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diff --git a/40156-0.txt b/40156-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bb7b092 --- /dev/null +++ b/40156-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19389 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40156 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE ICHTHYOLOGY: "Within it in Neoceratodus are a number of + longitudinal rows of pocket valves." 'longitudinal' amended from + 'longtitudinal'. + + ARTICLE IDEALISM: "... the systems of impious and profane persons + which exclude all freedom, intelligence, and design from the + formation of things, and instead thereof make a self-existent ..." + 'freedom' amended from 'freeedom'. + + ARTICLE ILLINOIS: "An anti-trust law of 1893 exempted from the + definition of trust combinations those formed by producers of + agricultural products and live stock, but the United States Supreme + Court in 1902 declared the statute unconstitutional as class + legislation." 'United' amended from 'Untied'. + + ARTICLE IMAM: "... Juynboll's De Mohammedanische Wet, 316 seq. ..." + 'Mohammedanische' amended from 'Mohammedaanische'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIV, SLICE III + + Ichthyology to Independence + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ICHTHYOLOGY ILLUSTRES + ICHTHYOPHAGI ILLYRIA + ICHTHYOSAURUS ILMENAU + ICHTHYOSIS ILMENITE + ICKNIELD STREET ILOILO + ICON ILSENBURG + ICONIUM IMAGE + ICONOCLASTS IMAGE WORSHIP + ICONOSTASIS IMAGINATION + ICOSAHEDRON IMAM + ICTERUS IMBECILE + ICTINUS IMBREX + IDA IMBROS + IDAHO IMERETIA + IDAR IMIDAZOLES + IDAS IMITATION + IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD NORTHCOTE IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE + IDEA IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE + IDEALISM IMMANENCE + IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON + IDENTIFICATION IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT + IDEOGRAPH IMMERSION + IDIOBLAST IMMIGRATION + IDIOM IMMORTALITY + IDIOSYNCRASY IMMUNITY + IDOLATRY IMOLA + IDOMENEUS IMP + IDRIA IMPATIENS + IDRIALIN IMPEACHMENT + IDRISI IMPERIAL CHAMBER + IDUMAEA IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS + IDUN IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH + IDYL IMPHAL + IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM IMPLEMENT + IGLAU IMPLUVIUM + IGLESIAS IMPOSITION + IGNATIEV, NICHOLAS PAVLOVICH IMPOST + IGNATIUS IMPOTENCE + IGNORAMUS IMPRESSIONISM + IGNORANCE IMPRESSMENT + IGNORANTINES IMPROMPTU + IGUALADA IMPROVISATORE + IGUANA IN-ANTIS + IGUANODON INAUDI, JACQUES + IGUVIUM INCANTATION + IJOLITE INCE, WILLIAM + IKI INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD + ILAGAN INCENDIARISM + ILCHESTER INCENSE + ÎLE-DE-FRANCE INCEST + ILETSK INCH + ILFELD INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH + ILFORD INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN + ILFRACOMBE INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN + ILHAVO INCLINOMETER + ILI INCLOSURE + ILION IN COENA DOMINI + ILKESTON INCOME TAX + ILKLEY INCORPORATION + ILL INCUBATION and INCUBATORS + ILLAWARRA INCUBUS + ILLE-ET-VILAINE INCUMBENT + ILLEGITIMACY INCUNABULA + ILLER INDABA + ILLINOIS INDAZOLES + ILLORIN INDEMNITY + ILLUMINATED MSS. INDENE + ILLUMINATI INDENTURE + ILLUMINATION INDEPENDENCE + ILLUSTRATION + + + + +ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: ichthys], fish, and [Greek: logos], +doctrine or treatise), the branch of zoology which treats of the +internal and external structure of fishes, their mode of life, and their +distribution in space and time. According to the views now generally +adopted, all those vertebrate animals are referred to the class of +fishes which combine the following characteristics: they live in water, +and by means of gills or branchiae breathe air dissolved in water; the +heart consists of a single ventricle and single atrium; the limbs, if +present, are modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired median fins; +and the skin is either naked or covered with scales or with osseous +plates or bucklers. With few exceptions fishes are oviparous. There are, +however, not a few members of this class which show a modification of +one or more of these characteristics, and which, nevertheless, cannot be +separated from it. + + +I. HISTORY AND LITERATURE DOWN TO 1880 + +The commencement of the history of ichthyology coincides with that of +zoology generally. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had a perfect knowledge of +the general structure of fishes, which he clearly discriminates both +from the aquatic animals with lungs and mammae, i.e. Cetaceans, and from +the various groups of aquatic invertebrates. According to him: "the +special characteristics of the true fishes consist in the branchiae and +fins, the majority having four fins, but those of an elongate form, as +the eels, having two only. Some, as the _Muraena_, lack the fins +altogether. The rays swim with their whole body, which is spread out. +The branchiae are sometimes furnished with an operculum, sometimes they +are without one, as in the cartilaginous fishes.... No fish has hairs or +feathers; most are covered with scales, but some have only a rough or a +smooth skin. The tongue is hard, often toothed, and sometimes so much +adherent that it seems to be wanting. The eyes have no lids, nor are any +ears or nostrils visible, for what takes the place of nostrils is a +blind cavity; nevertheless they have the senses of tasting, smelling and +hearing. All have blood. All scaly fishes are oviparous, but the +cartilaginous fishes (with the exception of the sea-devil, which +Aristotle places along with them) are viviparous. All have a heart, +liver and gall-bladder; but kidneys and urinary bladder are absent. They +vary much in the structure of their intestines: for, whilst the mullet +has a fleshy stomach like a bird, others have no stomachic dilatation. +Pyloric caeca are close to the stomach, and vary in number; there are +even some, like the majority of the cartilaginous fishes, which have +none whatever. Two bodies are situated along the spine, which have the +function of testicles; they open towards the vent, and are much enlarged +in the spawning season. The scales become harder with age. Not being +provided with lungs, fishes have no voice, but several can emit grunting +sounds. They sleep like other animals. In most cases the females exceed +the males in size; and in the rays and sharks the male is distinguished +by an appendage on each side of the vent." + +Aristotle's information on the habits of fishes, their migrations, mode +and time of propagation, and economic uses is, so far as it has been +tested, surprisingly correct. Unfortunately, we too often lack the means +of recognizing the species of which he gives a description. His ideas of +specific distinction were as vague as those of the fishermen whose +nomenclature he adopted; it never occurred to him that vernacular names +are subject to change, or may be entirely lost in course of time, and +the difficulty of identifying his species is further increased by the +circumstance that sometimes several popular names are applied by him to +the same fish, or different stages of growth are designated by distinct +names. The number of fishes known to Aristotle seems to have been about +one hundred and fifteen, all of which are inhabitants of the Aegean Sea. + +That one man should have laid so sure a basis for future progress in +zoology is less surprising than that for about eighteen centuries a +science which seemed to offer particular attractions to men gifted with +power of observation was no further advanced. Yet such is the case. +Aristotle's successors remained satisfied to be his copiers or +commentators, and to collect fabulous stories or vague notions. With few +exceptions (such as Ausonius, who wrote a small poem, in which he +describes from his own observations the fishes of the Moselle) authors +abstained from original research; and it was not until about the middle +of the 16th century that ichthyology made a new step in advance by the +appearance of Belon, Rondelet and Salviani, who almost simultaneously +published their great works, by which the idea of species was +established. + + + Belon. + +P. Belon travelled in the countries bordering on the eastern part of the +Mediterranean in the years 1547-1550; he collected rich stores of +positive knowledge, which he embodied in several works. The one most +important for the progress of ichthyology is that entitled _De +aquatilibus libri duo_ (Paris, 1553). Belon knew about one hundred and +ten fishes, of which he gives rude but generally recognizable figures. +Although Belon rarely gives definitions of the terms used by him, it is +not generally very difficult to ascertain the limits which he intended +to assign to each division of aquatic animals. He very properly divides +them into such as are provided with blood and those without it--two +divisions corresponding in modern language to vertebrate and +invertebrate aquatic animals. The former are classified by him according +to size, the further sub-divisions being based on the structure of the +skeleton, mode of propagation, number of limbs, form of the body and +physical character of the habitat. + + + Salviani. + +The work of the Roman ichthyologist H. Salviani (1514-1572), bears +evidence of the high social position which the author held as physician +to three popes. Its title is _Aquatilium animalium historia_ (Rome, +1554-1557, fol.). It treats exclusively of the fishes of Italy. +Ninety-two species are figured on seventy-six plates, which, as regards +artistic execution, are masterpieces of that period, although those +specific characteristics which nowadays constitute the value of a +zoological drawing were overlooked by the author or artist. No attempt +is made at a natural classification, but the allied forms are generally +placed in close proximity. The descriptions are equal to those given by +Belon, entering much into the details of the economy and uses of the +several species, and were evidently composed with the view of collecting +in a readable form all that might prove of interest to the class of +society in which the author moved. Salviani's work is of a high order. +It could not fail to render ichthyology popular in the country to the +fauna of which it was devoted, but it was not fitted to advance +ichthyology as a science generally; in this respect Salviani is not to +be compared with Rondelet or Belon. + + + Rondelet. + +G. Rondelet (1507-1557) had the great advantage over Belon of having +received a medical education at Paris, and especially of having gone +through a complete course of instruction in anatomy as a pupil of +Guentherus of Andernach. This is conspicuous throughout his +works--_Libri de piscibus marinis_ (Lyons, 1554); and _Universae +aquatilium historiae pars altera_ (Lyons, 1555). Nevertheless they +cannot be regarded as more than considerably enlarged editions of +Belon's work. For, although he worked independently of the latter, the +system adopted by him is characterized by the same absence of the true +principles of classification. His work is almost entirely limited to +European and chiefly to Mediterranean forms, and comprises no fewer than +one hundred and ninety-seven marine and forty-seven fresh-water fishes. +His descriptions are more complete and his figures much more accurate +than those of Belon; and the specific account is preceded by +introductory chapters, in which he treats in a general manner of the +distinctions, the external and internal parts, and the economy of +fishes. Like Belon, he had no conception of the various categories of +classification--confounding throughout his work the terms "genus" and +"species," but he had an intuitive notion of what his successors called +a "species," and his principal object was to give as much information as +possible regarding such species. + +For nearly a century the works of Belon and Rondelet continued to be the +standard works on ichthyology; but the science did not remain stationary +during that period. The attention of naturalists was now directed to the +fauna of foreign countries, especially of the Spanish and Dutch +possessions in the New World; and in Europe the establishment of +anatomical schools and academies led to careful investigation of the +internal anatomy of the most remarkable European forms. Limited as these +efforts were as to their scope, they were sufficiently numerous to +enlarge the views of naturalists, and to destroy that fatal dependence +on preceding authorities which had kept in bonds even Rondelet and +Belon. The most noteworthy of those engaged in these inquiries in +tropical countries were W. Piso and G. Marcgrave, who accompanied as +physicians the Dutch governor, Count Maurice of Nassau, to Brazil +(1630-1644). + +Of the men who left records of their anatomical researches, we may +mention Borelli (1608-1679), who wrote a work _De motu animalium_ (Rome, +1680, 4to), in which he explained the mechanism of swimming and the +function of the air-bladder; M. Malpighi (1628-1694), who examined the +optic nerve of the sword-fish; the celebrated J. Swammerdam (1637-1680), +who described the intestines of numerous fishes; and J. Duverney +(1648-1730), who investigated in detail the organs of respiration. + +A new era in the history of ichthyology commences with Ray, Willughby +and Artedi, who were the first to recognize the true principles by which +the natural affinities of animals should be determined. Their labours +stand in so intimate a connexion with each other that they represent but +one great step in the progress of this science. + + + Ray and Willughby. + +J. Ray (1628-1705) was the friend and guide of F. Willughby (1635-1672). +They found that a thorough reform in the method of treating the +vegetable and animal kingdoms had become necessary; that the only way of +bringing order into the existing chaos was by arranging the various +forms according to their structure. They therefore substituted facts for +speculation, and one of the first results of this change, perhaps the +most important, was that, having recognized "species" as such, they +defined the term and fixed it as the starting-point of all sound +zoological knowledge. + +Although they had divided their work so that Ray attended to the plants +principally, and Willughby to the animals, the _Historia piscium_ (Oxf., +1686), which bears Willughby's name on the title-page and was edited by +Ray, is their joint production. A great part of the observations +contained in it were collected during the journeys they made together in +Great Britain and in the various countries of Europe. + +By the definition of fishes as animals with blood, breathing by gills, +provided with a single ventricle of the heart, and either covered with +scales or naked, the Cetaceans are excluded. The fishes proper are +arranged primarily according to the cartilaginous or the osseous nature +of the skeleton, and then subdivided according to the general form of +the body, the presence or the absence of ventral fins, the soft or the +spinous structure of the dorsal rays, the number of dorsal fins, &c. No +fewer than four hundred and twenty species are thus arranged and +described, of which about one hundred and eighty were known to the +authors from personal examination--a comparatively small proportion, +but descriptions and figures still formed in great measure the +substitute for our modern collections and museums. With the increasing +accumulation of forms, the want of a fixed nomenclature had become more +and more felt. + + + Artedi. + +Peter Artedi (1705-1734) would have been a great ichthyologist if Ray or +Willughby had not preceded him. But he was fully conscious of the fact +that both had prepared the way for him, and therefore he did not fail to +reap every possible advantage from their labours. His work, edited by +Linnaeus, is divided as follows:-- + + (1) In the _Bibliotheca ichthyologica_ Artedi gives a very complete + list of all preceding authors who had written on fishes, with a + critical analysis of their works. (2) The _Philosophia ichthyologica_ + is devoted to a description of the external and internal parts of + fishes; Artedi fixes a precise terminology for all the various + modifications of the organs, distinguishing between those characters + which determine a genus and such as indicate a species or merely a + variety; in fact he establishes the method and principles which + subsequently have guided every systematic ichthyologist. (3) The + _Genera piscium_ contains well-defined diagnoses of forty-five genera, + for which he has fixed an unchangeable nomenclature. (4) In the + _Species piscium_ descriptions of seventy-two species, examined by + himself, are given--descriptions which even now are models of + exactitude and method. (5) Finally, in the _Synonymia piscium_ + references to all previous authors are arranged for every species, + very much in the manner which is adopted in the systematic works of + the present day. + + + Linnaeus. + +Artedi has been justly called the father of ichthyology. So admirable +was his treatment of the subject, that even Linnaeus could only modify +and add to it. Indeed, so far as ichthyology is concerned, Linnaeus has +scarcely done anything beyond applying binominal terms to the species +properly described and classified by Artedi. His classification of the +genera appears in the 12th edition of the _Systema_ thus:-- + + A. _Amphibia nantia._--_Spiraculis compositis._--Petromyzon, Raía, + Squalus, Chimaera. _Spiraculis solitariis._--Lophius, Acipenser, + Cyclopterus, Balistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, + Syngnathus, Pegasus. + + B. _Pisces apodes._--Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas, + Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias. + + C. _Pisces jugulares._--Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Gadus, + Blennius. + + D. _Pisces thoracici._--Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius, Cottus, + Scorpaena, Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Sparus, Labrus, Sciaena, + Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla. + + E. _Pisces abdominales._--Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Teuthis, Loricaria, + Salmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, Argentina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, + Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus. + +Two contemporaries of Linnaeus, L. T. Gronow and J. T. Klein, attempted +a systematic arrangement of fishes. + +The works of Artedi and Linnaeus led to an activity of research, +especially in Scandinavia, Holland, Germany and England, such as has +never been equalled in the history of biological science. Whilst some of +the pupils and followers of Linnaeus devoted themselves to the +examination and study of the fauna of their native countries, others +proceeded on voyages of discovery to foreign and distant lands. Of these +latter the following may be especially mentioned: O. Fabricius worked +out the fauna of Greenland; Peter Kalm collected in North America, F. +Hasselquist in Egypt and Palestine, M. T. Brünnich in the Mediterranean, +Osbeck in Java and China, K. P. Thunberg in Japan; Forskål examined and +described the fishes of the Red Sea; G. W. Steller, P. S. Pallas, S. G. +Gmelin, and A. J. Güldenstädt traversed nearly the whole of the Russian +empire in Europe and Asia. Others attached themselves as naturalists to +celebrated navigators, such as the two Forsters (father and son) and +Solander, who accompanied Cook; P. Commerson, who travelled with +Bougainville; and Pierre Sonnerat. Of those who studied the fishes of +their native countries, the most celebrated were Pennant (Great +Britain), O. F. Müller (Denmark), Duhamel du Monceau (France), C. von +Meidinger (Austria), J. Cornide (Spain), and A. Parra (Cuba). + +The mass of materials brought together was so great that, not long after +the death of Linnaeus, the necessity made itself felt for collecting +them in a compendious form. Several compilers undertook this task; they +embodied the recent discoveries in new editions of the classical works +of Artedi and Linnaeus, but, they only succeeded in burying those noble +monuments under a chaotic mass of rubbish. For ichthyology it was +fortunate that two men at least, Bloch and Lacepède, made it a subject +of prolonged original research. + + + Bloch. + +Mark Eliezer Bloch (1723-1799), a physician of Berlin, had reached the +age of fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects. His +work consists of two divisions:-- (1) _Öconomische Naturgeschichte der +Fische Deutschlands_ (Berl., 1782-1784); (2) _Naturgeschichte der +ausländischen Fische_ (Berl., 1785-1795). The first division, which is +devoted to a description of the fishes of Germany, is entirely original. +His descriptions as well as figures were made from nature, and are, with +few exceptions, still serviceable; indeed many continue to be the best +existing in literature. Bloch was less fortunate, and is much less +trustworthy, in his natural history of foreign fishes. For many of the +species he had to trust to more or less incorrect drawings and +descriptions by travellers; frequently, also, he was deceived as to the +origin of specimens which he purchased. Hence his accounts contain +numerous errors, which it would have been difficult to correct had not +nearly the whole of the materials on which his work is based been +preserved in the collections at Berlin. + +After the completion of his great work Bloch prepared a general system +of fishes, in which he arranged not only those previously described, but +also those with which he had afterwards become acquainted. The work was +ably edited and published after Bloch's death by a philologist, J. G. +Schneider, under the title _M. E. Blochii Systema ichthyologiae iconibus +cx. illustratum_ (Berl., 1801). The number of species enumerated amounts +to 1519. The system is based upon the number of the fins, the various +orders being termed _Hendecapterygii_, _Decapterygii_, &c. An artificial +method like this led to the most unnatural combinations and +distinctions. + +Bloch's _Naturgeschichte_ remained for many years the standard work. But +as regards originality of thought Bloch was far surpassed by his +contemporary, B. G. E. de Lacepède, born at Agen, in France, in 1756, +who became professor at the museum of natural history in Paris, where he +died in 1825. + + + Lacepède. + +Lacepède had to contend with great difficulties in the preparations of +his _Histoire des poissons_ (Paris, 1798-1803, 5 vols.), which was +written during the most disturbed period of the French Revolution. A +great part of it was composed whilst the author was separated from +collections and books, and had to rely on his notes and manuscripts +only. Even the works of Bloch and other contemporaneous authors remained +unknown or inaccessible to him for a long time. His work, therefore, +abounds in the kind of errors into which a compiler is liable to fall. +Thus the influence of Lacepède on the progress of ichthyology was vastly +less than that of his fellow-labourer; and the labour laid on his +successors in correcting numerous errors probably outweighed the +assistance which they derived from his work. + +The work of the principal students of ichthyology in the period between +Ray and Lacepède was chiefly systematizing and describing; but the +internal organization of fishes also received attention from more than +one great anatomist. Albrecht von Haller, Peter Camper and John Hunter +examined the nervous system and the organs of sense; and Alexander +Monro, _secundus_, published a classical work, _The Structure and +Physiology of Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and other +Animals_ (Edin., 1785). The electric organs of fishes (_Torpedo_ and +_Gymnotus_) were examined by Réaumur, J. N. S. Allamand, E. Bancroft, +John Walsh, and still more exactly by J. Hunter. The mystery of the +propagation of the eel called forth a large number of essays, and even +the artificial propagation of _Salmonidae_ was known and practised by J. +G. Gleditsch (1764). + +Bloch and Lacepède's works were almost immediately succeeded by the +labours of Cuvier, but his early publications were tentative, +preliminary and fragmentary, so that some little time elapsed before the +spirit infused into ichthyology by this great anatomist could exercise +its influence on all the workers in this field. + + The _Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes collected at + Vizagapatam on the Coast of Coromandel_ (Lond., 1803, 2 vols.) by + Patrick Russel, and _An Account of the Fishes found in the River + Ganges and its Branches_ (Edin., 1822, 2 vols.) by F. Hamilton + (formerly Buchanan), were works distinguished by greater accuracy of + the drawings (especially the latter) than was ever attained before. A + _Natural History of British Fishes_ was published by E. Donovan + (Lond., 1802-1808); and the Mediterranean fauna formed the study of + the lifetime of A. Risso, _Ichthyologie de Nice_ (Paris, 1810); and + _Histoire naturelle de l'Europe méridionale_ (Paris, 1827). A slight + beginning in the description of the fishes of the United States was + made by Samuel Latham Mitchell (1764-1831), who published, besides + various papers, a _Memoir on the Ichthyology of New York_, in 1815. + + + Cuvier. + + Valenciennes. + +G. Cuvier (1769-1832) devoted himself to the study of fishes with +particular predilection. The investigation of their anatomy, and +especially their skeleton, was continued until he had succeeded in +completing so perfect a framework of the system of the whole class that +his immediate successors required only to fill up those details for +which their master had had no leisure. He ascertained the natural +affinities of the infinite variety of forms, and accurately defined the +divisions, orders, families and genera of the class, as they appear in +the various editions of the _Règne Animal_. His industry equalled his +genius; he formed connections with almost every accessible part of the +globe; and for many years the museum of the Jardin des Plantes was the +centre where all ichthyological treasures were deposited. Thus Cuvier +brought together a collection which, as it contains all the materials on +which his labours were based, must still be considered as the most +important. Soon after the year 1820, Cuvier, assisted by one of his +pupils, A. Valenciennes, commenced his great work on fishes, _Historie +naturelle des Poissons_, of which the first volume appeared in 1828. +After Cuvier's death in 1832 the work was left entirely in the hands of +Valenciennes, whose energy and interest gradually slackened, rising to +their former pitch in some parts only, as, for instance, in the +treatise, on the herring. He left the work unfinished with the +twenty-second volume (1848), which treats of the Salmonoids. Yet, +incomplete as it is, it is indispensable to the student. + +The system finally adopted by Cuvier is the following:-- + + A. POISSONS OSSEUX. + + I. A BRANCHIES EN PEIGNES OU EN LAMES. + + 1. _A Mâchoire Supérieure Libre._ + + a. Acanthoptérygiens. + + Percoïdes. Sparoïdes. Branchies labyrinthiques. + Polynèmes. Chétodonoïdes. Lophioïdes. + Mulles. Scombéroïdes. Gobioïdes. + Joues cuirassées. Muges. Labroïdes. + Sciénoïdes. + + b. Malacoptérygiens. + + _Abdominaux._ _Subbrachiens._ _Apodes._ + --- --- --- + Cyprinoïdes. Gadoïdes. Murénoïdes. + Siluroïdes. Pleuronectes. + Salmonoïdes. Discoboles. + Clupéoïdes. + Lucioïdes. + + 2. _A Mâchoire Supérieure Fixée._ + + Selérodermes. Gymnodontes. + + II. A BRANCHIES EN FORME DE HOUPPES. + + Lophobranches. + + B. CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTÉRYGIENS. + + Sturioniens. Plagiostomes. Cyclostomes. + +We have only to compare this system with that of Linnaeus if we wish to +measure the gigantic stride made by ichthyology during the intervening +period of seventy years. The various characters employed for +classification have been examined throughout the whole class, and their +relative importance has been duly weighed and understood. The important +category of "family" appears now in Cuvier's system fully established as +intermediate between genus and order. Important changes in Cuvier's +system have been made and proposed by his successors, but in the main it +is still that of the present day. + +Cuvier had extended his researches beyond the living forms, into the +field of palaeontology; he was the first to observe the close +resemblance of the scales of the fossil _Palaeoniscus_ to those of the +living _Polypterus_ and _Lepidosteus_, the prolongation and identity of +structure of the upper caudal lobe in _Palaeoniscus_ and the sturgeons, +the presence of peculiar "fulcra" on the anterior margin of the dorsal +fin in _Palaeoniscus_ and _Lepidosteus_, and inferred from these facts +that the fossil genus was allied either to the sturgeons or to +_Lepidosteus_. But it did not occur to him that there was a close +relationship between those recent fishes. _Lepidosteus_ and, with it, +the fossil genus remained in his system a member of the order of +_Malacopterygii abdominales_. + + + Agassiz. + +It was left to L. Agassiz (1807-1873) to point out the importance of the +structure of the scales as a characteristic, and to open a path towards +the knowledge of a whole new subclass of fishes, the _Ganoidei_. +Impressed with the fact that the peculiar scales of _Polypterus_ and +_Lepidosteus_ are common to all fossil osseous fishes down to the Chalk, +he takes the structure of the scales generally as the base for an +ichthyological system, and distinguishes four orders:-- + + 1. _Placoids._--Without scales proper, but with scales of enamel, + sometimes large, sometimes small, and reduced to mere points (Rays, + Sharks and Cyclostomi, with the fossil Hybodontes). 