the 8th or 7th century B.C., -and doubtless [Greek: libanos] or [Greek: libanôtos] first became an -article of extensive commerce only after the Mediterranean trade with -the East had been opened up by the Egyptian king Psammetichus (c. -664-610 B.C.). The new Oriental word is frequently employed by -Herodotus; and there are abundant references to the use of the thing -among the writers of the golden age of Attic literature (see, for -example, Aristophanes, _Plut._ 1114; _Frogs_, 871, 888; _Clouds_, 426; -_Wasps_, 96, 861). Frankincense, however, though the most common, never -became the only kind of incense offered to the gods among the Greeks. -Thus the Orphic hymns are careful to specify, in connexion with the -several deities celebrated, a great variety of substances appropriate to -the service of each; in the case of many of these the selection seems to -have been determined not at all by their fragrance but by some occult -considerations which it is now difficult to divine. - -Among the Romans the use of religious fumigations long preceded the -introduction of foreign substances for the purpose (see, for example, -Ovid, _Fast._ i. 337 seq., "Et non exiguo laurus adusta sono"). Latterly -the use of frankincense ("mascula thura," Virg. _Ecl._ viii. 65) became -very prevalent, not only in religious ceremonials, but also on various -state occasions, such as in triumphs (Ovid, _Trist_, iv. 2, 4), and also -in connexion with certain occurrences of domestic life. In private it -was daily offered by the devout to the _Lar familiaris_ (Plaut. _Aulul._ -prol. 23); and in public sacrifices it was not only sprinkled on the -head of the victim by the pontifex before its slaughter, and afterwards -mingled with its blood, but was also thrown upon the flames over which -it was roasted. - -No perfectly satisfactory traces can be found of the use of incense in -the ritual of the Christian Church during the first four centuries.[12] -It obviously was not contemplated by the author of the epistle to the -Hebrews; its use was foreign to the synagogue services on which, and not -on those of the temple, the worship of the primitive Christians is well -known to have been originally modelled; and its associations with -heathen solemnities, and with the evil repute of those who were known as -"thurificati," would still further militate against its employment. -Various authors of the ante-Nicene period have expressed themselves as -distinctly unfavourable to its religious, though not of course to its -domestic, use. Thus Tertullian, while (_De Cor. Mil._ 10) ready to -acknowledge its utility in counteracting unpleasant smells ("si me odor -alicujus loci offenderit, Arabiae aliquid incendo"), is careful to say -that he scorns to offer it as an accompaniment to his heartfelt prayers -(_Apol._ 30; cf. 42). Athenagoras also (_Legat._ 13) gives distinct -expression to his sense of the needlessness of any such ritual ("the -Creator and Father of the universe does not require blood, nor smoke, -nor even the sweet smell of flowers and incense"); and Arnobius (_Adv. -Gent._ vii. 26) seeks to justify the Christian neglect of it by the -fact, for which he vouches, that among the Romans themselves incense was -unknown in the time of Numa, while the Etruscans had always continued to -be strangers to it. Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine and the Apostolic -Constitutions make no reference to any such feature either in the public -or private worship of the Christians of that time. The earliest mention, -it would seem, occurs in the Apostolic Canons (can. 3), where the -[Greek: thymiama] is spoken of as one of the requisites of the -eucharistic service. It is easy to perceive how it should inevitably -have come in along with the whole circle of ideas involved in such words -as "temple," "altar," "priest," which about this time came to be so -generally applied in ecclesiastical connexions. Evagrius (vi. 21) -mentions the gift of a [Greek: thymiatêrion] by the contemporary -Chosroes of Persia to the church of Jerusalem; and all the Oriental -liturgies of this period provide special prayers for the thurification -of the eucharistic elements. The oldest _Ordo Romanus_, which perhaps -takes us back to within a century of Gregory the Great, enjoins that in -pontifical masses a sub-deacon, with a golden censer, shall go before -the bishop as he leaves the secretarium for the choir, and two, with -censers, before the deacon gospeller as he proceeds with the gospel to -the ambo. And less than two centuries afterwards we read an order in one -of the capitularies of Hincmar of Reims, to the effect that every priest -ought to be provided with a censer and incense. That in this portion of -their ritual, however, the Christians of that period were not -universally conscious of its direct descent from Mosaic institutions may -be inferred perhaps from the "benediction of the incense" used in the -days of Charlemagne, which runs as follows: "May the Lord bless this -incense to the extinction of every noxious smell, and kindle it to the -odour of its sweetness." Even Thomas Aquinas (p. iii. qu. 83, art. 5) -gives prominence to this idea. - -The character and order of these historical notices of incense would -certainly, were there nothing else to be considered, justify the -conclusion hitherto generally adopted, that its use was wholly unknown -in the worship of the Christian Church before the 5th century. On the -other hand, we know that in the first Christian services held in the -catacombs under the city of Rome, incense was burnt as a sanitary -fumigation at least. Tertullian also distinctly alludes to the use of -aromatics in Christian burial: "the Sabaeans will testify that more of -their merchandise, and that more costly, is lavished on the burial of -Christians, than in burning incense to the gods." And the whole argument -from analogy is in favour of the presumption of the ceremonial use of -incense by the Christians from the first. It is natural that little -should be said of so obvious a practice until the fuller development of -ritual in a later age. The slighting references to it by the Christian -fathers are no more an argument against its existence in the primitive -church than the similar denunciations by the Jewish prophets of -burnt-offerings and sacrifices are any proof that there were no such -rites as the offering of incense, and of the blood of bulls and fat of -rams, in the worship of the temple at Jerusalem. There could be no real -offence to Christians in the burning of incense. Malachi (i. 11) had -already foretold the time when among the Gentiles, in every place, -incense should be offered to God. Gold, with myrrh and frankincense were -offered by the Persian Magi to the infant Jesus at his birth; and in -Revelation viii. 3, 4, the image of the offering of incense with the -prayers of the saints, before the throne of God, is not without its -significance. If also the passage in Ambrose of Milan (on Luke i. 11), -where he speaks of "us" as "adolentes altaria" is to be translated -"incensing the altars," and taken literally, it is a testimony to the -use of incense by the Christian Church in, at least, the 4th century. -But the earliest express mention of the censing of the altar by -Christian priests is in "the works," first quoted in the 6th century, -attributed to "Dionysius the Areopagite," the contemporary of St Paul -(Acts xvii. 34). - -The Missal of the Roman Church now enjoins incensation before the -introit, at the gospel and again at the offertory, and at the elevation, -in every high mass; the use of incense also occurs at the exposition of -the sacrament, at consecrations of churches and the like, in -processions, in the office for the burial of the dead and at the -exhibition of relics. On high festivals the altar is censed at vespers -and lauds. - -In the Church of England the use of incense was gradually abandoned -after the reign of Edward VI., until the ritualistic revival of the -present day. Its use, however, has never been abolished by law. A "Form -for the Consecration of a Censer" occurs in Sancroft's _Form of -Dedication and Consecration of a Church or Chapel_ (1685). In various -works of reference (as, for example, in _Notes and Queries_, 3rd ser. -vol. viii. p. 11) numerous sporadic cases are mentioned in which incense -appears to have been burnt in churches; the evidence, however, does not -go so far as to show that it was used during divine service, least of -all that it was used during the communion office. At the coronation of -George III., one of the king's grooms appeared "in a scarlet dress, -holding a perfuming pan, burning perfumes, as at previous coronations." - -In 1899, on the appeal of the Rev. H. Westall, St Cuthbert's, London, -and the Rev. E. Ram, St John's, Norwich, against the use of incense in -the Church of England, the archbishops of Canterbury (Dr Temple) and -York (Dr Maclagan) supported the appeal. Their decision was reviewed by -Chancellor L. T. Dibdin in the 10th edition of the _Encyclopaedia -Britannica_, and the exposition given by Sir Lewis Dibdin of the whole -question of the use of incense in the Church of England may here be -interpolated. (G. B.) - -_Incense in the Church of England._--Mr Scudamore (_Notitia -Eucharistica_, 2nd ed. pp. 141-142) thus describes the method and extent -of the employment of incense at the mass prior to the Reformation:-- - - "According to the use of Sarum (and Bangor) the priest, after being - himself censed by the deacon, censed the altar before the Introit - began. The York rubric directed him to do it immediately alter the - first saying of the Introit, which in England was thrice said. The - Hereford missal gives no direction for censing the altar at that time. - The middle of the altar was censed, according to Sarum, Bangor and - Hereford, before the reading of the Gospel. According to Sarum and - Bangor, the thurible, as well as the lights, attended the Gospel to - the lectern. Perhaps the York rubric implies that this was done when - it orders (which the others do not) the thurible to be carried round - the choir with the Gospel while the Creed was being sung. In the Sarum - and Bangor, the priest censed the oblations after offering them; then - the space between himself and the altar. He was then, at Sarum, censed - by the deacon, and an acolyte censed the choir; at Bangor the - _Sinistrum Cornu_ of the altar and the relics were censed instead. - York and Hereford ordered no censing at the offertory. There is reason - to think that, notwithstanding the order for the use of incense at - every celebration, it was in practice burnt only on high festivals, - and then only in rich churches, down to the period of the Reformation. - In most parishes its costliness alone would preclude its daily use, - while the want of an assistant minister would be a very common reason - for omitting the rite almost everywhere. Incense was not burnt in - private masses, so that the clergy were accustomed to celebrations - without it, and would naturally forego it on any plausible ground." - -The ritual of the mass remained unchanged until the death of Henry VIII. -(Jan. 28, 1547). In March 1548 the _Order of the Communion_ was -published and commanded to be used by royal proclamation in the name of -Edward VI. It was the precursor of the Prayer Book, and supplemented the -accustomed Latin service by additions in English to provide for the -communion of the people in both kinds. But it was expressly stated in a -rubric that the old service of the mass was to proceed without variation -of any rite or ceremony until after the priest had received the -sacrament, that is, until long after the last of the three occasions for -the use of incense explained above. But on Whitsunday 1549 the first -Prayer Book of Edward VI. came into use under an Act of Parliament (2 -and 3 Ed. VI. ch. 1, the first Act of Uniformity) which required its -exclusive use in public worship so as to supersede all other forms of -service. Another Act, 3 and 4 Ed. VI. ch. 10, required the old service -books to be delivered up to be destroyed. The first Prayer Book does not -contain any direction to use or any mention of incense. It has been and -still is a keenly controverted question whether incense did or did not -continue to be in ceremonial use under the first Prayer Book or during -the rest of Edward VI.'s reign. No evidence has hitherto been discovered -which justifies us in answering this question in the affirmative. The -second Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1552), published under the authority -of the second Act of Uniformity (5 and 6 Ed. VI. ch. 1), contains no -reference to incense. Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553. Queen Mary -by statute (1 Mary, sess. 2, ch. 2) abolished the Prayer Book, repealed -the Acts of Uniformity and restored "divine service and administration -of sacraments as were most commonly used in England in the last year of -Henry VIII." The ceremonial use of incense thus became again an -undoubted part of the communion service in the Church of England. A -proclamation issued (December 6, 1553) directed the churchwardens to -obtain the proper ornaments for the churches; and the bishops (at any -rate Bishop Bonner, see _Visitation Articles 1554_, Cardwell's _Doc. -Ann._ i. 149-153) in their visitations inquired whether censers had been -furnished for use. Mary died on the 17th of November 1558. On the 24th -of June 1559 the second Prayer Book of Edward VI. (with a few -alterations having no reference to incense) was again established, under -the authority of the third Act of Uniformity (1 Eliz. ch. 2), as the -exclusive service book for public service. There is no evidence of the -ceremonial use of incense under Elizabeth's Prayer Book, or under the -present Prayer Book of 1662 (established by the fourth Act of -Uniformity, 13 and 14 Charles II. ch. 4) until the middle of the 19th -century; and there is no doubt that as a ceremony of divine worship, -whether at the Holy Communion or at other services, it was entirely -disused. There are, however, a good many instances recorded of what has -been called a fumigatory use of frankincense in churches, by which it -was sought to purify the air, in times of public sickness, or to dispel -the foulness caused by large congregations, or poisonous gases arising -from ill-constructed vaults under the church floor. It seems also to -have been used for the purpose of creating an agreeable perfume on great -occasions, e.g. the great ecclesiastical feasts. But this use of incense -must be carefully distinguished from its ceremonial use. It was -utilitarian and not symbolical, and from the nature of the purpose in -view must have taken place before, rather than during, service. Of the -same character is the use of incense carried in a perfuming pan before -the sovereign at his coronation in the procession from Westminster Hall -to the Abbey. This observance was maintained from James II.'s coronation -to that of George III. In the general revival of church ceremonial which -accompanied and followed the Oxford Movement incense was not forgotten, -and its ceremonial use in the pre-Reformation method has been adopted in -a few extreme churches since 1850. Its use has been condemned as an -illegal ceremony by the ecclesiastical courts. In 1868 Sir Robert -Phillimore (Dean of the Arches) pronounced the ceremonial use of incense -to be illegal in the suit of _Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_ (2 A. and E.L.R. -116). The case was carried to the Privy Council on appeal, but there was -no appeal on the question of incense. Again, in 1870, the ceremonial use -of incense was condemned by Sir Robert Phillimore in the suit of -_Sumner_ v. _Wix_ (3 A. and E.L.R. 58). - -Notwithstanding these decisions, it was insisted by those who defended -the revival of the ceremonial use of incense that it was a legal custom -of the Church of England. The question was once more elaborately argued -in May 1899 before an informal tribunal consisting of the archbishop of -Canterbury (Dr. Temple) and the archbishop of York (Dr. Maclagan), at -Lambeth Palace. On the 31st of July 1899 the archbishops decided that -the liturgical use of incense was illegal. The Lambeth "opinion," as it -was called, failed to convince the clergy against whom it was directed -any better than the judgments of the ecclesiastical courts, but at first -a considerable degree of obedience to the archbishops' view was shown. -Various expedients were adopted, as, e.g., the use of incense just -before the beginning of service, by which it was sought to retain -incense without infringing the law as laid down by the archbishops. -There remained, nevertheless, a tendency on the part of the clergy who -used incense, or desired to do so, to revert to the position they -occupied before the Lambeth hearing--that is, to insist on the -ceremonial use of incense as a part of the Catholic practice of the -Church of England which it is the duty of the clergy to maintain, -notwithstanding the decisions of ecclesiastical judges or the opinions -or archbishops to the contrary. (L. T. D.) - -_Manufacture._--For the manufacture of the incense now used in the -Christian churches of Europe there is no fixed rule. The books of ritual -are agreed that Ex. xxx. 34 should be taken as a guide as much as -possible. It is recommended that frankincense should enter as largely as -possible into its composition, and that if inferior materials be -employed at all they should not be allowed to preponderate. In Rome -olibanum alone is employed; in other places benzoin, storax, lign, -aloes, cascarilla bark, cinnamon, cloves and musk are all said to be -occasionally used. In the Russian Church, benzoin is chiefly employed. -The Armenian liturgy, in its benediction of the incense, speaks of "this -perfume prepared from myrrh and cinnamon." - -The preparation of pastils of incense has probably come down in a -continuous tradition from ancient Egypt, Babylonia and Phoenicia. Cyprus -was for centuries famous for their manufacture, and they were still -known in the middle ages by the names of pastils or osselets of Cyprus. - -Maimonides, in his _More Nevochim_, states that the use of incense in -the worship of the Jews originated as a corrective of the disagreeable -odours arising from the slaughter and burning of the animals offered in -sacrifice. There can be no doubt that its use throughout the East is -based on sanitary considerations; and in Europe even, in the time when -the dead were buried in the churches, it was recognized that the burning -of incense served essentially to preserve their salubrity. But evidently -the idea that the odour of a burnt-offering (cf. the [Greek: knisês -hêdys autmê] of _Odyss._ xii. 369) is grateful to the deity, being -indeed the most essential part of the sacrifice, or at least the vehicle -by which alone it can successfully be conveyed to its destination, is -also a very early one, if not absolutely primitive; and survivals of it -are possibly to be met with even among the most highly cultured peoples -where the purely symbolical nature of all religious ritual is most -clearly understood and maintained. Some such idea plainly underlies the -familiar phrase "a sweet savour," more literally "a savour of -satisfaction," whereby an acceptable offering by fire is so often -denoted in the Bible (Gen. viii. 21; Lev. i. 9, _et passim_; cf. Eph. v. -2). It is easy to imagine how, as men grew in sensuous appreciation of -pleasant perfumes, and in empirical knowledge of the sources from which -these could be derived, this advance would naturally express itself, not -only in their domestic habits, but also in the details of their -religious ceremonial, so that the custom of adding some kind of incense -to their animal sacrifices, and at length that of offering it pure and -simple, would inevitably arise. Ultimately, with the development of the -spiritual discernment of men, the "offering of incense" became a mere -symbolical phrase for prayer (see Rev. v. 8, viii. 3, 4). Clement of -Alexandria expresses this in his well-known words: "The true altar of -incense is the just soul, and the perfume from it is holy prayer." (So -also Origen, _Cont. Cels._ viii. 17, 20.) The ancients were familiar -with the sanitary efficacy of fumigations. The energy with which -Ulysses, after the slaughter of the suitors, calls to Euryclea for "fire -and sulphur" to purge (literally "fumigate") the dining-hall from the -pollution of their blood (_Od._ xxii. 481, 482) would startle those who -imagine that sanitation is a peculiarly modern science. There is not the -slightest doubt that the censing of things and persons was first -practised as an act of purification, and thus became symbolical of -consecration, and finally of the sanctification of the soul. The -Egyptians understood the use of incense as symbolical of the -purification of the soul by prayer. Catholic writers generally treat it -as typifying contrition, the preaching of the Gospel, the prayers of the -faithful and the virtues of the saints. (G. B.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Incensum_ (or _incensum thuris_) from _incendere_; Ital. and - Port. _incenso_; Span. _incienso_; Fr. _encens_. The substantive - occurs in an inscription of the Arvalian brotherhood (Marini, _Gli - Atti e Monumenti de' fratelli Arvali_, p. 639), but is frequent only - in ecclesiastical Latin. Compare the classical _suffimentum_ and - _suffitus_ from _suffio_. For "incense" Ulfila (Luke i. 10, 11) has - retained the Greek [Greek: thymiama] (thymiama); all the Teutonic - names (Ger. _Weihrauch_; Old Saxon _Wîrôc_; Icel. _Reykelsi_; Dan. - _Rögelse_) seem to belong to the Christian period (Grimm, _Deutsche - Mythologie_, i. 50). - - [2] The etymological affinities of [Greek: thyô, thyos], _thus_, - _fuffio_, _funus_, and the Sans. _dhuma_ are well known. See Max - Müller, _Chips_, i. 99. - - [3] Classical Latin has but one word (_thus_ or _tus_) for all sorts - of incense. _Libanus_, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate. - Even the "ground frankincense" or "ground pine" (_Ajuga chamaepitys_) - was known to the Romans as _Tus terrae_ (Pliny), although they called - some plant, from its smelling like frankincense, _Libanotis_, and a - kind of Thasian wine, also from its fragrance, _Libanios_. The - Latino-barbaric word _Olibanum_ (quasi _Oleum Libani_), the common - name for frankincense in modern commerce, is used in a bull of Pope - Benedict IX. (1033). It may here be remarked that the name "European - frankincense" is applied to _Pinus Taeda_, and to the resinous - exudation ("Burgundy pitch") of the Norwegian spruce firs (_Abies - excelsa_). The "incense tree" of America is the _Icica guianensis_, - and the "incense wood" of the same continent _I. heptaphylla_. - - [4] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 77-81, 414-419. - - [5] Plutarch, _De Iside et Osiride_, c. 52. In Parthey's edition - (Berlin, 1850) other recipes for the manufacture of _kuphi_, by Galen - and Dioscorides, are given; also some results of the editor's own - experiments. - - [6] Wilkinson, _Ancient Egyptians_, i. 493; ii. 49, 398-400, 414-416. - - [7] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 303-312. - - [8] See Lane, _Mod. Egyptians_, pp. 34, 41, 139, 187, 438 (ed. 1860). - - [9] See Wellhausen, _Gesch. Israels_, i. 70 sqq., who from - philological and other data infers the late date of the introduction - of incense into the Jewish ritual. - - [10] According to Philo (_Opera_, i. 504, ed. Mangey), they - symbolized respectively water, earth, air and fire. - - [11] Other accounts of its composition, drawn from Rabbinical - sources, will be found in various works on Jewish antiquities; see, - for example, Reland, _Antiq. Sacr. vet. Hebr._ pp. 39-41 (1712). - - [12] This guarded statement still holds good. Compare Duchesne, - _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., 1904), ch. ii., "The Mass in the - East," v. "The Books of the Latin Rite," and xii. "The Dedication of - Churches." - - - - -INCEST (Lat. _incestus_, unchaste), sexual intercourse between persons -so related by kindred or affinity that legal marriage cannot take place -between them (see MARRIAGE, especially the section _Canon Law_). In -England incest formerly was not generally treated as a crime, although, -along with other offences against morals, it was made punishable by -death in 1650. Since the Restoration it had, to use Blackstone's phrase, -been left to the "feeble coercion of the spiritual courts," but bills to -make it a criminal offence have at various times been unsuccessfully -introduced in Parliament. In 1908 however, an act (The Punishment of -Incest Act 1908) was passed, under which sexual intercourse of a male -with his grand-daughter, daughter, sister or mother is made punishable -with penal servitude for not less than 3 or more than 7 years, or with -imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour. It -is immaterial that the sexual intercourse was had with the consent of -the female; indeed, by s. 2 a female who consents is on conviction -liable to the same punishment as the male. The act also makes an attempt -to commit the offence of incest a misdemeanour, punishable by -imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour. -The terms "brother" and "sister" include half-brother and half-sister, -whether the relationship is or is not traced through lawful wedlock. All -proceedings under the act are held _in camera_ (s. 5). The act does not -apply to Scotland, incest being punishable in Scots law. Under the -Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 27, incestuous adultery is _per se_ -sufficient ground to entitle a wife to divorce her husband. The Deceased -Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907, s. 3, retained wives' sisters in the -class of persons with whom adultery is incestuous. In the law of -Scotland, it was, until the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887, a -crime nominally punishable with death, but the penalty usually inflicted -was penal servitude for life. This sentence was actually pronounced on a -man in 1855. In the United States incest is not an indictable offence at -common law, but, generally speaking, it has been made punishable by fine -and imprisonment by state legislation. It is also a punishable offence -in some European countries, notably Germany, Austria and Italy. - - - - -INCH (O. Eng. _ynce_ from Lat. _uncia_, a twelfth part; cf. "ounce," and -see As), the twelfth part of a linear foot. As a measure of rainfall an -"inch of rain" is equivalent to a fall of a gallon of water spread over -a surface of about 2 sq. ft., or 100 tons to an acre. - - - - -INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH (1753-1821), English novelist, playwright and -actress, was born on the 15th of October 1753 at Standingfield, Suffolk, -the daughter of John Simpson, a farmer. Her father died when she was -eight years old. She and her sisters never enjoyed the advantages of -school or of any regular supervision in their studies, but they seem to -have acquired refined and literary tastes at an early age. Ambitious to -become an actress, a career for which an impediment in her speech hardly -seemed to qualify her, she applied in vain for an engagement; and -finally, in 1772, she abruptly left home to seek her fortune in London. -Here she married Joseph Inchbald (d. 1779), an actor, and on the 4th of -September made her début in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For -several years she continued to act with him in the provinces. Her rôles -included Anne Boleyn, Jane Shore, Calista, Calpurnia, Lady Anne in -_Richard III._, Lady Percy, Lady Elizabeth Grey, Fanny in _The -Clandestine Marriage_, Desdemona, Aspasia in _Tamerlane_, Juliet and -Imogen; but notwithstanding her great beauty and her natural aptitude -for acting, her inability to acquire rapid and easy utterance prevented -her from attaining to more than very moderate success. After the death -of her husband she continued for some time on the stage; making her -first London appearance at Covent Garden as Bellario in _Philaster_ on -the 3rd of October 1780. Her success, however, as an author led her to -retire in 1789. She died at Kensington House on the 1st of August 1821. - -Mrs. Inchbald wrote or adapted nineteen plays, and some of them, -especially _Wives as They Were and Maids as They Are_ (1797), were for a -time very successful. Among the others may be mentioned _I'll tell you -What_ (translated into German, Leipzig, 1798); _Such Things Are_ (1788); -_The Married Man_; _The Wedding Day_; _The Midnight Hour_; _Everyone has -his Fault_; and _Lover's Vows_. She also edited a collection of the -_British Theatre_, with biographical and critical remarks (25 vols., -1806-1809); a _Collection of Farces_ (7 vols., 1809); and _The Modern -Theatre_ (10 vols., 1809). Her fame, however, rests chiefly on her two -novels: _A Simple Story_ (1791), and _Nature and Art_ (1796). These -works possess many minor faults and inaccuracies, but on the whole their -style is easy, natural and graceful; and if they are tainted in some -degree by a morbid and exaggerated sentiment, and display none of that -faculty of creation possessed by the best writers of fiction, the -pathetic situations, and the deep and pure feeling pervading them, -secured for them a wide popularity. - - Mrs Inchbald destroyed an autobiography for which she had been offered - £1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her _Memoirs_, compiled by J. - Boaden, chiefly from her private journal, appeared in 1833 in two - volumes. An interesting account of Mrs Inchbald is contained in - _Records of a Girlhood_, by Frances Ann Kemble (1878). Her portrait - was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. - - - - -INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1614-1674), Irish soldier -and statesman, was the son of Dermod O'Brien, 5th Baron Inchiquin (d. -1624). He belonged to a great family which traced its descent to Brian -Boroimhe, king of Ireland, and members of which were always to the -forefront in Irish public life. The first baron of Inchiquin was another -Murrough O'Brien (d. 1551) who, after having made his submission to -Henry VIII., was created baron of Inchiquin and earl of Thomond in 1543. -When Murrough died in November 1551 by a curious arrangement his earldom -passed to his nephew Donogh, son of Conor O'Brien (d. 1539), the last -independent prince of Thomond (see Thomond, Earls of), leaving only his -barony to be inherited by his son Dermod (d. 1557), the ancestor of the -later barons of Inchiquin. - -Murrough O'Brien, who became 6th baron of Inchiquin in 1624, gained some -military experience in Italy, and then in 1640 was appointed -vice-president of Munster. He took an active and leading part in -suppressing the great Irish rebellion which broke out in the following -year, and during the Civil War the English parliament made him president -of Munster. Early in 1648, however, he declared, for his former master -Charles I., and for about two years he sought to uphold the royalist -cause in Ireland. In 1654 Charles II. made him an earl. His later years -were partly spent in France and in Spain, but he had returned to Ireland -when he died on the 9th of September 1674. - -His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1638-1692), served under his father in -France and Spain, and for six years was governor of Tangier. He was a -partisan of William III. in Ireland, and in 1690 he became governor of -Jamaica where he died in January 1692. In 1800 his descendant Murrough, -the 5th earl (d. 1808), was created marquess of Thomond, but on the -death of James, the 3rd marquess, in July 1855 both the marquessate and -the earldom became extinct. The barony of Inchiquin, however, passed to -a kinsman, Sir Lucius O'Brien, Bart. (1800-1872), a descendant of the -first baron and a brother of William Smith O'Brien (q.v.). - - - - -INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN (1763-1826), English singer, son of a doctor -in Cornwall, began as a choir-boy at Exeter, but then went into the -navy. His fine tenor voice, however, attracted general attention, and -in 1783 he determined to seek his fortune on the stage. After various -provincial appearances he made a great success in 1790 at Covent Garden, -and thenceforth was the principal English tenor of his day. He sang both -in opera and in oratorio, but his chief popularity lay in his delivery -of ballads, such as "Sally in our Alley," "Black-eyed Susan," "The -Arethusa," and anything of a bold and manly type. He toured in America -in 1817; and on retiring in 1822 from the operatic stage, he travelled -through the provinces with an entertainment called "The Wandering -Melodist." He died of paralysis at Worcester on the 11th of February -1826. - - - - -INCLINOMETER (DIP CIRCLE). Two distinct classes of instruments are used -for measuring the dip (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL) or inclination of the -earth's magnetic field to the horizontal, namely (1) dip circles, and -(2) induction inclinometers or earth inductors. - -[Illustration] - -_Dip Circles._--In the case of the dip circle the direction of the -earth's magnetic field is obtained by observing the position of the axis -of a magnetized needle so supported as to be free to turn about a -horizontal axis passing through its centre of gravity. The needles now -used consist of flat lozenge-shaped pieces of steel about 9 cm. long and -0.1 cm. thick, and weigh about 4.1 grams. The axle, which is made of -hard steel, projects on either side of the needle and has a diameter of -about 0.05 cm. Needles considerably larger than the above have been -used, but experience showed that the values for the dip observed with -needles 23 cm. long, was about 1' less than with the 9 cm. needles, and -A. Schuster (_Phil. Mag._, 1891 [5], 31, p. 275) has shown that the -difference is due to the appreciable bending of the longer needles owing -to their weight. - -When in use the dip needle is supported on two agate knife-edges, so -that its axle is on the axis of a vertical divided circle, on which the -positions of the ends of the needle are either directly observed by -means of two reading lenses, in which case the circle is generally -divided into thirds of a degree so that it can by estimation be read to -about two minutes, or a cross arm carries two small microscopes and two -verniers, the cross wires of each microscope being adjusted so as to -bisect the image of the corresponding end of the needle. Two V-shaped -lifters actuated by a handle serve to raise the needle from the agates, -and when lowered assure the axle being at the centre of the vertical -circle. The supports for the needle, and a box to protect the needle -from draughts, as well as the vertical circle, can be rotated about a -vertical axis, and their azimuth read off on a horizontal divided -circle. There are also two adjustable stops which can be set in any -position, and allow the upper part of the instrument to be rotated -through exactly 180° without the necessity of reading the horizontal -circle. - -When making a determination of the dip with the dip circle, a number of -separate readings have to be made in order to eliminate various -instrumental defects. Thus, that side of the needle on which the number -is engraved being called the face of the needle, and that side of the -protecting box next the vertical circle the face of the instrument, both -ends of the needle are observed in the following relative positions, the -instrument being in every case so adjusted in azimuth that the axle of -the needle points magnetic east and west:-- - - i. Face of instrument east and face of needle next to face of - instrument; - ii. Face of instrument west and face of needle next to face of - instrument; - iii. Face of instrument west and face of needle away from face of - instrument; - iv. Face of instrument east and face of needle away from face of - instrument. - -Next the direction of magnetization of the needle is reversed by -stroking it a number of times with two strong permanent magnets, when -the other end of the needle dips and the above four sets of readings are -repeated. The object in reading both ends of the needle is to avoid -error if the prolongation of the axle of the needle does not pass -through the centre of the vertical circle, as also to avoid error due to -the eccentricity of the arm which carries the reading microscopes and -verniers. The reversal of the instrument between (i.) and (ii.) and -between (iii.) and (iv.) is to eliminate errors due to (a) the line -joining the zeros of the vertical circle not being exactly horizontal, -and (b) the agate knife-edges which support the needle not being exactly -horizontal. The reversal of the needle between (ii.) and (iii.) is to -eliminate errors due to (a) the magnetic axis of the needle not -coinciding with the line joining the two points of the needle, and (b) -to the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the centre -of the axle in a direction at right angles to the length of the needle. -The reversal of the poles of the needle is to counteract any error -produced by the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the -centre of the axle in a direction parallel to the length of the needle. - -For use at sea the dip circle was modified, by Robert Were Fox (_Annals -of Electricity_, 1839, 3, p. 288), who used a needle having pointed -axles, the points resting in jewelled holes carried by two uprights, so -that the movement of the ship does not cause the axle of the needle to -change its position with reference to the vertical divided circle. To -counteract the tendency of the axle to stick in the bearings, the -instrument is fitted with a knob on the top of the box protecting the -needle, and when a reading is being taken this knob is rubbed with an -ivory or horn disk, the surface of which is corrugated. In this way a -tremor is caused which is found to assist the needle in overcoming the -effects of friction, so that it takes up its true position. In the Creak -modification of the Fox dip circle, the upper halves of the jewels which -form the bearings are cut away so that the needle can be easily removed, -and thus the reversals necessary when making a complete observation can -be performed (see also MAGNETO-METER). - -_Induction Inclinometers._--The principle on which induction -inclinometers depend is that if a coil of insulated wire is spun about a -diameter there will be an alternating current induced in the coil, -unless the axis about which it turns is parallel to the lines of force -of the earth's field. Hence if the axis about which such a coil spins is -adjusted till a sensitive galvanometer connected to the coil through a -commutator, by which the alternating current is converted into a direct -current, is undeflected, then the axis must be parallel to the lines of -force of the earth's field, and hence the inclination of the axis to the -horizontal is the dip. The introduction and perfection of this type of -inclinometer is almost entirely due to H. Wild. His form of instrument -for field observations[1] consists of a coil 10 cm. in diameter, -containing about 1000 turns of silk-covered copper wire, the resistance -being about 40 ohms, which is pivoted inside a metal ring. This ring can -itself rotate about a horizontal axle in its own plane, this axle being -at right angles to that about which the coil can rotate. Attached to the -axle of the ring is a divided circle, by means of which and two reading -microscopes the inclination of the axis of rotation of the coil to the -horizontal can be read. The bearings which support the horizontal axle -of the ring are mounted on a horizontal annulus which can be rotated in -a groove attached to the base of the instrument, as so to allow the -azimuth of the axle of the ring, and hence also that of the plane in -which the axis of the coil can move, to be adjusted. The coil is rotated -by means of a flexible shaft worked by a small cranked handle and a -train of gear wheels. The terminals of the coil are taken to a two-part -commutator of the ordinary pattern on which rest two copper brushes -which are connected by flexible leads to a sensitive galvanometer. The -inclination of the axis of the coil can be roughly adjusted by hand by -rotating the supporting ring. The final adjustment is made by means of a -micrometer screw attached to an arm which is clamped on the axle of the -ring. - -When making a measurement the azimuth circle is first set horizontal, a -striding level placed on the trunnions which carry the ring being used -to indicate when the adjustment is complete. The striding level is then -placed on the axle which carries the coil, and when the bubble is at the -centre of the scale the microscopes are adjusted to the zeros of the -vertical circle. A box containing a long compass needle and having two -feet with inverted V's is placed to rest on the axle of the coil, and -the instrument is turned in azimuth till the compass needle points to a -lubber line on the box. By this means the axis of the coil is brought -into the magnetic meridian. The commutator being connected to a -sensitive galvanometer, the coil is rotated, and the ring adjusted till -the galvanometer is undeflected. The reading on the vertical circle then -gives the dip. By a system of reversals slight faults in the adjustment -of the instrument can be eliminated as in the case of the dip circle. -With such an instrument it is claimed that readings of dip can be made -accurate to ±0.1 minutes of arc. - -The form of Wild inductor for use in a fixed observatory differs from -the above in that the coil consists of a drum-wound armature, but -without iron, of which the length is about three times the diameter. -This armature has its axle mounted in a frame attached to the sloping -side of a stone pillar, so that the axis of rotation is approximately -parallel to the lines of force of the earth's field. By means of two -micrometer screws the inclination of the axis to the magnetic meridian -and to the horizontal can be adjusted. The armature is fitted with a -commutator and a system of gear wheels by means of which it can be -rapidly rotated. The upper end of the axle carries a plane mirror, the -normal to which is adjusted parallel to the axis of rotation of the -armature. A theodolite is placed on the top of the pillar and the -telescope is turned so that the image of the cross-wires, seen by -reflection in the mirror, coincides with the wires themselves. In this -way the axis of the theodolite telescope is placed parallel to the axis -of the armature, and hence the dip can be read off on the altitude -circle of the theodolite. - - AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references already given the - following papers may be consulted: (1) _Admiralty Manual of Scientific - Inquiry_, which contains directions for making observations with a dip - circle; (2) Stewart and Gee, _Elementary Practical Physics_, which - contains a full description of the dip circle and instructions for - making a set of observations; (3) L. A. Bauer, _Terrestrial Magnetism_ - (1901), 6, p. 31, a memoir which contains the results of a comparison - of the values for the dip obtained with a number of different circles; - (4) E. Leyst, _Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der - Wiss._ (St Petersburg, 1887), 10, No. 5, containing a discussion of - the errors of dip circles; (5) H. Wild, _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. des - Sci. de St Pétersbourg_ (March 1895), a paper which considers the - accuracy obtainable with the earth inductor. (W. Wn.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch._ - (St Petersburg, 1892), 16, No. 2, or _Meteorolog. Zeits._ (1895), 12, - p. 41. - - - - -INCLOSURE, or ENCLOSURE, in law, the fencing in of waste or common lands -by the lord of the manor for the purpose of cultivation. For the history -of the inclosure of such lands, and the legislation, dating from 1235, -which deals with it, see COMMONS. - - - - -IN COENA DOMINI, a papal bull, so called from its opening words, -formerly issued annually on Holy Thursday (in Holy Week), or later on -Easter Monday. Its first publication was in 1363. It was a statement of -ecclesiastical censure against heresies, schisms, sacrilege, -infringement of papal and ecclesiastical privileges, attacks on person -and property, piracy, forgery and other crimes. For two or three hundred -years it was varied from time to time, receiving its final form from -Pope Urban VIII. in 1627. Owing to the opposition of the sovereigns of -Europe both Protestant and Catholic, who regarded the bull as an -infringement of their rights, its publication was discontinued by Pope -Clement XIV. in 1770. - - - - -INCOME TAX, in the United Kingdom a general tax on income derived from -every source. Although a graduated tax on income from certain fixed -sources was levied in 1435 and again in 1450, it may be said that the -income tax in its present form dates in England from its introduction by -W. Pitt in 1798 "granting to His Majesty an aid and contribution for the -prosecution of the war." This act of 1798 merely increased the duties of -certain assessed taxes, which were regulated by the amount of income of -the person assessed, provided his income amounted to £60 or upwards. -These duties were repealed by an act of 1799 (39 Geo. III. c. 13), which -imposed a duty of 10% on all incomes from whatever sources derived, -incomes under £60 a year being exempt, and reduced rates charged on -incomes between that amount and £200 a year. The produce of this tax was -£6,046,624 for the first year, as compared with £1,855,996, the produce -of the earlier tax. This income tax was repealed after the peace of -Amiens, but the renewal of the war in 1803 caused its revival. At the -same time was introduced the principle of "collection at the source" -(i.e. collection before the income reaches the person to whom it -belongs), which is still retained in the English Revenue system, and -which, it has been said, is mainly responsible for the present -development of income tax and the ease with which it is collected. The -act of 1803 (43 Geo. III. c. 122) distributed the various descriptions -of income under different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E. A rate -of 5% was imposed on all incomes of £150 a year and over, with -graduation on incomes between £60 and £150. This income tax of 5% -collected at the source yielded almost as much as the previous tax of -10% collected direct from each taxpayer. The tax was continued from year -to year with the principle unchanged but with variations in the rate -until the close of the war in 1815, when it was repealed. It was, during -its first imposition, regarded as essentially a war tax, and in later -days, when it was reimposed, it was always considered as an emergency -tax, to be levied only to relieve considerable financial strain, but it -has now taken its place as a permanent source of national income, and is -the most productive single tax in the British financial system. The -income tax was revived in 1842 by Sir R. Peel, not as a war tax, but to -enable him to effect important financial reforms (see TAXATION). -Variations both in the rate levied and the amount of income exempted -have taken place from time to time, the most important, probably, being -found in the Finance Acts of 1894, 1897, 1898, 1907 and 1909-1910. - - It will be useful to review the income tax as it existed before the - important changes introduced in 1909. It was, speaking broadly, a tax - levied on all incomes derived from sources within the United Kingdom, - or received by residents in the United Kingdom from other sources. - Incomes under £160 were exempt; an abatement allowed of £160 on those - between £160 and £400; of £150 on those between £400 and £500; of £120 - on those between £500 and £600, and of £70 on those between £600 and - £700. An abatement was also allowed on account of any premiums paid - for life insurance, provided they did not exceed one-sixth of the - total income. The limit of total exemption was fixed in 1894, when it - was raised from £150; and the scale of abatements was revised in 1898 - by admitting incomes between £500 and £700; the Finance Act 1907 - distinguished between "earned" and "unearned" income, granting relief - to the former over the latter by 3d. in the pound, where the income - from all sources did not exceed £2000. The tax was assessed as - mentioned above, under five different schedules, known as A, B, C, D - and E. Under schedule A was charged the income derived from landed - property, including houses, the annual value or rent