2. + _Ganoids._--With angular bony scales, covered with a thick stratum of + enamel: to this order belong the fossil Lepidoides, Sauroides, + Pycnodontes and Coelacanthi; the recent Polypterus, Lepidosteus, + Sclerodermi, Gymnodontes, Lophobranches and Siluroides; also the + Sturgeons. 3. _Ctenoids._--With rough scales, which have their free + margins denticulated: Chaetodontidae, Pleuronectidae, Percidae, + Polyacanthi, Sciaenidae, Sparidae, Scorpaenidae, Aulostomi. 4. + _Cycloids._--With smooth scales, the hind margin of which lacks + denticulation: Labridae, Mugilidae, Scombridae, Gadoidei, Gobiidae, + Muraenidae, Lucioidei, Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Cyprinidae. + +If Agassiz had had an opportunity of acquiring a more extensive and +intimate knowledge of existing fishes before his energies were absorbed +in the study of fossil remains, he would doubtless have recognized the +artificial character of his classification. The distinctions between +cycloid and ctenoid scales, between placoid and ganoid fishes, are +vague, and can hardly be maintained. So far as the living and +post-Cretacean forms are concerned, he abandoned the vantage-ground +gained by Cuvier; and therefore his system could never supersede that of +his predecessor, and finally shared the fate of every classification +based on the modifications of one organ only. But Agassiz opened an +immense new field of research by his study of the infinite variety of +fossil forms. In his principal work, _Recherches sur les poissons +fossiles_, Neuchâtel, 1833-1843, 4to, atlas in fol., he placed them +before the world arranged in a methodical manner, with excellent +descriptions and illustrations. His power of discernment and penetration +in determining even the most fragmentary remains is astonishing; and, if +his order of Ganoids is an assemblage of forms very different from what +is now understood by that term, he was the first who recognized that +such an order of fishes exists. + +The discoverer of the _Ganoidei_ was succeeded by their explorer +Johannes Müller (1801-1858). In his classical memoir _Über den Bau und +die Grenzen der Ganoiden_ (Berl., 1846) he showed that the Ganoids +differ from all the other osseous fishes, and agree with the +Plagiostomes, in the structure of the heart. By this primary character, +all heterogeneous elements, as Siluroids, _Osteoglossidae_, &c., were +eliminated from the order as understood by Agassiz. On the other hand, +he did not recognize the affinity of _Lepidosiren_ to the Ganoids, but +established for it a distinct subclass, _Dipnoi_, which he placed at the +opposite end of the system. By his researches into the anatomy of the +lampreys and _Amphioxus_, their typical distinctness from other +cartilaginous fishes was proved; they became the types of two other +subclasses, _Cyclostomi_ and _Leptocardii_. + +Müller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian system; +and, although all cannot be maintained as the most natural arrangements, +yet his researches have given us a much more complete knowledge of the +organization of the Teleostean fishes, and later inquiries have shown +that, on the whole, the combinations proposed by him require only some +further modification and another definition to render them perfectly +natural. + +The discovery (in the year 1871) of a living representative of a genus +hitherto believed to be long extinct, _Ceratodus_, threw a new light on +the affinities of fishes. The writer of the present article, who had the +good fortune to examine this fish, was enabled to show that, on the one +hand, it was a form most closely allied to _Lepidosiren_, and, on the +other, that it could not be separated from the Ganoid fishes, and +therefore that _Lepidosiren_ also was a Ganoid,--a relation already +indicated by Huxley in a previous paper on "Devonian Fishes." + +Having followed the development of the ichthyological system down to +this period, we now enumerate the most important contributions to +ichthyology which appeared contemporaneously with or subsequently to the +publication of the great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes. For the sake +of convenience we may arrange these works under two heads. + + + I. VOYAGES, CONTAINING GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS + + A. _French._--1. _Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes de S. M. + l'Uranie et la Physicienne, sous le commandement de M. Freycinet_, + "Zoologie--Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1824). 2. _Voyage de + la Coquille_, "Zoologie," par Lesson (Paris, 1826-1830). 3. _Voyage de + l'Astrolabe, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont d'Urville_, + "Poissons," par Quoy et Gaimard (Paris, 1834). 4. _Voyage au Pôle Sud + par M. J. Dumont d'Urville_, "Poissons," par Hombron et Jacquinot + (Paris, 1853-1854). + + B. _English._--1. _Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur_, "Fishes," by J. + Richardson (Lond., 1844-1845). 2. _Voyage of H.M.SS. Erebus and + Terror_, "Fishes," by J. Richardson (Lond., 1846). 3. _Voyage of + H.M.S. Beagle_, "Fishes," by L. Jenyns (Lond., 1842). + + _C. German._--1. _Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara_, + "Fische," von R. Kner (Vienna, 1865). + + + II. FAUNAE + + A. _Great Britain._--1. R. Parnell, _The Natural History of the Fishes + of the Firth of Forth_ (Edin., 1838). 2. W. Yarrell, _A History of + British Fishes_ (3rd ed., Lond., 1859). 3. J. Couch, _History of the + Fishes of the British Islands_ (Lond., 1862-1865). + + B. _Denmark and Scandinavia._--1. H. Kröyer, _Danmark's Fiske_ + (Copenhagen, 1838-1853). 2. S. Nilsson, _Skandinavisk Fauna_, vol. iv. + "Fiskarna" (Lund, 1855). 3. Fries och Ekström, _Skandinaviens Fiskar_ + (Stockh., 1836). + + C. _Russia._--1. Nordmann, "Ichthyologie pontique," in Demidoff's + _Voyage dans la Russie méridionale_, tome iii. (Paris, 1840). + + D. _Germany._--1. Heckel und Kner, _Die Süsswasserfische der + österreichischen Monarchie_ (Leipz., 1858). 2. C. T. E. Siebold, _Die + Süsswasserfische von Mitteleuropa_ (Leipz., 1863). + + E. _Italy and Mediterranean._--1. Bonaparte, _Iconografia della fauna + italica_, tom iii., "Pesci" (Rome, 1832-1841). 2. Costa, _Fauna del + regno di Napoli_, "Pesci" (Naples, about 1850). + + F. _France._--1. E. Blanchard, _Les Poissons des eaux douces de la + France_ (Paris, 1866). + + G. _Spanish Peninsula._--The fresh-water fish fauna of Spain and + Portugal was almost unknown, until F. Steindachner paid some visits to + those countries for the purpose of exploring the principal rivers. His + discoveries are described in several papers in the _Sitzungsberichte + der Akademie zu Wien_. B. du Bocage and F. de B. Capello made + contributions to our knowledge of the marine fishes on the coast of + Portugal (_Jorn. Scienc. Acad. Lisb._). + + H. _North America._--1. J. Richardson, _Fauna Bareali-Americana_, part + iii., "Fishes" (Lond., 1836). The species described in this work are + nearly all from the British possessions in the north. 2. Dekay, + _Zoology of New York_, part iv., "Fishes" (New York, 1842). 3. + _Reports of the U.S. Comm. of Fish and Fisheries_ (5 vols., + Washington, 1873-1879) and _Reports_ and special publications of the + U.S. Bureau of Fisheries contain valuable information. Numerous + descriptions of North American fresh-water fishes have been published + in the reports of the various U.S. Government expeditions, and in + North American scientific journals, by D. H. Storer, S. F. Baird, C. + Girard, W. O. Ayres, E. D. Cope, D. S. Jordan, G. Brown Goode, &c. + + I. _Japan._--1. _Fauna Japonica_, "Poissons," par H. Schlegel, + (Leiden, 1850). + + J. _East Indies; Tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans._--1. + E. Rüppell, _Atlas zu der Reise im nördlichen Afrika_ (Frankf., 1828). + 2. E. Rüppell, _Neue Wirbelthiere_, "Fische" (Frankf., 1837). 3. R. L. + Playfair and A. Günther, _The Fishes of Zanzibar_ (Lond., 1876). 4. C. + B. Klunzinger, _Synopsis der Fische des Rothen Meers_ (Vienna, + 1870-1871). 5. F. Day, _The Fishes of India_ (Lond., 1865, 4to) + contains an account of the fresh-water and marine species. 6. A. + Günther, _Die Fische der Südsee_ (Hamburg, 4to), from 1873 (in + progress). 7. Unsurpassed in activity, as regards the exploration of + the fish fauna of the East Indian archipelago, is P. Bleeker + (1819-1878), a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East Indian + Government, who, from the year 1840, for nearly thirty years, amassed + immense collections of the fishes of the various islands, and + described them in extremely numerous papers, published chiefly in the + journals of the Batavian Society. Soon after his return to Europe + (1860) Bleeker commenced to collect the final results of his labours + in a grand work, illustrated by coloured plates, _Atlas ichthyologique + des Indes Orientales Néerlandaises_ (Amsterd., fol., 1862), the + publication of which was interrupted by the author's death in 1878. + + K. _Africa._--1. A. Günther, "The Fishes of the Nile," in Petherick's + _Travels in Central Africa_ (Lond., 1869). 2. W. Peters, + _Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique_, iv., "Flussfische" + (Berl., 1868, 4to). + + L. _West Indies and South America._--1. L. Agassiz, _Selecta genera et + species piscium, quae in itinere per Brasiliam, collegit J. B. de + Spix_ (Munich, 1829, fol.). 2. F. de Castelnau, _Animaux nouveaux ou + rares, recueillis pendant l'expédition dans les parties centrales de + l'Amérique du Sud_, "Poissons" (Paris, 1855). 3. L. Vaillant and F. + Bocourt, _Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amérique + centrale_, "Poissons" (Paris, 1874). 4. F. Poey, the celebrated + naturalist of Havana, devoted many years of study to the fishes of + Cuba. His papers and memoirs are published partly in two periodicals, + issued by himself, under the title of _Memorias sobre la historia + natural de la isla de Cuba_ (from 1851), and _Repertorio + fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (from 1865), partly in North + American scientific journals. And, finally, F. Steindachner and A. + Günther have published many contributions, accompanied by excellent + figures, to our knowledge of the fishes of Central and South America. + + M. _New Zealand._--1. F. W. Hutton and J. Hector, _Fishes of New + Zealand_ (Wellington, 1872). + + N. _Arctic Regions._--1. C. Lütken, "A Revised Catalogue of the Fishes + of Greenland," in _Manual of the Natural History, Geology and Physics + of Greenland_ (Lond., 1875, 8vo). 2. The fishes of Spitzbergen were + examined by A. J. Malmgren (1865). (A. C. G.) + + +II. HISTORY AND LITERATURE FROM 1880 + +In the systematic account which followed the above chapter in the 9th +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the following classification, +which is the same as that given in the author's _Introduction to the +Study of Fishes_ (London, 1880) was adopted by Albert Günther:-- + + Subclass I. : PALAEICHTHYES. + Order I. : _Chondropterygii._ + With two suborders : Plagiostomata and Holocephala. + Order II. : _Ganoidei._ + With eight suborders : Placodermi, Acanthodini, Dipnoi, + Chondrostei, Polypteroidei, Pycnodontoidei, Lepidosteoidei, + Amioidei. + + Subclass II. : TELEOSTEI. + Order I. : _Acanthopterygii._ + With the divisions Perciformes, Beryciformes, Kurtiformes, + Polynemiformes, Sciaeniformes, Xiphiiformes, Trichiuriformes, + Cotto-Scombriformes, Gobiiformes, Blenniformes, Mugiliformes, + Gastrosteiformes, Centrisciformes, Gobiesociformes, Channiformes, + Labyrinthibranchii, Lophotiformes, Taeniiformes and + Notacanthiformes. + Order II. : _Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi._ + Order III. : _Anacanthini._ + With two divisions : Gadoidei and Pleuronectoidei. + Order IV. : _Physostomi._ + Order V. : _Lophobranchii._ + Order VI. : _Plectognathi._ + + Subclass III. : CYCLOSTOMATA. + + Subclass IV. : LEPTOGARDII. + +It was an artificial system, in which the most obvious relationships of +the higher groups were lost sight of, and the results of the already +fairly advanced study of the fossil forms to a great extent discarded. +This system gave rise to much adverse criticism; as T. H. Huxley +forcibly put it in a paper published soon after (1883), opposing the +division of the main groups into Palaeichthyes and Teleostei: +"Assuredly, if there is any such distinction to be drawn on the basis of +our present knowledge among the higher fishes, it is between the Ganoids +and the Plagiostomes, and not between the Ganoids and the Teleosteans"; +at the same time expressing his conviction, "first, that there are no +two large groups of animals for which the evidence of a direct genetic +connexion is better than in the case of the Ganoids and the Teleosteans; +and secondly, that the proposal to separate the Elasmobranchii +(Chondropterygii of Günther), Ganoidei and Dipnoi of Müller into a group +apart from, and equivalent to, the Teleostei appears to be inconsistent +with the plainest relations of these fishes." This verdict has been +endorsed by all subsequent workers at the classification of fishes. + +Günther's classification would have been vastly improved had he made +use of a contribution published as early as 1871, but not referred to by +him. As not even a passing allusion is made to it in the previous +chapter, we must retrace our steps to make good this striking omission. +Edward Drinker Cope (1840-1897) was a worker of great originality and +relentless energy, who, in the sixties of the last century, inspired by +the doctrine of evolution, was one of the first to apply its principles +to the classification of vertebrates. Equally versed in recent and +fossil zoology, and endowed with a marvellous gift, or "instinct" for +perceiving the relationship of animals, he has done a great deal for the +advance of our knowledge of mammals, reptiles and fishes. Although often +careless in the working out of details and occasionally a little too +bold in his deductions, Cope occupies a high rank among the zoologists +of the 19th century, and much of his work has stood the test of time. + +The following was Cope's classification, 1871 (_Tr. Amer. Philos. Soc._ +xiv. 449). + + Subclass I. Holocephali. + " II. Selachii. + " III. Dipnoi. + " IV. Crossopterygia, with two orders: Haplistia and Cladistia. + " V. Actinopteri. + +The latter is subdivided in the following manner:-- + + Tribe I. : Chondrostei. + Two orders : Selachostomi and Glaniostomi. + Tribe II. : Physostomi. + Twelve orders: Ginglymodi, Halecomorphi, Nematognathi, Scyphophori, + Plectospondyli, Isospondyli, Haplomi, Glanencheli, Ichthyocephali, + Holostomi, Enchelycephali, Colocephali. + Tribe III. : Physoclysti. + Ten orders : Opisthomi, Percesoces, Synentognathi, Hemibranchii, + Lophobranchii, Pediculati, Heterosomata, Plectognathi, Percomorphi, + Pharyngognathi. + +Alongside with so much that is good in this classification, there are +many suggestions which cannot be regarded as improvements on the views +of previous workers. Attaching too great an importance to the mode of +suspension of the mandible, Cope separated the Holocephali from the +Selachii and the Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii, thus obscuring the +general agreement which binds these groups to each other, whilst there +is an evident want of proportion in the five subclasses. The exclusion +from the class Pisces of the Leptocardii, or lancelets, as first +advocated by E. Haeckel, was a step in the right direction, whilst that +of the Cyclostomes does not seem called for to such an authority as R. +H. Traquair, with whom the writer of this review entirely concurs. + +The group of Crossopterygians, first separated as a family from the +other Ganoids by Huxley, constituted a fortunate innovation, and so was +its division into two minor groups, by which the existing forms +(_Polypteroidei_) were separated as Cladistia. The divisions of the +Actinopteri, which includes all Teleostomes other than the Dipneusti and +Crossopterygii also showed, on the whole, a correct appreciation of +their relationships, the Chondrostei being well separated from the other +Ganoids with which they were generally associated. In the groupings of +the minor divisions, which Cope termed orders, we had a decided +improvement on the Cuvierian-Müllerian classification, the author having +utilized many suggestions of his fellow countrymen Theodore Gill, who +has done much towards a better understanding of their relationships. In +the association of the Characinids with the Cyprinids (Plectospondyli) +in the separation of the flat-fishes from the Ganoids, in the +approximation of the Lophobranchs to the sticklebacks and of the +Plectognaths to the Acanthopterygians, and in many other points, Cope +was in advance of his time, and it is to be regretted that his +contemporaries did not more readily take up many of his excellent +suggestions for the improvement of their systems. + +In the subsequent period of his very active scientific life, Cope made +many alterations to his system, the latest scheme published by him being +the following ("Synopsis of the families of Vertebrata," _Amer. Natur._, +1889, p. 849):-- + + Class : Agnatha. + I. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI. + Orders : Arrhina, Diplorrhina. + II. Subclass : MARSIPOBRANCHII. + Orders : Hyperotreti, Hyperoarti. + + Class : Pisces. + I. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI. + II. Subclass : DIPNOI. + III. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII. + Orders : Ichthyotomi, Selachii. + IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI. + (i.) Superorder : _Rhipidopterygia._ + Orders : Rhipidistia, Actinistia. + (ii.) Superorder : _Crossopterygia._ + Orders : Placodermi, Haplistia, Taxistia, Cladistia. + (iii.) Superorder : _Podopterygia_ (Chondrostei). + (iv.) Superorder : _Actinopterygia._ + Orders : Physostomi, Physoclysti. + +This classification is that followed, with many emendations, by A. S. +Woodward in his epoch-making _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes_ (4 vols., +London, 1889-1901), and in his most useful _Outlines of Vertebrate +Paleontology_ (Cambridge, 1898), and was adopted by Günther in the 10th +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:-- + + Class : Agnatha. + I. Subclass : CYCLOSTOMI. + With three orders : (a) _Hyperoartia_ (Lampreys); (b) + _Hyperotreti_ (Myxinoids); (c) _Cycliae_ (Palaeospondylus). + II. Subclass : OSTRACODERMI. + With four orders : (a) _Heterostraci_ (Coelolepidae, + Psammosteidae, Drepanaspidae, Pteraspidae); (b) _Osteostraci_ + (Cephalaspidae, Ateleaspidae, &c.); (c) Antiarchi + (Asterolepidae, Pterichthys, Bothrolepis, &c.); (d) Anaspida + (Birkeniidae). + + Class : Pisces. + I. Subclass : ELASMOBRANCHII. + With four orders : (a) _Pleuropterygii_ (Cladoselache); (b) + _Ichthyotomi_ (Pleuracanthidae); (c) _Acanthodii_ + (Diplacanthidae, and Acanthodidae); (d) _Selachii_ (divided + from the structure of the vertebral centres into + Asterospondyli and Tectospondyli). + II. Subclass : HOLOCEPHALI. + With one order : _Chimaeroidei._ + III. Subclass : DIPNOI. + With two orders : (a) _Sirenoidei_ (Lepidosiren, Ceratodus, + Uronemidae, Ctenodontidae); (b) _Arthrodira_ (Homosteus, + Coccosteus, Dinichthys). + IV. Subclass : TELEOSTOMI. + A. Order : _Crossopterygii._ + With four suborders: (1) _Haplistia_ (Tarassius); (2) + _Rhipidistia_ (Holoptychidae, Rhizodontidae, Osteolepidae); + (3) _Actinistia_ (Coelacanthidae); (4) _Cladistia_ + (Polypterus). + B. Order : _Actinopterygii._ + With about twenty suborders: (1) _Chondrostei_ + (Palaeoniscidae, Platysomidae, Chondrosteidae, Sturgeons); + (2) _Protospondyli_ (Semionotidae, Macrosemiidae, + Pycnodontidae, Eugnathidae, Amiidae, Pachycormidae); (3) + _Aetheospondyli_ (Aspidorhynchidae, Lepidosteidae); (4) + _Isospondyli_ (Pholidophoridae, Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae, + Leptolepidae, &c.); (5) _Plectospondyli_ (Cyprinidae, + Characinidae); (6) _Nematognathi_; (7) _Apodes_; and the + other Teleosteans. + +There are, however, grave objections to this system, which cannot be +said to reflect the present state of our knowledge. In his masterly +paper on the evolution of the Dipneusti, L. Dollo has conclusively shown +that the importance of the autostyly on which the definition of the +Holocephali from the Elasmobranchii or Selachii and of the Dipneusti +from the Teleostomi rested, had been exaggerated, and that therefore the +position assigned to these two groups in Günther's classification of +1880 still commended itself. Recent work on _Palaeospondylus_, on the +Ostracoderms, and on the Arthrodira, throws great doubt on the propriety +of the positions given to them in the above classification, and the rank +assigned to the main divisions of the Teleostomi do not commend +themselves to the writer of the present article, who would divide the +fishes into three subclasses:-- + + I. Cyclostomi + II. Selachii + III. Teleostomi, + +the characters and contents of which will be found in separate +articles; in the present state of uncertainty as to their position, +_Palaeospondylus_ and the _Ostracodermi_ are best placed _hors cadre_ +and will be dealt with under these names. + +The three subclasses here adopted correspond exactly with those proposed +in Theo. Gill's classification of the recent fishes ("Families and +Subfamilies of Fishes," _Mem. Nat. Ac. Sci._ vi. 1893), except that they +are regarded by that authority as classes. + +The period dealt with in this chapter, ushered in by the publication of +Günther's _Introduction to the Study of Fishes_, has been one of +extraordinary activity in every branch of ichthyology, recent and +fossil. A glance at the _Zoological Record_, published by the Zoological +Society of London, will show the ever-increasing number of monographs, +morphological papers and systematic contributions, which appear year +after year. The number of new genera and species which are being +proposed is amazing, but it is difficult to tell how many of them will +simply go to swell the already overburdened synonymy. Perhaps a +reasonable estimate of the living species known at the present day would +assess their number at about 13,000. + +It is much to be regretted that there is not a single general modern +systematic work on fishes. The most important treatises, the 7th volume +of the _Cambridge Natural History_, by T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, +and D. S. Jordan's _Guide to the Study of Fishes_, only profess to give +definitions of the families with enumerations of the principal genera. +Günther's _Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum_ therefore +remains the only general descriptive treatise, but its last volume dates +from 1870, and the work is practically obsolete. A second edition of it +was begun in 1894, but only one volume, by Boulenger, has appeared, and +the subject is so vast that it seems doubtful now whether any one will +ever have the time and energy to repeat Günther's achievement. The fish +fauna of the different parts of the world will have to be dealt with +separately, and it is in this direction that descriptive ichthyology is +most likely to progress. + +North America, the fishes of which were imperfectly known in 1880, now +possesses a _Descriptive Catalogue_ in 4 stout volumes, by D. S. Jordan +and B. W. Evermann, replacing the synopsis brought out in 1882 by D. S. +Jordan and C. H. Gilbert. A similar treatise should embrace all the +fresh-water species of Africa, the fishes of the two principal river +systems, the Nile and the Congo, having recently been worked out by G. +A. Boulenger. Japanese ichthyology has been taken in hand by D. S. +Jordan and his pupils. + +The fishes of the deep sea have been the subject of extensive monographs +by L. Vaillant (_Travailleur_ and _Talisman_), A. Günther +(_Challenger_), A. Alcock (_Investigator_), R. Collett (_Hirondelle_), +S. Garman (_Albatross_) and a general résumé up to 1895 was provided in +G. B. Goode's and T. H. Bean's _Oceanic Ichthyology_. More than 600 true +bathybial fishes are known from depths of 1000 fathoms and more, and a +great deal of evidence has been accumulated to show the general +transition of the surface fauna into the bathybial. + +A recent departure has been the exploration of the Antarctic fauna. +Three general reports, on the results of the _Southern Cross_, the +_Belgica_ and the Swedish _South Polar_ expeditions, had already been +published in 1907, and others on the _Scotia_ and _Discovery_ were in +preparation. No very striking new types of fishes have been discovered, +but the results obtained are sufficient to entirely disprove the theory +of bipolarity which some naturalists had advocated. Much has been done +towards ascertaining the life-histories of the fishes of economic +importance, both in Europe and in North America, and our knowledge of +the larval and post-larval forms has made great progress. + +Wonderful activity has been displayed in the field of palaeontology, and +the careful working out of the morphology of the archaic types has led +to a better understanding of the general lines of evolution; but it is +to be regretted that very little light on the relationships of the +living groups of Teleosteans has been thrown by the discoveries of +palaeontologists. + +Among the most remarkable additions made in recent years, the work of R. +H. Traquair on the problematic fishes _Palaeospondylus_, _Thelodus_, +_Drepanaspis_, _Lanarkia_, _Ateleaspis_, _Birkenia_ and _Lanasius_, +ranks foremost; next to it must be placed the researches of A. S. +Woodward and Bashford Dean on the primitive shark _Cladoselache_, and of +the same authors, J. S. Newberry, C. R. Eastman, E. W. Claypole and L. +Hussakof, on the Arthrodira, a group the affinities of which have been +much discussed. + + AUTHORITIES.--The following selection from the extremely extensive + ichthyological literature which has appeared during the period + 1880-1906 will supplement the bibliographical notice appended to + section I. I. The General Subject: A. Günther, _Introduction to the + Study of Fishes_ (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and + Fossil_ (New York, 1895); T. W. Bridge and G. A. Boulenger, "Fishes," + _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. (1904); D. S. Jordan, _Guide to the + Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York, 1905). II. Palaeontological: A. + Fritsch, _Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation + Böhmens_ (vols, i.-iii., Prague, 1879-1894); K. A. von Zittel, + _Handbuch der Paläontologie_, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887); A. Smith + Woodward, _Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum_, vols. + i.-iii. (London, 1889-1895); A. Smith Woodward, _Outlines of + Vertebrate Palaeontology for Students of Zoology_ (Cambridge, 1898); + J. S. Newberry, "The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America," _Mon. U.S. + Geol. Surv._ vol. xvi. (1889); J. V. Rohon, "Die obersilurischen + Fische von Ösel, Thyestidae und Tremataspidae," _Mém. Ac. Imp. Sc. + St-Pétersb._ xxxviii. (1892); O. Jaekel, _Die Selachier von Bolca, ein + Beitrag zur Morphogenie der Wirbeltiere_ (Berlin, 1894); B. Dean, + "Contributions to the Morphology of Cladoselache," _Journ. Morphol._ + ix. (1894); R. H. Traquair, "The Asterolepidae," _Mon. Palaeont. Soc._ + (1894-1904, in progress); "Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the + Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian Rocks of the South of + Scotland," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxxix. (1899); L. Dollo, "Sur la + phylogénie des Dipneustes," _Bull. Soc. Belge Géol._ vol. ix. (1895); + E. W. Claypole, "The Ancestry of the Upper Devonian Placoderms of + Ohio," _Amer. Geol._ xvii. (1896); B. Dean, "Palaeontlogical Notes," + _Mem. N.Y. Ac._ ii. (1901); A. Stewart and S. W. Williston, + "Cretaceous Fishes of Kansas," _Univ. Geol. Surv. Kansas_, vi. + (Topeka, 1901); A. S. Woodward, "Fossil Fishes of the English Chalk," + _Palaeontogr. Soc._ (1902-1903, etc.); R. H. Traquair, "The Lower + Devonian Fishes of Gemünden.," _Roy. Soc. Edin. Trans._ 40 (1903); W. + J. and I. B. J. Sollas, "Account of the Devonian Fish + Palaeospondylus," _Phil. Trans._ 196 (1903); C. T. Regan, "Phylogeny + of the Teleostomi," _Ann. & Mag. N.H._ (7) 13 (1904); C. R. Eastman, + "Fishes of Monte Bolca," _Bull. Mus. C.Z._ 46 (1904); "Structure and + Relations of Mylostoma," _Op. cit._ 2 (1906); O. Abel, "Fossile + Flugfische," _Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst._ 56 (Wien, 1906); L. Hussakof. + "Studies on the Arthrodira," _Mem. Amer. Mus. N.H._ ix. (1906). III. + Faunistic (recent fishes): (A) EUROPE: E. Bade, _Die + mitteleuropäischen Süsswasserfische_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1901-1902). + GREAT BRITAIN: F. Day, _The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2 + vols., London, 1880-1884); J. T. Cunningham, _The Natural History of + the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands_ (London, 1896); + W. C. M'Intosh and A. T. Masterman, _The Life-Histories of the British + Marine Food-Fishes_ (London, 1897); Sir H. Maxwell, _British + Fresh-water Fish_ (London, 1904); F. G. Aflalo, _British Salt-water + Fish_ (London, 1904). Numerous important researches into the + development, life-conditions and distributions, carried out at the + Biological Laboratories at Plymouth and St Andrews and during the + survey of the fishing grounds of Ireland, have been published by W. L. + Calderwood, J. T. Cunningham, E. W. L. Holt, W. C. M'Intosh, J. W. + Fulton, W. Garstang and Prince in the _Journ. Mar. Biolog. Assoc._, + _The Reports of the Fishery Board of Scotland_, _Scient. Trans. R. + Dublin Soc._ and other periodicals. (B) DENMARK AND SCANDINAVIA: W. + Lilljeborg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (3 vols., Upsala, 1881-1891); + F. A. Smith, _A History of Scandinavian Fishes by B. Fries, C. U. + Ekström and C. Sundevall, with Plates by W. von Wright_ (second + edition, revised and completed by F. A. S., Stockholm, 1892); A. + Stuxberg, _Sveriges och Norges Fiskar_ (Göteborg, 1895); C. G. J. + Petersen, _Report of the Danish Biological Station_ (Copenhagen, + 1802-1900) (annual reports containing much information on fishes of + and fishing in the Danish seas). (C) FINLAND: G. Sundman and A. J. + Mela, _Finland's Fiskar_ (Helsingfors, 1883-1891). (D) GERMANY: K. + Möbius and F. Heincke, "Die Fische der Ostsee," _Bericht Commiss. + Untersuch. deutsch. Meere_ (Kiel, 1883); F. Heincke, E. Ehrenbaum and + G. Duncker have published their investigations into the life-history + and development of the fishes of Heligoland in _Wissenschaftl. + Meeresuntersuchungen_ (Kiel and Leipzig, 1894-1899); (E) SWITZERLAND: + V. Fatio, _Faune des vertébrés de la Suisse: Poissons_ (2 vols., + Geneva and Basel, 1882-1890). (F) FRANCE: E. Moreau, _Histoire + naturelle des poissons de la France_ (3 vols., Paris, 1881); + _Supplément_ (Paris, 1891). (G) PYRENEAN PENINSULA: D. Carlos de + Bragança, _Resultados das investigações scientificas feitas a bordo do + yacht "Amelia." Pescas maritimas_, i. and ii. (Lisbon, 1899-1904). (H) + ITALY AND MEDITERRANEAN: P. Döderlein, _Manuale ittiologico del + Mediterraneo_ (Palermo, 1881-1891, not completed; interrupted by the + death of the author); E. W. L. Holt, "Recherches sur la reproduction + des poissons osseux, principalement dans le golfe de Marseille," _Ann. + Mus. Mars._ v. (Marseilles, 1899); (I) WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA: L. + Lortet, "Poissons et reptiles du lac de Tibériade," _Arch. Mus. + d'Hist. Nat. Lyon_, iii. (1883); S. Herzenstein, _Wissenschaftliche + Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach Central Asien unternommenen + Reisen: Fische_ (St Petersburg, 1888-1891); L. Berg, _Fishes of + Turkestan_ (Russian text, St Petersburg, 1905); G. Radde, S. Kamensky + and F. F. Kawraisky have worked out the Cyprinids and Salmonids of the + Caucasus (Tiflis, 1896-1899). (J) JAPAN: F. Steindachner and L. + Döderlein, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fische Japans," _Denkschr. Ak. + Wien_, (vols. 67 and 68, 1883); K. Otaki, T. Fujita and T. Higurashi, + _Fishes of Japan_ (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1903, in progress). Numerous + papers by D. S. Jordan, in collaboration with J. O. Snyder, E. C. + Starks, H. W. Fowler and N. Sindo. (K) EAST INDIES: F. Day, _The Fauna + of British India: Fishes_ (2 vols., London, 1889) (chiefly an + abridgment of the author's _Fishes of India_); M. Weber, "Die + Süsswasserfische des Indischen Archipels," _Zool. Ergebnisse e. Reise + in Niederl. Ostind._ iii. (Leiden, 1894). Numerous contributions to + the fauna of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago by G. A. Boulenger, + L. Vaillant, F. Steindachner, G. Duncker, W. Volz and C. L. Popta. (L) + AFRICA: G. A. Boulenger, _Matériaux pour la faune du Congo: poissons + nouveaux_ (Brussels, 1898-1902, in progress); and _Poissons du bassin + du Congo_ (Brussels, 1901); G. Pfeffer, _Die Thierwelt Ostafrikas: + Fische_ (Berlin, 1896); A. Günther, G. A. Boulenger, G. Pfeffer, F. + Steindachner, D. Vinciguerra, J. Pellegrin and E. Lönnberg have + published numerous contributions to the fish-fauna of tropical Africa + in various periodicals. The marine fishes of South Africa have + received special attention on the part of J. D. F. Gilchrist, _Marine + Investigations in South Africa_, i. and ii. (1898-1904), and new + species have been described by G. A. Boulenger and C. T. Regan. (M) + NORTH AMERICA: D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, _The Fishes of North + and Middle America_ (4 vols., Washington, 1896-1900); D. S. Jordan and + B. W. Evermann, _American Food and Game Fishes_ (New York, 1902); D. + S. Jordan and C. H. Gilbert "The Fishes of Bering Sea," in _Fur-Seals + and Fur-Seal Islands_ (Washington, 1899); The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries + (since 1903) has published annually a _Report_ and a _Bulletin_, + containing a vast amount of information on North American fishes and + every subject having a bearing on the fisheries of the United States; + S. E. Meek, "Fresh-water Fishes of Mexico," _Field Columb. Mus. Zool._ + v. (1904). (N) SOUTH AMERICA: C. H. and R. S. Eigenmann, "A Catalogue + of the Fresh-water Fishes of South America," _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 14 + (Washington, 1891); the same authors, F. Steindachner, G. A. + Boulenger, C. Berg and C. T. Regan have published contributions in + periodicals on this fauna. (O) AUSTRALIA: J. E. Tenison-Woods, _Fish + and Fisheries of New South Wales_ (Sydney, 1882); J. Douglas Ogilby, + Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales (Sydney, 1893); J. + Douglas Ogilby and E. R. Waite are authors of numerous papers on + Australian fishes in _Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales_ and _Rec. Austral. + Mus._ (P) SOUTH PACIFIC: D S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, "Shore Fishes + of the Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905). (Q) + MADAGASCAR: H. E. Sauvage, _Histoire physique, naturelle et politique + de Madagascar_, par A. Grandidier. xvi.; _Poissons_ (Paris, 1891). (R) + OCEANIC FISHES: G. B. Goode and T. H. Bean, _Oceanic Ichthyology_ + (Washington, 1895); A. Günther, _Deep-sea Fishes of the "Challenger" + Expedition_ (London, 1887); C. H. Gilbert, "Deep-sea Fishes of the + Hawaiian Islands," _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ 23 (1905); R. Collett, + _Norske Nordhavs Expedition: Fiske_ (Christiania, 1880); C. F. Lütken, + _Dijmphna-Togtets Zoologisk-botaniske Udbytte: Kara-Havets Fiske_ + (Copenhagen, 1886); L. Vaillant, _Expéditions scientifiques du + "Travailleur" et du "Talisman": Poissons_ (Paris, 1888); A. Agassiz, + _Three Cruises of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer "Blake"_ + (Boston and New York, 1888); A. Alcock, _Illustrations of the Zoology + of H.M.S. "Investigator": Fishes_ (Calcutta, 1892-1899, in progress); + A. Alcock, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep-sea Fishes in the + Indian Museum_ (Calcutta, 1899, contains references to all the + previous papers of the author on the subject); R. Collett, _Résultats + des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par Albert I^er prince de + Monaco: poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht "l'Hirondelle,"_ + (Monaco, 1896); R. Koehler, _Résultats scientifiques de la campagne du + "Caudan,"_ (Paris, 1896); C. H. Gilbert and F. Cramer, "Report on the + Fishes dredged in Deep Water near the Hawaiian Islands," _Proc. U.S. + Nat. Mus._ xix. (Washington, 1896); C. Lütken, "Spolia Atlantica," + _Vidensk. Selsk. Skr._ vii. and ix. (Copenhagen, 1892-1898); C. + Lütken, _Danish Ingolf Expedition_, ii.: _Ichthyological Results_ + (Copenhagen, 1898); S. Garman, "Reports on an Exploration off the West + Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos + Islands in charge of Alexander Agassiz, by the U.S. Fish Commission + Steamer "Albatross," during 1891," _Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool._ vol. xxiv. + (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1899). (S) ANTARCTIC FISHES: G. A. Boulenger, + _Report on the Collections made during the voyage of the "Southern + Cross": Fishes_ (London, 1902); L. Dollo, _Expédition Antarctique + Belge_ (S.Y. "Belgica"). _Poissons_ (Antwerp, 1904); E. Lönnberg, + _Swedish South Polar Expedition: Fishes_ (Stockholm, 1905); G. A. + Boulenger, _Fishes of the "Discovery" Antarctic Expedition_ (London, + 1906). (G. A. B.) + + +III. DEFINITION OF THE CLASS _Pisces_. ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS + +Fishes, constituting the class _Pisces_, may be defined as Craniate +Vertebrata, or Chordata, in which the anterior portion of the central +nervous system is expanded into a brain surrounded by an unsegmented +portion of the axial skeleton; which are provided with a heart, +breathing through gills; and in which the limbs, if present, are in the +form of fins, as opposed to the pentadactyle, structure common to the +other Vertebrata. With the exception of a few forms in which lungs are +present in addition to the gills, thus enabling the animal to breathe +atmospheric air for more or less considerable periods (Dipneusti), all +fishes are aquatic throughout their existence. + +In addition to the paired limbs, median fins are usually present, +consisting of dermal rays borne by endoskeletal supports, which in the +more primitive forms are strikingly similar in structure to the paired +fins that are assumed to have arisen from the breaking up of a lateral +fold similar to the vertical folds out of which the dorsal, anal and +caudal fins have been evolved. The body is naked, or scaly, or covered +with bony shields or hard spines. + +Leaving aside the Ostracophori, which are dealt with in a separate +article, the fishes may be divided into three subclasses-- + +I. Cyclostomi or Marsipobranchii, with the skull imperfectly developed, +without jaws, with a single nasal aperture, without paired fins, and +with an unpaired fin without dermal rays. Lampreys and hag-fishes. + +II. Selachii or Chondropterygii, with the skull well developed but +without membrane bones, with paired nasal apertures, with median and +paired fins, the ventrals bearing prehensile organs (claspers) in the +males. Sharks, skates and chimaeras. + +III. Teleostomi, with the skull well developed and with membrane bones, +with paired nasal apertures, primarily with median and paired fins, +including all other fishes. (G. A. B.) + + +IV. ANATOMY[1] + +The special importance of a study of the anatomy of fishes lies in the +fact that fishes are on the whole undoubtedly the most archaic of +existing craniates, and it is therefore to them especially that we must +look for evidence as to the evolutionary history of morphological +features occurring in the higher groups of vertebrates. + +In making a general survey of the morphology of fishes it is essential +to take into consideration the structure of the young developing +individual (embryology) as well as that of the adult (comparative +anatomy in the narrow sense). Palaeontology is practically dumb +excepting as regards external form and skeletal features, and even of +these our knowledge must for long be in a hopelessly imperfect state. +While it is of the utmost importance to pay due attention to +embryological data it is equally important to consider them critically +and in conjunction with broad morphological considerations. Taken by +themselves they are apt to be extremely misleading. + +_External Features._--The external features of a typical fish are +intimately associated with its mode of life. Its shape is more or less +that of a spindle; its surface is covered with a highly glandular +epidermis, which is constantly producing lubricating mucus through the +agency of which skin-friction is reduced to an extraordinary degree; and +finally it possesses a set of remarkable propelling organs or fins. + + The exact shape varies greatly from the typical spindle shape with + variations in the mode of life; e.g. bottom-living fishes may be much + flattened from above downwards as in the rays, or from side to side in + the Pleuronectids such as flounder, plaice or sole, or the shape may + be much elongated as in the eels. + +_Head, Trunk and Tail._--In the body of the fish we may recognize the +three main sub-divisions of the body--head, trunk and tail--as in the +higher vertebrates, but there is no definite narrowing of the anterior +region to form a neck such as occurs in the higher groups, though a +suspicion of such a narrowing occurs in the young _Lepidosiren_. + +The tail, or postanal region, is probably a secondary development--a +prolongation of the hinder end of the body for motor purposes. This is +indicated by the fact that it frequently develops late in ontogeny. + + The vertebrate, in correlation perhaps with its extreme cephalization, + develops from before backwards (except the alimentary canal, which + develops more _en bloc_), there remaining at the hind end for a + prolonged period a mass of undifferentiated embryonic tissue from the + anterior side of which the definitive tissues are constantly being + developed. After development has reached the level of the anus it + still continues backwards and the tail region is formed, showing a + continuation of the same tissues as in front, notochord, nerve cord, + gut, myotomes. Of these the (postanal) gut soon undergoes atrophy. + +_Fins._--The fins are extensions of the body surface which serve for +propulsion. To give the necessary rigidity they are provided with +special skeletal elements, while to give mobility they are provided with +special muscles. These muscles, like the other voluntary muscles of the +body, are derived from the primitive myotomes and are therefore +segmental in origin. The fins are divisible into two main +categories--the median or unpaired fins and the paired fins. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Heterocercal Tail of _Acipenser_. a, Modified +median scales ("fulcra"); b, bony plates.] + +[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., "Fishes, +&c.," by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + +FIG. 2.--_Cladoselache._ (After Dean.)] + +The median fins are to be regarded as the more primitive. The +fundamental structure of the vertebrate, with its median skeletal axis +and its great muscular mass divided into segments along each side of the +body, indicates that its primitive method of movement was by waves of +lateral flexure, as seen in an Amphioxus, a cyclostome or an eel. The +system of median fins consists in the first instance of a continuous +fin-fold extending round the posterior end of the body--as persists even +in the adult in the existing Dipneusti. A continuous median fin-fold +occurs also in various Teleosts (many deep-sea Teleosts, eels, &c.), +though the highly specialized features in other respects make it +probable that we have here to do with a secondary return to a condition +like the primitive one. In the process of segmentation of the originally +continuous fin-fold we notice first of all a separation of and an +increase in size of that portion of the fin which from its position at +the tip of the tail region is in the most advantageous position for +producing movements of the body. There is thus formed the _caudal_ fin. +In this region there is a greatly increased size of the fin-fold--both +dorsally and ventrally. There is further developed a highly +characteristic asymmetry. In the original symmetrical or _protocercal_ ( += _diphycercal_) type of tail (as seen in a cyclostome, a Dipnoan and in +most fish embryos) the skeletal axis of the body runs straight out to +its tip--the tail fold being equally developed above and below the axis. +In the highly developed caudal fin of the majority of fishes, however, +the fin-fold is developed to a much greater extent on the ventral side, +and correlated with this the skeletal axis is turned upwards as in the +_heterocercal_ tail of sharks and sturgeons. The highest stage in this +evolution of the caudal fin is seen in the Teleostean fishes, where the +ventral tail-fold becomes developed to such an extent as to produce a +secondarily symmetrical appearance (_homocercal_ tail, fig. 4). + +[Illustration: From _"Challenger" Reports Zool._, published by H.M. +Stationery Office. + +FIG. 3.--_Chlamydoselachus_. (After Günther.)] + + The sharks have been referred to as possessing heterocercal tails, + but, though this is true of the majority, within the limits of the + group all three types of tail-fin occur, from the protocercal tail of + the fossil Pleuracanthids and the living _Chlamydoselachus_ to the + highly developed, practically homocercal tail of the ancient + _Cladoselache_(fig. 2). + +The praecaudal portion of the fin-fold on the dorsal side of the body +becomes broken into numerous finlets in living Crossopterygians, while +in other fishes it disappears throughout part of its length, leaving +only one, two or three enlarged portions--the _dorsal_ fins (fig. 4, +d.f.). Similarly the praecaudal part of the fin-fold ventrally becomes +reduced to a single _anal_ fin (a.f.), occasionally continued backwards +by a series of finlets (_Scombridae_). In the sucker-fishes (_Remora_, +_Eckeneis_) the anterior dorsal fin is metamorphosed into a sucker by +which the creature attaches itself to larger fishes, turtles, &c. + +[Illustration: From _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., "Fishes, +&c.," by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + +FIG. 4.--_Tilapia dolloi_, a teleostean fish, to illustrate external +features. (After Boulenger.) + + A, Side view. g.r, Gill rakers. + B, First branchial arch. l.l, Lateral line organs. + a.f, Anal fin. n, Nasal opening. + c.f, Caudal fin. p.f, Pelvic fin. + d.f, Dorsal fin. p.op, Preoperculum. + g.f, Gill lamellae. pt.f, Pectoral fin.] + +The paired fins--though more recent developments than the median--are +yet of very great morphological interest, as in them we are compelled to +recognize the homologues of the paired limbs of the higher vertebrates. +We accordingly distinguish the two pairs of fins as pectoral or anterior +and pelvic ( = "ventral") or posterior. There are two main types of +paired fin--the _archipterygial_ type, a paddle-like structure supported +by a jointed axis which bears lateral rays and exists in an unmodified +form in _Neoceratodus_ alone amongst living fishes, and the +_actinopterygial_ type, supported by fine raylike structures as seen in +the fins of any ordinary fish. The relatively less efficiency of the +archipterygium and its predominance amongst the more ancient forms of +fishes point to its being the more archaic of these two types. + +In the less highly specialized groups of fishes the pectoral fins are +close behind the head, the pelvic fins in the region of the cloacal +opening. In the more specialized forms the pelvic fins frequently show a +more or less extensive shifting towards the head, so that their position +is described as thoracic (fig. 4) or jugular (_Gadus_--cod, haddock, +&c., fig. 5). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Burbot (_Lota vulgaris_), with jugular ventral +fins.] + + The median fin, especially in its caudal section, is the main + propelling organ: the paired fins in the majority of fishes serve for + balancing. In the Dipneusti the paired fins are used for clambering + about amidst vegetation, much in the same fashion as the limbs of + Urodeles. In _Ceratodus_ they also function as paddles. In various + Teleosts the pectoral fins have acquired secondarily a leg-like + function, being used for creeping or skipping over the mud + (_Periophthalmus_; cf. also Trigloids, Scorpaenids and Pediculati). In + the "flying" fishes the pectoral fins are greatly enlarged and are + used as aeroplanes, their quivering movements frequently giving a + (probably erroneous) impression of voluntary flapping movements. In + the gobies and lumpsuckers (_Cyclopteridae_) the pelvic fins are fused + to form an adhesive sucker; in the _Gobiesocidae_ they take part in + the formation of a somewhat similar sucker. + + The evolutionary history of the paired limbs forms a fascinating + chapter in vertebrate morphology. As regards their origin two + hypotheses have attracted special attention: (1) that enunciated by + Gegenbaur, according to which the limb is a modified gill septum, and + (2) that supported by James K. Thacher, F. M. Balfour, St George + Mivart and others, that the paired fins are persisting and modified + portions of a once continuous fin-fold on each side of the body. The + majority of morphologists are now inclined to accept the second of + these views. Each has been supported by plausible arguments, for which + reference must be made to the literature of the subject.[2] Both views + rest upon the assumed occurrence of stages for the existence of which + there is no direct evidence, viz. in the case of (1) transitional + stages between gill septum and limb, and in the case of (2) a + continuous lateral fin-fold. (There is no evidence that the lateral + row of spines in the acanthodian _Climatius_ has any other than a + defensive significance.) In the opinion of the writer of this article, + such assumptions are without justification, now that our knowledge of + Dipnoan and Crossopterygian and Urodele embryology points towards the + former possession by the primitive vertebrate of a series of + projecting, voluntarily movable, and hence potentially motor structure + on each side of the body. It must be emphasized that these--the true + external gills--are the _only_ organs known actually to exist in + vertebrates which might readily be transformed into limbs. When + insuperable objections are adduced to this having actually taken place + in the course of evolution, it will be time enough to fall back upon + purely hypothetical ancestral structures on which to base the + evolutionary history of the limbs. + +The ectoderm covering the general surface is highly glandular. In the +case of the Dipneusti, flask-shaped multicellular glands like those of +Amphibians occur in addition to the scattered gland cells. + + A characteristic feature of glandular activity is the production of a + slight electrical disturbance. In the case of _Malopterurus_ this + elsewhere subsidiary function of the skin has become so exaggerated as + to lead to the conversion of the skin of each side of the body into a + powerful electrical organ.[3] Each of these consists of some two + million small chambers, each containing an electric disk and all + deriving their nerve supply from the branches of a single enormous + axis cylinder. This takes its origin from a gigantic ganglion cell + situated latero-dorsally in the spinal cord between the levels of the + first and second spinal nerves. + +_Cement Organs._--The larvae of certain Teleostomes and Dipnoans possess +special glandular organs in the head region for the secretion of a +sticky cement by which the young fish is able to attach itself to +water-plants or other objects. As a rule these are ectodermal in origin; +e.g. in _Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_[4] the crescentic cement organ +lying ventrally behind the mouth consists of a glandular thickening of +the deep layer of the ectoderm. In young ganoid fishes preoral cement +organs occur. In Crossopterygians there is one cup-shaped structure on +each side immediately in front of the mouth. Here the glandular +epithelium is endodermal, developed[5] as an outgrowth from the wall of +the alimentary canal, closely resembling a gill pouch. In _Amia_[6] the +same appears to be the case. In a few Teleosts similar organs occur, +e.g. _Sarcodaces_, _Hyperopisus_,[7] where so far as is known they are +ectodermal. + +_Photogenic Organs._--The slimy secretion produced by the epidermal +glands of fishes contains in some cases substances which apparently +readily undergo a slow process of oxidation, giving out light of low +wave-length in the process and so giving rise to a phosphorescent +appearance. In many deep-sea fishes this property of producing +light-emitting secretion has undergone great development, leading to the +existence of definite photogenic organs. These vary much in character, +and much remains to be done in working out their minute structure. Good +examples are seen in the Teleostean family _Scopelidae_, where they form +brightly shining eye-like spots scattered about the surface of the body, +especially towards the ventral side. + +[Illustration: From _Trans. Zool. Soc. of London_. + +FIG. 6.--Larva of Polypterus. (After Budgett.)] + +[Illustration: From _Phil. Transactions, Royal Society of London_. + +FIG. 7.