being the basis - of the assessment. The owner is the person taxed, whether he is or is - not in occupation. In England the tax under this schedule is obtained - from the occupier, who, if he is not the owner, recovers from the - latter by deducting the tax from the rent. In Scotland this tax is - usually paid by the owner as a matter of convenience, but in Ireland - it is by law chargeable to him. All real property is subject to the - tax, with certain exceptions:--(a) crown property, such as public - offices, prisons, &c.; (b) certain properties belonging to charitable - and educational bodies, as hospitals, public schools, colleges, - almshouses, &c.; (c) public parks or recreation grounds; (d) certain - realities of companies such as mines, quarries, canals, &c., from - which no profit is derived beyond the general profit of the concern to - which they belong. Under schedule B were charged the profits arising - from the occupation of land, the amount of such profits being assumed - to be one-third of the annual value of the land as fixed for the - purposes of schedule A. This applies principally to farmers who might, - if they chose, be assessed on schedule D on their actual profits. - Schedule C included income derived from interest, &c., payable out of - the public funds of the United Kingdom or any other country. Schedule - D, the most important branch of the income tax and the most difficult - to assess, included profits arising from trade, from professional or - other employment, and from foreign property, the assessment in most - cases being made on an average of the receipts for three years. - Schedule E covered the salaries and pensions of persons in the - employment of the state or of public bodies, and of the officials of - public companies, &c. The method of assessment and collection of the - tax is uniformly the same. Under schedules A, B and D it is in the - hands of local authorities known as the General or District - Commissioners of Taxes. They are appointed by the Land Tax - Commissioners out of their own body, and, as regards assessment, are - not in any way controlled by the executive government. They appoint a - clerk, who is their principal officer and legal adviser, assessors for - each parish and collectors. There is an appeal from their decisions to - the High Court of Justice on points of law, but not on questions of - fact. Assessments under schedules A and B are usually made every five - years, and under schedule D every year. The interests of the revenue - are looked after by officers of the Board of Inland Revenue, styled - surveyors of taxes, who are stationed in different parts of the - country. They are in constant communication with the Board, and with - the public on all matters relating to the assessment and collection of - the tax; they attend the meetings of the local commissioners, examine - the assessments and the taxpayers' returns, and watch the progress of - the collection. There are also certain officers, known as special - commissioners, who are appointed by the crown, and receive fixed - salaries from public funds. For the purpose of schedule D, any - taxpayer may elect to be assessed by them instead of by the local - commissioners; and those who object to their affairs being disclosed - to persons in their own neighbourhood may thus have their assessments - made without any risk of publicity. The special commissioners also - assess the profits of railway companies under schedule D, and profits - arising from foreign or colonial sources under schedules C and D. The - greater part of the incomes under schedule E is assessed by the - commissioners for public offices, appointed by the several departments - of the government. - -Previously to 1909 the rate of income tax has been as high as 16d. (in -1855-1857), and as low as 2d. (in 1874-1876). Each penny of the tax was -estimated to produce in 1906-1907 a revenue of £2,666,867.[1] - -It had long been felt that there were certain inequalities in the income -tax which could be adjusted without any considerable difficulty, and -from time to time committees have met and reported upon the subject. -Select committees reported in 1851-1852 and in 1861, and a Departmental -Committee in 1905. In 1906 a select committee was appointed to inquire -into and report upon the practicability of graduating the income tax, -and of differentiating, for the purpose of the tax, between permanent -and precarious incomes. The summary of the conclusions contained in -their _Report_ (365 of 1906) was:-- - - 1. Graduation of the income tax by an extension of the existing system - of abatements is practicable. But it could not be applied to all - incomes from the highest to the lowest, with satisfactory results. The - limits of prudent extension would be reached when a large increase in - the rate of tax to be collected at the source was necessitated, and - the total amount which was collected in excess of what was ultimately - retained became so large as to cause serious inconvenience to trade - and commerce and to individual taxpayers. Those limits would not be - exceeded by raising the amount of income on which an abatement would - be allowed to £1000 or even more. - - 2. Graduation by a super-tax is practicable. If it be desired to levy - a much higher rate of tax upon large incomes (say of £5000 and - upwards) than has hitherto been charged, a super-tax based on personal - declaration would be a practicable method. - - 3. Abandonment of the system of "collection at the source" and - adoption of the principle of direct personal assessment of the whole - of each person's income would be inexpedient. - - 4. Differentiation between earned and unearned incomes is practicable, - especially if it be limited to earned incomes not exceeding £3000 a - year, and effect be given to it by charging a lower rate of tax upon - them. - - 5. A compulsory personal declaration from each individual of total net - income in respect of which tax is payable is expedient, and would do - much to prevent the evasion and avoidance of income tax which at - present prevail. - -Acting upon the report of this committee the Finance Bill of 1909 was -framed to give effect to the principles of graduation and -differentiation. The rate upon the earned portion of incomes of persons -whose total income did not exceed £3000 was left unchanged, viz. 9d. in -the pound up to £2000, and 1s. in the pound between £2000 and £3000. But -the rate of 1s. in the pound on all unearned incomes and on the earned -portion of incomes over £2000 from all sources was raised to 1s. 2d. In -addition to the ordinary tax of 1s. 2d. in the pound, a super-tax of 6d. -in the pound was levied on all incomes exceeding £5000 a year, the -super-tax being paid upon the amount by which the incomes exceed £3000 a -year. A special abatement of £10 a child for every child under the age -of sixteen was allowed upon all incomes under £500 a year. No abatements -or exemptions were allowed to persons not resident in the United -Kingdom, except in the case of crown servants and persons residing -abroad on account of their health. Certain abatements for improvements -were also allowed to the owners of land or houses. - - The estimated increased yield of the income tax for 1909-1910 on these - lines was £2,500,000, which excluded the abatements allowed for - improvements. The super-tax was estimated to yield a sum of £500,000, - which would be increased ultimately to £2,500,000, when all returns - and assessments were made. - -The following accounts show the operation of the same system of taxation -in other countries:--[2] - - _Austria._--The income tax dates from 1849, but the existing tax, - which is arranged on a progressive system, came into force on the 1st - of January 1898. The tax is levied on net income, deductions from the - gross income being allowed for upkeep of business, houses and lands, - for premiums paid for insurance against injuries, for interest on - business and private debts, and for payment of taxes other than income - tax. Incomes under £50 a year are exempt, the rate of taxation at the - first stage (£52) being 0.6 of the income; at the twelfth stage (£100) - the rate is 1%, at the twenty-seventh stage (£300) it rises to 2%, at - the forty-third stage (£1000) it is 3%, and at the fifty-sixth (£2500) - it is 3½%; an income of £4000 pays 4%; from £4000 up to £8333 per - annum progression rises at £166 a step, and for every step £8, 6s. 8d. - taxation is assessed. Incomes between £8333 and £8750 pay £387, 10s.; - incomes over £8750 are taxed £20, 6s. 8d. at each successive stage of - £417, 10s. Certain persons are exempt from the tax, viz.:--(a) the - emperor; (b) members of the imperial family, as far as regards such - sums as they receive as allowances; (c) the diplomatic corps, the - consular corps who are not Austrian citizens, and the official staffs - and foreign servants of the embassies, legations and consulates; (d) - such people as are exempted by treaty or by the law of nations; (e) - people in possession of pensions from the Order of Maria Theresa, and - those who receive pensions on account of wounds or the pension - attached to the medal for bravery, are exempted as far as the pensions - are concerned; (f) officers, chaplains and men of the army and navy - have no tax levied on their pay; (g) all other military persons, and - such people as are included in the scheme of mobilization are exempted - from any tax on their pay. Special allowances are made for incomes - derived from labour, either physical or mental, as well as for a - family with several children. There are also special exemptions in - certain cases where the annual income does not exceed £4167, 10s., - viz.--(a) special charges for educating children who may be blind, - deaf, dumb or crippled; (b) expense in maintaining poor relations; (c) - perpetual illness; (d) debts; (e) special misfortunes caused by fire - or floods; (f) being called out for military service. The tax is - assessed usually on a direct return from the individual taxpayer, - except in the cases of fixed salaries and wages, on which the tax is - collected from the employer, who either deducts it from the salary of - the employee or pays it out of his own pocket. The tax, which is - assessed on the income of the previous year, is paid direct to the - collector's office in two instalments--one on the 1st of June and the - other on the 1st of December. - - _Belgium._--No income tax proper exists in Belgium, but there is a - state tax of 2% on the dividends of joint stock companies. - - _Denmark._--Income tax is levied under a law of the 15th of May 1903. - Incomes under 2000 kroner pay a tax of 1.3%; under 3000 kroner, 1.4%; - under 4000 kroner, 1.5%; under 6000 kroner, 1.6%; under 8000 kroner, - 1.7%; under 10,000 kroner, 1.8%; under 15,000 kroner, 1.9%; under - 20,000 kroner, 2.0% and for every additional 10,000 kroner up to - 100,000 kroner 1%, incomes of 100,000 kroner and upwards paying 2.5%. - Exempt from the duty are--the king, members of the royal family and - the civil list; the legations, staffs and consular officers of foreign - powers (not being Danish subjects); foreigners temporarily resident in - the country; mortgage societies, credit institutions, savings and loan - banks. The increase in capital resulting from an increase in value of - properties is not deemed income--on the other hand no deduction in - income is made if such properties decrease in value--nor are daily - payments and travelling expenses received for the transaction of - business on public service, if the person has thereby been obliged to - reside outside his own parish. Certain deductions can be made in - calculating income--such as working expenses, office expenses, - pensions and other burthens, amounts paid for direct taxation, dues to - commune and church, tithe, tenant and farming charges, heirs' - allowances and similar burthens; interest on mortgages and other - debts, and what has been spent for necessary maintenance or insurance - of the property of the taxpayer. There are also certain exemptions - with respect to companies not having an establishment in the country. - - _France._--There is no income tax in France corresponding exactly to - that levied in the United Kingdom. There are certain direct taxes, - such as the taxes on buildings, _personnelle mobilière_, and doors and - windows (_impôts de répartition_)--the tax levied on income from land - and from all trades and professions (_impôts de quotité_) which bear a - certain resemblance to portions of the British income tax (see FRANCE: - _Finance_). From time to time a graduated income tax has been under - discussion in the French Chambers, the proposal being to substitute - such a tax for the existing (_personnelle mobilière_) and doors and - windows taxes, but no agreement on the matter has been reached. - - _German Empire._--In Prussia the income tax is levied under a law of - the 24th of June 1891. All persons with incomes of over £150 per annum - are required to send in an annual declaration of their full income, - divided according to four main sources--(a) capital; (b) landed - property; (c) trade and industry; (d) employment bringing gain, this - latter including the salary or wages of workmen, servants and - industrial assistants, military persons and officials; also the - receipts of authors, artists, scientists, teachers and tutors. - Liability for income tax, however, begins with an income of £45, and - rises by a regular system of progression, the rate being about 3% of - the income. Thus an income of more than £45, but under £52, 10s. pays - a tax of 6s. and so on up to £475, an income over that sum but under - £525 paying a tax of 15s. Incomes over £525 rise by steps of £50 up to - £1525, for every step £1, 10s. being paid. Incomes between £1526 and - £1600 rise by steps of £75, £3 being paid for every step. Between - £1601 and £3900, the steps are £100, and the tax £4 a step; from £3901 - to £5000 the steps are the same (£100), but the tax is £5 a step. - There is also a supplementary tax on property of about 1/20th% of the - assessed value. This supplementary tax is not levied on those whose - taxable property does not exceed a total value of £300, nor on those - whose annual income does not exceed £45, if the total value of their - taxable property does not exceed £1000, nor on women who have members - of their own family under age to maintain, nor on orphans under age, - nor on persons incapable of earning incomes if their taxable property - does not exceed £1000 nor their income £60. There are a number of - exemptions from the income tax, some of the more important being--(a) - the military incomes of non-commissioned officers and privates, also - of all persons on the active list of the army or navy as long as they - belong to a unit in war formation; (b) extraordinary receipts from - inheritances, presents, insurances, from the sale of real estate not - undertaken for purposes of industry or speculation, and similar - profits (all of which are reckoned as increases of capital); (c) - expenses incurred for the purpose of acquiring, assuring and - maintaining income; (d) interest on debts; (e) the regular annual - depreciation arising from wear of buildings, machines, tools, &c., in - so far as they are not included under working expenses; (f) the - contributions which taxpayers are compelled by law or agreement to pay - to invalid, accident, old age insurance, widow, orphan and pension - funds; (g) insurance premiums. Moreover, persons liable to taxation - with an income of not more than £150 may deduct from that income £2, - 10s. for every member of their family under fourteen years of age, and - abatement is also allowed to persons with incomes up to £475 whose - solvency has been unfavourably affected by adverse economic - circumstances. The income tax is both levied at the source (as in the - case of companies) and assessed on a direct return by the taxpayer of - his income from all sources. Salaries are not taxed before payment. - Fixed receipts are assessed according to their amount for the taxation - year in which the assessment is made, and variable incomes on an - average of the three years immediately preceding the assessment. The - income tax and the supplementary tax are collected in the first half - of the second month of each quarter by the communities (_Gemeinden_) - who bear the whole cost. - - In Saxony a graduated tax is in force on all incomes of £20 per annum - and upwards. All corporate bodies and individuals who derive their - income or any portion of it from Saxony are liable to the extent of - that income, except those serving religious, charitable or public - purposes. Incomes between £20 and £5000 are divided into 118 classes, - in which the rate rises progressively. From £500 to £5000 the classes - rise by £50, and above £5000 by £100. The rate of income tax begins at - ¼%, i.e. 1s. on an income of £20. An abatement is allowed to those - whose incomes do not exceed £155 of £2, 10s. for each child between - the ages of six and fourteen years, provided such abatements do not - reduce the income by more than one class. In the case of persons with - incomes not exceeding £290 abatement (not exceeding three classes) is - allowed--(a) when the support of children or indigent relations - involves a burden of such a nature as to affect the general standard - of living; (b) on account of long-continued illness, involving heavy - expense; and, on restoration to health, temporary decrease of - wage-earning power; (c) in the case of accidents which have had the - same effect. - - In Bavaria the existing system of income tax came into force on the - 1st of January 1900. The rate on earned income varies according to a - scale laid down in article 5 of the law, beginning at .1% for incomes - up to £37, 10s. (1s.), being .66% (£2, 5s.) for incomes between £230 - and £250; 1.03% (£4) for incomes between £350 and £375; 1.30% (£6, - 16s.) for incomes between £475 and £500 and 1.38% (£10) for incomes - between £650 and £700. Incomes exceeding £700 and not exceeding £1100 - pay £1 on every £50; those between £1100 and £1700, £1, 10s., on every - £50, between £1700 and £2050, £2 on every £50; between £2050 and - £2500, £2, 10s. on every £50 and beyond £2500, 3% on every £50. - Exemptions from earned income tax are similar to those already - mentioned in the case of Prussia. Special abatement in the case of - incomes not exceeding £250 from all sources is given in consideration - of education of children, protracted illness, maintenance of poor - relations, serious accidents, &c. The tax on unearned income is at the - rate of 1½% on incomes from £3, 10s. to £5; from £6 to £20, 2%; from - £21 to £35, 2½%; from £36 to £59, 3%; from £51 to £150, 3½%; from £151 - to £5000, 3¾%, and over £5000, 4%. There is a differentiation in - assessment on fluctuating and fixed incomes. Fluctuating incomes (e.g. - those derived from literary, scientific or artistic work) are assessed - at the average receipts of the two past years. Fixed income is - returned at the actual amount at the time of assessment, and the - assessment for earned income, both fixed and fluctuating, takes place - every four years. Income tax is not levied at the source, but on a - direct return by the taxpayer. In the case of unearned income, where a - person's yearly unearned income does not exceed £100 and he has no - other or only an insignificant additional income, he is required to - pay only half the assessed tax. Also in the case where a total income, - earned and unearned, does not exceed £250 it may, by claiming - abatement on such grounds as the education of children, maintenance of - indigent relations, &c., be assessed at the lowest rate but one, or be - entirely exempt. - - In Württemberg the General Income Tax Act came into force on the 1st - of April 1905. Article 18 provides a graduated scale of rates on - incomes from £25 upwards. Abatements are allowed for the education and - support of children, support of indigent relatives, active service in - the army and navy, protracted illness and severe accidents or - reverses. There is a supplementary tax of 2% on unearned income from - certain kinds of property, such as interest or other income derived - from invested capital, dividends, &c., from joint-stock companies and - annuities of all kinds. The income tax is not levied at the source, - but on a direct return by the ratepayers; assessments are made on the - current year, except in the case of fluctuating incomes, when they are - made on the income of the preceding year. - - _Hungary._--There is no income tax in Hungary at all corresponding to - that of the United Kingdom, although proposals for such a tax have - from time to time been made. - - _Italy._--Graduated income tax in Italy dates from 1864. Incomes are - classified according to their characters, and the rate of the tax - varies accordingly. In class A¹ are placed incomes derived from - interests on capital, and perpetual revenues owned by the state, - interests and premiums on communal and provincial loans, dividends of - shares issued by companies guaranteed or subsidized by the state - lottery prizes. These incomes are assessed at their integral value and - pay the full tax of 20%. In class A² are placed incomes derived from - capital alone and all perpetual revenues. The assessments on these are - reduced to 30/40ths of the actual income and taxed at a rate of 15%. - In class B are incomes derived from the co-operation of labour and - capital, i.e. those produced by industries and commerce. The - assessments of these are reduced to 20/40ths and taxed at 10%. In - class C are placed incomes derived from labour alone (private - employment) and those represented by temporary revenues or life - annuities. Assessments on these are reduced to 18/40ths and taxed at a - rate of 9%. In class D are placed incomes from salaries, pensions and - all personal allowances made by the state, the provinces and communes. - Assessments on these are reduced to 15/40ths and taxed at 7½%. - Certain abatements are allowed on small incomes in classes B, C and D. - Incomes are assessed (1) on the average of the two preceding years in - the case of private industries, professions or companies in which - liability is unlimited; (b) on the income of the current year in the - case of incomes from dividends, salaries, pensions and fixed - allowances, as well as in the case of incomes of communes, provinces - and corporations; (c) on the basis of the account closed before the - previous July of the current year in the case of incomes of limited - liability companies, banks and savings banks. - - _Netherlands._--In the Netherlands there is a property tax imposed - upon income derived from capital, as well as a tax on income earned by - labour. - - _Norway._--In Norway under the state income tax incomes under 1000 - kroner are exempt, those between 1000 and 4000 kroner pay 2% on that - part liable to taxation; those between 4000 and 7000 kroner pay 3%; - those between 7000 and 10,000 kroner pay 4%, and those above 10,000 - kroner 5%. Persons liable to taxation are divided into (a) those who - have no one to support, as companies and the like; (b) those who have - from one to three persons to support; (c) those who have from four to - six persons to support; (d) those who have seven or more persons to - support. Those who are counted as dependent upon the taxpayer are his - children, own or adopted, his parents, brothers and sisters, and other - relations and connexions by marriage who might have a reasonable claim - to his support. A certain part of the income liable to taxation is - abated by a graduated scale according to the class into which the - ratepayer falls. - - _Spain._--In Spain the income tax is divided into (a) that derived - from personal exertion and (b) that derived from property. Directors, - managers and representatives of banks, companies and societies pay - 10%; those employed in banks, &c., commercial houses, and those in - private employment, as well as actors, bullfighters, professional - pelota-players, acrobats, conjurers, &c., pay 5%. Those employed by - the day or those whose salary is under £45 are exempt, as are also - masters in primary schools. Income derived from property is taxed - according to the source from which the income is derived, e.g. income - from shares in public works is rated