--Thirty Days' Larval Lepidosiren. (After Graham Kerr.)] + +_External Gills._--In young Crossopterygians and in the young +_Protopterus_ and _Lepidosiren_ true external gills occur of the same +morphological nature as those of Urodele amphibians. In Crossopterygians +a single one is present on each side on the hyoid arch; in the two +Dipnoans mentioned four are present on each side--on visceral arches +III., IV., V. and VI. (It may be recalled that in Urodeles they occur on +arches III., IV. and V., with vestiges[8] on arches I. and II.). Each +external gill develops as a projection of ectoderm with mesodermal core +near the upper end of its visceral arch; the main aortic arch is +prolonged into it as a loop. When fully developed it is pinnate, and is +provided with voluntary muscles by which it can be moved freely to renew +the water in contact with its respiratory surface. In the case of +_Polypterus_ a short rod of cartilage projects from the hyoid arch into +the base of the external gill. Their occurrence with identical main +features in the three groups mentioned indicates that the external gills +are important and archaic organs of the vertebrata. Their non-occurrence +in at least some of the groups where they are absent is to be explained +by the presence of a large vascular yolk sac, which necessarily fulfils +in a very efficient way the respiratory function. + +_Alimentary Canal._--The alimentary canal forms a tube traversing the +body from mouth to cloacal opening. Corresponding with structural and +functional differences it is for descriptive purposes divided into the +following regions--(1) Buccal cavity or mouth cavity, (2) Pharynx, (3) +Oesophagus or gullet, (4) Stomach, (5) Intestine, and (6) Cloaca. The +buccal cavity or mouth cavity is morphologically a stomodaeum, i.e. it +represents an inpushing of the external surface. Its opening to the +exterior is wide and gaping in the embryo in certain groups (Selachians +and Crossopterygians), and even in the adult among the Cyclostomata, but +in the adult Gnathostome it can be voluntarily opened and shut in +correlation with the presence of a hinged jaw apparatus. The mouth +opening is less or more ventral in position in Cyclostomes and +Selachians, while in Dipnoans and Teleostomes it is usually terminal. + +[Illustration: From Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii., +"Fishes, &c." (by permisson of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.). After Boas, +_Lehrbuch der Zoologie_ (by permission of Gustav Fischer). + +FIG. 8.--Diagrams to illustrate the relations of branchial clefts and +pharynx in an Elasmobranch (A) and a Teleost (B); 1, 2, &c., Branchial +septa. + + b.c, Opercular cavity. + b.l, Respiratory lamellae. + c, Coelom. + e.b.a, Opercular opening. + hy.a, Hyoid arch. + hy.c, Hyobranchial cleft. + l.s, Valvular outer edge of gill septum. + n, Nasal aperture. + oes, Oesophagus. + op, Operculum. + p.q, Palato quadrate cartilage. + Ph, Pharynx. + sp, Spiracle.] + + In certain cases (e.g. _Lepidosiren_)[9] the buccal cavity arises by + secondary excavation without any actual pushing in of ectoderm. + +It is highly characteristic of the vertebrata that the pharynx--the +portion of the alimentary canal immediately behind the buccal +cavity--communicates with the exterior by a series of paired clefts +associated with the function of respiration and known as the visceral +clefts. It is especially characteristic of fishes that a number of these +clefts remain open as functional breathing organs in the adult. + +The visceral clefts arise as hollow pouches (or at first solid +projections) of the endoderm. Each pouch fuses with the ectoderm at its +outer end and then becomes perforated so as to form a free communication +between pharynx and exterior. + +The mesenchymatous packing tissue between consecutive clefts forms the +visceral arches, and local condensation within each gives rise to +important skeletal elements--to which the name visceral arches is often +restricted. From the particular skeletal structures which develop in the +visceral arches bounding it the anterior cleft is known as the +hyomandibular cleft, the next one as hyobranchial. In common usage the +hyomandibular cleft is called the spiracle, and the series of clefts +behind it the branchial clefts. + +The typical functional gill cleft forms a vertical slit, having on each +side a gill septum which separates it from its neighbours in the series. +The lining of the gill cleft possesses over a less or greater extent of +its area a richly developed network of capillary blood-vessels, through +the thin covering of which the respiratory exchange takes place between +the blood and the water which washes through the gill cleft. The area of +respiratory surface tends to become increased by the development of +outgrowths. Frequently these take the form of regular plate-like +structures known as gill lamellae. In the Selachians these lamellae are +strap-like structures (_Elasmobranch_) attached along nearly their +whole length to the gill septum as shown in fig. 8, A. In the +Holocephali and in the sturgeon the outer portions of the gill septa +have disappeared and this leads to the condition seen in the higher +Teleostomes (fig. 8, B), where the whole of the septum has disappeared +except its thick inner edge containing the skeletal arch. It follows +that in these higher Teleostomes--including the ordinary Teleosts--the +gill lamellae are attached only at their extreme inner end. + + In the young of Selachians and certain Teleosts (e.g. _Gymnarchus_ and + _Heterotis_)[10] the gill lamellae are prolonged as filaments which + project freely to the exterior. These must not be confused with true + external gills. + +The partial atrophy of the gill septa in the Teleostomes produces an +important change in their appearance. Whereas in the Selachian a series +of separate gill clefts is seen in external view each covered by a soft +valvular backgrowth of its anterior lip, in the Teleostean fish, on the +other hand, a single large opening is seen on each side (opercular +opening) covered over by the enormously enlarged valvular flap belonging +to the anterior lip of the hyobranchial cleft. This flap, an outgrowth +of the hyoid arch, is known as the operculum. + +In the Teleostomi there are usually five functional clefts, but these +are the survivors of a formerly greater number. Evidence of reduction is +seen at both ends of the series. In front of the first functional cleft +(the hyobranchial) there is laid down in the embryo the rudiment of a +spiracular cleft. In the less highly organized fishes this survives in +many cases as an open cleft. + + In many sharks and in sturgeons the spiracle forms a conspicuous + opening just behind the eye. In rays and skates, which are modified in + correlation with their ground feeding habit, the spiracle is a large + opening which during the great widening out of the body during + development comes to be situated on the dorsal side, while the + branchial clefts come to be ventral in position. In existing + Crossopterygians the spiracle is a slit-like opening on the dorsal + side of the head which can be opened or closed at will. In Dipneusti, + as in the higher Teleostomes, the spiracle is found as an embryonic + rudiment, but in this case it gives rise in the adult to a remarkable + sense organ of problematical function.[11] + +Traces of what appear to be pre-spiracular clefts exist in the embryos +of various forms. Perhaps the most remarkable of these is to be found in +the larval Crossopterygian,[12] and apparently also in _Amia_[13] at +least, amongst the other ganoids, where a pair of entodermal pouches +become cut off from the main entoderm and, establishing an opening to +the exterior, give rise to the lining of the cement organs of the larva. +Posteriorily there is evidence that the extension backwards of the +series of gill clefts was much greater in the primitive fishes. In the +surviving sharks (_Chlamydoselachus_ and _Notidanus cinereus_), there +still exist in the adult respectively six and seven branchial clefts, +while in embryonic Selachians there are frequently to be seen pouch-like +outgrowths of entoderm apparently representing rudimentary gill pouches +but which never develop. Further evidence of the progressive reduction +in the series of clefts is seen in the reduction of their functional +activity at the two ends of the series. The spiracle, even where +persisting in the adult, has lost its gill lamellae either entirely or +excepting a few vestigial lamellae forming a "pseudobranch" on its +anterior wall (Selachians, sturgeons). A similar reduction affects the +lamellae on the anterior wall of the hyobranchial cleft (except in +Selachians) and on the posterior wall of the last branchial cleft. + + A pseudobranch is frequently present in Teleostomes on the anterior + wall of the hyobranchial cleft, i.e. on the inner or posterior face of + the operculum. It is believed by some morphologists to belong really + to the cleft in front.[14] + + _Phylogeny._--The phylogeny of the gill clefts or pouches is + uncertain. The only organs of vertebrates comparable with them + morphologically are the enterocoelic pouches of the entoderm which + give rise to the mesoderm. It is possible that the respiratory + significance of the wall of the gill cleft has been secondarily + acquired. This is indicated by the fact that they appear in some cases + to be lined by an ingrowth of ectoderm. This suggests that there may + have been a spreading inwards of respiratory surface from the external + gills. It is conceivable that before their walls became directly + respiratory the gill clefts served for the pumping of fresh water over + the external gills at the bases of which they lie. + +_Lung._--As in the higher vertebrates, there develops in all the main +groups of gnathostomatous fishes, except the Selachians, an outgrowth of +the pharyngeal wall intimately associated with gaseous interchange. In +the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans this pharyngeal outgrowth agrees +exactly in its mid-ventral origin and in its blood-supply with the lungs +of the higher vertebrates, and there can be no question about its being +morphologically the same structure as it is also in function. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lung of _Neoceratodus_, opened in its lower half +to show its cellular pouches. a, Right half; b, Left half; c, Cellular +pouches; e, Pulmonary vein; f, Arterial blood-vessel; oe, Oesophagus, +opened to show glottis (gl.)] + + In the Crossopterygian the ventrally placed slit-like glottis leads + into a common chamber produced anteriorly into two horns and continued + backwards into two "lungs." These are smooth, thin-walled, saccular + structures, the right one small, the left very large and extending to + the hind end of the splanchnocoele. In the Dipnoans the lung has taken + a dorsal position close under the vertebral column and above the + splanchnocoele. Its walls are sacculated, almost spongy in + _Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_, so as to give increase to the + respiratory surface. In _Nexeratodus_ (fig. 9) an indication of + division into two halves is seen in the presence of two prominent + longitudinal ridges, one dorsal and one ventral. In _Lepidosiren_ and + _Protopterus_ the organ is completely divided except at its anterior + end into a right and a left lung. The anterior portion of the lung or + lungs is connected with the median ventral glottis by a short wide + vestibule which lies on the right side of the oesophagus. + +In the Teleostei the representative of the lung, here termed the +swimbladder, has for its predominant function a hydrostatic one; it acts +as a float. It arises as a diverticulum of the gut-wall which may retain +a tubular connexion with the gut (_physostomatous_ condition) or may in +the adult completely lose such connexion (_physoclistic_). It shows two +conspicuous differences from the lung of other forms: (1) it arises in +the young fish as a dorsal instead of as a ventral diverticulum, and (2) +it derives its blood-supply not from the sixth aortic arch but from +branches of the dorsal aorta. + + These differences are held by many to be sufficient to invalidate the + homologizing of the swimbladder with the lung. The following facts, + however, appear to do away with the force of such a contention. (1) In + the Dipneusti (e.g. _Neoceratodus_) the lung apparatus has acquired a + dorsal position, but its connexion with the mid-ventral glottis is + asymmetrical, passing round the right side of the gut. Were the + predominant function of the lung in such a form to become hydrostatic + we might expect the course of evolution to lead to a shifting of the + glottis dorsalwards so as to bring it nearer to the definitive + situation of the lung. (2) In _Erythrinus_ and other Characinids the + glottis is not mid-ventral but decidedly lateral in position, + suggesting either a retention of, or a return to, ancestral stages in + the dorsalward migration of the glottis. (3) The blood-supply of the + Teleostean swimbladder is from branches of the dorsal aorta, which may + be distributed over a long anteroposterior extent of that vessel. + Embryology, however, shows that the swimbladder arises as a localized + diverticulum. It follows that the blood-supply from a long stretch of + the aorta can hardly be primitive. We should rather expect the + primitive blood-supply to be from the main arteries of the pharyngeal + wall, i.e. from the hinder aortic arch as is the case with the lungs + of other forms. Now in _Amia_ at least we actually find such a + blood-supply, there being here a pulmonary artery corresponding with + that in lung-possessing forms. Taking these points into consideration + there seems no valid reason for doubting that in lung and swimbladder + we are dealing with the same morphological structure. + +_Function._--In the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans the lung is used for +respiration, while at the same time fulfilling a hydrostatic function. +Amongst the Actinopterygians a few forms still use it for respiration, +but its main function is that of a float. In connexion with this +function there exists an interesting compensatory mechanism whereby the +amount of gas in the swimbladder may be diminished (by absorption), or, +on the other hand, increased, so as to counteract alterations in +specific gravity produced, e.g. by change of pressure with change of +depth. This mechanism is specially developed in physoclistic forms, +where there occur certain glandular patches ("red glands") in the lining +epithelium of the swimbladder richly stuffed with capillary +blood-vessels and serving apparently to secrete gas into the +swimbladder. That the gas in the swimbladder is produced by some vital +process, such as secretion, is already indicated by its composition, as +it may contain nearly 90% of oxygen in deep-sea forms or a similar +proportion of nitrogen in fishes from deep lakes, i.e. its composition +is quite different from what it would be were it accumulated within the +swimbladder by mere ordinary diffusion processes. Further, the formation +of gas is shown by experiment to be controlled by branches of the vagus +and sympathetic nerves in an exactly similar fashion to the secretion of +saliva in a salivary gland. (See below for relations of swimbladder to +ear). + +Of the important non-respiratory derivatives of the pharyngeal wall +(thyroid, thymus, postbranchial bodies, &c.), only the thyroid calls for +special mention, as important clues to its evolutionary history are +afforded by the lampreys. In the larval lamprey the thyroid develops as +a longitudinal groove on the pharyngeal floor. From the anterior end of +this groove there pass a pair of peripharyngeal ciliated tracts to the +dorsal side of the pharynx where they pass backwards to the hind end of +the pharynx. Morphologically the whole apparatus corresponds closely +with the endostyle and peripharyngeal and dorsal ciliated tracts of the +pharynx of _Amphioxus_. The correspondence extends to function, as the +open thyroid groove secretes a sticky mucus which passes into the +pharyngeal cavity for the entanglement of food particles exactly as in +_Amphioxus_. Later on the thyroid groove becomes shut off from the +pharynx; its secretion now accumulates in the lumina of its interior and +it functions as a ductless gland as in the Gnathostomata. The only +conceivable explanation of this developmental history of the thyroid in +the lamprey is that it is a repetition of phylogenetic history. + +Behind the pharynx comes the main portion of the alimentary canal +concerned with the digestion and absorption of the food. This forms a +tube varying greatly in length, more elongated and coiled in the higher +Teleostomes, shorter and straighter in the Selachians, Dipnoans and +lower Teleostomes. The oesophagus or gullet, usually forming a short, +wide tube, leads into the glandular, more or less dilated stomach. This +is frequently in the form of a letter J, the longer limb being +continuous with the gullet, the shorter with the intestine. The curve of +the J may be as in _Polypterus_ and the perch produced backwards into a +large pocket. The intestine is usually marked off from the stomach by a +ring-like sphincter muscle forming the pyloric valve. In the lower +gnathostomatous fishes (Selachians, Crossopterygians, Dipnoans, +sturgeons) the intestine possesses the highly characteristic spiral +valve, a shelf-like projection into its lumen which pursues a spiral +course, and along the turns of which the food passes during the course +of digestion. From its universal occurrence in the groups mentioned we +conclude that it is a structure of a very archaic type, once +characteristic of ancestral Gnathostomata; a hint as to its +morphological significance is given by its method of development.[15] In +an early stage of development the intestinal rudiment is coiled into a +spiral and it is by the fusion together of the turns that the spiral +valve arises. The only feasible explanation of this peculiar method of +development seems to lie in the assumption that the ancestral +gnathostome possessed an elongated, coiled intestine which subsequently +became shortened with a fusion of its coils. In the higher fishes the +spiral valve has disappeared--being still found, however, in a reduced +condition in _Amia_ and _Lepidosteus_, and possibly as a faint vestige +in one or two Teleosts (certain _Clupeidae_[16] and _Salmonidae_[17]). +In the majority of the Teleosts the absence of spiral valves is coupled +with a secondary elongation of the intestinal region, which in extreme +cases (_Loricariidae_) may be accompanied by a secondary spiral coiling. + +The terminal part of the alimentary canal--the cloaca--is characterized +by the fact that into it open the two kidney ducts. In Teleostomes the +cloaca is commonly flattened out, so that the kidney ducts and the +alimentary canal come to open independently on the outer surface. + +The lining of the alimentary canal is throughout the greater part of its +extent richly glandular. And at certain points local enlargements of the +secretory surface take place so as to form glandular diverticula. The +most ancient of these as indicated by its occurrence even in _Amphioxus_ +appears to be the _liver_, which, originally--as we may assume--mainly a +digestive gland, has in the existing Craniates developed important +excretory and glycogen-storing functions. Arising in the embryo as a +simple caecum, the liver becomes in the adult a compact gland of very +large size, usually bi-lobed in shape and lying in the front portion of +the splanchnocoele. The stalk of the liver rudiment becomes drawn out +into a tubular bile duct, which may become subdivided into branches, and +as a rule develops on its course a pocket-like expansion, the +gall-bladder. This may hang freely in the splanchnocoele or may be, as +in many Selachians, imbedded in the liver substance. + +The pancreas also arises by localized bulging outwards of the intestinal +lining--there being commonly three distinct rudiments in the embryo. In +the Selachians the whitish compact pancreas of the adult opens into the +intestine some little distance behind the opening of the bile duct, but +in the Teleostomes it becomes involved in the liver outgrowth and mixed +with its tissue, being frequently recognizable only by the study of +microscopic sections. In the Dipnoans the pancreatic rudiment remains +imbedded in the wall of the intestine: its duct is united with that of +the liver. + +_Pyloric Caeca._--In the Teleostomi one or more glandular diverticula +commonly occur at the commencement of the intestine and are known as the +pyloric caeca. There may be a single caecum (crossopterygians, +_Ammodytes_ amongst Teleosts) or there may be nearly two hundred +(mackerel). In the sturgeons the numerous caeca form a compact gland. In +several families of Teleosts, on the other hand, there is no trace of +these pyloric caeca. + +In Selachians a small glandular diverticulum known as the _rectal gland_ +opens into the terminal part of the intestine on its dorsal side. + +_Coelomic Organs._--The development of the mesoderm in the restricted +sense (mesothelium) as seen in the fishes (lamprey, _Lepidosiren_, +_Protopterus_, _Polypterus_) appears to indicate beyond doubt that the +mesoderm segments of vertebrates are really enterocoelic pouches in +which the development of the lumen is delayed. Either the inner, or both +inner and outer (e.g. _Lepidosiren_) walls of the mesoderm segment pass +through a myoepithelial condition and give rise eventually to the great +muscle segments (myomeres, or myotomes) which lie in series on each side +of the trunk. In the fishes these remain distinct throughout life. The +fins, both median and paired, obtain their musculature by the ingrowth +into them of muscle buds from the adjoining myotomes. + +[Illustration: From Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur vergleich. Anat. der +Wirbeltiere_, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. + +FIG. 10.--View of _Torpedo_ from the dorsal side: the electric organs are +exposed. + + I, Fore-brain. + II, Mesencephalon. + III, Cerebellum. + IV, Electric lobe. + br, Common muscular sheath covering branchial clefts (on the left side + this has been removed so as to expose the series of branchial sacs). + f, Spiracle. + o.e, Electric organ, on the left side the nerve-supply is shown. + o, Eye. + t, Sensory tubes of lateral line system.] + +_Electrical Organs._[18]--It is characteristic of muscle that at the +moment of contraction it produces a slight electrical disturbance. In +certain fishes definite tracts of the musculature show a reduction of +their previously predominant function of contraction and an increase of +their previously subsidiary function of producing electrical +disturbance; so that the latter function is now predominant. + + In the skates (_Raia_) the electrical organ is a fusiform structure + derived from the lateral musculature of the tail; in _Gymnotus_--the + electric eel--and in _Mormyrus_ it forms an enormous structure + occupying the place of the ventral halves of the myotomes along nearly + the whole length of the body; in _Torpedo_ it forms a large, somewhat + kidney-shaped structure as viewed from above lying on each side of the + head and derived from the musculature of the anterior visceral arches. + In _Torpedo_ the nerve-supply is derived from cranial nerves VII. IX. + and the anterior branchial branches of X. + +The electric organ is composed of prismatic columns each built up of a +row of compartments. Each compartment contains a lamellated electric +disc representing the shortened-up and otherwise metamorphosed muscle +fibre. On one face (ventral in _Torpedo_, anterior in _Raia_) of the +electric disc is a gigantic end-plate supplied by a beautiful, +dichotomously branched, terminal nervous arborization. + +The development of the mesoderm of the head region is too obscure for +treatment here.[19] The ventral portion of the trunk mesoderm gives rise +to the splanchnocoel or general coelom. Except in the Myxinoids the +anterior part of the splanchnocoel becomes separated off as a +pericardiac cavity, though in adult Selachians the separation becomes +incomplete, the two cavities being in communication by a +pericardio-peritoneal canal. + +_Nephridial System._---The kidney system in fishes consists of +segmentally arranged tubes leading from the coelom into a longitudinal +duct which opens within the hinder end of the enteron--the whole forming +what is known as the _archinephros_ (Lankester) or _holonephros_ +(Price). Like the other segmented organs of the vertebrate the +archinephros develops from before backwards. The sequence is, however, +not regular. A small number of tubules at the head end of the series +become specially enlarged and are able to meet the excretory needs +during larval existence (_Pronephros_): the immediately succeeding +tubules remain undeveloped, and then come the tubules of the rest of the +series which form the functional kidney of the adult (_Mesonephros_). + +The kidney tubules subserve the excretory function in two different +ways. The wall of the tubule, bathed in blood from the posterior +cardinal vein, serves to extract nitrogenous products of excretion from +the blood and pass them into the lumen of the tubule. The open ciliated +funnel or nephrostome at the coelomic end of the tubule serves for the +passage outwards of coelomic fluid to flush the cavity of the tubule. +The secretory activity of the coelomic lining is specially concentrated +in certain limited areas in the neighbourhood of the nephrostomes, each +such area ensheathing a rounded mass depending into the coelom and +formed of a blood-vessel coiled into a kind of skein--a glomerulus. In +the case of the pronephros the glomeruli are as a rule fused together +into a single glomus. In the mesonephros they remain separate and in +this case the portion of coelom surrounding the glomerulus tends to be +nipped off from the general coelom--to form a Malpighian body. The +separation may be incomplete--the Malpighian coelom remaining in +connexion with the general coelom by a narrow peritoneal canal. The +splanchnocoelic end of this is usually ciliated and is termed a +peritoneal funnel: it is frequently confused with the nephrostome. + +_Mesonephros._--The kidney of the adult fish is usually a compact gland +extending over a considerable distance in an anteroposterior direction +and lying immediately dorsal to the coelomic cavity. + +Peritoneal funnels are present in the adult of certain Selachians (e.g. +_Acanthias_, _Squatina_), though apparently in at least some of these +forms they no longer communicate with the Malpighian bodies or tubules. +The kidneys of the two sides become fused together posteriorly in +_Protopterus_ and in some Teleosts. The mesonephric ducts undergo fusion +posteriorly in many cases to form a median urinary or urinogenital +sinus. In the Selachians this median sinus is prolonged forwards into a +pair of horn-like continuations--the sperm sacs. In Dipnoans the sinus +becomes greatly dilated and forms a large, rounded, dorsally placed +cloacal caecum. In Actinopterygians a urinary bladder of similar +morphological import is commonly present. + +_Gonads._--The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to the +reproductive cells retains its primitive relations most nearly in the +female, where, as a rule, the genital cells are still shed into the +splanchnocoele. Only in Teleostomes (_Lepidosteus_ and most Teleosts) +the modification occurs that the ovary is shut off from the +splanchnocoele as a closed cavity continuous with its duct. + + In a few Teleosts (_Salmonidae_, _Muraenidae_, _Cobitis_) the ovary is + not a closed sac, its eggs being shed into the coelom as in other + groups. + +The appearance of the ovary naturally varies greatly with the character +of the eggs. + +The portion of coelomic lining which gives rise to the male genital +cells (testis) is in nearly, if not quite, all cases, shut off from the +splanchnocoele. The testes are commonly elongated in form. In +Dipneusti[20] (_Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_) the hinder portion of +the elongated testis has lost its sperm-producing function, though the +spermatozoa produced in the anterior portion have to traverse it in +order to reach the kidney. In _Polypterus_[21] the testis is continued +backwards as a "testis ridge," which appears to correspond with the +posterior vesicular region of the testis in _Lepidosiren_ and +_Protopterus_. Here also the spermatozoa pass back through the cavities +of the testis ridge to reach the kidney duct. In the young Teleost[22] +the rudiment of the duct forms a backward continuation of the testis +containing a network of cavities and opening as a rule posteriorly into +the kidney duct. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the testis +duct of the Teleost is for the most part the equivalent morphologically +of the posterior vesicular region of the testis of _Polypterus_ and the +Dipneusti. + +_Relations of Renal and Reproductive Organs._ (1) _Female._--In the +Selachians and Dipnoans the oviduct is of the type (Müllerian duct) +present in the higher vertebrates and apparently representing a +split-off portion of the archinephric duct. At its anterior end is a +wide funnel-like coelomic opening. Its walls are glandular and secrete +accessory coverings for the eggs. In the great majority of Teleosts and +in _Lepidosteus_ the oviduct possesses no coelomic funnel, its walls +being in structural continuity with the wall of the ovary. In most of +the more primitive Teleostomes (Crossopterygians, sturgeons, _Amia_) the +oviduct has at its front end an open coelomic funnel, and it is +difficult to find adequate reason for refusing to regard such oviducts +as true Müllerian ducts. On this interpretation the condition +characteristic of Teleosts would be due to the lips of the oviduct +becoming fused with the ovarian wall, and the duct itself would be a +Müllerian duct as elsewhere. + +[Illustration: From _Arch. zool, expérimentale_, by permission of +Schleicher Frères. + +FIG. 11.--Urino-Genital Organs of the right side in a male _Scyllium_. +(After Borcea.) + + m.n. 1, Anterior (genital) portion of mesonephros + with its coiled duct. + m.n. 2, Posterior (renal) portion of mesonephros. + s.s, Sperm sac. + T, Testis. + u, "Ureter" formed by fusion of collecting tubes of renal portion of + mesonephros. + u.g.s, Urino-genital sinus; + v.s, Vesicula seminalis.] + + A departure from the normal arrangement is found in those Teleosts + which shed their eggs into the splanchnocoele, e.g. amongst + _Salmonidae_, the smelt (_Osmerus_) and capelin (_Mallotus_) possess a + pair of oviducts resembling Müllerian ducts while the salmon possesses + merely a pair of genital pores opening together behind the anus. It + seems most probable that the latter condition has been derived from + the former by reduction of the Müllerian ducts, though it has been + argued that the converse process has taken place. The genital pores + mentioned must not be confused with the _abdominal pores_, which in + many adult fishes, particularly in those without open peritoneal + funnels, lead from coelom directly to the exterior in the region of + the cloacal opening. These appear to be recent developments, and to + have nothing to do morphologically with the genitourinary system.[23] + +(2) _Male._--It seems that primitively the male reproductive elements +like the female were shed into the coelom and passed thence through the +nephridial tubules. In correlation probably with the greatly reduced +size of these elements they are commonly no longer shed into the +splanchnocoele, but are conveyed from the testis through covered-in +canals to the Malpighian bodies or kidney tubules. The system of +covered-in canals forms the testicular network, the individual canals +being termed vasa efferentia. In all probability the series of vasa +efferentia was originally spread over the whole length of the elongated +testis (cf. _Lepidosteus_), but in existing fishes the series is as a +rule restricted to a comparatively short anteroposterior extent. In +Selachians the vasa efferentia are restricted to the anterior end of +testis and kidney, and are connected by a longitudinal canal ending +blindly in front and behind. The number of vasa efferentia varies and in +the rays (_Raia_, _Torpedo_) may be reduced to a single one opening +directly into the front end of the mesonephric duct. The anterior +portion of the mesonephros is much reduced in size in correlation with +the fact that it has lost its renal function. The hinder part, which is +the functional kidney, is considerably enlarged. The primary tubules of +this region of the kidney have undergone a modification of high +morphological interest. Their distal portions have become much +elongated, they are more or less fused, and their openings into the +mesonephric duct have undergone backward migration until they open +together either into the mesonephric duct at its posterior end or into +the urinogenital sinus independently of the mesonephric duct. The +mesonephric duct is now connected only with the anterior part of the +kidney, and serves merely as a vas deferens or sperm duct. In +correlation with this it is somewhat enlarged, especially in its +posterior portion, to form a vesicula seminalis. + + The morphological interest of these features lies in the fact that + they represent a stage in evolution which carried a little farther + would lead to a complete separation of the definitive kidney + (_metanephros_) from the purely genital anterior section of the + mesonephros (_epididymis_), as occurs so characteristically in the + Amniota. + +Dipneusti.--In _Lepidosiren_[24] a small number (about half a dozen) of +vasa efferentia occur towards the hind end of the vesicular part of the +testis and open into Malpighian bodies. In _Protopterus_ the vasa +efferentia are reduced to a single one on each side at the extreme hind +end of the testis. + +[Illustration: Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_. + +FIG. 12.--Diagram illustrating Connexion between Kidney and Testis in +Various Groups of Fishes. + + A, Distributed condition of _vasa efferentia_ (_Acipenser_, + _Lepidosteus_). + B, _Vasa efferentia_ reduced to a few at the hind end (_Lepidosiren_). + C, Reduction of vasa efferentia to a single one posteriorly + (_Protopterus_). + D, Direct communication between testis and kidney duct (_Polypterus_, + Teleosts). + c.f, Nephrostome leading from Malpighian coelom into kidney tubule. + T1, Functional region of testis. + T2, Vesicular region of testis. + WD, Mesonephric duct.] + +Teleostomi.--In the actinopterygian Ganoids a well-developed testicular +network is present; e.g. in _Lepidosteus_[25] numerous vasa efferentia +arise from the testis along nearly its whole length and pass to a +longitudinal canal lying on the surface of the kidney, from which in +turn transverse canals lead to the Malpighian bodies. (In the case of +_Amia_ they open into the tubules or even directly into the mesonephric +duct.) In the Teleosts and in _Polypterus_ there is no obvious connexion +between testis and kidney, the wall of the testis being continuous with +that of its duct, much as is the case with the ovary and its duct in the +female. In all probability this peculiar condition is to be +explained[26] by the reduction of the testicular network to a single vas +efferens (much as in _Protopterus_ or as in _Raia_ and various anurous +Amphibians at the front end of the series) which has come to open +directly into the mesonephric duct (cf. fig. 12). + +_Organs of the Mesenchyme._--In vertebrates as in all other Metazoa, +except the very lowest, there are numerous cell elements which no longer +form part of the regularly arranged epithelial layers, but which take +part in the formation of the packing tissue of the body. Much of this +forms the various kinds of connective tissue which fill up many of the +spaces between the various epithelial layers; other and very important +parts of the general mesenchyme become specialized in two definite +directions and give rise to two special systems of organs. One of these +is characterized by the fact that the intercellular substance or matrix +assumes a more or less rigid character--it may be infiltrated with salts +of lime--giving rise to the supporting tissues of the skeletal system. +The other is characterized by the intercellular matrix becoming fluid, +and by the cell elements losing their connexion with one another and +forming the characteristic fluid tissue, the blood, which with its +well-marked containing walls forms the blood vascular system. + +_Skeletal System._--The skeletal system may be considered under three +headings--(1) the chordal skeleton, (2) the cartilaginous skeleton and +(3) the osseous skeleton. + +1. _Chordal Skeleton._--The most ancient element of the skeleton appears +to be the _notochord_--a cylindrical rod composed of highly vacuolated +cells lying ventral to the central nervous system and dorsal to the gut. +Except in _Amphioxus_--where the condition may probably be secondary, +due to degenerative shortening of the central nervous system--the +notochord extends from a point just behind the infundibulum of the brain +(see below) to nearly the tip of the tail. In ontogeny the notochord is +a derivative of the dorsal wall of the archenteron. The outer layer of +cells, which are commonly less vacuolated and form a "chordal +epithelium," soon secretes a thin cuticle which ensheaths the notochord +and is known as the primary sheath. Within this there is formed later a +secondary sheath, like the primary, cuticular in nature. This secondary +sheath attains a considerable thickness and plays an important part in +strengthening the notochord. The notochord with its sheaths is in +existing fishes essentially the skeleton of early life (embryonic or +larval). In the adult it may, in the more primitive forms (Cyclostomata, +Dipneusti), persist as an important part of the skeleton, but as a rule +it merely forms the foundation on which the cartilaginous or bony +vertebral column is laid down. + +2. _Cartilaginous or Chondral Skeleton._--(A) Vertebral column.[27] In +the embryonic connective tissue or mesenchyme lying just outside the +primary sheath of the notochord there are developed a dorsal and a +ventral series of paired nodules of cartilage known as _arcualia_ (fig. +13, d.a, v.a). The dorsal arcualia are commonly prolonged upwards by +supradorsal cartilages which complete the _neural arches_ and serve to +protect the spinal cord. The ventral arcualia become, in the tail region +only, also incorporated in complete arches--the _haemal arches_. In +correlation with the flattening of the body of the fish from side to +side the arches are commonly prolonged into elongated neural or haemal +spines. + + The relations of the arcualia to the segmentation of the body, as + shown by myotomes and spinal nerves, is somewhat obscure. The + mesenchyme in which they arise is segmental in origin (sclerotom), + which suggests that they too may have been primitively segmental, but + in existing fishes there are commonly two sets of arcualia to each + body segment. + +In gnathostomatous fishes the arcualia play a most important part in +that cartilaginous tissue derived from them comes into special +relationships with the notochord and gives rise to the vertebral column +which functionally replaces this notochord in most of the fishes. This +replacement occurs according to two different methods, giving rise to +the different types of vertebral column known as chordacentrous and +arcicentrous. + +(a) Chordacentrous type. An incipient stage in the evolution of a +chordacentrous vertebral column occurs in the Dipneusti, where cartilage +cells from the arcualia become amoeboid and migrate into the substance +of the secondary sheath, boring their way through the primary sheath +(fig. 13, C). They wander throughout the whole extent of the secondary +sheath, colonizing it as it were, and settle down as typical stationary +cartilage cells. The secondary sheath is thus converted into a cylinder +of cartilage. In Selachians exactly the same thing takes place, but in +recent forms development goes a step further, as the cartilage cylinder +becomes broken into a series of segments, known as vertebral centra. The +wall of each segment becomes much thickened in the middle so that the +notochord becomes constricted within each centrum and the space occupied +by it is shaped like the cavity of a dice-box. When free from notochord +and surrounding tissues such a cartilaginous centrum presents a deep +conical cavity at each end (_amphicoelous_). + +[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Grundriss der vergleichenden +Anatomie_, by permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 13.--Diagrammatic transverse sections to illustrate the morphology +of the vertebral column. + + A, Primitive conditions as seen in any young embryo. + B, Condition as it occurs in Cyclostomata, sturgeons, embryos of bony + Actinopterygians. + C, Condition found in Selachians and Dipnoans. + D and E, Illustrating the developmental process in bony + Actinopterygians and higher vertebrates. + c, Centrum. + d.a, Dorsal arcualia. + n.a, Neural arch. + nc, Notochord. + nc.ep, Chordal epithelium. + n.sp, Neural spine. + sh.1, Primary sheath. + sh.2, Secondary sheath. + sk.l, Connective tissue. + tr.p, Transverse process. + v.a, Ventral arcualia.] + + A secondary modification of the centrum consists in the calcification + of certain zones of the cartilaginous matrix. The precise arrangement + of these calcified zones varies in different families and affords + characters which are of taxonomic importance in palaeontology where + only skeletal structures are available (see SELACHIANS). + +(b) Arcicentrous type. Already in the Selachians the vertebral column is +to a certain extent strengthened by the broadening of the basis of the +arcualia so as partially to surround the centra. In the Teleostomes, +with the exceptions of those ganoids mentioned, the expanded bases of +the arcualia undergo complete fusion to form cartilaginous centra which, +unlike the chordacentrous centra, lie outside the primary sheath (figs. +13, D and E). In these forms no invasion of the secondary sheath by +cartilage cells takes place. The composition of the groups of arcualia +which give rise to the individual centrum is different in different +groups. The end result is an amphicoelous or biconcave centrum in +general appearance much like that of the Selachian. + + In _Lepidosteus_ the spaces between adjacent centra become filled by a + secondary development of intervertebral cartilage which then splits in + such a way that the definitive vertebrae are _opisthocoelous_, i.e. + concave behind, convex in front. + +_Ribs._--In the Crossopterygians a double set of "ribs" is present on +each side of the vertebral column, a ventral set lying immediately +outside the splanchnocoelic lining and apparently serially homologous +with the haemal arches of the caudal region, and a second set passing +outwards in the thickness of the body wall at a more dorsal level. In +the Teleostomes and Dipnoans only the first type is present; in the +Selachians only the second. It would appear that it is the latter which +is homologous with the ribs of vertebrates above fishes. + +_Median Fin Skeleton._--the foundation of the skeleton of the median +fins consists of a series of rod-like elements, the radialia, each of +which frequently is segmented into three portions. In a few cases the +radialia correspond segmentally with the neural and haemal arches +(living Dipnoans, _Pleuracanthus_ tail region) and this suggests that +they represent morphologically prolongations of the neural and haemal +spines. That this is so is rendered probable by the fact that we must +regard the evolution of the system of median fins as commencing with a +simple flattening of the posterior part of the body. It is only natural +to suppose that the edges of the flattened region would be at first +supported merely by prolongations of the already existing spinous +processes. In the Cyclostomes (where they are branched) and in the +Selachians, the radialia form the main supports of the fin, though +already in the latter they are reinforced by a new set of fin rays +apparently related morphologically to the osseous or placoid skeleton +(see below). + + The series of radialia tends to undergo the same process of local + concentration which characterizes the fin-fold as a whole. In its + extreme form this leads to complete fusion of the basal portions of a + number of radialia (dorsal fins of _Holoptychius_ and various + Selachians, and anal fin of _Pleuracanthus_). In view of the identity + in function it is not surprising that a remarkable resemblance exists + between the mechanical arrangements (of skeleton, muscles, &c.), of + the paired and unpaired fins. The resemblance to paired fins becomes + very striking in some of the cases where the basal fusion mentioned + above takes place (_Pleuracanthus_). + +[Illustration: _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh._ + +FIG. 14.--Chondrocranium of a young Lepidosiren, showing the suspension +of the lower jaw by the upper portion of the mandibular arch. (After +Agar.) + + H, Hyoid arch. + M, Mandibular arch. + o.a, Occipital arch. + ot, Auditory capsule. + q, Quadrate = upper end of mandibular arch. + tr, Trabecula. + +The palatopterygoid bar (p.pt) is represented by a faint vestige which +disappears before the stage figured.] + +(B) _Chondrocranium[28]._--In front of the vertebral column lies the +cartilaginous trough, the chondrocranium, which protects the brain. This +consists of a praechordal portion--developed out of a pair of lateral +cartilaginous rods--the _trabeculae cranii_--and a parachordal portion +lying on either side of the anterior end of the notochord. This arises +in development from a cartilaginous rod (parachordal cartilage) lying +on each side of the notochord and possibly representing a fused row of +dorsal arcualia. The originally separate parachordals and trabeculae +become connected to form a trough-like, primitive cranium, complete or +nearly so laterally and ventrally but open dorsally. With the primitive +cranium there are also connected cartilaginous capsules developed round +the olfactory and auditory organs. There also become fused with the +hinder end of the cranium a varying number of originally distinct neural +arches. + +[Illustration: _A._ After W. K. Parker, _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_. + +_B._ After Gegenbaur, _Untersuchungen zur verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, +by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. + +_C._ After Hubrecht, Brown's _Tierreich_, by permission of Gustav +Fischer. + +FIG. 15.--Chondrocranium, &c. of _Scyllium_ (A), _Notidanus cinereus_ +(B) and _Chimaera_ (C). + + Br.A, Branchial arches. olf, Olfactory capsule. + c.h, Ceratohyal. ot, Auditory capsule. + e.p.l, Ethmopalatine ligament. p.pt, Palato-pterygoid bar. + Hm, Hyomandibular. p.s.l, Prespiracular ligament. + M, Meckel's cartilage. r, Rostrum.] + o, Orbit. + +(C) _Visceral Arches._--The skeleton of the visceral arches consists +essentially of a series of half-hoops of cartilage, each divided in the +adult into a number of segments and connected with its fellow by a median +ventral cartilage. The skeleton of arches I. and II. (mandibular and +hyoidean) undergoes modifications of special interest (figs. 14 and 15). +The lower portion of the mandibular arch becomes greatly thickened to +support the lower or hinder edge of the mouth. It forms the primitive +lower jaw or "Meckel's cartilage." Dorsal to this an outgrowth arises from +the anterior face of the arch which supports the upper or anterior margin +of the mouth: it is the primitive upper jaw or palato-pterygoquadrate +cartilage. The portion of the arch dorsal to the palato-pterygo-quadrate +outgrowth may form the suspensorial apparatus of the lower jaw, being +fused with the cranium at its upper end. This relatively primitive +con-arrangement (_protostylic_, as it may be termed) occurs in Dipneusti +among fishes (cf. fig. 14). More usually this dorsal part of the +mandibular arch becomes reduced, its place being occupied by a ligament +(pre-spiracular) uniting the jaw apparatus to the chondrocranium, the +upper jaw being also attached to the chondrocranium by the ethmopalatine +ligament situated more anteriorly. The main attachment, however, of the +jaws to the chondrocranium in such a case, as holds for the majority of +fishes, is through the enlarged dorsal segment of the hyoid arch +(hyomandibular) which articulates at its dorsal end with the +chondrocranium, while its ventral end is attached to the hinge region of +the jaw by stout ligamentous bands. A skull in which the jaws are +suspended in this manner is termed a hyostylic skull (e.g. _Scyllium_ in +fig. 15). + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Fore-limb of _Ceratodus_.] + + In _Notidanus_ (fig. 15, B) there is a large direct articulation of + the upper jaw to the chondrocranium in addition to the indirect one + through the hyomandibular: such a skull is amphistylic. In + _Heterodontus_ the upper jaw is firmly bound to the cranium throughout + its length, while in Holocephali (fig. 15, C) complete fusion has + taken place, so that the lower jaw appears to articulate directly with + the cranium ("auto stylic" condition). In Dipneusti[29] (_Lepidosiren_ + and _Protopterus_) the cartilaginous upper jaw never develops (except + in its hinder quadrate portion) beyond the condition of a faint + rudiment, owing doubtless to its being replaced functionally by + precociously developed bone. + +(D) _Appendicular Skeleton._--The skeleton of the free part of the limb +is attached to the limb girdle which lies embedded in the musculature of +the body. Each limb girdle is probably to be looked upon as consisting, +like the skeleton of the visceral arches, of a pair of lateral +half-hoops of cartilage. While in _Pleuracanthus_ the lateral halves are +distinct (and segmented like the branchial arches), in living Selachians +generally the two halves are completely fused ventrally with one +another. The part of the girdle lying dorsal to the articulation of the +limb is termed scapular in the case of the pectoral limb, iliac in the +case of the pelvic, while the ventral portions are known respectively as +coracoid and ischio-pubic. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--a, Skeleton of pectoral limb of +_Pleuracanthus_. (From Gegenbauer, after Frisch.) b, Skeleton of +pectoral limb of _Acanthias_. (After Gegenbauer.)] + + In most Teleostomes the primitive pelvic girdle does not develop; in + the Dipneusti it is represented by a median unpaired cartilage. + +The skeleton of the free limb is probably seen in its most archaic form +amongst existing fishes in the biserial archipterygium of _Ceratodus_ +(fig. 16). This is indicated by the relative predominance of this type +of fin amongst the geologically more ancient fishes. The biserial +archipterygium consists of a segmented axial rod, bearing a praeaxial +and a postaxial series of jointed rays. + + In _Protopterus_ and _Lepidosiren_ the limbs are reduced and the + lateral rays have less (_Protopterus_) or more (_Lepidosiren_) + completely disappeared. + +[Illustration: From Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. London_, xvi, part vii. +From Wiedersheim's _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 18.--Skeleton of Pectoral Limb of _Polypterus_. a, 30 mm. larva. b, +Adult.] + +[Illustration: From Wiesdersheim's _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by +permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 19.--Skeleton of Pectoral Fin of _Amia_.] + +In such an archaic Selachian as _Pleuracanthus_ the fin is clearly of +the biserial archipterygial type, but the lateral rays are reduced +(pectoral) or absent (pelvic) (fig. 17, a) on one side of the axis. In a +typical adult Selachian the pectoral fin skeleton has little apparent +resemblance to the biserial archipterygium--the numerous outwardly +directed rays springing from a series of large basal cartilages (_pro_-, +_meso_- and _metapterygium_). The condition in the young (e.g. fig. 17, +b, _Acanthias_) hints strongly, however, at the possibility of the fin +skeleton being really a modified biserial archipterygium, and that the +basal cartilages represent the greatly enlarged axis which has become +fixed back along the side of the body. In Crossopterygians +(_Polypterus_) the highly peculiar fin skeleton (fig. 18) while still in +the embryonic cartilaginous stage is clearly referable to a similar +condition. In the Actinopterygians--with the increased development of +dermal fin rays--there comes about reduction of the primitive limb +skeleton. The axis becomes particularly reduced, and the fin comes to be +attached directly to the pectoral girdle by a number of basal pieces +(Teleosts) probably representing vestigial rays (cf. fig. 19). + + Views on the general morphology of the fin skeleton are strongly + affected by the view held as to the mode of evolution of the fins. By + upholders of the lateral fold hypothesis the type of fin skeleton + described for _Cladoselache_[30] is regarded as particularly + primitive. It is, however, by no means clear that the obscure basal + structures figured (Fig. 20) in this fin do not really represent the + pressed back axis as in _Pleuracanthus_. + +The pelvic fin skeleton, while built obviously on the same plan as the +pectoral, is liable to much modification and frequently degeneration. + +[Illustration: From Bashford Dean, Mem. _N.Y. Acad. of Science_. + +FIG. 20.--Skeleton of Pectoral Fin of _Cladoselache_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Placoid elements of a male Thorn-back, _Raia +clavata_.] + +_Osseous or Bony Skeleton._--The most ancient type of bony skeleton +appears to be represented in the _placoid_ elements such as are seen in +the skin of the Selachian (fig. 21). Each placoid element consists of a +spine with a broadly expanded base embedded in the dermis. The base is +composed of bone: the spine of the somewhat modified bone known as +dentine. Ensheathing the tip of the spine is a layer of extremely hard +enamel formed by the inner surface of the ectoderm which originally +covered it. Such typical placoid scales are well seen on any ordinary +skate. In the groups of fishes above the Selachians, the coating of +placoid elements shows various modifications. The spines disappear, +though they may be present for a time in early development. The bony +basal plates tend to undergo fusion--in certain cases they form a +continuous bony cuirass (various Siluroids, trunk-fishes) formed of +large plates jointed together at their edges. More usually the plates +are small and regular in size. In Crossopterygians and _Lepidosteus_ and +in many extinct forms the scales are of the ganoid type, being +rhomboidal and having their outer layer composed of hard glistening +ganoine. In other Teleostomes the scales are as a rule thin, rounded and +overlapping--the so-called cycloid type (fig. 22, A); where the +posterior edge shows toothlike projections the scale is termed ctenoid +(fig. 22, B). In various Teleosts the scales are vestigial (eel); in +others (as in most electric fishes) they have completely disappeared. + +_Teeth._--Certain of the placoid elements belonging to that part of the +skin which gives rise to the lining of the stomodaeum have their spines +enlarged or otherwise modified to form teeth. In the majority of fishes +these remain simple, conical structures: in some of the larger sharks +(_Carcharodon_) they become flattened into trenchant blades with +serrated edges: in certain rays (_Myliobatis_) they form a pavement of +flattened plates suited for crushing molluscan shells. In the young +_Neoceratodus_[31] there are numerous small conical teeth, the bases of +which become connected by a kind of spongework of bony trabeculae. As +development goes on a large basal mass is formed which becomes the +functional tooth plate of the adult, the original separate denticles +disappearing completely. In the other two surviving Dipnoans, similar +large teeth exist, though here there is no longer trace in ontogeny of +their formation by the basal fusion of originally separate denticles. In +the Selachians the bony skeleton is restricted to the placoid elements. +In the Teleostomes and the Dipnoans the original cartilaginous skeleton +becomes to a great extent unsheathed or replaced by bony tissue. It +seems highly probable that the more deeply seated osseous elements +occurring in these as in the higher groups arose in the course of +evolution by the spreading inwards of bony trabeculae from the bases of +the placoid elements. Such a method has been demonstrated as occurring +in individual development in the case of certain of the more +superficially placed bones.