at 20%, income from shares in - ordinary companies, railways, tramways or canals at 3%, from dividends - on bank shares at 5%, from mining shares at only 2%. There is also an - industry tax, i.e. on the exercise of industrial, commercial and - professional enterprises, which tax is divided into five different - tariffs, of which I. applies to commerce (vendors), II. also to - commerce (middlemen), III. to industry (machinery), IV. to professions - and V. to licences (retail and itinerant vendors). Tariff I. is - differentiated according to the importance of the business and of the - locality in which it is carried on, the rate being fixed by a - consideration of the two combined. Tariff II. is differentiated - according to the character of the enterprise, its importance and the - importance of the locality. Tariff III. is differentiated according to - either motive power, output, method, product or locality; Tariff IV. - according to the character of the profession and the importance of the - locality; Tariff V. is also differentiated according to the locality - and the importance of the business. - - _Switzerland._--The system of income tax varies in the different - cantons. Broadly speaking, these may be divided into four different - kinds: (1) a graduated property tax, in which the rate applicable to - each class of fortune is definitely fixed; (2) a proportional tax, - under which property and income are chargeable, each at a fixed rate, - while the total amount of the tax is liable to a proportionate - increase according to scale if it exceeds certain specified amounts; - (3) a system by which property and income are divided into three - classes, the rate of the tax being increased by a graduated rise, - according to the class to which the property or income belongs, and - (4) a uniform rate of tax, with progression in the amount of income - liable to taxation. - - _United States._--One of the means adopted by the Federal Government - for meeting its expenses during the Civil War was the levying of an - income tax. By the Act of Congress of the 5th of August 1861 a tax of - 3% was imposed on all incomes, with an exemption of $800, and was made - payable on or before the 30th of June 1862. No tax, however, was - assessed under the law. In March 1862 a new income tax bill was - introduced into the House of Representatives. This act, which was - signed on the 1st of July 1862, imposed a tax of 3% on all incomes not - over $10,000, and 5% on all incomes above that sum, with an exemption - of $600. It was also provided that dividends of banks, insurance - companies and railways should be assessed directly; but the - bond-holder was allowed to deduct the dividend so assessed from his - taxable income. In the case of government salaries, the tax was - deducted before the salaries were paid. The income tax was first - levied in 1863. The rate was changed by act of Congress in 1865, 1867 - and 1870, and a joint resolution in 1864 imposed a special additional - tax of 5% for that year. The tax was finally abolished in 1872. The - total amount produced by the tax from the beginning was $376,150,209. - The constitutionality of the act was subsequently brought into - question, but was upheld by a unanimous decision of the Supreme Court - in 1880, which held that the tax was not a direct tax but an excise - tax, and that Congress had a right to impose it so long as it was made - uniform throughout the United States. On the 27th of August 1894 an - income tax act was passed as part of the Wilson Bill. By this act it - was provided that a tax of 2% on all incomes should be levied from - the 1st of January 1895 to the 1st of January 1900, with an exemption - of $4000. The legality of the tax was assailed, chiefly on the ground - that it was a direct tax, and not apportioned among the several states - in proportion to their population. On the 20th of May 1895 the Supreme - Court, by a vote of five to four, declared the tax to be - unconstitutional. Accordingly, before any federal income tax could be - imposed, there was needed an amendment of the constitution, and a - movement in this direction gradually began. In the first year of the - presidency of Mr W. H. Taft both Houses of Congress passed by the - necessary two-thirds majority a resolution to submit the proposal to - the 46 states, the wording of the amendment being "That Congress shall - have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source - derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without - regard to any census enumeration." - - _Cape Colony._--Cape Colony was the only South African colony which, - prior to the Union in 1910, had a system of income tax, which was - first imposed by an act of the 31st of May 1904. Incomes not exceeding - £1000 per annum were exempt from taxation; incomes exceeding £1000 but - not exceeding £2000 were taxed 6d. in the pound on the excess beyond - £1000; those between £2000 and £5000 were exempt for the first £1000, - paid 6d. in the pound on the next £1000 and 9d. in the pound on the - remainder; those exceeding £5000 paid 6d. in the pound on the second - £1000, 9d. in the pound on the next £3000 and 1s. in the pound on the - remainder. - - _New South Wales._--Income tax in New South Wales first came into - operation on the 1st of January 1896. It is complementary with a land - tax, assessed on the unimproved value of freehold lands (with certain - exemptions and deductions). Incomes of £200 per annum and under are - exempt, and all other incomes (except those of companies) are entitled - to a reduction of £200 in their assessments. The rate of tax is 6d. in - the pound. There are certain incomes, revenues and funds which are - exempt from taxation, such as those of municipal corporations or other - local authorities, of mutual life insurance societies and of other - companies or societies not carrying on business for purposes of profit - or gain, and of educational, ecclesiastical and charitable - institutions of a public character, &c. - - _New Zealand._--In New Zealand the income tax is also complementary - with a land tax. Incomes up to £300 per annum are exempt; incomes up - to £1000 per annum are taxed 6d. in the pound, with an exemption of - £300 and life insurance premiums up to £50; incomes over £1300 pay 1s. - in the pound, which is also the tax on the income of trading - companies, to whom no exemption is allowed. The income of friendly - societies, savings banks, co-operative dairy companies, public - societies not carrying on business for profit, &c., are exempt from - income tax. - - _Queensland._--In Queensland income tax is levied on (a) income - derived from property such as rents, interest, income from companies, - royalties, &c., and (b) on income derived from personal exertion. On - income derived from property all incomes not exceeding £100 are - exempt; incomes between £100 and £120 pay £1 tax; those over £120 but - under £300 have £100 exempt and pay 1s. in each and every pound over - £100, while incomes over £300 pay 1s. in each and every pound. Incomes - from personal exertion pay 10s. between £100 and £125; £1 between £126 - and £150; between £151 and £300 have £100 exempt and pay 6d. in each - and every pound over £100: between £301 and £500 6d. in every pound; - between £501 and £1000 6d. in every pound of the first £500 and 7d. in - every pound over £500, between £1001 and £1500 7d. in every pound of - the first £1000, and 8d. in every pound over £1000; incomes over £1500 - pay 8d. in every pound; 1s. in every pound is charged on the incomes - of all companies and of all absentees. - - _South Australia._--The income tax dates from 1884 and is levied on - all incomes arising, accruing in or derived from South Australia, - except municipal corporations, district councils, societies, &c., not - carrying on business for the purpose ot gain, and all friendly - societies. Where the income is derived from personal exertion the rate - of tax is 4½d. in the pound up to £800, and 7d. in the pound over - £800. For income derived from property the rate is 9d. in the pound up - to £800, and 1s. 1½d. in the pound over £800. There is an exemption of - £150 on incomes up to £400, but no exemption over that limit. - - _Tasmania._--In Tasmania there is (a) an income tax proper, and (b) a - non-inquisitorial ability tax, one complementary to the other. The - income tax proper is levied on all income of any company, at the rate - of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount; on all income of any - person, at the rate of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount - derived from property, and on every dividend at the same rate. - Personal incomes of £400 and over are assessed at the full amount, but - an abatement of £10 for every £50 of income is allowed on incomes - below £400 down to incomes of £150, which thus have £50 deducted; - incomes between £120 and £150 have £60 deducted; incomes between £110 - and £120, £70, and incomes between £100 and £110, £80. The ability tax - is paid by (a) occupiers and sub-occupiers of property and (b) by - lodgers. The amount of tax paid by occupiers or sub-occupiers is - calculated upon the assessed annual value of the property occupied, - and that of lodgers from the assessed annual value of their board and - lodging. A detailed account of both taxes will be found in House of - Commons Papers, No. 282 of 1905. - - _Victoria._--In Victoria the rate of income tax is fixed annually by - act. The rate charged on income derived from property is exactly - double that charged on income derived from personal exertion, the - rate for which for 1905 was: on the first £500 or fractional part - thereof, 3d. in the pound; on the second £500 or fractional part - thereof, 4d. in the pound; on the third £500 or fractional part - thereof, 5d. in the pound; on all incomes in excess of £1500, 6d. in - the pound. All companies, except life insurance companies, were - charged 7d. in the pound on their incomes; life insurance companies - were charged 8d. in the pound. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Annual Reports of the Commissioners of Inland - Revenue, the Reports of Committees and other references mentioned in - the article, as well as Dowell's _History of Taxation in England_ - (1884); Dowell's _Acts relating to the Income Tax_ (6th ed., 1908), - and Robinson's _Law relating to Income Tax_ (2nd ed., 1908). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Full statistics of the yield of income tax and other information - pertaining thereto will be found in the _Reports of the Commissioners - of His Majesty's Inland Revenue_ (published annually); those issued - in 1870 and in 1885 are especially interesting. - - [2] In Appendix No. 4 to the _Report from the Select Committee on - Income Tax_ (1906), will be found a valuable list (prepared in the - Library of the London School of Economics) of references to the - graduation of the income tax and the distribution of incomes both in - the United Kingdom and in other countries. - - - - -INCORPORATION (from Lat. _incorporare_, to form into a body), in law, -the embodying or formation of a legal corporation, brought about either -by a general rule contained in such laws, e.g. as the Companies acts, -and applicable wherever its conditions are satisfied; or by a special -act of sovereign power, e.g. an incorporating statute or charter. The -word is used also in the sense of uniting, e.g. a will may incorporate -by reference other papers, which may be then taken as part of the will, -as much as if they were set out at length in it. - - - - -INCUBATION and INCUBATORS. The subject of "incubation" (Lat. _incubare_, -to brood; _in-cumbere_, to lie on), a term which, while strictly -signifying the action of a hen in sitting on her eggs to hatch them, is -also used in pathology for the development within the body of the germs -of disease, is especially associated with the artificial means, or -"incubators," devised for hatching eggs, or for analogous purposes of an -artificial foster-mother nature, or for use in bacteriological -laboratories. - -Life is dependent, alike for its awakening and its maintenance, upon the -influence of certain physical and chemical factors, among which heat and -moisture may be regarded as the chief. It is therefore obvious that any -method of incubation must provide for a due degree of temperature and -moisture. And this degree must be one within limits, for while all -organisms are plastic and can attune themselves to a greater or less -range of variation in their physical environment, there is a given -degree at which the processes of life in each species proceed most -favourably. It is this particular degree, which differs for different -species, which must be attained, if artificial incubation is to be -successfully conducted. In other words, the degree of temperature and -moisture within the incubation drawer must remain uniform throughout the -period of incubation if the best results are to be reached. It is not -easy to attain these conditions, for there are many disturbing factors. -We may therefore next consider the more important of them. - -The chief causes which operate to make the temperature within the -incubator drawer variable are the changes of the temperature of the -outer air, fluctuations in the pressure of the gas when that is used as -the source of heat, or the gradual diminution of the oxidizing power of -the flame and wick when an oil lamp is substituted for gas. Also, the -necessary opening of the incubator drawer, either for airing or for -sprinkling the eggs with water when that is necessary, tends to reduce -the temperature. But there is another equally important though less -obvious source of disturbance, and this resides within the organism -undergoing incubation. In the case of the chick, at about the ninth or -tenth days of incubation important changes are occurring. Between this -period and the fourteenth day the chick becomes relatively large and -bulky, and the temporary respiratory organ, the allantois, together with -its veins, increases greatly in size and extent. As a consequence, the -respiratory processes are enabled to proceed with greater activity, and -the chemical processes of oxidation thus enhanced necessarily largely -increase the amount of heat which the chick itself produces. Thus an -incubator, to be successful, must be capable of automatically adjusting -itself to this heightened temperature. - -The drawer of an incubator is a confined space and is usually packed as -closely as possible with the contained eggs. The eggs are living -structures and consequently need air. This necessitates some method of -direct ventilation, and this in its turn necessarily increases the -evaporation of water vapour from the surface of the egg. Unless, -therefore, this evaporation is checked, the eggs will be too dry at the -period--from the tenth day onwards--when moisture is more than ever an -important factor. There is, according to some poultry authorities, -reason to believe that the sitting hen secretes some oily substance -which, becoming diffused over the surface of the egg, prevents or -retards evaporation from within; presumably, this oil is permeable to -oxygen. In nature, with the sitting hen, and in the "Mamal" artificial -incubating establishments of the Egyptians, direct air currents do not -exist, owing to the large size of the chambers, and consequently -incubation can be successfully achieved without any special provision -for the supply of moisture. - -Artificial incubation has been known to the Egyptians and the Chinese -from almost time immemorial. In Egypt, at Berme on the Delta, the trade -of artificial hatching is traditionally transmitted from father to son, -and is consequently confined to particular families. The secrets of the -process are guarded with a religious zeal, and the individuals who -practise it are held under plighted word not to divulge them. It is -highly probable that the process of artificial incubation as practised -by the Egyptians is not so simple as it is believed to be. But as far as -the structures and processes involved have been ascertained by -travellers, it appears that the "Mamal" is a brick building, consisting -of four large ovens, each of such a size that several men could be -contained within it. These ovens are in pairs, in each pair one oven -being above the other, on each side of a long passage, into which they -open by a circular aperture, just large enough for a man to obtain -access to each. The eggs are placed in the middle of the floor of the -oven, and in the gutters round the sides the fire is lighted. The -material for this latter, according to one account, consists of camels' -dung and chopped hay, and according to another of horses' dung. The -attainment of the right degree of heat is apparently reached wholly by -the skill of the persons employed. When this has been attained, they -plug the entrance hole with coarse tow. On the tenth to twelfth days -they cease to light the fires. - -Each "Mamal" may contain from 40,000 to 80,000 eggs. There are 386 -"Mamals" in the country, which are only worked for six months of the -year, and produce in that time eight broods. Many more than two-thirds -of the eggs put in are successfully hatched. It is estimated that -90,000,000 eggs are annually hatched by the Bermeans. - -A method of incubating that appears to have been altogether overlooked -in England--or at least never to have been practised--is that carried on -by the _Couveurs_ or professional hatchers in France. They make use of -hen-turkeys for the purpose, and each bird can be made to sit -continuously for from three to six months. The _modus operandi_ is as -follows: a dark room which is kept at a constant temperature throughout -the year contains a number of boxes, just large enough to accommodate a -turkey. The bottom of the box is filled with some vegetable material, -bracken, hay, heather, straw or cocoa-fibres. Each box is covered in -with lattice-work wire, so arranged that the freedom of the sitting bird -is limited and its escape prevented. Dummy eggs, made by emptying addled -ones and filling with plaster of Paris, are then placed in the nest and -a bird put in. At first it endeavours to escape, but after an interval -of a few days it becomes quiet, and the dummy eggs being then removed, -fresh ones are inserted. As soon as the chickens are hatched, they are -withdrawn and fresh eggs substituted. The hen turkeys are also used -successfully as foster-mothers. Each bird can adequately cover about two -dozen eggs. - -Incubation as an industry in Europe and America is of recent -development. The growing scarcity of game birds of all kinds, coincident -with the increase of population, and the introduction of the -breech-loading gun, together with the marked revival of interest in -fancy poultry about the year 1870, led, however, to the production of a -great variety of appliances designed to render artificial incubation -successful. - -Previously to this, several interesting attempts had been made. As long -ago as 1824, Walthew constructed an incubator designed to be used by -farmers' wives with the aid of no more than ordinary household -conditions. It consisted of a double-walled metal box, with several -pipes opening into the walled space round the sides, bottom and top of -the incubator. These pipes were connected with an ordinary kitchen -boiler. Walthew, however, constructed a fire grate, with a special -boiler adapted to the requirements of the incubator. Into the walled -space of the incubator, steam from the kitchen boiler passed; the excess -steam escaped from an aperture in the roof, and the condensed steam -through one in the floor. Ventilating holes and also plugs, into which -thermometers were placed, pierced the door of the incubator. - -In 1827, J. H. Barlow successfully reared hens and other birds by means -of steam at Drayton Green, Ealing. He constructed very large rooms and -rearing houses, expending many thousands of pounds upon the work. He -reared some 64,000 game birds annually. The celebrated physician Harvey, -and the famous anatomist Hunter were much interested in his results. - -To John Champion, Berwick-on-Tweed, in 1870, belongs, however, the -credit of instituting a system which, when extended, may become the -system of the future, and will rival the ancient "Mamals" in the success -of the incubation and in the largeness of the numbers of eggs incubated. -He used a large room through which passed two heated flues, the eggs -being placed upon a table in the centre. The flues opened out into an -adjoining space. The temperature of the room was adjusted by personal -supervision of the fire. This system, more elaborated and refined, is -now in use in some parts of America. - - -_Bird Incubators._ - -Owing to the great variety in the details of construction, it is -difficult to arrange a classification of incubators which shall include -them all. They may, however, be classified in one of two ways. We may -either consider the method by which they are heated or the method by -which their temperature is regulated. - -In the former case we may divide them into "hot-air" incubators and into -"hot-water" or "tank" incubators. In the latter ease we may classify -them according as their thermostat or temperature-regulator is actuated -by a liquid expanding with rising temperature, or by solids, usually -metals. - -In America incubators of the hot-air type with solid and metallic -thermostats are most used, while in Europe the "tank" type, with a -thermostat of expansible liquid, prevails. - -For the purpose of more adequately considering the various forms which -have been in use, or are still used, we shall here divide them into the -"hot-air" and "hot-water" (or "tank") classes. - -In the hot-air types the incubator chamber is heated by columns of hot -air, while in the tank system this chamber is heated by a tank of warmed -water. - - (a) _Hot-Water Incubators._--In 1866 Colonel Stuart Wortley described - in _The Field_ an incubator constructed upon a novel principle, but - which appears never to have been adopted by breeders. The descriptive - article is illustrated with a sketch. Essentially the incubator - consists of four pipes which extend across the egg chamber some little - distance above the eggs. The pipes pass through holes in the side of - the incubator, which are furnished with pads, so as to render their - passage air-tight. Externally they are connected with a boiler. This - is provided with a dome through which steam escapes, and also with a - glass gauge to show the height of the water within the boiler. The - water in the boiler is kept at the boiling point, and the temperature - of the incubator is regulated by adjustment of the length of the - hot-water pipes within the egg chamber. To raise the temperature, a - greater length of the pipes is pushed into the chamber, and to reduce - it, more of their length is pulled outwards. It is claimed for this - instrument that since the temperature of boiling water at any - particular locality remains practically constant, the disadvantages - due to fluctuations in the activity of a lamp flame or the size of a - gas flame are obviated. But it has the serious disadvantage that there - is no automatic adjustment to compensate for fluctuations of - atmospheric temperature. And experiments by C. Hearson have shown that - even if the temperature of the tank or source of heat be constant, - that of the incubator drawer will nevertheless vary with fluctuations - of external temperature. Probably if the mechanical difficulties of - providing a self-regulator were overcome, it would prove an efficient - and reliable incubator. The difficulties do not seem to be - insuperable, and it appears possible that a thermostatic bar could be - so arranged as to automatically increase or decrease the length of - hot-water pipes within the incubator, and therefore the incubator - temperature. - - Another early form of incubator is Brindley's, which was first in use - about 1845, and in his hands it appeared occasionally to act - successfully, but it never became generally used. The egg chamber was - lined with felt, and was placed beneath a heated air chamber, the - floor and roof of which were composed of glass. The air chamber was - heated by a number of hot-water pipes which were connected with a - copper boiler. This latter was heated by means of a lamp so - constructed as to burn steadily. The temperature of the air chamber - was regulated within certain limits by means of a balanced valve, - which could be so adjusted that it would open at any desired - temperature. - - In Colonel Stuart Wortley's incubator the hot-water tubes passed - directly into the egg chamber, and in Brindley's into a chamber above - it. But in other forms of incubators in which the principle of an - external boiler connected with water tubes is adopted, the latter pass - not into the egg chamber nor into an air chamber, but open into and - from a tank of water. The floor of this tank forms the roof of the egg - chamber, so that the eggs are heated from above. This device of - warming the eggs from above was adopted in imitation of the processes - that presumably occur with the sitting hen; for it is generally - assumed that the surface of the eggs in contact with the hen is warmer - than that in contact with the damp soil or with the material of the - nest. - - One of the earliest of this form of incubator is that invented by F. - Schröder, manager of the now extinct British National Poultry Company. - In this incubator the form is circular, and there are four egg - drawers, so that each one occupied the quadrant of a circle, and the - inner corner of each drawer meets in the middle of the incubator. From - the centre of the incubator a vertical chimney passes upwards and - opens out from the inner corners of the four egg drawers. This chimney - acts as a ventilator to the incubating chambers. These latter are open - above, but their floors are made of perforated zinc, and when in use - they are partially filled with chaff or similar material. Under them - is a tank containing cold water and common to all four drawers; the - slight vapour rising from the surface of the water diffuses through - the egg drawers and thus insures a sufficient degree of humidity to - the air within. Above the egg drawers is a circular tank containing - warm water. The floor of this tank constitutes the roof of the egg - drawers, while the roof forms the floor of a circular chamber above - it, the side wall of which is composed of perforated zinc. This upper - chamber is used to dry the chicks when they are just hatched and to - rear them until they are strong enough for removal. It is partially - filled with sand, which serves the double purpose of retaining the - heat in the warm-water tank beneath and of forming a bed for the - chicks. The water in the warm-water tank is heated by means of a - boiler which is external to the incubator, and in communication with - the tank by means of an inlet and an outlet pipe. There is no valve to - regulate the temperature, and the latter is measured by means of a - thermometer, the bulb of which is situated not in the incubator - drawers, but in the warm-water tank. This is a wrong position for the - thermometer, since it is now known that the temperature of the water - tank may be different by several degrees to that of the egg drawer; - for with a fall of external temperature that of the latter necessarily - tends to fall more rapidly than the former. But, none the less, in - skilful hands this incubator gave good results. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Christy's Improved Incubator.] - - T. Christy's incubator, which we shall describe next, has passed - through several forms. We shall consider the most recent one (1894). - The incubator (fig. 1) is double walled, and the space between the two - walls is packed with a non-conducting material. In the upper part of - the incubator there is a water tank (T) divided by a horizontal - partition into two chambers, communicating with each other at the - left-hand side. Below the tank is the incubation drawer (E), which - contains the eggs and also a temperature regulator or thermostat (R). - The tank is traversed by a ventilating shaft (V), and inserted into - this is a smaller sliding tube passing up to it from a hole in the - bottom of the incubator drawer. The floor of the incubator drawer is - perforated, and beneath it is an enclosed air space which opens into - the sliding air shaft just described. Fresh air is let into the - incubator drawer from a few apertures (I) at its top. The ventilating - shaft (V) is closed externally by a cap (C), which can be raised from - or lowered down upon its orifice by the horizontal arm (H) working - upon pivot joints at (P). This arm is operated by the thermostat (R), - through the agency of a vertical rod. The water in the tank is heated - by an external boiler (B) through two pipes, one of which (T) serves - as an inlet, and the other (L) as an outlet channel from the tank. - These two pipes do not open directly into the tank, but into an outer - vessel (O) communicating with it. Communication between this vessel - and the tank may be made or broken by means of a sliding valve (S), - which is pierced by an aperture that corresponds in position with the - upper of the two in the wall of the tank when the valve is up. When - this valve is in its upper position, the tank (T) communicates with - the outer vessel (O) by two apertures (A and A´), the top one being - the inlet and the lower one the outlet. These coincide in position - with the tubes from the boiler. This latter (B) is a conical vessel - containing two spaces. The heated water is contained in the outer of - these spaces, while the central space is an air shaft heated by a lamp - flame. This particular form of the boiler results in the water at its - top part being more heated than that in its lower. As a consequence of - this, a continual circulation of water through the tank ensues. The - more heated water, being specifically lighter, passes into the outer - vessel, where it remains among the higher strata, and therefore enters - the tank through the upper aperture. In passing along the upper - division of the tank it becomes slightly cooled and sinks therefore - into the lower compartment, passes along it, and out through the - aperture A´. Hence it passes into the lower portion of the boiler, - where it becomes warmed and specifically lighter; in consequence it - becomes pushed upwards in the boiler by the cooler and heavier water - coming in behind and below it. - - Should the temperature in the incubator drawer rise, the bimetallic - thermostat (R) opens out its coil and pulls down the vertical rod. - This simultaneously effects two things: it raises the cap (C) over the - ventilating shaft and allows of a more rapid flow of fresh air through - the incubator drawer, and it also lowers the slide-valve (S) so that - the tank becomes cut off from communication with the outer vessel (O) - and therefore with the boiler. The temperature thereupon begins to - fall and the thermostat, coiling closer, raises the vertical rod, - closes the ventilating shaft, and once more places the tank in - communication with the boiler. - - The structure of the thermostat is given below. - - The Chantry Incubator (Sheffield) is also an incubator with a - hot-water tank, the circulation of which is maintained by an outside - boiler. Its temperature is regulated by a metal regulator. - - In Schröder's and Christy's incubators the hot-water pipes from the - boiler simply entered the warm-water tank but did not traverse it. In - the two incubators to be next described the hot-water pipes are made - to pass through the water in the tank, and are so arranged as to - minimize the possibility that the outside of the tank may become - colder than the centre. Both of them are also fitted with an ingenious - though slightly complex valve for maintaining an approximately - constant temperature. - - Halsted's incubator was the earliest of this type. Since his original - form was constructed he has designed an improved one, and it is this - latter which will be described. - - [Illustration: FIG 2.--Halsted's Incubator.] - - The egg drawer (E, fig. 2) lies beneath the warm-water tank (T), and - above this is a nursery (N). The egg drawer is ventilated by two - tubular shafts (V), of which only one is represented in the - illustration; the tubes are about 2½ in. in diameter, and each one is - fitted at its upper end, where it opens into the nursery, with a - swing-valve (V´) which turns upon a horizontal axis (A), in its turn - connected, by means of cranks (C) and shafts (S), with the heat - regulating apparatus (R). A space of about 2 in. between the top of - the incubating drawer and the warm-water tank is necessary for the - insertion of this apparatus. The water in the tank (T) is heated by - means of the boiler (B); the tank and boiler are connected by the two - pipes (I) and (O), of which one is the inlet and the other the outlet - channel. The boiler consists of an inner (I´) and an outer (O) - division in communication with each other below. The latter is - cylindrical in form, while the outer wall of the former is cylindrical - and its inner wall conical. The conical wall of the inner boiler is - the surface which is heated by the lamp (L). The arrangement of the - inlet and outlet tubes is important. In the illustration, for the sake - of clearness, they are represented as one above the other. In reality - they lie in the same plane, and the fork (F) of the inlet pipe - similarly lies in the horizontal plane and not vertically as - represented. The inlet pipe not only differs from the outlet pipe in - the possession of a forked end, but it is carried to the farther end - (not shown in the diagram) of the water tank, while the outlet pipe - opens from about the middle of the tank. The inlet pipe is connected - with the inner portion of the boiler and the outlet one with the outer - portion. The result of this adjustment of the parts is that the warmer - water of the inner boiler, being specifically lighter than the cooler - water of the outer boiler, rises up and passes through the inlet pipe - (I) and is discharged into the tank through the two divergent orifices - of the fork (F). Here the water strikes the side wall of the farther - end of the tank and is reflected back along the back and front walls - towards the nearer side. Hence it is again reflected, but in the - opposite direction, and now forms a central current, which is directed - towards the centrally situated orifice of the outlet tube (O). Through - this it passes to the outer boiler, and sinking towards the bottom, - reaches the base of the inner boiler. Here it becomes heated and - lighter and consequently rises to the top, and once more passes - through the inlet pipe to the water tank. The warm water thus travels - round the outer walls of the tank and the cooled water is conducted - away along the middle portion. A more equable distribution of - temperature over the roof of the incubating chamber is thus ensured - than would be the case if the heated water were discharged either into - the centre or at any other single point only of the tank. - - To a very large extent, the efficiency of this apparatus depends upon - the approximately perfect performance of the lamp. A good, steadily - burning one should be employed, and only the best oil used; for, - should the wick become fouled the flame cannot freely burn. For this - reason it is better to use gas, whenever obtainable. - - The maintenance of an approximately uniform temperature is obtained by - allowing the heated air of the egg-drawer to escape through the two - ventilating shafts (V). The swing-valves of these are opened or closed - by means of the regulator (R). This latter consists of a glass bowl - prolonged into a tube, about 8 in. long and three-eighths of an inch - in diameter. The glass tube swings upon an axis (A) which is situated - as near as possible to the bowl of the regulator. The axis is - connected with a crank (C´) which is disposed so as to act as a lever - upon the vertical shaft (S), which in its turn is connected with the - upper crank (C); this works the axis (A´) of the swing-valves, and so - can open or close the apertures of the ventilating pipes. The bowl of - the regulator is filled with mercury to such an extent that at the - temperature of 100° F., and when the tube is slightly inclined upwards - from the horizontal it just flows slightly into the tube from the - bowl. On the lever-crank (C´) a weight is slung by a sliding - adjustment, and is so placed that when the temperature of the - egg-drawer is 103° it just balances the tube of the regulator when it - is slightly inclined upwards. Should the temperature of the drawer now - rise higher the mercury flows towards the distant end of the tube and, - causing it to fall down, brings about a rotation of the regulator axis - and as a consequence the opening of the ventilating valves. A - transverse stay prevents the limb of the regulator from quite reaching - the horizontal when it falls. As the temperature cools down the - mercury contracts and retraces to the nearer end of the tube and to - the bowl, and consequently results in the upward inclination of the - limb; the valves are thus closed again. - - The egg-drawer (E) is specially constructed so as to imitate as nearly - as possible the natural conditions that exist under a sitting hen. The - drawer is of wood and contains a zinc tray (Z) into which cold water - is placed. Fitting into the zinc tray is another zinc compartment, the - floor of which is made of a number of zinc strips (X) transversely - arranged and placed in relation to each other like the limbs of an - inverted V. The limbs are so disposed that those of one series do not - touch the adjacent ones, and in fact a space is left between them. - Thus a number of parallel troughs are formed, each of which opens - below into the moist air chamber of the cold water tray beneath. In - practice these troughs are covered with flannel which is allowed to - dip into the water of the tray. Thus the eggs lie in a series of damp - troughs and their lower surfaces are therefore damper and colder than - their upper ones. This incubator, if carefully worked and the - necessary practical details observed, has the reputation of being an - efficient machine. - - Somewhat similar to the Halsted incubator, but differing from it in - the nature of the boiler and in the temperature regulator, is the - Graves incubator, made in Boston, U.S.A. The incubator itself (fig. 3) - consists of an incubating or egg-drawer (E) heated from above by a - warm-water tank (T). Below the egg-drawer is a tank containing cold - water, the vapour of which passes through the perforated floor of the - former and keeps the air of the egg-chamber slightly humid. Above the - warm-water tank is an air chamber (AC) to serve as a non-conducting - medium and to prevent therefore undue loss of heat. Above this is a - nursery or drying chamber (N), closed in, with a movable lid. - - The warm-water tank is heated by means of a simple boiler (B) from - which an inlet tube (I) carries heated water to the tank; the tube - traverses the length of the tank and discharges at its farther end - (not shown in the diagram). From the nearer end of the tank an outlet - tube (O) passes out and opens into the boiler at a slightly higher - level than the inlet one. The boiler is heated by an evenly burning - lamp below, of special construction. The rectangular tube through - which the wick passes is bevelled at its outer end, and upon this - bevelled edge a metal flap (F) is allowed to rest more or less - closely, according as the flame is to be smaller or larger - respectively. The wick is, of course, bevelled to correspond to the - form of its tube. The metal flap is raised or depressed by means of - levers connected with the heat-regulator. When it is depressed upon - the wick the flame is lessened; and it becomes proportionately bigger - as the flap is raised more and more. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Graves's Incubator.] - - The heat-regulator consists of a glass tube (T) which runs the whole - width of the incubation chamber and lies in contact with the floor of - the warm-water tank; it is filled with alcohol. Externally to the - incubator this tube is connected with a U-shaped one containing - mercury. The free limb of the U-tube contains a piston (P) which rests - upon the surface of the mercury in that limb. From the piston a piston - rod (PR) passes vertically upwards and is connected with a lever (L) - which operates, through the agency of a second lever (L´) the - movements of the ventilating valve (V) inserted over the orifice of - the ventilating shaft (A) which opens from the roof of the incubator - drawer. The lever (L) is further connected with a spiral spring (S) - which works the metal flap of the lamp already described. The height - of the piston in the U tube can be so adjusted, by varying the - quantity of mercury in the tube, that when the temperature of the - incubation drawer is 103° F., the ventilating valves are closed and - the wick is burning to its full extent. Should the temperature rise, - the alcohol in the glass tube (T) expands and causes the mercury in - the free limb of the U tube to rise. This carries with it the piston, - and this movement brings about the opening of the ventilating valves, - and at the same time, through the agency of the lever (L) and the - spiral spring (S) the metal flap is brought down upon the wick, - cutting off more or less of the flame. Should the temperature then - fall to 103° or lower, the contraction of the alcohol reverses these - movements, the valve closes, and the wick once more burns to its full - extent. - - In practice, the boiler and the temperature regulator are duplicated, - there being a set on both sides of the incubator. Any slight - irregularity on the one side may be thus compensated for by the other - side. - - Graves's incubator has the reputation of being a good machine. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Hearson's Incubator.] - - Among the most recent type of incubators made in England is that of - Charles Hearson. This differs from any of those described in the - simplicity and ingenuity of the heat regulator, and in that the tubes - which traverse the water tank are hot-air flues, carrying the air - heated by the flame and not warm water. Consequently a further - simplification is introduced inasmuch as no boiler is required. - - The essential features of this incubator are shown in fig. 4. The - internal parts of the incubator are insulated by a double wall, the - interspace being packed by a non-conducting material, which is not - shown in the figure. The incubation or egg-drawer (E) is heated by the - warm-water tank (T). Beneath the egg-drawer is a zinc tray (Z), so - constructed that in the central part the floor is raised up into a - short cylinder. Around the raised cylinder is a wide trough containing - water and into this dips a canvas cloth which is stretched out over a - perforated zinc support (F). By this means an extended moistened - surface is produced which allows of a rapid evaporation. The floor of - the incubator, which is raised by short feet from the table on which - it stands, is perforated in the central portion by a number of holes, - and which are so situated that they lie beneath the raised cylinder of - the cold-water tray (Z). The incubation-drawer is thus supplied - continuously by a slow current of moistened air because the air in the - upper part of the drawer, i.e. in contact with the floor of the - warm-water tank, is the warmest and lightest. It therefore tends to - diffuse or pass through the narrow slits between the drawer and the - walls of the incubator, and also through the aperture in the front - wall of the egg-drawer, through which a thermometer is laced. To - replace the air thus lost, fresh air passes in through the holes in - the bottom of the incubator, and on its way must pass through the - pores of the damp canvas which dips into the water in the zinc tray - (Z). - - The warm-water tank is heated by an inlet (I) and outlet (O) flue - which are, however, continuous. The inlet flue opens out from a - vertical chimney (C), the air in which is heated either by a gas flame - or that of an oil lamp. The outlet or return flue passes back through - the width of the tank and opens independently to the exterior. The - vertical chimney (C) is capped by a lid (L) capable of being raised or - lowered upon its orifice by the lever (L´). When the cap is resting - upon the chimney all the heated air from within the latter passes - through the flues and heats the water in the tank. If the cap is - widely raised, practically all the heated air passes directly upwards - through the chimney and none goes through the flues. If the cap be but - slightly raised, part of the heated air goes through the flues and - part directly escapes through the aperture of the chimney. The - movement of the lever (L´) which raises the cap (L) is determined by - the thermostatic capsule (S), situated within the egg-drawer. - - The principle upon which this capsule is designed is that the boiling - point of a liquid depends not only upon temperature but also upon - pressure. A given liquid at ordinary atmospheric pressure will boil at - a certain degree of temperature, which varies for different - substances. But if the pressure be increased the boiling point of the - liquid is raised to a higher degree of temperature. A liquid when it - boils passes into a gaseous condition and in this state will occupy a - very much larger volume--some two or three hundred times--than in the - liquid condition. If, therefore, a hermetically sealed capsule with - flexible sides be filled with some liquid which boils at a given - temperature, the sides of the capsule will distend when the - temperature of the air round the capsule has been raised to the - boiling point of the liquid within it. The distension of this capsule - can be used to raise the lever (L´). The thermostatic capsule is - placed on a fixed cradle (F) and is filled with a mixture of ether and - alcohol, the proportions being such that the boiling point of the - mixed liquid is 100° F. Between the capsule and the lever (L´) is a - vertical rod (V), articulating with the lever as close as possible to - its fulcrum (M). The articulation with the lever is by means of a - screw, so that the necessary nice adjustment between the height of the - rod (V), the thickness of the capsule and the position of rest of the - damper (L) upon the chimney, can be accurately made. The temperature - at which it is desired that the liquid in the capsule shall boil can - be determined by sliding the weight (W) nearer or farther to the - fulcrum of the lever (L´). The farther it is moved outwards, the - greater is the pressure upon the thermostatic capsule and consequently - the higher will be the boiling point of its contained liquid. By means - of the milled-head screw (A), the height of the lever at its outer end - can be so adjusted that when the liquid of the capsule is not boiling - the damper (L) closes the chimney, but that when it does boil the - damper will be raised sufficiently high from it. If the weight is - pushed as far as it will go towards the fulcrum end of the lever, the - temperature of the egg-drawer will never rise more than 100° F. - because at this temperature and under the pressure to which it is then - subjected, the liquid in the capsule boils, and consequently brings - about the raising of the damper. It matters not, therefore, how high - the flame of the gas or lamp be turned, the temperature of the - egg-drawer will not increase, because the extra heat of the enlarged - flame is passing directly outwards through the chimney, and is not - going through the flues in the tank. In order to raise the temperature - within the incubation chamber to 102° or 103°, or any other desired - degree, the weight (W) must be moved outwards along the lever (L´), - about 1 in. for every degree of temperature increase desired. This - thermostatic capsule works admirably, and the incubator will work for - months at a time and requires no adjustment, however much, within the - limits of our climate, the external temperature may vary. The capsule, - like all other thermostats in which the expansible substance is a - liquid, is, however, dependent upon external pressure for the point at - which its contained liquid boils and therefore, for the degree of - temperature prevailing within the incubator drawer. It is therefore - responsive to variations in atmospheric pressure, and as the barometer - may fall 1 or 2 in., this may possibly make a difference of two or - three degrees in the fluctuation of temperature within the egg-drawer. - It is not, of course, often that such large oscillations of the - barometer occur, and as a matter of practical experience, under - ordinary conditions, this incubator will work for months together - without attention with only half a degree variation round the point at - which it was set. - - Greenwood's incubator (fig. 5), named the Bedford, resembles Pearson's - in that hot-air flues (F and F´) and not hot-water pipes, traverse the - water tank (T). And the method of regulation of the temperature is - much the same, i.e. a thermostat (V) operating upon a lever which - raises a cap (C) from off the aperture of the main flue (F) and thus - allows all the heat of the flame to pass directly outwards, without - passing through the series of flues (F) which horizontally traverse - the water-tank. Fresh air enters through a wide circular aperture (A) - which surrounds the main flue, and it thus becomes partially warmed - before entering the egg-chamber. The eggs are placed upon a perforated - floor (E) lying over water baths (B). The water tank (T) lies in the - centre of the incubation chamber and is traversed through its central - axis by the main hot-air flue (F). From this, four horizontal flues - pass outwards through the water and open into small vertical flues, - which in their turn communicate with the exterior. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Bedford (Greenwood's) Incubator.] - - The thermostat (V) consists of a glass tube of peculiar form. This is - closed at the end of its short limb and open at its other extremity on - the long limb. The bent portion of the tube is filled with mercury and - between the mercury column and the closed end is a small quantity of - ether. The thermostat is lodged in a box (G), which forms part of the - lever (L). At one end this lever is pivoted to a fixed arm, and at the - other to the vertical rod which operates the ventilating cap (C). If - the temperature should rise, the ether in the thermostat expands and - pushes the mercury column up along the inclined long limb. This - disturbs the equilibrium of the lever (L), and it descends downwards, - pulling with it the vertical rod, and thus raising the cap over the - main flue. If the temperature falls the reverse series of changes - occur. The temperature at which the cap will be raised can be adjusted - within limits by the position of the weight (W) and by the adjustment - of the degree of inclination of the thermostat. - - The Proctor incubator, made at Otley, is apparently, in its main - features, similar to the Greenwood. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Winchcombe Incubator.] - - Somewhat similar, in certain features, to the Greenwood is the - Winchcombe. Its improved form, in which metal replaces the wood - casing, is named the Gladstone. In it there is a combination of the - hot-air and the water-tank systems of warming the incubation chamber. - The wall of the incubator is double, and the space between the outer - and inner wall is packed with a non-conducting material. The - incubation chamber is heated above by a water-tank (fig. 6 T) which is - traversed by a main vertical flue (F) and four subsidiary horizontal - ones which discharge externally. The main flue, however, in passing up - to enter the water tank traverses the egg-chamber, and therefore - serves to warm it, as in the hot-air type of incubator, by the heat of - the flue itself. Around the lower half of the flue is a water vessel - consisting of two concentric containers (C), holding water. In the - space between these concentric containers, fresh air passes in through - the aperture (A), and before it reaches the egg-chamber it passes - through coarse canvas which dips into the water in the containers, and - is therefore kept permanently moist. The containers are filled from a - water tank (S) outside the incubator. Air passes out from the - egg-chamber through the aperture (O). The temperature is regulated by - a bimetallic thermostat (see below), which operates two levers, that - by their arrangement can raise or depress the cap (D) over the main - flue (F). The temperature at which this occurs will be determined, - within limits, by the position of the adjustable weight (W). - - Tomlinson's incubator, designed in 1880, is novel in principle. It - possesses a very large water tank, holding 15 gallons for every - hundred eggs. Through this tank there pass two hot-air horizontal - flues, lying in the same plane. The novelty of the construction lies - in the great volume of water used and in the disposition of the flues - towards the top of the tank. It is said that very little circulation - of water takes place beneath the flues, because warmed water rises - instead of falling. The great body of water below the flues will - therefore only take up heat relatively slowly, and will, on account of - its bulk and its physical properties, but slowly lose it. Should the - flame fall in power, or even go out for ten or twelve hours, it is - claimed that no serious loss of efficiency of the apparatus will - result. - - Regulation of the temperature is by means of an air tube, the air in - which expanding bulges out an india-rubber diaphragm and this moves a - lever. The lever operates a valve which allows more or less of the - heated air to escape from the egg-drawer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hillier's Incubator.] - - (b) _Hot-air Incubators._--W. H. Hillier's Incubator (fig. 7) is - circular in form and is constructed of a double-walled metal case. The - space between the two walls is packed with a non-conducting material. - The incubation or egg-chamber (C) is warmed by a circular heating box - (H), and the air in this is heated by a lamp. The roof of this box - forms part of the floor of the incubation chamber and from it a main - flue (F) and four smaller ones (F´) pass upwards through the roof of - the incubator and discharge to the exterior. Fresh air passes in to - the incubator through two tubular channels (A and A´) on either side - of the heating box and escapes through a hole in the roof, which - serves at the same time as a passage for one of the rods (D) in - connexion with the temperature regulating apparatus. - - This apparatus (T) consists of a glass tube of ½ in. bore, and which - is bent into the form of a circle of 5 in. diameter. The tube is - fastened to a wooden disk, which rotates upon a pivot and in so doing - operates a vertical rod (D), which in its turn works the cap (V) which - covers the orifice of the main flue. The tube is partly filled with - mercury and is closed at one end. At this end there is contained some - spirit. As the temperature rises, this expands and pushes the mercury - column farther along the tube. The equilibrium of the position of rest - is thus disturbed, and the wooden disk consequently rotates, carrying - with it the vertical arm, the downward movement of which raises the - cap (V) of the flue. The temperature at which it is desired that this - valve shall uncover the flue, can be adjusted within the necessary - limits by sliding the weight (W) along the horizontal arm and by the - amount of mercury present in the bent tube. The air of the incubation - chamber is rendered sufficiently moist by the evaporation of water in - the vessel (G). - - In the Cornell incubator (New York) more personal attention is - required than in other forms, since the ventilation of the egg-chamber - is not wholly automatic but is regulated according to the results of - observation. The great difficulty in ventilation is the proper - combination of fresh air and moisture. The Cornell Incubator Company - has endeavoured to obviate this difficulty by carrying out a series of - observations on the rate at which evaporation occurs in incubating - eggs under natural conditions. The rate of evaporation is measured by - the size of the air-space within the egg-shell at successive days. - This they have ascertained, and with their incubators they furnish a - book of instructions in which diagrams showing the size of the air - space on the 1st, 5th, 10th, 14th and 18th days are given. Examination - of the eggs should therefore be made every two or three days, and the - result compared with the diagrams. The incubator is provided with an - adjustable ventilator and this should be so arranged that evaporation - is neither too great nor too little. The ventilator should never be - wholly closed, and if when closed to its minimum evaporation is still - too great, then water should be placed in the moisture pans. In all - cases lukewarm water should be placed in these on the 18th day and the - ventilating slide opened wide. - - It will thus be seen that in this machine there is an attempt to do - away with the addition of water to the incubator drawer during the - greater part of the period of incubation, and to rely upon the aqueous - vapour naturally present in the atmosphere. This attempt is based upon - the fact that water vapour is lighter than air, and will therefore - rise to the top in any enclosed volume of air. If the direction of the - ventilating current is downwards in the incubation chamber, and if it - is slow enough, it is thought that the water vapour will be sifted out - and tend to accumulate to a sufficient extent in the chamber. In the - Cornell incubator consequently the ventilating current passes first - upward through an external heater in order to warm it, whence it is - then deflected downwards into the egg-chamber and diffuses through its - perforated bottom. Then it passes along a space beneath the chamber - into a space in the left-hand wall of the incubator and out to the - exterior through an adjustable and graduated ventilating slide. - - These incubators are hot-air machines, and the hot-air chamber is - situated above the egg-drawer and is traversed by several flues - opening out from a main one. The temperature regulating apparatus - appears to be similar to that of Hearson's machine and operates by a - thermostat, which through the agency of levers opens or closes a valve - over the main flue. - - The Westmeria incubators (Leighton Buzzard) are of two patterns. One - type is built on the hot-air principle and the other on the hot-water - system. In both forms the heated air from the heating surfaces is - deflected down on the eggs and escapes through the perforated bottom - of the egg-drawer. The inlet air is first warmed by contact with the - main flue. The thermostat is similar to that in the Hillier machine - (fig. 7) and consists of a coil mounted on an axis, round which it can - rotate. The coil is filled with mercury and is closed at one end. - Between this end and the mercury column is a short column of air. By - expansion of the air under a rising temperature, the mercury column is - displaced and brings about a rotation of the disk to which the coiled - tube containing it is attached. This rotation raises the cap over the - main flue. - - All the incubators so far described have been constructed with the - idea of obtaining as nearly as possible a uniform temperature. But in - E. S. Renwick's incubator (America) no attempt is made to obtain - uniformity in temperature. On the other hand, it is designed to give a - periodical oscillation from one extreme to the other of a limited - range, about 3°, of temperature. This is accomplished by means of a - thermostatic bar made of plates of brass and vulcanite fastened - together. This is connected with a clockwork and detent arrangement, - which simultaneously opens a valve and actuates the lamp flame. The - temperature falls to the lower limit of its range before the - thermostatic bar is sufficiently bent to set the clockwork arrangement - operating in the reverse direction, by which the valve is closed and - the lamp flame increased. The temperature then rises to the higher - limit, when the bending of the thermostatic bar again releases the - detent and the clockwork opens the valve and reduces the flame. - - The incubator is said to succeed well. It also possesses a mechanical - arrangement by which all the eggs can be periodically turned on - rollers at once. - - _Size._--The incubators which have been described are of relatively - small size, and the numbers of eggs which they can incubate are - strictly limited. For commercial purposes, however, operations of a - much larger magnitude are desirable and necessary. And there can be no - doubt that for these purposes the incubators of the future will be of - great size and will contain from 15,000 to 30,000 eggs or more at a - time. Already, at Aratoma Farm, Stamford, New York State, there is - established a large incubation room, containing several thousands of - eggs, and in which the heat regulation is controlled in part by the - personal efforts of attendants. It constitutes almost a complete - return, with added accessories, to the methods of the Egyptians, and - to those of John Champion. - - -_Bacteriological Incubators._ - -These differ from bird Incubators in that the heating surface of the -incubation chamber generally surrounds all sides of it and there is, as -a rule, no special arrangement for bringing about a more or less humid -condition of the contained air. In some forms there is an arrangement to -ensure a continuous supply of fresh and moist air, but in the majority -the incubation chamber obtains its supply of fresh air vicariously. In -some forms the chamber of the incubator is heated by a warm water tank -of a simple kind, which extends round all its sides. But in other forms -a series of tubes or flues passes through the water in this tank and -thus simulates in principle the tube boiler. This latter form utilizes -the heat of the flame to a greater degree than the former kind. In yet -other forms the incubation chamber is heated by warm air chambers which -surround it or flues which traverse it. Most bacteriological incubators -are square or rectangular in form, but some bacteriologists prefer -cylindrical forms, presumably on account of the ratio of volume to -surface in connexion with the water tank. - - One of the best known and most generally used of the cylindrical and - water-tank kind is that of Dr d'Arsonval. It consists of two copper - cylinders (fig. 8 C and C´), each terminating in a cone below. Between - the cylinders is a wide interspace, in order that a large volume of - water may be contained. This interspace therefore constitutes the - water-tank of the incubator. The upper orifice of the inner cylinder - is closed by a movable double lid, which contains an interspace filled - with water. The outer cylinder has an oblique form at its upper end - and is permanently closed. The result attained by this slope of the - lid of the outer cylinder is that the water tank, which is fed from - the highest point, becomes completely filled. The aperture at the - highest point of the outer cylinder is plugged with a caoutchouc plug - and through a perforation in this a glass tube (T) is placed. In the - side of the outer cylinder below this, there is a wide and rimmed - aperture, to which a gas regulator of special construction is fixed. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--D'Arsonval Incubator.] - - This regulator was designed by Théophile Schloesing, and consists of a - brass box, supplied with a rim (L) which fits on to the corresponding - rim (L´) on the aperture of the incubator. Stretching across the - orifice thus connecting the brass box of the regulator with the - water-tank of the incubator is a thin india-rubber diaphragm (D). At - its outer end a perforated cap (R) screws on to the brass box. Through - the perforation the inlet gas tube passes (I); the outlet gas tube (O) - leaves the brass box below and passes direct to the gas burners. The - inlet gas tube is fitted at its inner end with a sliding flanged - collar (F), which is kept pressed against the rubber diaphragm by a - spiral spring. Just behind the collar the inlet tube is perforated by - a small hole, so that the gas supply is never wholly cut off, even - though the rubber diaphragm completely occludes the inner aperture of - the pipe. - - The mode of working of the regulator is as follows: when the water - tank of the incubator is filled with distilled or rain water at the - temperature required, it presses upon the india-rubber diaphragm with - a certain degree of pressure. By screwing the inlet pipe in or out, as - required, it can be so adjusted that the diaphragm does not occlude - its inner aperture, and consequently the full volume of gas can pass - through to the burners below. The temperature of the water in the - water-tank therefore begins to rise, and in consequence the volume of - the water to increase. This results in the water rising up into the - tube (T), and therefore the dynamical pressure which is exercised by - the water upon every part of the two cylinders of the incubator and - consequently also upon the india-rubber diaphragm of the regulator is - increased. As this pressure increases, the diaphragm becomes bulged - outwardly and reduces the volume of gas passing through the aperture - of the inlet pipe. At a certain point, of course, the diaphragm - completely occludes the aperture, and the gas supply is wholly cut - off, except for the very small hole, forming a by-pass, in the pipe, - behind the collar. This hole is just sufficiently big to allow the - minimum amount of gas requisite to keep the flames burning to pass - through. The temperature will, therefore, begin to fall, the volume of - water to decrease with its resulting descent from the glass tube (T) - and consequent decrease in the dynamical pressure of the water upon - the diaphragm. The latter therefore retracts away from the aperture of - the inlet tube, and more gas consequently passes through; the flames - again increase in size and the temperature rises once more. And as - soon as the volume of water, owing to the rising temperature, has - increased to the extent correlated with the temperature at which the - apparatus has been set to work, it will have risen once more in the - tube (T), and the gas will be again cut off. The three burners are - placed upon a support that can be moved vertically up or down along - one of the legs of the incubator. The flames are protected from - draughts by mica chimneys. Ventilation is provided by an adjustable - valve (V´) in the cylindrical termination of the incubator at its - lower end, and by tubular orifices, also fitted with valves (V) in the - lid above. - - The incubator is very reliable and may be worked within very narrow - limits of variation, provided that the gas-supply be regulated by a - gas-pressure regulator, that the height of the water in the tube (T) - is maintained by daily additions of a few drops of distilled water, - and that the incubator itself be protected from draughts. - - Another form of d'Arsonval incubator has a glass door in the side of - it and a slightly modified form of the heat regulator. - - Other cylindrical forms of incubators are made by Lequeux of Paris. In - one of these the heat regulator is a bimetallic thermostat, the - movements of which are enlarged by a simple series of levers, so that - a valve can be automatically adjusted to allow more or less heat from - the flame to pass through the heating flue. - - In another form there is a movable interior, and an arrangement for - keeping the air in the incubation chamber saturated. It is governed by - a bimetallic thermostat of the Roux type. - - In Dr Hüppe's improved form of his incubator, which is approximately - square in form, the double-walled water tank is completely surrounded - externally by an air chamber, which is heated by the passage through - it of the products of combustion of the two flames. The heated gases - escape through an adjustable aperture at the top. In the earlier form - the water tank was traversed by a number of hot-air flues, and there - was consequently no external hot-air chamber. There is an arrangement - of tubes for ventilation, which allow fresh air to enter the lower - part of the incubation chamber and to leave it at the top. The - incoming air is warmed before it enters. The walls are made of - lead-coated steel, and externally the incubator is covered with - linoleum. In the more expensive forms the inner chamber is of copper. - The temperature may be controlled by any of the simpler mercury - thermostats described below. - - Dr Babes' incubator is somewhat similar, but the water tank is not - surrounded by a hot-air chamber. Instead it is traversed by a number - of vertical flues through which the heated gases from the flames pass. - Ventilation is provided for and there is an apparatus for controlling - the humidity of the air in the incubation chamber. As in Hüppe's - incubator, the bottom is conical in form. The walls of the incubator - are of lead-coated steel, and externally they are covered with - linoleum; there are two doors, an inner one of glass and an outer one - of metal. The temperature may be controlled as in Hüppe's incubator. - - Hearson has designed several forms of bacteriological (biological) - incubators, made by Chas. Hearson & Co., Ltd. Some are heated by a - petroleum lamp and others by a gas flame. In the form heated by a - lamp, for which, however, gas can be substituted, the incubation - chamber is surrounded by a water tank (fig. 9, A) and the lowest part - of this is traversed by an in-going (L) and an out-going flue. The - mode of regulation of the temperature is by means of a thermostat - which operates the movements of a cap (F) over the main flue (V), and - it is identical in its chief features with the method employed in the - chicken incubator. The thermostat (S) is situated in the upper part of - the incubation chamber. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator. (Heated - by a petroleum lamp.)] - - In the other form (fig. 10) for which gas is used exclusively, there - are no flues traversing the water tank. This latter is heated from its - conical floor by a burner beneath the incubator. The heat regulation - is controlled by a thermostat of the same nature as in the form of - incubator just described, but instead of operating by lowering or - raising a cap over a main flue, so as to direct the heated gases - either through the water tank if the temperature is falling, or - through the main flue directly to the exterior if it is rising, it - actuates a gas-governor, so that the flame itself is increased or - diminished in size according to the needs of the incubator. The - gas-governor (fig. 11) is fixed to the roof of the incubator. The - horizontal arm (D) is the same that raises the cap (fig. 9, F) over - the flue in the other form of incubator, but in this case it simply - acts as the bearer of the sliding weight. Beyond its fulcrum (fig. 11, - G) it is continued into a detent-like spur (B) which pushes down upon - a button attached to a rubber diaphragm, when the thermostat within - the incubator is expanded by a rise in temperature. The button thus - forced down, more or less completely closes the inlet gas aperture, - and so reduces or cuts off the gas supply to the flame. There is a - by-pass to prevent the flame from going out completely, and the size - of this can be adjusted by the screw (S). Hearson's incubators have - the reputation of very accurate performance and practically need no - attention for months, or even years. - - Schribaux's incubator is a hot-air form. Its walls are of metal, but - it is cased externally with wood, which serves as the insulating - material. Against the inner metal wall of the incubator, and upon its - internal surface, there are disposed a number of vertical tubes, which - open through the roof above into a common discharging funnel. Below, - at the bottom of the incubator they receive the heated gases of - several burners, which as they pass through them radiate their heat - evenly throughout the incubation chamber. In each side wall, at the - bottom of the chamber, is an adjustable ventilating valve. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator (heated - by a gas flame).