[32] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--A, Cycloid Scale of _Scopelus resplendens_ +(magn.). B, Ctenoid Scale of _Lethrinus_ (magn.).] + + The placoid element with its cap of enamel secreted by the ectoderm is + probably originally derived from a local thickening of the basement + membrane which with the external cuticle may be looked on as the most + ancient skeletal structure in the Metazoa. The basal plate appears to + have been a later development than the spine; in the palaeozoic + _Coelolepidae_[33] the basal plate is apparently not yet developed. + +Only a brief summary can be given here of the leading features in the +osteology of fishes. Care must be taken not to assume that bony elements +bearing the same name in fishes and in other groups, or even in the +various sub-divisions of the fishes, are necessarily strictly +homologous. In all probability bony elements occupying similar positions +and described by the same anatomical name have been evolved +independently from the ancestral covering of placoid elements. + +_Teleostei._--It will be convenient to take as the basis of our +description the bony skeleton of such a Teleostean fish as the salmon. +In the vertebral column all the cartilaginous elements are replaced by +bone. The haemal spines of the turned-up tip of the tail are flattened +(hypural bones) and serve to support the caudal fin rays. + +In _Argyropelecus_ and in one or two deep-sea forms the vertebral column +remains cartilaginous. + +[Illustration: From Parker & Haswell's _Text-book of Zoology_, by +permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + +FIG. 23.--One of the radialia of the salmon, consisting of three +segments, ptg¹, ptg², ptg³, and supporting a dermal fin ray. _D.F.R._] + +Apart from the ossification of the radialia which takes place in the +adults of bony fishes there exist special supporting structures in the +fins (paired as well as median) of all the gnathostomatous fishes and +apparently in nature independent of the cartilaginous skeleton. These +are known as dermal fin-rays.[34] Morphologically they are probably to +be looked on (like placoid elements) as local exaggerations of the +basement membrane. + + In their detailed characters two main types of dermal fin-ray may be + recognized. The first of these are horny unjointed rays and occur in + the fins of Selachians and at the edge of the fins of Teleostomes + (well seen in the small posterior dorsal or "adipose" fin, + particularly in Siluroids). The second type of dermal fin-ray is + originally arranged in pairs and forms the main supports of the fin in + the adult Teleost (fig. 23). The members of each pair are in close + contact except proximally where they separate and embrace the tip of + one of the radialia. The fin-rays of this second type are frequently + branched and jointed: in other cases they form unbranched rigid + spines. + + In the angler or fishing-frog (_Lophius_) the anterior rays of the + dorsal fin become greatly elongated to form small fishing-rods, from + which depend bait-like lures for the attraction of its prey. + +[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by +permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 24.--Chondrocranium of Salmon, seen from the right side. + + alsph, Alisphenoid. orbsph, Orbitosphenoid. + basocc, Basioccipital. proot, Prootic. + ekteth, Lateral ethmoid. psph, Parasphenoid. + epiot, Epiotic. ptero, Pterotic. + exocc, Exoccipital. socc, Supra occipital. + fr, Frontal. sphot, Sphenotic. + opisth, Opisthotic. vo, Vomer.] + +In the skull of the adult salmon it is seen that certain parts of the +chondrocranium (fig. 24) have been replaced by bone ("cartilage bones") +while other more superficially placed bones ("membrane bones") cover its +surface (fig. 25). Of cartilage bones four are developed round the +foramen magnum--the basioccipital, supraoccipital and two exoccipitals. +In front of the basioccipital is the basisphenoid with an alisphenoid on +each side. The region (presphenoidal) immediately in front of the +basisphenoid is unossified, but on each side of it an orbitosphenoid is +developed, the two orbitosphenoids being closely approximated in the +mesial plane and to a certain extent fused, forming the upper part of +the interorbital septum. In the anterior or ethmoidal portion of the +cranium the only cartilage bones are a pair of lateral ethmoids lying +at the anterior boundary of the orbit. A series of five distinct +elements are ossified in the wall of the auditory or otic capsule, the +prootic and opisthotic more ventrally, and the sphenotic, pterotic and +epiotic more dorsally. The roof of the cranium is covered in by the +following dermal bones--parietals (on each side of the supraoccipital), +frontals, dermal ethmoid and small nasals, one over each olfactory +organ. The floor of the cranium on its oral aspect is ensheathed by the +large parasphenoid and the smaller vomer in front of and overlapping it. +The cartilaginous lower jaw is ossified posteriorly to form the +articular (fig. 25) with a small membrane bone, the angular, ventral to +it, but the main part of the jaw is replaced functionally by a large +membrane bone which ensheaths it--the dentary--evolved in all +probability by the spreading outwards of bony tissue from the bases of +the placoid elements (teeth) which it bears. The original upper jaw +(palatopterygoid bar) is replaced by a chain of bones--palatine in +front, then pterygoid and mesopterygoid, and posteriorly metapterygoid +and quadrate, the latter giving articulation to the articular bone of +the lower jaw. These representatives of the palatopterygoid bar no +longer form the functional upper jaw. This function is performed by +membrane bones which have appeared external to the palatopterygoid +bar--the premaxilla and maxilla--which carry teeth--and the small +scale-like jugal behind them. The quadrate is suspended from the skull +as in the Selachians (hyostylic skull) by the upper portion of the hyoid +arch--here represented by two bones--the hyomandibular and symplectic. +The ventral portion of the hyoid arch is also represented by a chain of +bones (stylohyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, hypohyal and the ventral unpaired +basihyal), as is also each of the five branchial arches behind it. In +addition to the bony elements belonging to the hyoid arch proper a +series of membrane bones support the opercular flap. Ventrally there +project backwards from the ceratohyal a series of ten overlapping +branchiostegal rays, while more dorsally are the broader interopercular, +subopercular and opercular. + +[Illustration: From Wiedersheim, _Verg. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_, by +permission of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 25.--Complete Skull of Salmon from left side. + + art, Articular. op, Opercular. + branchiost, Branchiostegal. pal, Palatine. + dent, Dentary. par, Parietal. + epiot, Epiotic. pmx, Premaxilla. + eth, Dermal ethmoid. preop, Preopercular. + fr, Frontal. pt, Pterygoid. + hyom, Hyomandibular. pter, Pterotic. + intop, Interopercular. Quad, Quadrate. + Jug, Jugal. socc, Supraoccipital. + mpt, Mesopterygoid. sphot, Sphenotic. + mtpt, Metapterygoid. subop, Subopercular. + mx, Maxilla. sympl, Symplectic. + nas, Nasal. Zunge, Tongue.] + +In addition to the bones already enumerated there is present a ring of +circumorbital bones, a preopercular, behind and external to the +hyomandibular and quadrate, and squamosal, external to the hinder end of +the auditory capsule. + + In the salmon, pike, and various other Teleosts, extensive regions of + the chondrocranium persist in the adult, while in others (e.g. the + cod) the replacement by bone is practically complete. Bony elements + may be developed in addition to those noticed in the salmon. + + In the sturgeon the chondrocranium is ensheathed by numerous membrane + bones, but cartilage bones are absent. In the Crossopterygians[35] the + chondrocranium persists to a great extent in the adult, but portions + of it are replaced by cartilage bones--the most interesting being a + large sphenethmoid like that of the frog. Numerous membrane bones + cover the chondrocranium externally. In the Dipneusti[36] the + chondrocranium is strengthened in the adult by numerous bones. One of + the most characteristic is the great palatopterygoid bone which + develops very early by the spreading of ossification backwards from + the tooth bases, and whose early development probably accounts for the + non-development of the palatopterygoid cartilage. + +_Appendicular Skeleton._--The primitive pectoral girdle, which in the +Dipneusti is strengthened by a sheath of bone, becomes in the +Teleostomes reduced in size (small scapula and coracoid bones) and +replaced functionally by a secondary shoulder girdle formed of +superficially placed membrane bones (supraclavicular and cleithrum or +"clavicle," with, in addition in certain cases, an infraclavicular and +one or two postclavicular elements), and connected at its dorsal end +with the skull by a post-temporal bone. + +The pelvic girdle is in Teleostomes completely absent as a rule. + +The skeleton of the free limb undergoes ossification to a less or +greater extent in the Teleostomes. + + In _Polypterus_ the pectoral fin (fig. 18, B) shows three + ossifications in the basal part of the fin--pro-, meso- and + metapterygium. Of these the metapterygium probably represents the + ossified skeletal axis: while the propterygium and also the numerous + diverging radials probably represent the lateral rays of one side of + the archipterygium. + + In the _Teleostomes_ the place of the pelvic girdle is taken + functionally by an element apparently formed by the fusion of the + basal portions of several radials. + +_Vascular System._--The main components of the blood vascular system in +the lower vertebrates are the following: (1) a single or double dorsal +aorta lying between the enteron and notochord; (2) a ventral vessel +lying beneath the enteron; and (3) a series of paired hoop-like aortic +arches connecting dorsal and ventral vessels round the sides of the +pharynx. The blood-stream passes forwards towards the head in the +ventral vessel, dorsalwards through the aortic arches, and tailwards in +the dorsal aorta. + +The dorsal aorta is single throughout the greater part of its extent, +but for a greater or less extent at its anterior end (_circulus +cephalicus_) it consists of two paired aortic roots. It is impossible to +say whether the paired or the unpaired condition is the more primitive, +general morphological conditions being in favour of the latter, while +embryological evidence rather supports the former. The dorsal aorta, +which receives its highly oxygenated blood from the aortic arches, is +the main artery for the distribution of this oxygenated blood. +Anteriorly the aortic roots are continued forwards as the dorsal carotid +arteries to supply the head region. A series of paired, +segmentally-arranged arteries pass from the dorsal aorta to supply the +muscular body wall, and the branches which supply the pectoral and +pelvic fins (subclavian or brachial artery, and iliac artery) are +probably specially enlarged members of this series of segmental vessels. +Besides these paired vessels a varying number of unpaired branches pass +from dorsal aorta to the wall of the alimentary canal with its glandular +diverticula (coeliac, mesenteric, rectal). + +The ventral vessel undergoes complicated changes and is represented in +the adults of existing fishes by a series of important structures. Its +post-anal portion comes with the atrophy of the post-anal gut to lie +close under the caudal portion of the dorsal aorta and is known as the +caudal vein. This assumes a secondary connexion with, and drains its +blood into, the posterior cardinal veins (see below). In the region +between cloaca and liver the ventral vessel becomes much branched or +even reticular and--serving serving to convey the food-laden blood from +the wall of the enteron to the capillary network of the liver--is known +as the hepatic portal vein. The short section in front of the liver is +known as the hepatic vein and this conveys the blood, which has been +treated by the liver, into a section of the ventral vessel, which has +become highly muscular and is rhythmically contractile. This enlarged +muscular portion, in which the contractility--probably once common to +the main vessels throughout their extent--has become concentrated, +serves as a pump and is known as the heart. Finally the precardiac +section of the ventral vessel--the ventral aorta--conveys the blood from +heart to aortic arches. + +In addition to the vessels mentioned a large paired vein is developed in +close relation to the renal organ which it serves to drain. This is the +posterior cardinal. An anterior prolongation (anterior cardinal) serves +to drain the blood from the head region. From the point of junction of +anterior and posterior cardinal a large transverse vessel leads to the +heart (_ductus Cuvieri_). + +[Illustration: From Boas, _Lehrbuch der Zoologie_, by permission of +Gustav Fischer. + +Fig. 26.--Diagram to illustrate the condition of the Conus in an +Elasmobranch (A), _Amia_ (B) and a typical Teleost (C). + + a, Atrium. v,v´, Valves. + b.a, Bulbus aortae. v.a, Ventral aorta. + c.a, Conus arteriosus. vt, Ventricle.] + s.v, Sinus venosus. + +_Heart._--Originally a simple tube curved into a somewhat S-shape, the +heart, by enlargements, constrictions and fusions of its parts, becomes +converted into the complex, compact heart of the adult. In this we +recognize the following portions--(1) _Sinus venosus_, (2) _Atrium_, (3) +_Ventricle_. A fourth chamber, the _conus arteriosus_, the enlarged and +contractile hinder end of the ventral aorta, is also physiologically a +part of the heart. The sinus venosus receives the blood from the great +veins (ductus Cuvieri and hepatic veins). It--like the atrium which it +enters by an opening guarded by two lateral valves--has thin though +contractile walls. The atrium is as a rule single, but in the Dipnoans, +in correlation with the importance of their pulmonary breathing, it is +incompletely divided into a right and a left auricle. In Neoceratodus +the incomplete division is effected by the presence of a longitudinal +shelf projecting into the atrial cavity from its posterior wall. The +opening of the sinus venosus is to the right of this shell, that of the +pulmonary vein to the left. In _Prototerus_ and _Lepidosiren_ a nearly +complete septum is formed by the fusion of trabeculae, there being only +a minute opening in it posteriorly. The atrium opens by a wide opening +guarded by two or more flap valves provided with chordae tendineae into +the ventricle. + +The ventricle, in correspondence with it being the main pumping +apparatus, has its walls much thickened by the development of muscular +trabeculae which, in the lower forms separated by wide spaces in which +most of the blood is contained, become in the Teleostomes so enlarged as +to give the wall a compact character, the spaces being reduced to small +scattered openings on its inner surface. In the Dipnoans the ventricle, +like the atrium, is incompletely divided into a right and left +ventricle. In _Ceratodus_ this is effected by an extension of the +interauricular shelf into the ventricle. In _Lepidosiren_ the separation +of the two ventricles is complete but for a small perforation +anteriorly, the heart in this respect showing a closer approximation to +the condition in the higher vertebrates than is found in any Amphibians +or in any reptiles except the Crocodilia. The conus arteriosus is of +interest from the valvular arrangements in its interior to prevent +regurgitation of blood from ventral aorta into ventricle. In their +simplest condition, as seen e.g. in an embryonic Selachian, these +arrangements consist of three, four or more prominent longitudinal +ridges projecting into the lumen of the conus, and serving to obliterate +the lumen when jammed together by the systole of the conus. As +development goes on each of these ridges becomes segmented into a row of +pocket valves with their openings directed anteriorly so that +regurgitation causes them to open out and occlude the lumen by their +free edges meeting. Amongst the Teleostomes the lower ganoids show a +similar development of longitudinal rows of valves in the conus. In +_Amia_ (fig. 26, B), however, the conus is shortened and the number of +valves in each longitudinal row is much reduced. This leads to the +condition found in the Teleosts (fig. 26, O), where practically all +trace of the conus has disappeared, a single circle of valves +representing a last survivor of each row (save in a few exceptional +cases, e.g. _Albula_, _Tarpen_, _Osteoglossum_, where two valves of each +row are present). + +[Illustration: After Newton Parker, from _Trans. of the Royal Irish +Academy_, vol. xxx. + +FIG. 27.--Venous System of _Protopterus_, as seen from ventral side. + + a, Atrium. k, Kidney. + ac, Anterior cardinal. l, Liver. + an.v, Anastomotic vein. ov.v, Ovarian veins. + c, Intestine. p, Pericardium. + c.v, Caudal vein. p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal. + f.v, Femoral vein. p.v´, Parietal veins. + g.b, Gall-bladder. r.p.v, Renal portal. + h.v, Hepatic vein. s, Stomach. + i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein. s.b.v, Subclavian.] + i.v.c, Posterior vena cava. + + In Front of the conus vestige of the Teleost there is present a thick + walled _bulbus aortae_ differing from the conus in not being + rhythmically contractile, its walls being on the contrary richly + provided with elastic tissue. + +The Dipnoans[37] show an important advance on the conus as in atrium and +ventricle. The conus has a characteristic spiral twist. Within it in +_Neoceratodus_ are a number of longitudinal rows of pocket valves. One +of these rows is marked out by the very large size of its valves and by +the fact that they are not distinct from one another but even in the +adult form a continuous, spirally-running, longitudinal fold. This ridge +projecting into the lumen of the conus divides it incompletely into two +channels, the one beginning (i.e. at its hinder end) on the _left_ side +and ending in front _ventrally_, the other beginning on the _right_ and +ending _dorsally_. In _Protopterus_ a similar condition occurs, only in +the front end of the conus a second spiral fold is present opposite the +first and, meeting this, completes the division of the conus cavity into +two separate parts. The rows of pocket valves which do not enter into +the formation of the spiral folds are here greatly reduced. + +These arrangements in the conus of the Dipnoans are of the highest +morphological interest, pointing in an unmistakable way towards the +condition found in the higher lung-breathing vertebrates. Of the two +cavities into which the conus is partially divided in the Dipneusti the +one which begins posteriorly on the right receives the (venous) blood +from the right side of the heart, and ending up anteriorly dorsal to the +other cavity communicates only with aortic arches V. and VI. In the +higher vertebrates this cavity has become completely split off to form +the root of the pulmonary arteries, and a result of aortic arch V. +receiving its blood along with the functionally much more important VI. +(the pulmonary arch) from this special part of the conus has been the +almost complete disappearance of this arch (V.) in all the higher +vertebrates. + +_Arterial System._--There are normally six aortic arches laid down +corresponding with the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) and +second (hyoidean) undergoing atrophy to a less or greater extent in +post-embryonic life. Where an external gill is present the aortic arch +loops out into this, a kind of short-circuiting of the blood-stream +taking place as the external gill atrophies. As the walls of the clefts +assume their respiratory function the aortic arch becomes broken into a +network of capillaries in its respiratory portion, and there is now +distinguished a ventral afferent and a dorsal efferent portion of each +arch. Complicated developmental changes, into which it is unnecessary to +enter,[38] may lead to each efferent vessel draining the two sides of a +single cleft instead of the adjacent walls of two clefts as it does +primitively. In the Crossopterygians and Dipnoans as in the higher +vertebrates the sixth aortic arch gives off the pulmonary artery to the +lung. Among the Actinopterygians this, probably primitive, blood-supply +to the lung (swimbladder) persists only in _Amia_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Venous System of Polypterus 30 mm. larva +(dorsal view). + + a.c.v, Anterior cardinal vein. + d.C, Ductus Cuvieri. + h.v, Hepatic vein. + i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein. + ir.v, Inter-renal vein. + l.v, Lateral cutaneous vein. + p.c.v, Posterior cardinal vein. + p.n, Pronephros. + p.v, Pulmonary vein. + s, Subclavian vein. + s.v, Sinus venosus. + th, Thyroid. + v, Vein from pharyngeal wall. + * Anterior portion of left posterior cardinal vein.] + +_Venous System._--The most interesting variations from the general plan +outlined have to do with the arrangements of the posterior cardinals. In +the Selachians these are in their anterior portion wide and sinuslike, +while in the region of the kidney they become broken into a sinusoidal +network supplied by the postrenal portion now known as the renal portal +vein. In the Teleostomes the chief noteworthy feature is the tendency to +asymmetry, the right posterior cardinal being frequently considerably +larger than the left and connected with it by transverse anastomotic +vessels, the result being that most of the blood from the two kidneys +passes forwards by the right posterior cardinal. The Dipnoans (fig. 27) +show a similar asymmetry, but here the anterior end of the right +posterior cardinal disappears, being replaced functionally by a new +vessel which conveys the blood from the right posterior cardinal direct +to the sinus venosus instead of to the outer end of the ductus Cuvieri. +This new vessel is the posterior vena cava which thus in the series of +vertebrates appears for the first time in the Dipneusti. + +_Pulmonary Veins._--In _Polypterus_ (fig. 28) the blood is drained from +the lungs by a pulmonary vein on each side which unites in front with +its fellow and opens into the great hepatic vein behind the heart. In +the Dipnoans the conjoined pulmonary veins open directly into the left +section of the atrium as in higher forms. In the Actinopterygians with +their specialized air-bladder the blood passes to the heart via +posterior cardinals, or hepatic portal, or--a probably more primitive +condition--directly into the left ductus Cuvieri (_Amia_). + +_Lymphatics._--More or less irregular lymphatic spaces occur in the +fishes as elsewhere and, as in the Amphibia, localized muscular +developments are present forming lymph hearts. + +_Central Nervous System._--The neural tube shows in very early stages an +anterior dilated portion which forms the rudiment of the brain in +contradistinction to the hinder, narrower part which forms the spinal +cord. This enlargement of the brain is correlated with the increasing +predominance of the nerve centres at the anterior end of the body which +tend to assume more and more complete control over those lying behind. + +_Spinal Cord._--A remarkable peculiarity occurs in the sun fishes +(_Molidae_), where the body is greatly shortened and where the spinal +cord undergoes a corresponding abbreviation so as to be actually shorter +than the brain. + +_Brain._--It is customary to divide the brain into three main regions, +fore-, mid-, and hind-brain, as in the most familiar vertebrates there +is frequently seen in the embryo a division of the primitive brain +dilatation into three vesicles lying one behind the other. A +consideration of the development of the brain in the various main groups +of vertebrates shows that these divisions are not of equal importance. +In those archaic groups where the egg is not encumbered by the presence +of a large mass of yolk it is usual for the brain to show in its early +stages a division into two main regions which we may term the primitive +fore-brain or cerebrum and the primitive hind-brain or rhombencephalon. +Only later does the hinder part of the primitive fore-brain become +marked off as mid-brain. In the fully developed brain it is customary to +recognize the series of regions indicated below, though the boundaries +between these regions are not mathematical lines or surfaces any more +than are any other biological boundaries:-- + + Rhombencephalon (Hind-brain) / Myelencephalon (Medulla oblongata). + \ Metencephalon (Cerebellum). + + / Mesencephalon (Mid-brain). + Cerebrum (Primitive Fore-brain) < Thalamencephalon (Diencephalon). + \ [Hemispheres (Telencephalon).] + +The myelencephalon or medulla oblongata calls for no special remark, +except that in the case of _Torpedo_ there is a special upward bulging +of its floor on each side of the middle line forming the electric lobe +and containing the nucleus of origin of the nerves to the electric +organ. + +[Illustration: A and B from Wiedersheim, by permission of Gustav +Fischer. + +FIG. 29.--Brain of _Scyllium_ (A), _Salmo_ (B) and _Lepidosiren_ (C). +The three figures are not drawn to the same scale. + + cer, Cerebellum. + c.h, Cerebral hemisphere. + th, Thalamencephalon. + f.b, Primitive fore-brain (in B the line points to the thickened + wall of the fore-brain, the so-called "basal ganglia"). + G.p, Pineal body. + m.b, Roof of mid-brain, optic lobes, _tectum opticum_. + o.l, Olfactory lobe. + IV.v, Fourth ventricle.] + +The cerebellum occurs in its simplest form in lampreys and Dipnoans +(fig. 29, C), where it forms a simple band-like thickening of the +anterior end of the roof of the hind-brain. In Selachians it is very +large and bulges upwards, forming a conspicuous organ in a dorsal view +of the brain (fig. 29, A). In Teleosts (fig. 29, B) the cerebellum is +also large. It projects back as a great tongue-like structure over the +roof of the fourth ventricle, while in front it dips downwards and +projects under the roof of the mid-brain forming a highly characteristic +_valvula cerebelli_. A _valvula cerebelli_ occurs also in ganoids, while +in the Crossopterygians a similar extension of the cerebellum projects +backwards into the IV. ventricle or cavity of the hind-brain (fig. 30). + + +The mesencephalon is a conspicuous structure in the fishes from its +greatly developed roof (_tectum opticum_) which receives the end pencils +of the optic nerve. Normally it projects upwards as a pair of large +optic lobes, but in the Dipnoans (fig. 29, C) the lateral thickening is +not sufficiently great to cause obvious lateral swellings in external +view. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Median Longitudinal Section through the brain +of _Lepidosiren_ and _Polypterus_. In the upper figure (_Lepidosiren_) +the habenular ganglion and hemisphere are shown in outline though not +actually present in a median section. + + a.c, Anterior commissure. par, Paraphysis. + cer, Cerebellum. pin, Pineal body. + d.s, Dorsal sac. p.c, Posterior commissure. + g.h, Habenular ganglion. s.v, Saccus vasculosus. + h.c, Habenular commissure. t.o, Tectum opticum. + i.g, Infundibular gland. v.III, Third ventricle. + l.p, Lateral plexus. v.IV, Fourth ventricle. + o.c, Optic chiasma. vel, Velum transversum.] + pall, Pallium. + +The thalamencephalon is one of the most interesting parts of the brain +from its remarkable uniformity throughout the Vertebrata. Even in +_Amphioxus_ the appearance of a sagittal section strongly suggests +vestiges of a once present thalamencephalon.[39] The roof--like that of +the myelencephalon--remains to a great extent membranous, forming with +the closely applied _pia mater_ a vascular roof to the III. ventricle. +Frequently a transverse fold of the roof dips down into the III. +ventricle forming the _velum transversum_ (fig. 30). + +The side walls of the thalamencephalon are greatly thickened forming the +_thalamus_ (epithalamus and hypothalamus), while a ganglionic thickening +of the roof posteriorly on each side forms the _ganglia habenulae_ which +receive olfactory fibres from the base of the hemisphere. The habenular +ganglia are unusually large in the lampreys and are here strongly +asymmetrical, the right being the larger. + +The floor of the thalamencephalon projects downwards and backwards as +the infundibulum. The side walls of this are thickened to form +characteristic _lobi inferiores_, while the blind end develops glandular +outgrowths (infundibular gland, fig. 30) overlaid by a rich development +of blood sinuses and forming with them the _saccus vasculosus_. The +optic chiasma, where present, is involved in the floor of the +thalamencephalon and forms a large, upwardly-projecting ridge. Farther +forwards on the floor or anterior wall is the anterior commissure (see +below). + +Passing forwards from the mid-brain (cf. fig. 30) a series of +interesting structures are found connected with the roof of the +primitive fore-brain, viz.--posterior commissure (intercalary region), +pineal organ, habenular commissure with anterior parietal organ, dorsal +sac (= pineal cushion), _velum transversum_, paraphysis. The posterior +commissure is situated in the boundary between thalamencephalon and +mid-brain. It is formed of fibres connecting up the right and left +sides of the tectum opticum (?). The habenular or superior commissure +situated farther forwards connects the two ganglia habenulae. In the +immediate neighbourhood of these ganglia there project upwards two +diverticula of the brain-roof known as the pineal organ and the +parapineal (or anterior parietal) organ. The special interest of these +organs[40] lies in the fact that in certain vertebrates one (parapineal +in _Sphenodon_ and in lizards) or both (_Petromyzon_) exhibit +histological features which show that they must be looked on as visual +organs or eyes. In gnathostomatous fishes they do not show any definite +eye-like structure, but in certain cases (_Polyodon_, _Callichthys_, +&c.) the bony plates of the skull-roof are discontinuous over the pineal +organ forming a definite parietal foramen such as exists in lizards +where the eye-like structure is distinct. It is also usual to find in +the epithelial wall of the pineal organ columnar cells which show +club-shaped ends projecting into the lumen (exactly as in the young +visual cells of the retina[41]) and are prolonged into a root-like +process at the other end. Definite nerve fibres pass down from these +parietal organs to the brain. It is stated that the fibres from the +pineal organ pass into the posterior commissure, those of the parapineal +organ into the habenular commissure. + +The facts mentioned render it difficult to avoid the conclusion that +these organs either have been sensory or are sensory. Possibly they +represent the degenerate and altered vestiges of eye-like organs present +in archaic vertebrates, or it may be that they represent the remains of +organs not eye-like in function but which for some other reason lay +close under the surface of the body. It would seem natural that a +diverticulum of brain-tissue exposed to the influence of light-rays +should exhibit the same reaction as is shown frequently elsewhere in the +animal kingdom and tend to assume secondarily the characters of a visual +organ. The presence of the rod-like features in the epithelial cells is +perhaps in favour of the latter view. In evolution we should expect +these to appear before the camera-like structure of a highly developed +eye, while in the process of degeneration we should expect these fine +histological characters to go first. + + Selachians.--No parapineal organ is present. The pineal body (except + in _Torpedo_ where it is absent) is in the form of a long slender tube + ending in front in a dilated bulb lying near the front end of the + brain in close contact with, or enclosed in, a definite foramen in the + cranial roof. + + Holocephali and Crossopterygii.--Here also the pineal body is long and + tubular: at its origin it passes dorsalwards or slightly backwards + behind the large dorsal sac. + + Actinopterygian Ganoids resemble Selachians on the whole. In _Amia_ a + parapineal organ is present, and it is said to lie towards the left + side and to be connected by a thick nerve with the _left_ habenular + ganglion (cf. _Petromyzon_, article CYCLOSTOMATA). This is adduced to + support the view that the pineal and parapineal bodies represent + originally paired structures. + + Teleostei.--A parapineal rudiment appears in the embryo of some forms, + but in the adult only the pineal organ is known to exist. This is + usually short and club-shaped, its terminal part with much folded wall + and glandular in character. In a few cases a parietal foramen occurs + (_Callichthys_, _Loricaria_, &c.). + + Dipneusti.--The pineal organ is short and simple. No parapineal organ + is developed. + +The dorsal sac is formed by that part of the roof of the +thalamencephalon lying between the habenular commissure and the region +of the velum. In some cases a longitudinal groove is present in which +the pineal organ lies (Dipneusti). In the Crossopterygians the dorsal +sac is particularly large and was formerly mistaken for the pineal +organ. + +The _velum transversum_ is a transverse, inwardly-projecting fold of the +roof of the primitive fore-brain in front of the dorsal sac. To those +morphologists who regard the hemisphere region or telencephalon as a +primitively unpaired structure the velum is an important landmark +indicating the posterior limit of the telencephalon. Those who hold the +view taken in this article that the hemispheres are to be regarded as +paired outpushings of the side wall of the primitive fore-brain +attribute less morphological importance to the velum. Physiologically +the velum is frequently important from the plexus of blood-vessels which +passes with it into the III. ventricle. + +In _Petromyzon_ and _Chimaera_ the velum is not developed. In Dipnoans +there are present in its place _paired_ transverse folds which are +probably merely extensions backwards of the lateral plexuses. + +The Paraphysis is a projection from the roof of the primitive fore-brain +near its anterior end. It is well seen in Dipnoans[42] (_Lepidosiren_ +and _Protopterus_) where in the larva (exactly as in the urodele larva) +it forms a blindly ending tube sloping upwards and forwards between the +two hemispheres. In the adult it becomes mixed with the two lateral +plexuses and is liable to be confused with them. In the other +groups--except the Teleosts where it is small (_Anguilla_) or absent +(most Teleosts)--the paraphysis is by no means such a definite +structure, but generally there is present a more or less branched and +divided diverticulum of the brain wall, frequently glandular, which is +homologized with the paraphysis. The morphological significance of the +paraphysis is uncertain. It may represent the remains of an ancient +sense organ, or it may simply represent the last connexion between the +brain and the external ectoderm from which it was derived. + +An important derivative of the primitive fore-brain is seen in the pair +of cerebral hemispheres which in the higher vertebrates become of such +relatively gigantic dimensions. The hemispheres appear to be primitively +associated with the special sense of smell, and they are prolonged +anteriorly into a pair of olfactory lobes which come into close relation +with the olfactory organ. From a consideration of their adult relations +and of their development--particularly in those groups where there is no +disturbing factor in the shape of a large yolk sac--it seems probable +that the hemispheres are primitively paired outpushings of the lateral +wall of the primitive fore-brain[43]--in order to give increased space +for the increased mass of nervous matter associated with the olfactory +sense. They are most highly developed in the Dipneusti amongst fishes. +They are there (cf. fig. 29, C) of relatively enormous size with thick +nervous floor (corpus striatum) and side walls and roof (pallium) +surrounding a central cavity (lateral ventricle) which opens into the +third ventricle. At the posterior end of the hemisphere a small area of +its wall remains thin and membranous, and this becomes pushed into the +lateral ventricle by an ingrowth of blood-vessel to form the huge +lateral plexus ( = _plexus hemisphaerium_). In this great size of the +hemispheres[44] and also in the presence of a rudimentary cortex in the +Dipnoi we see, as in many other features in these fishes, a distinct +foreshadowing of conditions occurring in the higher groups of +vertebrates. The Cyclostomes possess a distinct though small pair of +hemispheres. In the Selachians the relatively archaic _Notidanidae_[45] +possess a pair of thick-walled hemispheres, but in the majority of the +members of the group the paired condition is obscured (fig. 29, A). + +In the Teleostomes the mass of nervous matter which in other groups +forms the hemispheres does not undergo any pushing outwards except as +regards the small olfactory lobes. On the contrary, it remains as a +great thickening of the lateral wall of the thalamencephalon (the +so-called basal ganglia), additional space for which, however, may be +obtained by a considerable increase in length of the fore-brain region +(cf. fig. 30, A) or by actual involution into the third ventricle +(_Polypterus_).[46] The great nervous thickenings of the +thalamencephalic wall bulge into its cavity and are covered over by the +thin epithelial roof of the thalamencephalon which is as a consequence +liable to be confused with the pallium or roof of the hemispheres with +which it has nothing to do: the homologue of the pallium as of other +parts of the hemisphere is contained within the lateral thickening of +the thelamencephalic wall, not in its membranous roof.[47] + +Associated with the parts of the fore-brain devoted to the sense of +smell (especially the corpora striata) is the important system of +bridging fibres forming the anterior commissure which lies near the +anterior end of the floor, or in the front wall, of the primitive +fore-brain. It is of great interest to note the appearance in the +_Dipnoans_ (_Lepidosiren_ and _Protopterus_) of a corpus callosum (cf. +fig. 30 B) lying dorsal to the anterior commissure and composed of +fibres connected with the pallial region of the two hemispheres. + +_Sense Organs._--The olfactory organs are of special interest in the +Selachians, where each remains through life as a widely-open, saccular +involution of the ectoderm which may be prolonged backwards to the +margin of the buccal cavity by an open oronasal groove, thus retaining a +condition familiar in the embryo of the higher vertebrates. In Dipnoans +the olfactory organ communicates with the roof of the buccal cavity by +definite posterior nares as in the higher forms--the communicating +passage being doubtless the morphological equivalent of the oronasal +groove, although there is no direct embryological evidence for this. In +the Teleostomes the olfactory organ varies from a condition of great +complexity in the Crossopterygians down to a condition of almost +complete atrophy in certain Teleosts (Plectognathi).[48] + +The _eyes_ are usually of large size. The lens is large and spherical +and in the case of most Teleostomes accommodation for distant vision is +effected by the lens being pulled bodily nearer the retina. This +movement is brought about by the contraction of smooth muscle fibres +contained in the _processus falciformis_, a projection from the choroid +which terminates in contact with the lens in a swelling, the _campanula +Halleri_. In _Amia_ and in Teleosts a network of capillaries forming the +so-called choroid gland surrounds the optic nerve just outside the +retina. As a rule the eyes of fishes have a silvery, shining appearance +due to the deposition of shining flakes of guanin in the outer layer of +the choroid (_Argentea_) or, in the case of Selachians, in the inner +layers (_tapetum_). Fishes which inhabit dark recesses, e.g. of caves or +of the deep sea, show an enlargement, or, more frequently, a reduction, +of the eyes. Certain deep-sea Teleosts possess remarkable telescopic +eyes with a curious asymmetrical development of the retina.[49] + +The otocyst or auditory organ agrees in its main features with that of +other vertebrates. In Selachians the otocyst remains in the adult open +to the exterior by the _ductus endolymphaticus_. In _Squatina_[50] this +is unusually wide and correlated; with this the calcareous otoconia are +replaced by sand-grains from the exterior. In Dipnoans (_Lepidosiren_ +and _Protopterus_) curious outgrowths arise from the ductus +endolymphaticus and come to overlie the roof of the fourth ventricle, +recalling the somewhat similar condition met with in certain Amphibians. + + In various Teleosts the swimbladder enters into intimate relations + with the otocyst. In the simplest condition these relations consist in + the prolongation forwards of the swimbladder as a blindly ending tube + on either side, the blind end coming into direct contact either with + the wall of the otocyst itself or with the fluid surrounding it + (perilymph) through a gap in the rigid periotic capsule. A wave of + compression causing a slight inward movement of the swimbladder wall + will bring about a greatly magnified movement of that part of the wall + which is not in relation with the external medium, viz. the part in + relation with the interior of the auditory capsule. In this way the + perception of delicate sound waves may be rendered much more perfect. + In the Ostariophysi (Sagemehl), including the _Cyprinidae_, the + _Siluridae_, the _Characinidae_ and the _Gymnotidae_, a + physiologically similar connexion between swimbladder and otocyst is + brought about by the intervention of a chain of auditory ossicles + (Weberian ossicles) formed by modification of the anterior + vertebrae.[51] + +_Lateral Line Organs._[52]--Epidermal sense buds are scattered about in +the ectoderm of fishes. A special arrangement of these in lines along +the sides of the body and on the head region form the highly +characteristic sense organs of the lateral line system. In _Lepidosiren_ +these organs retain their superficial position; in other fishes they +become sunk beneath the surface into a groove, which may remain open +(some Selachians), but as a rule becomes closed into a tubular channel +with openings at intervals. It has been suggested that the function of +this system of sense organs is connected with the perception of +vibratory disturbances of comparatively large wave length in the +surrounding medium. + +_Peripheral Nerves._--In the Cyclostomes the dorsal afferent and ventral +efferent nerves are still, as in _Amphioxus_, independent, but in the +gnathostomatous fishes they are, as in the higher vertebrates, combined +together into typical spinal nerves. + +As regards the cranial nerves the chief peculiarities of fishes relate +to (1) the persistence of the branchial clefts and (2) the presence of +an elaborate system of cutaneous sense organs supplied by a group of +nerves (_lateralis_) connected with a centre in the brain which develops +in continuity with that which receives the auditory nerve. These points +may be exemplified by the arrangements in Selachians (see fig. 31). I., +II., III., IV. and VI. call for no special remark. + +[Illustration: From Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. vii. +"Fishes" (by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.). After Wiedersheim, +_Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie_ (by permission of Gustav +Fischer). + +FIG. 31.--Diagram of Cranial nerves of a Fish. Cranial nerves and +branchial clefts are numbered with Roman figures. Trigeminus black; +Facialis dotted; Lateralis oblique shading; Glossopharyngeal +cross-hatched; Vagus white. + + bucc, Buccal. + c, Commissure between pre- and postauditory parts of lateralis + system. + d.r, Dorsal roots of spinal nerves. + g.g, Gasserian ganglion. + gn.g, (Geniculate) ganglion of VII. + hy, Hyomandibular. + l.n.X, Lateralis vagi. + m, Motor branches of hy. + md, Mandibular. + md.ex, External mandibular. + mk.c, Meckel's cartilage. + mx, Maxillary. + oc, Occipitospinal. + ol.o, Olfactory organ. + op.p, Ophthalmicus profundus. + op.s, Ophthalmicus superficialis. + pn, Palatine. + pq., Palatopterygo-quadrate cartilage. + s, Spiracle. + st, Supra-temporal branch of lateralis system. + t.a, Lateralis centre in brain. + v.n, Visceral nerve. + v.r, Ventral roots.] + +_Trigeminus_ (V.).--The _ophthalmicus profundus_ branch (op.p.)--which +probably is morphologically a distinct cranial nerve--passes forwards +along the roof of the orbit to the skin of the snout. As it passes +through the orbit it gives off the long ciliary nerves to the eyeball, +and is connected with the small ciliary ganglion (also connected with +III.) which in turn gives off the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball. +The _ophthalmicus superficialis_ (cut short in the figure) branch passes +from the root ganglion of V. (Gasserian ganglion), and passes also over +the orbit to the skin of the snout. It lies close to, or completely +fused with, the corresponding branch of the lateralis system. + +The main trunk of V. branches over the edge of the mouth into the +_maxillary_ (mx.) and _mandibular_ (md.) divisions, the former, like the +two branches already mentioned, purely sensory, the latter +mixed--supplying the muscles of mastication as well as the teeth of the +lower jaw and the lining of the buccal floor. + +The main trunk of the _Facialis_ (VII.) bifurcates over the spiracle +into a pre-spiracular portion--the main portion of which passes to the +mucous membrane of the palate as the palatine (pnVII.)--and a +postspiracular portion, the hyomandibular (hy.) trunk which supplies the +muscles of the hyoid arch and also sends a few sensory fibres to the +lining of the spiracle, the floor of mouth and pharynx and the skin of +the lower jaw. Combined with the main trunk of the facial are branches +belonging to the _lateralis_ system. + +_Lateralis Group of Nerves._--The _lateralis_ group of nerves are +charged with the innervation of the system of cutaneous sense organs and +are all connected with the same central region in the medulla. A special +sensory area of the ectoderm becomes involuted below the surface to form +the otocyst, and the nerve fibres belonging to this form the auditory +nerve (VIII.). Other portions of the _lateralis_ group become mixed up +with various other cranial nerves as follows: + +(a) Facial portion. + +(1) _Ophthalmicus superficialis_ (op.s.VII.): passes to lining of nose +or to the lateral line organs of the dorsal part of snout. + +(2) _Buccal_ (bucc.VII): lies close to maxillary division of V. and +passes to the sensory canals of the lower side of the snout. + +(3) _External mandibular_ (md.ex.): lies in close association with the +mandibular division of V., supplies the sensory canals of the lower jaw +and hyoid region. + +_Lateralis vagi_ (l.n.X.) becomes closely associated with the vagus. It +supplies the lateral line organs of the trunk. + +In the lamprey and in Dipnoans the _lateralis vagi_ loses its +superficial position in the adult and comes into close relation with the +notochord. + +In Actinopterygians and at least some Selachians a _lateralis_ set of +fibres is associated with IX., and in the former fishes a conspicuous +trunk of _lateralis_ fibres passes to some or all (_Gadus_) of the fins. +This has been called the _lateralis accessorius_ and is apparently +connected with V., VII., IX., X. and certain spinal nerves.[53] + +_Vagus Group_ (IX., X., XI.).--The _glossopharyngeus_ (IX.) forks over +the first branchial cleft (pretrematic and post-trematic branches) and +also gives off a palatine branch (pn.IX.). In some cases (various +Selachians, Ganoids and Teleosts) it would seem that IX. includes a few +fibres of the _lateralis_ group. + +Vagus (X.) is shown by its multiple roots arising from the medulla and +also by the character of its peripheral distribution to be a compound +structure formed by the fusion of a number of originally distinct +nerves. It consists of (1) a number of branchial branches (X.¹ X.² &c.), +one of which forks over each gill cleft behind the hyobranchial and +which may (Selachians) arise by separate roots from the medulla; (2) an +intestinal branch (v.n.X.) arising behind the last branchial and +innervating the wall of the oesophagus and stomach and it may be even +the intestine throughout the greater part of its length (_Myxine_). + +The _accessorius_ (XI.) is not in fishes separated as a distinct nerve +from the vagus. + +With increased development of the brain its hinder portion, giving rise +to the vagus system, has apparently come to encroach on the anterior +portion of the spinal cord, with the result that a number of spinal +nerves have become reduced to a less or more vestigial condition. The +dorsal roots of these nerves disappear entirely in the adult, but the +ventral roots persist and are to be seen arising ventrally to the vagus +roots. They supply certain muscles of the pectoral fins and of the +visceral arches and are known as spino-occipital nerves.[54] + + These nerves are divisible into an anterior more ancient set--the + occipital nerves--and a posterior set of more recent + origin--(occipito-spinal nerves). In Selachians 1-5 pairs of occipital + nerves alone are recognizable: in Dipnoans 2-3 pairs of occipital and + 2-3 pairs of occipito-spinal: in Ganoids 1-2 pairs occipital and 1-5 + pairs occipito-spinal; in Teleosts finally the occipital nerves have + entirely disappeared while there are 2 pairs of occipito-spinal. In + Cyclostomes no special spino-occipital nerves have been described. + +The fibres corresponding with those of the _Hypoglossus_ (XII.) of +higher vertebrates spring from the anterior spinal nerves, which are +here, as indeed in Amphibia, still free from the cranium. + +_Sympathetic._--The sympathetic portion of the nervous system does not +in fishes attain the same degree of differentiation as in the higher +groups. In Cyclostomes it is apparently represented by a fine plexus +with small ganglia found in the neighbourhood of the dorsal aorta and on +the surface of the heart and receiving branches from the spinal nerves. +In Selachians also a plexus occurs in the neighbourhood of the cardinal +veins and extends over the viscera: it receives visceral branches from +the anterior spinal nerves. In Teleosts the plexus has become condensed +to form a definite sympathetic trunk on each side, extending forwards +into the head and communicating with the ganglia of certain of the +cranial nerves. (J. G. K.) + + +V. DISTRIBUTION IN TIME AND SPACE + +The origin of Vertebrates, and how far back in time they extend, is +unknown. The earliest fishes were in all probability devoid of hard +parts and traces of their existence can scarcely be expected to be +found. The hypothesis that they may be derived from the early +Crustaceans, or Arachnids, is chiefly based on the somewhat striking +resemblance which the mailed fishes of the Silurian period +(Ostracodermi) bear to the Arthropods of that remote time, a +resemblance, however, very superficial and regarded by most +morphologists as an interesting example of mimetic resemblance--whatever +this term may be taken to mean. The minute denticles known as conodonts, +which first appear in the Ordovician, were once looked upon as teeth of +Cyclostomes, but their histological structure does not afford any +support to the identification and they are now generally dismissed +altogether from the Vertebrates. As a compensation the Lower Silurian of +Russia has yielded small teeth or spines which seem to have really +belonged to fishes, although their exact affinities are not known +(_Palaeodus_ and _Archodus_ of J. V. Rohon). + +It is not until we reach the Upper Silurian that satisfactory remains of +unquestionable fishes are found, and here they suddenly appear in a +considerable variety of forms, very unlike modern fishes in every +respect, but so highly developed as to convince us that we have to +search in much earlier formations for their ancestors. These Upper +Silurian fishes are the _Coelolepidae_, the _Ateleaspidae_, the +_Birkeniidae_, the _Pteraspidae_, the _Tremataspidae_ and the +_Cephalaspidae_, all referred to the Ostracophori. The three last types +persist in the Devonian, in the middle of which period the Osteolepid +Crossopterygii, the Dipneusti and the Arthrodira suddenly appear. The +most primitive Selachian (_Cladoselache_), the Acanthodian Selachians +(_Diplacanthidae_), the Chimaerids (_Ptyctodus_), and the Palaeoniscid +ganoids (_Chirolepis_) appear in the Upper Devonian, along with the +problematic _Palaeospondylus_. + +In the Carboniferous period, the Ostracophori and Arthrodira have +disappeared, the Crossopterygii and Dipneusti are still abundant, and +the Selachians (_Pleuracanthus_, Acanthodians, truesharks) and +Chondrostean ganoids (_Palaeoniscidae_ and _Platysomidae_) are +predominant. In the Upper Permian the Holostean ganoids +(_Acanthophorus_) make their appearance, and the group becomes dominant +in the Jurassic and the Lower Cretaceous. In the Trias, the +Crossopterygii and Dipneusti dwindle in variety and the _Ceratodontidae_ +appear; the Chondrostean and Holostean ganoids are about equally +represented, and are supplemented in the Jurassic by the first, +annectant representatives of the Teleostei (_Pholidophoridae_, +_Leptolepidae_). In the latter period, the Holostean ganoids are +predominant, and with them we find numerous Cestraciont sharks, some +primitive skates (_Squatinidae_ and _Rhinobatidae_), Chimaerids and +numerous Coelacanthid crossopterygians. + +The fish-fauna of the Lower Cretaceous is similar to that of the +Jurassic, whilst that of the Chalk and other Upper Cretaceous formations +is quite modern in aspect, with only a slight admixture of Coelacanthid +crossopterygians and Holostean ganoids, the Teleosteans being abundantly +represented by _Elopidae_, _Albulidae_, _Halosauridae_, _Scopelidae_ and +_Berycidae_, many being close allies of the present inhabitants of the +deep sea. At this period the spiny-rayed Teleosteans, dominant in the +seas of the present day, made their first appearance. + +With the Eocene, the fish-fauna has assumed the essential character +which it now bears. A few Pycnodonts survive as the last representatives +of typically Mesozoic ganoids, whilst in the marine deposits of Monte +Bolca (Upper Eocene) the principal families of living marine fishes are +represented by genera identical with or more or less closely allied to +those still existing; it is highly remarkable that forms so highly +specialized as the sucking-fish or