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Gas-governor.] - - Inside the incubation chamber, and situated against its left-hand - wall, is a U-shaped bimetallic thermostat of the Roux design, - described below. This very accurately controls the temperature of the - incubator. - - (c) _Cool Incubators._--In bacteriological laboratories there are two - standards of temperature, one chiefly for the culture of - non-pathogenic organisms and the other for the pathogenic forms. The - first standard of temperature lies between 18° and 20° C., and the - second between 35° and 38° C. But in hot countries, and even in - temperate regions during the summer, the external temperature is much - higher than the former of these two standards, with the result that - many cultures, especially the gelatine ones, are spoiled. The - difficulty is often partially overcome by running cold water through - the incubator. - - Hearson, however, has constructed a "cool biological incubator," in - which by an ingenious device the expansion or contraction of the - thermostatic capsule deflects a horizontal pipe (C) (fig. 12), through - which cold water from an ordinary tap is kept running, in one of two - directions. If it is deflected so as to open into the tube (D), the - cold water passes into the tank (F), where it is warmed by a gas - flame, and thence it passes into the water-jacket of the incubator. If - it is deflected so as to open into the pipe (E), it then runs through - the ice tank (B), containing broken ice, before passing through the - water-jacket of the incubator. If it poured into neither of these - pipes it then simply passes out through the pipe (H) to the waste pipe - (N). By this device the temperature of the incubator can be kept - constant at any desired point, even though it may be some 30° to 40° - C. below that of the external air. - - Dr Roux has also designed an incubator which can be maintained at a - constant temperature below that of the surrounding air. This also - depends upon the principle of carrying water through an ice-safe, - which then traverses a pipe within the incubator chamber before - passing into the water-jacket of the machine. The heat-regulating - apparatus is a bimetallic thermostat. The incubator is made by Lequeux - of Paris. - - The most recent forms of all kinds of incubators, made by Hearson of - London, Lequeux of Paris and Lautenschläger of Berlin are both heated - and regulated by electricity. The heating is accomplished by electric - radiators. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Hearson's Cool Biological Incubator.] - - In Hearson's machines the regulation of the temperature is brought - about by the breaking or making of the electric current, through the - lifting or depression of a platinum contact, actuated by the expansion - or contraction of the thermostatic capsule. - - In Roux's apparatus, made by Lequeux, the make and break is attained - by the movement of one limb of a bimetallic thermostat, and in some - forms a resistance coil and rheostat are placed in the circuit. - - At the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and at other large laboratories in - France, the bacteriological incubator is raised to the dimensions of a - room. In the centre of this room is a large boiler heated by - gas-burners, the fumes from which pass through a large flue to the - outside. The flame of the burners is regulated by a bimetallic - thermostat. The gas by-pass can be regulated by an attendant. The - cultures are contained in vessels placed on shelves, which are ranged - round the side of the room. - - -_Human Incubators._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Tarnier's Incubator.] - -The first incubator designed for rearing children who are too weak to -survive under normal conditions, or who are prematurely born, is that of -Dr Tarnier. It was constructed in 1880 and was first used at the Paris -Maternity Hospital. Its form is that of a rectangular box measuring 65 × -30 × 50 centimetres (fig. 13). It is divided into an upper and lower -chamber; the former contains the infant, while the latter serves as a -heating chamber, and in reality is simply a modified water-tank. The -partition (P) which divides the incubator into two chambers does not -extend the whole length of it, so that the upper and lower chambers are -at one end of the apparatus in communication with each other. It is -through this passage that the heated air from the lower chamber passes -into the upper one containing the infant. The narrow bottom chamber C -serves to prevent loss of heat from the base of the water-bottles. The -outside air is admitted into the lower chamber at the opposite end, -through an aperture (A), and passing over a series of bottles (B) -containing warm water, becomes heated. The air is rendered adequately -moist by means of a wetted sponge (S) which is placed at the entrance of -the lower chamber into the upper. The warmed and moistened air is -determined in its direction by the position of the outlet aperture (O), -which is situated above and just behind the head of the infant. It -contains a helix valve (H) and the rotation of this is an indication -that the air is circulating within the incubator. - -The child is kept under observation by means of a sliding glass door (G) -situated in the upper or roof wall of the incubator. Immediately beneath -this, and attached to one of the side walls, is a thermometer (T) which -records the temperature of the air in the infant-chamber. The -temperature should be maintained at 31° to 32° C. The precise limit of -temperature must of course be determined by the condition of the child; -the smaller and weaker it is, the higher the temperature must be. - -The warm water vessels contain three-quarters of a pint of water and -four of them are sufficient to maintain the required temperature, -provided that the external air does not fall below 16° C. The vessels -are withdrawn and replaced through an entrance to the lower chamber, and -which can be opened or closed by a sliding door (D). - -The walls of the incubator, with the exception of the glass sliding -door, are made of wood 25 millimetres thick. - -The apparatus appears to have been successful, if by success is -understood the indiscriminate saving of life apart from all other -considerations, since the mortality of infants under 2000 grammes has -been reduced by about 30%, and about 45% of children who are prematurely -born are saved. - -Dr Tarnier's apparatus requires constant attention, and the water in the -warm water vessels needs renewing sufficiently often. It is not provided -with a temperature regulator and consequently fluctuations of internal -temperature, due to external thermal variations, are liable to occur. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Hearson's "Thermostatic Nurse."] - -In Hearson's Thermostatic Nurse these drawbacks are to a large extent -obviated. This "Nurse" consists fundamentally of an application of the -arrangements for heating and moistening the air and for regulating the -temperature of Hearson's chick incubator to Dr Tarnier's human -incubator. As in this latter form, there are two chambers (fig. 14), an -upper (A) and a lower (B), connected with each other in the same way as -in Tarnier's apparatus. The upper chamber contains the infant, but the -lower is not a heating but a moistening chamber. Through apertures (M) -in the bottom of the lower chamber, the external air passes through, and -as in the chick incubator it then passes through perforations in the -inner cylinder of a water tray (O) and thence over the surface of the -water in the tray, through a sheet of wet canvas, to the chamber itself. -Hence it passes to the infant chamber and ultimately leaves this through -a series of perforations round the top. The air in both chambers is -heated by a warm-water tank. This tank forms the partition which divides -the incubator into upper and lower chambers and is made of metal. -Through the water contained in it, an incoming (R) and an outgoing (R) -to the left flue, continuous with each other, pass. These two flues are -related to each other as in the chick incubator (see above) and the -inlet flue is heated in the same way and the outlet flue discharges -similarly. The heat-regulating apparatus is identical with that in the -chick incubator, and the thermostatic capsule (S) is placed in the upper -chamber, near the head of the infant. - -The child is placed in a basket which has perforated walls, and is open -above. The basket rests upon two shallow supports (D) situated on the -upper surface of the water-tank partition. The child is kept under -observation through a glass door in the upper or roof-wall of the -incubator. - -In Great Britain this apparatus is in use at various hospitals and -workhouses throughout the country, and provided there is no great -fluctuation of barometric pressure, it maintains a uniform temperature. - - -_Thermo-Regulators or Thermostats._ - -Certain special forms of thermo-regulators, adapted to the requirements -of the particular incubators to which they are attached, have already -been described. It remains now to describe other forms which are of more -general application. Only those kinds will be described which are -applicable to incubators. The special forms used for investigations in -physical-chemistry are not described. There are various types of -thermo-regulators, all of which fall into one of two classes. Either -they act through the expansion of a solid, or through that of a liquid. -They are so adjusted, that, at a certain temperature, the expansion of -the material chosen causes the gas supply to be nearly completely cut -off. The gas flame is prevented from being wholly extinguished by means -of a small by-pass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Page's Thermostat.] - - We will first describe those which act through the expansion of a - liquid. A very efficient and cheap form is that described by F. J. M. - Page in the _Journal of the Chemical Society_ for 1876. The regulator - consists of a glass bulb (fig. 15 B), continuous above with a tubular - limb (L). At the upper part of the limb is a lateral tubular arm (A) - which bends downwards and constitutes the outlet pipe. At the upper - extremity of the limb there is a short and much wider tube (T), the - lower end of which slides upwards or downwards along it. The upper end - of this wider tube is closed by a cork and through a perforation in - this a very small glass tube (G) passes downwards into the limb of the - regulator to a point a short distance below the exit of the outlet - tube. The exact height of the lower aperture of the small tube can be - varied by sliding the wider tube up or down along the limb. The - by-pass (P) consists of a transverse connexion between the inlet and - outlet gas pipes, and the amount of gas which travels through the - short circuit thus formed is regulated by means of a stopcock. The - by-pass, however, can be formed, as suggested by Schäfer (_Practical - Histology_, 1877, p. 80), by making an extremely small hole in the - small inlet tube, a little way above its lower extremity. But unless - this hole be small enough, too much gas will be allowed to pass, and a - sufficiently low temperature therefore unattainable. The regulator is - filled with mercury until the top of the column reaches within ½ in. - of the exit of the outlet tube, the bulb is placed in the incubator - chamber, and gas is allowed to pass through it. By pushing down the - inner inlet tube (G) until its aperture is immersed beneath the - mercury, the gas supply is cut off, with the exception of that passing - through the by-pass. The stopcock is now turned until only the - smallest flame exists. The inlet pipe is then raised again above the - mercury, and the flame consequently increases in size. The temperature - of the incubator gradually rises, and when the desired degree is - reached, the inlet tube is pushed down until the end is just beneath - the surface of the mercury. The gas supply is thus cut off at the - desired temperature. If the temperature of the incubator falls, the - mercury contracts, the aperture of the inlet tube is uncovered, the - gas supply is renewed and the flame increased. The temperature will - then rise until the required point is reached, when the gas supply - will again be cut off. A uniform temperature which oscillates within a - range of half a degree is thus attained. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Reichert's Thermo-Regulator.] - - Reichert's Thermo-regulator (fig. 16) is another simple and also an - earlier form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged above and - receives a hollow T-piece (P), the vertical limb of which fits - accurately into the enlarged end of the stem, and one end of the - cross-limb receives the inlet gas pipe; the other end is closed. The - vertical limb of the T-piece is narrowed down at its lower extremity - and opens by a small aperture. Above this terminal aperture is a - lateral one of the smallest size. From the enlarged end of the stem - there passes out a lateral arm (A) which is connected with the outlet - pipe to the burner, and lower down another arm (L), which is closed at - its outer extremity by a screw (R), is also attached. The stem and - lower arm are filled with mercury and the bulb of the stem is placed - in the incubator chamber, and gas allowed to pass. When the desired - temperature is reached, the mercury in the stem is forced upwards - until it closes the aperture of the T-piece, by screwing in the screw - (R) of the lower lateral arm (L). - - There are several modifications of Reichert's original form. In one of - these the screw arrangement in the lower arm is replaced by a piston - rod working in a narrow bore of a vertically bent limb of the arm. In - another form, the other end of the cross bar of the T-piece is open - and leads through a stopcock to a third arm, which opens into the - enlarged upper end of the stem opposite to the outlet arm (A); this - modification acts as an adjustable by-pass and replaces the minute - aperture in the side of the vertical limb of the T-piece. - - In Babes' modification the gas supply is cut off, not by the occlusion - by the rising mercury of the aperture of the T-piece, but by a - floating beaded wire-valve. The aperture of the vertical limb of the - T-piece (P) is traversed by a fine wire which is enlarged at both ends - into a bead-like knob. The wire fits loosely in the aperture and not - only therefore works easily in it, but allows gas to freely pass. When - the lower bead-like knob, however, is raised by the expansion of the - mercury, the gas supply is cut off by the bead being carried up - against the orifice. - - [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Cuccatti's Thermo-Regulator.] - - Cuccatti's thermo-regulator (fig. 17) is an exceedingly simple and - ingenious form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged below into a - bulb, while above it divides into a V. The two limbs of the V are of - course traversed by a canal and they are connected above by a tubular - cross bar (C). In the middle of this there is a stopcock situated - between the two points where the bar joins the limbs of the V. One end - of the cross-tube serves as an inlet and the other as an outlet for - the gas. The stopcock serves as an adjustable by-pass. About an inch - below the point where the two limbs of the V join the stem, the bore - of the latter is enlarged, and it leads into a lateral arm (A), - containing a screw (R), similar to the corresponding arm in Reichert's - regulator. When the mercury in the bulb and stem expands, it rises, - and reaching the point when the two limbs of the V meet occludes the - orifice to both and thus cuts off the gas supply, except that which is - passing through the by-pass of the stopcock. The temperature at which - this occlusion will take place can be determined by the screw in the - lateral arm. The more this is screwed in, the lower will be the - temperature at which the gas becomes cut off, and vice versa. - - Bunsen's, Kemp's and Muenke's regulators are in reality of the nature - of air-thermometers, and act by the expansion and contraction of air, - which raises or lowers respectively a column of mercury; this in its - turn results in the occlusion or opening of the gas aperture. Such - forms, however, are subject to the influence of barometric pressure - and an alteration of 0.5 in. of the barometer column may result in the - variation of the temperature to as much as 2°. - - Lothar Meyer's regulator is described in the _Berichte of the German - Chemical Society_, 1883, p. 1089. It is essentially a liquid - thermometer, the mercury column being raised by the expansion of a - liquid of low boiling-point. The liquid replaces the air in Bunsen's - and other similar forms. The boiling-point of this liquid must be - below the temperature required as constant. - - The solid forms of thermostats are constructed upon the same principle - as the compensation balance of a watch or the compensation pendulum of - a clock. This depends upon the fact that the co-efficient of expansion - is different for different metals. It therefore results that if two - bars of different metals are fastened together along their lengths - (fig. 18, Z and ST) with the same rise of temperature one of these - will expand or lengthen more than the other. And since both are - fastened together and must therefore accommodate themselves within the - same linear area, it follows that the compound rod must bend into a - curved form, in order that the bar of greater expansion may occupy the - surface of greater length, i.e. the convex one. Conversely, when the - temperature falls, the greater degree of contraction will be in the - same bar, and the surface occupied by it will tend to become the - concave one. If, then, one end of this compound rod be fixed and the - other free, the latter end will describe a backward and forward - movement through an arc of a circle, which will correspond with the - oscillations of temperature. This movement can be utilized by means of - simple mechanical arrangements, to open or close the stopcock of a gas - supply pipe. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Dr Roux's Thermostat (straight bar).] - - In the construction of this type of thermostat it is obvious that the - greater the difference in the co-efficient of expansion of the two - metals used, the larger will be the amplitude of the movement - obtained. Steel and zinc are two metals which satisfy this condition. - The co-efficient of steel is the lowest of all metals and is - comparable in its degree with that of glass. Substances which are not - metals, such as vulcanite and porcelain, are sometimes used to replace - steel, as the substance of low co-efficient of expansion. - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Dr Roux's Thermostat (U-shaped bar).] - - The bimetallic thermostat most commonly employed is one of the two - forms designed by Dr Roux. In one of these forms the compound bar is - straight (fig. 18) and in the other it is U-shaped (fig. 19). In the - former type the bar itself is enclosed in a tube (T) of metal, the - wall of which is perforated. Towards the open end of this tube the gas - box or case (C) is fixed. In the U-shape form it is attached to the - outer surface (zinc) of one limb of the bar. The gas box is capable of - adjustment with respect to its distance from the bar, by means of a - screw (S) and a spiral spring (SP), which moves the box outwards or - inwards along a rod (R). This adjustment enables the degree of - temperature at which it is desired that the gas shall be cut off to be - fixed accurately, and within a certain more or less extended range. - The inlet and the outlet pipe are disconnected from each other in the - gas box by means of a piston-like rod (P) and valve (V), which slides - backwards and forwards in the tubular part (T) of the box, from which - the outlet pipe emerges. When the valve (V) rests upon the edge of - this box, the gas is completely cut off from passing through the - outlet pipe, with the exception of that which passes through an - exceedingly small aperture (B), serving as a by-pass. This is just - large enough to allow sufficient gas to pass to maintain a small - flame. The piston-like rod and valve, when free, is kept pressed - outwards by means of a spiral spring. This ensures that the valve - shall follow the movements of the compound bar. When this bar bends - towards the gas box owing to a fall of temperature, the valve is - pushed back away from the orifice and gas in increasing quantity - passes through. The temperature of the incubator begins then to rise, - and the zinc bar (Z) expanding more than the steel one (ST), the bar - bends outwards and the valve once more cuts off the gas supply. - - (d) _Gas-Pressure Regulators._--The liquid form of thermo-regulators - especially work with a greater degree of accuracy if they are combined - with some apparatus which controls the variations in gas pressure. - There are various forms of these regulators, most of which are figured - and sometimes partially described in the catalogues of various makers - of scientific instruments. It will suffice if we describe two forms, - one of which (that of Buddicom) can be made by a laboratory attendant - of average intelligence. - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Buddicom's Gas Regulator.] - - In R. A. Buddicom's gas regulator (fig. 20) the inlet (I) and outlet - (O) gas pipe open into a metal bell (B), the lower and open end of - which is immersed beneath water contained in a metal tray (T). The - bell is suspended upon the arm of a balance (B) and the other arm is - poised by a weight (W). This weight may be made of any convenient - material. In the original apparatus a test-tube partially filled with - mercury was used. The weight dips into one limb of a U-shaped glass - tube (U), which contains mercury. Into the other limb of this tube the - gas from the meter enters through a glass tube (G) which is held in - position by a well-fitting cork. The internal aperture of the tube (G) - is very oblique, and it rests just above the level of the mercury when - the instrument is finally adjusted. This adjustment is better made in - the morning when the gas pressure in the main is at its lowest. Just - above the internal aperture of the tube (G), a lateral tube (L) passes - out from the limb of the U and is connected with the inlet pipe (I) of - the bell. If the gas pressure rises, the bell (B) is raised and the - counter-poising weight (W) is proportionately lowered. This forces the - mercury up in the other limb of the U-tube and consequently diminishes - the size of the oblique orifice in the tube (G). Some of the gas is - thus cut off and the pressure maintained constant. Should the pressure - fall, the reverse processes occur, and more gas passes through the - orifice of G and consequently to the burner by the outlet tube (O). - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Moitessier's Gas Regulator.] - - Moitessier's regulator (fig. 21) is more complex, and needs more - skilled work in its construction. It consists of an outer and closed - cylinder (O), which is filled about half-way up with a mixture of - acid-free glycerine and distilled water in the proportion of two to - one respectively. Within the cylinder is a bell (B), the lower and - open end of which dips under the glycerine-water mixture. From the top - of the bell a vertical rod (R) passes up through an aperture in the - cover of the outer cylinder, and supports the weighted dish (D). The - inlet (I) and outlet (O) pipes enter the chamber of the bell above the - level of the glycerine-water mixture. The outlet tube is a simple one; - but the inlet tube is enlarged into a relatively capacious cylinder - (C), and its upper end is fitted with a cover which is perforated by - an aperture having a smooth surface and concave form. Into this - aperture an accurately fitting ball- or socket-valve (V) fits. The - ball-valve is supported by a suspension thread (T) from the roof of - the bell (B). The apparatus should be adjusted in the morning when the - pressure is low, and the dish (D) should be then so weighted that the - full amount of gas passes through. The size of the flame should then - be adjusted. Should the pressure increase, the bell (B) is raised and - with it the ball-valve (V). The aperture in the cover of the inlet - cylinder is consequently reduced and some of the gas cut off. When the - pressure falls again, the ball-valve is lowered and more gas passes - through. The relative pressure in the inlet and outlet pipes can be - read off on the manometer (M) placed on each of these tubes. - - Levelling screws allow of the apparatus being horizontally adjusted. - The friction engendered by the working of the vertical rod (R) through - the aperture in the collar of the cylinder cover is reduced to a - minimum by the rod being made to slide upwards or downwards on three - vertical knife-edge ridges within the aperture of the collar. - - AUTHORITIES.--Charles A. Cyphers, _Incubation and its Natural Laws_ - (1776); J. H. Barlow, _The Art and Method of Hatching and Rearing all - Kinds of Domestic Poultry and Game Birds by Steam_ (London, 1827); and - _Daily Progress of the Chick in the Egg during Hatching in Steam - Apparatus_ (London, 1824); Walthew, _Artificial Incubation_ (London, - 1824); William Bucknell, _The Eccaleobin. A Treatise on Artificial - Incubation_, in 2 parts (published by the author, London, 1839); T. - Christy, jun., _Hydro-Incubation_ (London, 1877); L. Wright, _The Book - of Poultry_ (2nd ed. London, 1893); A. Forget, _L'Aviculture et - l'incubation artificielle_ (Paris, 1896); J. H. Sutcliffe, _Incubators - and their Management_ (Upcott Gill, London, 1896); H. H. Stoddard, - _The New Egg Farm_ (Orange Judd Co., New York, 1900); Edward Brown, - _Poultry Keeping as an Industry_ (5th ed., 1904); F. J. M. Page, "A - Simple Form of Gas Regulator," _Journ. Chem. Soc._ i. 24 (London, - 1876); V. Babes, "Über einige Apparate zur Bacterienuntersuchung," - _Centralblatt für Bacteriologie_, iv. (1888); T. Hüppe, _Methoden der - Bacterienforschungen_ (Berlin, 1889). For further details of - bacteriological incubators and accessories see catalogues of - Gallenkamp, Baird & Tatlock, Hearson of London, and of the Cambridge - Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge; of P. Lequeux of Paris; and - of F. & M. Lautenschläger of Berlin. That of Lequeux and of the - Cambridge Company are particularly useful, as in many instances they - give a scientific explanation of the principles upon which the - construction of the various pieces of apparatus is based. - (G. P. M.) - - - - -INCUBUS (a Late Latin form of the classical _incubo_, a night-mare, from -_incubare_, to lie upon, weigh down, brood), the name given in the -middle ages to a male demon which was supposed to haunt women in their -sleep, and to whose visits the birth of witches and demons was -attributed. The female counterparts of these demons were called -_succubae_. The word is also applied generally to an oppressive thing or -person. - - - - -INCUMBENT (from Lat. _incumbere_, to lean, lie upon), a general term for -the holder (rector, vicar, curate in charge) of an ecclesiastical -benefice (see BENEFICE). In Scotland the title is generally confined to -clergy of the Episcopal Church. The word in this application is peculiar -to English. Du Cange (_Glossarium, s. v._ "Incumbens") says that the -_Jurisconsulti_ use _incumbere_ in the sense of _obtinere_, _possidere_, -but the sense may be transferred from the general one of that which -rests or is laid on one as a duty which is also found in post-classical -Latin; to be "diligently resident" in a parish or benefice, has also -been suggested as the source of the meaning. - - - - -INCUNABULA, a Latin neuter-plural meaning "swaddling-clothes," a -"cradle," "birthplace," and so the beginning of anything, now curiously -specialized to denote books printed in the 15th century. Its use in this -sense may have originated with the title of the first separately -published list of 15th-century books, Cornelius a Beughem's _Incunabula -typographiae_ (Amsterdam, 1688). The word is generally recognized all -over Europe and has produced vernacular forms such as the French -incunables, German _Inkunabeln_ (_Wiegendrucke_), Italian _incunaboli_, -though the anglicized _incunables_ is not yet fully accepted. If its -original meaning had been regarded the application of the word would -have been confined to books printed before a much earlier date, such as -1475, or to the first few printed in any country or town. By the end of -the 15th century book-production in the great centres of the trade, such -as Venice, Lyons, Paris and Cologne, had already lost much of its -primitive character, and in many countries there is no natural -halting-place between 1490 and 1520 or later. The attractions of a round -date have prevailed, however, over these considerations, and the year -1500 is taken as a halting-place, or more often a terminus, in all the -chief works devoted to the registration and description of early printed -books. The most important of these are (i.) Panzer's _Annales -typographici ab artis inventae origine ad annum MD._, printed in five -volumes at Nuremberg in 1793 and subsequently in 1803 carried on to 1536 -by six additional volumes; (ii.) Ham's _Repertorium bibliographicum in -quo libri omnes ab arte typographica inventa usque ad annum MD. typis -expressi ordine alphabetico vel simpliciter enumerantur vel adcuratius, -recensentur_ (Stuttgart, 1826-1838). In Panzer's _Annales_ the first -principle of division is that of the alphabetical order of the Latin -names of towns in which incunabula were printed, the books being -arranged under the towns by the years of publication. In Hain's -_Repertorium_ the books are arranged under their authors' names, and it -was only in 1891 that an index of printers was added by Dr Konrad -Burger. In 1898 Robert Proctor published an _Index to the Early Printed -Books in the British Museum: from the invention of printing to the year -MD., with notes of those in the Bodleian Library_. In this work the -books were arranged as far as possible chronologically under their -printers, the printers chronologically under the towns in which they -worked, and the towns and countries chronologically in the order in -which printing was introduced into them, the total number of books -registered being nearly ten thousand. Between 1898 and 1902 Dr W. -Copinger published a _Supplement to Hain's Repertorium_, described as a -collection towards a new edition of that work, adding some seven -thousand new entries to the sixteen thousand editions enumerated by -Hain. From the total of about twenty-three thousand incunabula thus -registered considerable deductions must be made for duplicate entries -and undated editions which probably belong to the 16th century. On the -other hand Dr Copinger's _Supplement_ had hardly appeared before -additional lists began to be issued registering books unknown both to -him and to Hain, and the new _Repertorium_, begun in 1905, under the -auspices of the German government, seemed likely to register, on its -completion, not fewer than thirty thousand different incunabula as -extant either in complete copies or fragments. - -In any attempt to estimate the extent to which the incunabula still in -existence represent the total output of the 15th-century presses, a -sharp distinction must be drawn between the weightier and the more -ephemeral literature. Owing to the great religious and intellectual -upheaval in the 16th century much of the literature previously current -went out of date, while the cumbrous early editions of books still read -were superseded by handier ones. Before this happened the heavier works -had found their way into countless libraries and here they reposed -peacefully, only sharing the fate of the libraries themselves when these -were pillaged, or by a happier fortune amalgamated with other -collections in a larger library. The considerable number of copies of -many books for whose preservation no special reason can be found -encourages a belief that the proportion of serious works now completely -lost is not very high, except in the case of books of devotion whose -honourable destiny was to be worn to pieces by devout fingers. On the -other hand, of the lighter literature in book-form, the cheap romances -and catchpenny literature of all kinds, the destruction has been very -great. Most of the broadsides and single sheets generally which have -escaped have done so only by virtue of the 16th-century custom of using -waste of this kind as a substitute for wooden boards to stiffen -bindings. Excluding these broadsides, &c., the total output of the -15th-century presses in book form is not likely to have exceeded forty -thousand editions. As to the size of the editions we know that the -earliest printers at Rome favoured 225 copies, those at Venice 300. By -the end of the century these numbers had increased, but the soft metal -in use then for types probably wore badly enough to keep down the size -of editions, and an average of 500 copies, giving a possible total of -twenty million books put on the European market during the 15th century -is probably as near an estimate as can be made. - -Very many incunabula contain no information as to when, where or by whom -they were printed, but the individuality of most of the early types as -compared with modern ones has enabled typographical detectives (of whom -Robert Proctor, who died in 1903, was by far the greatest) to track most -of them down. To facilitate this work many volumes of facsimiles have -been published, the most important being K. Burger's _Monumenta -Germaniae et Italiae Typographica_ (1892, &c.), J. W. Holtrop's -_Monuments typographiques des Pays-Bas_ (1868), O. Thierry-Poux's -_Premiers monuments de l'imprimerie en France au XV^e siècle_ (1890), K. -Haebler's _Typographie ibérique du quinzième siècle_ (1901) and Gordon -Duff's _Early English Printing_ (1896), the publications of the Type -Facsimile Society (1700, &c.) and the _Woolley Facsimiles_, a collection -of five hundred photographs, privately printed. - -In his _Index to the Early Printed Books at the British Museum_ Proctor -enumerated and described all the known types used by each printer, and -his descriptions have been usefully extended and made more precise by Dr -Haebler in his _Typenrepertorium der Wiegendrucke_ (1905, &c.). With the -aid of these descriptions and of the facsimiles already mentioned it is -usually possible to assign a newly discovered book with some certainty -to the press from which it was issued and often to specify within a few -weeks, or even days, the date at which it was finished. - -As a result of these researches it is literally true that the output of -the 15th-century presses (excluding the ephemeral publications which -have very largely disappeared) is better known to students than that of -any other period. Of original literature of any importance the -half-century 1450-1500 was singularly barren, and the zeal with which -15th-century books have been collected and studied has been criticized -as excessive and misplaced. No doubt the minuteness with which it is -possible to make an old book yield up its secrets has encouraged -students to pursue the game for its own sake without any great -consideration of practical utility, but the materials which have thus -been made available for the student of European culture are far from -insignificant. The competition among the 15th-century printers was very -great and they clearly sent to press every book for which they could -hope for a sale, undaunted by its bulk. Thus the great medieval -encyclopaedia, the _Specula_ (_Speculum naturale_, _Speculum -historiale_, _Speculum morale_, _Speculum doctrinale_) of Vincent de -Beauvais went through two editions at Strassburg and found publishers -and translators elsewhere, although it must have represented an outlay -from which many modern firms would shrink. It would almost seem, indeed, -as if some publishers specially affected very bulky works which, while -they remained famous, had grown scarce because the scribes were afraid -to attempt them. Hence, more especially in Germany, it was not merely -the output of a single generation which came to the press before 1500, -but the whole of the medieval literature which remained alive, i.e. -retained a reputation sufficient to attract buyers. A study of lists of -incunabula enables a student to see just what works this included, and -the degree of their popularity. On the other hand in Italy the influence -of the classical renaissance is reflected in the enormous output of -Latin classics, and the progress of Greek studies can be traced in the -displacement of Latin translations by editions of the originals. The -part which each country and city played in the struggle between the old -ideals and the new can be determined in extraordinary detail by a study -of the output of its presses, although some allowance must be made for -the extent to which books were transported along the great trade routes. -Thus the fact that the Venetian output nearly equalled that of the whole -of the rest of Italy was no doubt mainly due to its export trade. -Venetian books penetrated everywhere, and the skill of Venetian printers -in liturgical books procured them commissions to print whole editions -for the English market. From the almost complete absence of scholarly -books in the lists of English Incunabula it would be too much to -conclude that there was no demand for such books in England. The demand -existed and was met by importation, which a statute of Richard III.'s -expressly facilitated. But that it was not commercially possible for a -scholarly press to be worked in England, and that no man of means was -ready to finance one, tells its own tale. The total number of incunabula -printed in England was probably upwards of four hundred, of which Caxton -produced fully one-fourth. Of the ten thousand different incunabula -which the British Museum and Bodleian library possess between them, -about 4100 are Italian, 3400 German, 1000 French, 700 from the -Netherlands, 400 from Switzerland, 150 from Spain and Portugal, 50 from -other parts of the continent of Europe and 200 English, the proportion -of these last being about doubled by the special zeal with which they -have been collected. The celebration in 1640 of the second centenary (as -it was considered) of the invention of printing may be taken as the date -from which incunabula began to be collected for their own sake, apart -from their literary interest, and the publication of Beughem's -_Incunabula typographiae_ in 1688 marks the increased attention paid to -them. But up to the end of the 17th century Caxtons could still be -bought for a few shillings. The third centenary of the invention of -printing in 1740 again stimulated enthusiasm, and by the end of the 18th -century the really early books were eagerly competed for. Interest in -books of the last ten or fifteen years of the century is a much more -modern development, but with the considerable literature which has grown -up round the subject is not likely to be easily checked. - - The chief collections of incunabula are those of the Bibliothèque - Nationale at Paris, Royal library, Munich, and British Museum, London, - the number of separate editions in each library exceeding nine - thousand, with numerous duplicates. The number of separate editions at - the Bodleian library is about five thousand. Other important - collections are at the University library, Cambridge, and the John - Rylands library, Manchester, the latter being based on the famous - Althorp library formed by Earl Spencer (see BOOK-COLLECTING). - (A. W. Po.) - - - - -INDABA, a Zulu-Bantu word, formed from the inflexional prefix _in_ and -_daba_, business, news, for an important conference held by the -"indunas" or principal men of the Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South -Africa. Such "indabas" may include only the "indunas" of a particular -tribe, or may be held with the representatives of other tribes or -peoples. - - - - -INDAZOLES (BENZOPYRAZOLES), organic substances containing the ring -system - - /\/ CH \ - | | \ NH. - \/\ N / - -The parent substance indazole, C7H6N2, was obtained by E. Fischer -(_Ann._ 1883, 221, p. 280) by heating ortho-hydrazine cinnamic acid, - - /CH = CH·COOH - C6H4 / = C2H4O2 + C7H6N2. - \ NH·NH2 - -It has also been obtained by heating ortho-diazoaminotoluene with acetic -acid and benzene (F. Heusler, _Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 4161). - - / CH3 - C6H4 / = C7H7NH2 + C7H6N2. - \ N:N NHC7H7 - -It crystallizes in needles (from hot water), which melt at 146.5° C. and -boil at 269°-270° C. It is readily soluble in hot water, alcohol and -dilute hydrochloric acid. Nitrous acid converts it into nitrosoindazole; -whilst on heating with the alkyl iodides it is converted into alkyl -indazoles. - -A series of compounds isomeric with these alkyl derivatives is known, -and can be considered as derived from the ring system - - /\/ NH \ - | | \ N. - \/\ CH // - -These isomers are called _isindazoles_, and may be prepared by the -reduction of the nitroso-ortho-alkylamino-acetophenones with zinc dust -and water or acetic acid. The indazoles are weak bases, which -crystallize readily. Phenyl indazole, on reduction with sodium and -absolute alcohol, gives a dihydro derivative (K. L. Paal, _Ber._, 1891, -24, p. 963). - - For other derivatives, see E. Fischer and J. Tafel, _Ann._ 1885, 227, - p. 314. - - - - -INDEMNITY (through Fr. _indemnité_, Lat. _indemnis_, free from damage or -loss; _in_-, negative, and _damnum_, loss), in law, an undertaking, -either express or implied, to compensate another for loss or damage, or -for trouble or expense incurred; also the sum so paid (see CONTRACT; and -INSURANCE: _Marine_). An act of indemnity is a statute passed for the -purpose either of relieving persons from disabilities and penalties to -which they have rendered themselves liable or to make legal transactions -which, when they took place, were illegal. An act or bill of indemnity -used to be passed every session by the English parliament for the relief -of those who had unwittingly neglected to qualify themselves in certain -respects for the holding of offices, &c., as, for example, justices, -without taking the necessary oaths. The Promissory Oaths Act 1868 -rendered this unnecessary. - - - - -INDENE, C9H8, a hydrocarbon found in the fraction of the coal tar -distillate boiling between 176° and 182° C., and from which it may be -extracted by means of its picrate (G. Kramer, A. Spilker, Ber., 1890, -23, p. 3276). It may also be obtained by distilling the calcium salt of -hydrindene carboxylic acid, C6H4(CH2)2·CH·COOH. It is an oil which boils -at 179.5°-180.5°, and has a specific gravity 1.04 (15° C.). Dilute -nitric acid oxidizes it to phthalic acid, and sodium reduces it in -alcoholic solution to _hydrindene_, C9H10. A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin -(Ber., 1884, 17, p. 125) by the action of sodiomalonic ester on -ortho-xylylene bromide obtained a hydrindene dicarboxylic ester, - - C6H4(CH2Br)2 + 2CHNa(CO2C2H5)2 = 2NaBr + CH2(CO2C2H5)2 - + C6H4:[CH2]2:C(CO2C2H5)2; - -this ester on hydrolysis yields the corresponding acid, which on heating -loses carbon dioxide and gives the monocarboxylic acid of hydrindene. -The barium salt of this acid, when heated, yields indene and not -hydrindene, hydrogen being liberated (W. H. Perkin, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, -1894, 65, p. 228). Indene vapour when passed through a red hot tube -yields chrysene. It combines with nitrosyl chloride to form indene -nitrosate (M. Dennstedt and C. Ahrens, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1331) and it -reacts with benzaldehyde, oxalic ester and formic ester (J. Thiele, -_Ber._, 1900, 33, p. 3395). - - On the derivatives of indene see W. v. Miller, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. - 1883; Th. Zincke, _Ber._, 1887, 20, p. 2394, 1886, 19, p. 2493; and W. - Roser and E. Haselhoff, _Ann._, 1888, 247, p. 140. - - - - -INDENTURE (through O. Fr. _endenture_ from a legal Latin term -_indentura_, _indentare_, to cut into teeth, to give a jagged edge, in -_modum dentium_, like teeth), a law term for a special form of deed -executed between two or more parties, and having counterparts or copies -equal to the number of parties. These copies were all drawn on one piece -of vellum or paper divided by a toothed or "indented" line. The copies -when separated along this waved line could then be identified as -"tallies" when brought together. Deeds executed by one party only had a -smooth or "polled" edge, whence the name "deed poll." By the Real -Property Act 1845, § 5, all deeds purporting to be "indentures" have the -effect of an "indenture," even though the indented line be absent. The -name "chirograph" (Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, [Greek: graphein], to -write) was also early applied to such a form of deed, and the word -itself was often written along the indented line (see further DEED and -DIPLOMATIC). The term "indenture" is now used generally of any sealed -agreement between two or more parties, and specifically of a contract of -apprenticeship, whence the phrase "to take up one's indentures," on -completion of the term, and also of a contract by labourers to serve in -a foreign country or colony (see COOLIE). - - - - -INDEPENDENCE, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Missouri, -U.S.A., 3 m. S. of the Missouri river and 10 m. E. of Kansas City. Pop. -(1890) 6380, (1900) 6974 (937 negroes); (1910) 9859. The city is served -by the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Kansas City -Southern railways, and by an electric line and fine boulevard to Kansas -City. It is situated about 1000 ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by -a fertile agricultural district. The city has a small public square -(surrounding the court-house) and a public library, and is the seat of -St Mary's Academy, under the control of the Sisters of Mercy. Among its -manufactures are farming implements, flour and lumber. The municipality -owns its electric lighting plant. Independence was laid out as a town -and chosen as the county-seat in 1827, first chartered as a city in 1849 -and made a city of the third-class in 1889. About 1500 Mormons, -attracted by the "revelation" that this was to be a Zion, settled in and -about Independence in 1831 and 1832. They contemplated building their -chief temple about ½ m. W. of the site of the present court house, but -in 1833 (partly because they invited free negroes to join them) were -expelled by the "gentile" inhabitants of Independence. In 1867 a -settlement of about 150 Hedrickites, or members of the "Church of Jesus -Christ" (organized in Illinois in 1835), came here and secretly bought -up parts of the "Temple Lot." The heirs of the settlers of 1831-1832 -conveyed the lot by deed to the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of -Latter Day Saints (with headquarters at Lamoni, Iowa), which brought -suit against the Hedrickites, but in 1894 the U.S. Circuit Court of -Appeals decided the case on the ground of laches in favour of the -Hedrickites, who fifteen years afterwards had nearly died out. In -1867-1869 a few families belonging to the Reorganized Church of Jesus -Christ of Latter Day Saints (monogamists) settled in Independence, and -in 1908 their church here had about 2000 members. Besides a large church -building, they have here a printing establishment, from which is issued -the weekly _Zion's Ensign_ (founded in 1891), and the "Independence -Sanitarium" (completed in 1908). The faithful Mormons still look to -Independence as the Zion of the church. In 1907 a number of Mormons from -Utah settled here, moving the headquarters of the "Central States' -Mission" from Kansas City to Independence, and founded a periodical -called _Liahona, the Elder's Journal_. From about 1831 to 1844, when its -river landing was destroyed by flood, Independence was the headquarters -and outfitting point of the extensive caravan trains for the Santa Fé, -Oregon and Old Salt Lake trails. During the Civil War about 300 Federals -under Lieut.-Colonel D. H. Buel, occupying the town, were captured on -the 16th of August 1862 by Colonel Hughes in command of 1500 -Confederates, and on the 22nd of October 1864 a part of General Sterling -Price's Confederate army was defeated a few miles E. of Independence by -General Alfred Pleasonton. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 14, Slice 3, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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