remoras, the flat-fish +(_Pleuronectidae_), the Pediculati, the Plectognaths, &c., were in +existence, whilst in the freshwater deposits of North America +_Osteoglossidae_ and _Cichlidae_ were already represented. Very little +is known of the freshwater fishes of the early Tertiaries. What has been +preserved of them from the Oligocene and Miocene shows that they +differed very slightly from their modern representatives. We may +conclude that from early Tertiary times fishes were practically as they +are at present. The great hiatus in our knowledge lies in the period +between the Cretaceous and the Eocene. + +At the present day the Teleosteans are in immense preponderance, +Selachians are still well represented, the Chondrostean ganoids are +confined to the rivers and lakes of the temperate zone of the northern +hemisphere (_Acipenseridae_, _Polyodontidae_), the Holostean ganoids are +reduced to a few species (_Lepidosteus_, _Amia_) dwelling in the fresh +waters of North America, Mexico and Cuba, the Crossopterygians are +represented by the isolated group _Polypteridae_, widely different from +any of the known fossil forms, with about ten species inhabiting the +rivers and lakes of Africa, whilst the Dipneusti linger in Australia +(_Neoceratodus_), in South America (_Lepidosiren_), and in tropical +Africa (_Protopterus_). The imperfections of the geological record +preclude any attempt to deal with the distribution in space as regards +extinct forms, but several types, at present very restricted in their +habitat, once had a very wide distribution. The _Ceratodontidae_, for +instance, of which only one species is now living, confined to the +rivers of Queensland, has left remains in Triassic, Rhaetic, Jurassic +and Cretaceous rocks of Europe, North America, Patagonia, North and +South Africa, India and Australia; the _Amiidae_ and _Lepidosteidae_ +were abundant in Europe in Eocene and Miocene times; the +_Osteoglossidae_, now living in Africa, S.E. Asia and South America, +occurred in North America and Europe in the Eocene. + +In treating of the geographical distribution of modern fishes, it is +necessary to distinguish between fresh-water and marine forms. It is, +however, not easy to draw a line between these categories, as a large +number of forms are able to accommodate themselves to either fresh or +salt water, whilst some periodically migrate from the one into the +other. On the whole, fishes may be roughly divided into the following +categories:-- + + I. Marine fishes. A. shore-fishes; B. pelagic fishes; C. deep-sea + fishes. + + II. Brackish-water fishes. + + III. Fresh-water fishes. + + IV. Migratory fishes. A. anadromous (ascending fresh waters to spawn); + B. catadromous (descending to the sea to spawn). + +About two-thirds of the known recent fishes are marine. Such are nearly +all the Selachians, and, among the Teleosteans, all the _Heteromi_, +_Pediculati_ and the great majority of _Apodes_, _Thoracostei_, +_Percesoces_, _Anacanthini_, _Acanthopterygii_ and _Plectognathi_. All +the _Crossopterygii_, _Dipneusti_, _Opisthomi_, _Symbranchii_, and +nearly all the _Ganoidei_ and _Ostariophysi_ are confined to +fresh-water. + +The three categories of marine fishes have thus been defined by +Günther:-- + + "1. _Shore Fishes_--that is, fishes which chiefly inhabit parts of the + sea in the immediate neighbourhood of land either actually raised + above, or at least but little submerged below, the surface of the + water. They do not descend to any great depth,--very few to 300 + fathoms, and the majority live close to the surface. The distribution + of these fishes is determined, not only by the temperature of the + surface water, but also by the nature of the adjacent land and its + animal and vegetable products,--some being confined to flat coasts + with soft or sandy bottoms, others to rocky and fissured coasts, + others to living coral formations. If it were not for the frequent + mechanical and involuntary removals to which these fishes are exposed, + their distribution within certain limits, as it no doubt originally + existed, would resemble still more that of freshwater fishes than we + find it actually does at the present period. + + 2. _Pelagic Fishes_--that is, fishes which inhabit the surface and + uppermost strata of the open ocean, and approach the shores only + accidentally or occasionally (in search of prey), or periodically (for + the purpose of spawning). The majority spawn in the open sea, their + ova and young being always found at a great distance from the shore. + With regard to their distribution, they are still subject to the + influences of light and the temperature of the surface water; but they + are independent of the variable local conditions which tie the shore + fish to its original home, and therefore roam freely over a space + which would take a freshwater or shore fish thousands of years to + cover in its gradual dispersal. Such as are devoid of rapidity of + motion are dispersed over similarly large areas by the oceanic + currents, more slowly than the strong swimmers, but not less surely. + An accurate definition, therefore, of their distribution within + certain areas equivalent to the terrestrial regions is much less + feasible than in the case of shore fishes. + + 3. _Deep-Sea Fishes_--that is, fishes which inhabit such depths of the + ocean that they are but little or not at all influenced by light or + the surface temperature, and which, by their organization, are + prevented from reaching the surface stratum in a healthy condition. + Living almost under identical tellurian conditions, the same type, the + same species, may inhabit an abyssal depth under the equator as well + as one near the arctic or antarctic circle; and all that we know of + these fishes points to the conclusion that no separate horizontal + regions can be distinguished in the abyssal fauna, and that no + division into bathymetrical strata can be attempted on the base of + generic much less of family characters." + +A division of the world into regions according to the distribution of +the shore-fishes is a much more difficult task than that of tracing +continental areas. It is possible perhaps to distinguish four great +divisions: the Arctic region, the Atlantic region, the Indo-Pacific +region and the Antarctic region. The second and third may be again +subdivided into three zones: Northern, Tropical and Southern. This +appears to be a more satisfactory arrangement than that which has been +proposed into three zones primarily, each again subdivided according to +the different oceans. Perhaps a better division is that adopted by D. S. +Jordan, who arranges the littoral fishes according to coast lines; we +then have an East Atlantic area, a West Atlantic, an East Pacific and a +West Pacific, the latter including the coasts of the Indian Ocean. The +tropical zone, whatever be the ocean, is that in which fishes flourish +in greatest abundance and where, especially about coral-reefs, they show +the greatest variety of bizarre forms and the most gorgeous coloration. +The fish-fauna of the Indo-Pacific is much richer than that of the +Atlantic, both as regards genera and species. + +As regards the Arctic and Antarctic regions, the continuity or +circumpolar distribution of the shore fishes is well established. The +former is chiefly characterized by its Cottids, Cyclopterids, Zoarcids +and Gadids, the latter by its Nototheniids. The theory of bipolarity +receives no support from the study of the fishes. + +Pelagic fishes, among which we find the largest Selachians and +Teleosteans, are far less limited in their distribution, which, for many +species, is nearly world-wide. Some are dependent upon currents, but the +great majority being rapid swimmers able to continue their course for +weeks, apparently without the necessity of rest (many sharks, scombrids, +sword-fishes), pass from one ocean into the other. Most numerous between +the tropics, many of these fishes occasionally wander far north and +south of their habitual range, and there are few genera that are at all +limited in their distribution. + +Deep-sea fishes, of which between seven hundred and eight hundred +species are known, belong to the most diverse groups and quite a number +of families are exclusively bathybial (_Chlamydoselachidae_, +_Stomiatidae_, _Alepocephalidae_, _Nemichthyidae_, _Synaphobranchidae_, +_Saccopharyngidae_, _Cetomimidae_, _Halosauridae_, _Lipogenyidae_, +_Notacanthidae_, _Chiasmodontidae_, _Icosteidae_, _Muraenolepididae_, +_Macruridae_, _Anomalopidae_, _Podatelidae_, _Trachypteridae_, +_Lophotidae_, _Ceratiidae_, _Gigantactinidae_). But they are all +comparatively slight modifications of the forms living on the surface of +the sea or in the shallow parts, from which they may be regarded as +derived. In no instance do these types show a structure which may be +termed archaic when compared with their surface allies. That these +fishes are localized in their vertical distribution, between the +100-fathoms line, often taken as the arbitrary limit of the bathybial +fauna, and the depth of 2750 fathoms, the lowest point whence fishes +have been procured, there is little doubt. But our knowledge is still +too fragmentary to allow of any general conclusions, and the same +applies to the horizontal distribution. Yet the same species may occur +at most distant points; as these fishes dwell beyond the influence of +the sun's rays, they are not affected by temperature, and living in the +Arctic zone or under the equator makes little difference to them. A +great deal of evidence has been accumulated to show the gradual +transition of the surface into the bathybial forms; a large number of +surface fishes have been met with in deep water (from 100 to 500 +fathoms), and these animals afford no support to Alexander Agassiz's +supposition of the existence of an azoic zone between the 200-fathoms +line and the bottom. + +Brackish-water fishes occur also in salt and fresh water, in some +localities at least, and belong to various groups of Teleosteans. +Sticklebacks, gobies, grey mullets, blennies are among the best-known +examples. The facility with which they accommodate themselves to changes +in the medium in which they live has enabled them to spread readily over +very large areas. The three-spined stickleback, for instance, occurs +over nearly the whole of the cold and temperate parts of the northern +hemisphere, whilst a grey mullet (_Mugil capito_) ranges without any +appreciable difference in form from Scandinavia and the United States +along all the Atlantic coasts to the Cape of Good Hope and Brazil. It +would be hardly possible to base zoo-geographical divisions on the +distribution of such forms. + +The fresh-water fishes, however, invite to such attempts. How greatly +their distribution differs from that of terrestrial animals has long ago +been emphasized. The key to their mode of dispersal is, with few +exceptions, to be found in the hydrography of the continents, latitude +and climate, excepting of course very great altitudes, being +inconsiderable factors, the fish-fauna of a country deriving its +character from the headwaters of the river-system which flows through +it. The lower Nile, for instance, is inhabited by fishes bearing a close +resemblance to, or even specifically identical with, those of tropical +Africa, thus strikingly contrasting with the land-fauna of its banks. +The knowledge of the river-systems is, however, not sufficient for +tracing areas of distribution, for we must bear in mind the movements +which have taken place on the surface of the earth, owing to which +present conditions may not have existed within comparatively recent +times, geologically speaking; and this is where the systematic study of +the aquatic animals affords scope for conclusions having a direct +bearing on the physical geography of the near past. It is not possible +here to enter into the discussion of the many problems which the +distribution of fresh-water fishes involves; we limit ourselves to an +indication of the principal regions into which the world may be divided +from this point of view. The main divisions proposed by Günther in the +9th edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ still appear the most +satisfactory. They are as follows:-- + + I. THE NORTHERN ZONE OR HOLARCTIC REGION.--Characterized + by Acipenseridae. Few Siluridae. Numerous Cyprinidae, Salmonidae, + Esocidae, Percidae. + 1. Europaeo-Asiatic or Palaearctic Region. Characterized by + absence of osseous Ganoidei; Cobitinae and Barbus numerous. + 2. North American or Nearctic Region. Characterized by osseous + Ganoidei and abundance of Catostominae; but no Cobitinae or + Barbus. + + II. THE EQUATORIAL ZONE.--Characterized by the development + of Siluridae. + A. Cyprinoid Division. Characterized by presence of Cyprinidae, + Mastacembelidae. Anabantidae, Ophiocephalidae. + 1. Indian Region. Characterized by absence of Dipneusti, + Polypteridae, Mormyridae and Characinidae. Cobitinae + numerous. + 2. African Region. Characterized by presence of Dipneusti, + Polypterid and Mormyrid; Cichlid and Characinid numerous. + + B. Acyprinoid Division. Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and the + other families mentioned above. + 1. Tropical American or Neotropical Region. Characterized by + presence of Dipneusti; Cichlidae and Characinidae numerous; + Gymnotidae and Loricariidae. + 2. Tropical Pacific Region. Includes the Australian as well as + the Polynesian Region. Characterized by presence of + Dipneusti. Cichlidae and Characinidae absent. + + III. THE SOUTHERN ZONE.--Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and + scarcity of Siluridae. Haplochitonidae and Galaxiidae represent the + Salmonids and Esoces of the northern zone. One region only. + + 1. Antarctic Region. Characterized by the small number of species; the + fishes of + (a) The Tasmanian subregion; + (b) The New Zealand subregion; and + (c) The Patagonian or Fuegian subregion being almost identical. + +Although, as expressed in the above synopsis, the resemblance between +the Indian and African regions is far greater than exists between them +and the other regions of the equatorial zone, attention must be drawn to +the marked affinity which some of the fishes of tropical Africa show to +those of South America (_Lepidosirenidae_, _Characinidae_, _Cichlidae_, +_Nandidae_), an affinity which favours the supposition of a connexion +between these two parts of the world in early Tertiary times. + +The boundaries of Günther's regions may thus be traced, beginning with +the equatorial zone, this being the richest. + +EQUATORIAL ZONE.--Roughly speaking, the borders of this zoological zone +coincide with the geographical limits of the tropics of Cancer and +Capricorn; its characteristic forms, however, extend in undulating lines +several degrees both northwards and southwards. Commencing from the west +coast of Africa, the desert of the Sahara forms a boundary between the +equatorial and northern zones; as the boundary approaches the Nile, it +makes a sudden sweep towards the north as far as northern Syria, crosses +through Persia and Afghanistan to the southern ranges of the Himalayas, +and follows the course of the Yang-tse-Kiang, which receives its +contingent of equatorial fishes through its southern tributaries. Its +continuation through the North Pacific may be indicated by the tropic, +which strikes the coast of Mexico at the southern end of the Gulf of +California. Equatorial types of South America are known to extend so far +northwards; and, by following the same line, the West India Islands are +naturally included in this zone. + +Towards the south the equatorial zone embraces the whole of Africa and +Madagascar, and seems to extend still farther south in Australia, its +boundary probably following the southern coast of that continent; the +detailed distribution of the freshwater fishes of south-western +Australia has been little studied, but the tropical fishes of that +region follow the principal watercourse, the Murray river, far towards +the south and probably to its mouth. The boundary-line then stretches to +the north of Tasmania and New Zealand, coinciding with the tropic until +it strikes the western slope of the Andes, on the South American +continent, where it again bends southward to embrace the system of the +Rio de la Plata. + +The four regions into which the equatorial zone is divided arrange +themselves into two well-marked divisions, one of which is characterized +by the presence of Cyprinid fishes, combined with the development of +_Labyrinthic_ Percesoces (_Anabantidae_ and _Ophiocephalidae_) and +Mastacembelids, whilst in the other these types are absent. The boundary +between the Cyprinoid and Acyprinoid division seems to follow the now +exploded Wallace's line--a line drawn from the south of the Philippines +between Borneo and Celebes, and farther south between Bali and Lombok. +Borneo abounds in Cyprinids; from the Philippine Islands a few only are +known, and in Bali two species have been found; but none are known from +Celebes or Lombok, or from islands situated farther east. + +The Indian region comprises Asia south of the Himalayas and the +Yang-tse-Kiang, and includes the islands to the west of Celebes and +Lombok. Towards the north-east the island of Formosa, which also by +other parts of its fauna shows the characters of the equatorial zone, +has received some characteristic Japanese freshwater fishes. Within the +geographical boundaries of China the freshwater fishes of the tropics +pass gradually into those of the northern zone, both being separated by +a broad, debateable ground. The affluents of the great river traversing +this district are more numerous from the south than from the north, and +carry the southern fishes far into the temperate zone. Scarcely better +defined is the boundary of this region towards the north-west, in which +fishes were very poorly represented by types common to India and Africa. + +The African region comprises the whole of Africa south of the Sahara. It +might have been conjectured that the more temperate climate of its +southern extremity would have been accompanied by a conspicuous +difference in the fish fauna. But this is not the case; the difference +between the tropical and southern parts of Africa consists simply in the +gradual disappearance of specifically tropical forms, whilst Silurids, +Cyprinids and even _Anabas_ penetrate to its southern coast; no new +form, except a _Galaxias_ at the Cape of Good Hope, has entered to +impart to South Africa a character distinct from the central portion of +the continent. In the north-east the African fauna passes the isthmus of +Suez and penetrates into Syria; the system of the Jordan presents so +many African types that it has to be included in a description of the +African region as well as of the Europaeo-Asiatic. + +The boundaries of the Neotropical or Tropical American region have been +sufficiently indicated in the definition of the equatorial zone. A broad +and most irregular band of country, in which the South and North +American forms are mixed, exists in the north. + +The Tropical Pacific region includes all the islands east of Wallace's +line, New Guinea, Australia (with the exception of its south-eastern +portion), and all the islands of the tropical Pacific to the Sandwich +group. + +NORTHERN ZONE.--The boundaries of the northern zone coincide in the main +with the northern limit of the equatorial zone; but they overlap the +latter at different points. This happens in Syria, as well as east of +it, where the mixed faunae of the Jordan and the rivers of Mesopotamia +demand the inclusion of this territory in the northern zone as well as +in the equatorial; in the island of Formosa, where a Salmonid and +several Japanese Cyprinids flourish; and in Central America, where a +_Lepidosteus_, a Cyprinid (_Sclerognathus meridionalis_), and an +_Amiurus_ (_A. meridionalis_) represent the North American fauna in the +midst of a host of tropical forms. + +There is no separate arctic zone for freshwater fishes; ichthyic life +becomes extinct towards the pole wherever the fresh water remains frozen +throughout the year, or thaws for a few weeks only; and the few fishes +which extend into high latitudes belong to types in no wise differing +from those of the more temperate south. The highest latitude at which +fishes have been obtained is 82° N. lat., whence specimens of char +(_Salmo arcturus_ and _Salmo naresii_) have been brought back. + +_The Palaearctic or Europaeo-Asiatic Region._--The western and southern +boundaries of this region coincide with those of the northern zone. +Bering Strait and the Kamchatka Sea have been conventionally taken as +the boundary in the north, but the fishes of both coasts, so far as they +are known, are not sufficiently distinct to be referred to two different +regions. The Japanese islands exhibit a decided Palaearctic fish fauna +with a slight influx of tropical forms in the south. In the east, as +well as in the west, the distinction between the Europaeo-Asiatic and +the North American regions disappears almost entirely as we advance +farther towards the north. Finally, the Europaeo-Asiatic fauna mingles +with African and Indian forms in Syria, Persia and Afghanistan. + +The boundaries of the North American or Nearctic region have been +sufficiently indicated. The main features and the distribution of this +fauna are identical with those of the preceding region. + +SOUTHERN ZONE.--The boundaries of this zone have been indicated in the +description of the equatorial zone; they overlap the southern +boundaries of the latter in South Australia and South America, but we +have not the means of defining the limits to which southern types extend +northwards. This zone includes Tasmania, with at least a portion of +south-eastern Australia (Tasmanian sub-region), New Zealand and the +Auckland Islands (New Zealand sub-region), and Chile, Patagonia, Tierra +del Fuego and the Falkland Islands (Fuegian sub-region). No freshwater +fishes are known from Kerguelen's Land, or from islands beyond 55° S. +lat. + +The Tropical American region is the richest (about 1300 species); next +follow the African region (about 1000), the Indian region (about 800), +the Europaeo-Asiatic region (about 500), the North American region +(about 400), the Tropical Pacific region (about 60); whilst the +Antarctic region is quite insignificant. + +Of the migratory fishes, or fishes travelling regularly from the sea to +fresh waters, most, if not all, were derived from marine forms. The +anadromous forms, annually or periodically ascending rivers for the +purpose of spawning, such as several species of _Acipenser_, _Salmo_, +_Coregonus_, _Clupea_ (shads), and _Petromyzon_, are only known from the +northern hemisphere, whilst the catadromous forms, spending most of +their life in fresh water but resorting to the sea to breed, such as +_Anguilla_, some species of _Mugil_, _Galaxias_ and _Pleuronectes_, have +representatives in both hemispheres. (G. A. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For general anatomy of fishes, see T. W. Bridge, _Cambridge + Natural History_, and R. Wiedersheim, _Vergl. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_. + The latter contains an excellent bibliography. + + [2] Cf. J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._ x. 227. + + [3] For electric organs see W. Biedermann, _Electro-Physiology_. + + [4] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi. + + [5] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. + + [6] J. Phelps, _Science_, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and + Wilson, _Amer. Journ. Anat._ v. (1906) p. 154. + + [7] J. S. Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xvi., 1901, p. 130. + + [8] L. Drüner, _Zool. Jahrbücher Anat._ Band xix. (1904), S. 434. + + [9] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvi. 423. + + [10] J. S. Budgett, _op. cit._ + + [11] W. E. Agar, _Anat. Anz._, 1905, S. 298. + + [12] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. + + [13] J. Phelps, _Science_, vol. N.S. ix. p. 366; J. Eycleshymer and + Wilson, _Amer. Journ. Anat._, v. 1906, p. 154. + + [14]: F. Maurer, _Morphol. Jahrb._ ix., 1884, S. 229, and xiv., 1888, + S. 175. + + [15] J. Rückert, _Arch. Entwickelungsmech_. Band iv., 1897, S. 298; + J. Graham Kerr, _Phil. Trans._ B. 192, 1900, p. 325, and _The Budgett + Memorial Volume_. + + [16] Cuvier et Valenciennes, _Hist. nat. des poiss._ xix., 1846, p. + 151. + + [17] J. Rathke, _Üb. d. Darmkanal u.s.w. d. Fische_, Halle, 1824, S. + 62. + + [18] Cf. W. Biedermann, Electro-Physiology. + + [19] Literature in N. K. Koltzoff, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1901, P. + 259. + + [20] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901), p. 484. + + [21] J. S. Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xv. (1901), vol. p. + 324. + + [22] H. F. Jungersen, _Arb. zool. zoot. Inst. Würzburg_, Band ix., + 1889. + + [23] E. J. Bles, _Proc. Roy. Soc._ 62, 1897, p. 232. + + [24] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901) p. 484. + + [25] F. M. Balfour and W. N. Parker, _Phil. Trans._ (1882). + + [26] J. Graham Kerr, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ (1901), p. 495. + + [27] H. Gadow and E. C. Abbott, _Phil. Trans._ 186 (1895), p. 163. + + [28] For development cf. Gaupp in Hertwig's _Handbuch der + Entwickelungslehre_. + + [29] Cf. W. E. Agar, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xlv. (1906), 49. + + [30] Bashford Dean, _Journ. Morph._ ix. (1894) 87, and _Trans. New + York Acad. Sci._ xiii. (1894) 115. + + [31] R. Semon, _Zool. Forschungsreisen_, Band i. § 115. + + [32] O. Hertwig, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ xi. (1874). + + [33] R. H. Traquair, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxxix. (1899). + + [34] Cf. E. S. Goodrich, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvii. (1904), + 465. + + [35] R. H. Traquair, _Journ. Anat. Phys._ v. (1871) 166; J. S. + Budgett, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xvi. 315. + + [36] T. W. Bridge, _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ xiv. (1898) 350; W. E. + Agar, _op. cit._ + + [37] J. V. Boas, _Morphol. Jahrb._ vi. (1880). + + [38] Cf. F. Hochstetter in O. Hertwig _Handbuch der + Entwickelungslehre_. + + [39] C. v. Kupffer, _Studien z. vergl. Enlwickelungsgeschichte der + Cranioten_. + + [40] Cf. F. K. Studnicka's excellent account of the parietal organs + in A. Oppel's _Lehrbuch vergl, mikr. Anatomie_, T. v. (1905). + + [41] 2. F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, + _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial + Volume_. + + [42] J. Graham Kerr, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi. + + [43] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, + _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial + Volume_. + + [44] G. Elliot Smith, _Anat. Anz._ (1907). + + [45] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1896). + + [46] J. Graham Kerr, _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. + + [47] F. K. Studnicka, _S.B. böhm. Gesell._ (1901); J. Graham Kerr, + _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xlvi., and _The Budgett Memorial Volume_. + + [48]: R. Wiedersheim, Kölliker's _Festschrift_: cf. also _Anat. Anz._ + (1887). + + [49] A. Brauer, _Verhandl. deutsch. zool. Gesell._ (1902). + + [50] C. Stewart, _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ (1906), 439. + + [51] T. W. Bridge and A. C. Haddon, _Phil. Trans._ 184 (1893). + + [52] For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, _Trans. Linn. + Soc._ vii. (1898). + + [53] For literature of lateral line organs see Cole, _Trans. Linn. + Soc._, vii. (1898). + + [54] M. Fürbringer in Gegenbaur's _Festschrift_ (1896). + + + + +ICHTHYOPHAGI (Gr. for "fish-eaters"), the name given by ancient +geographers to several coast-dwelling peoples in different parts of the +world and ethnically unrelated. Nearchus mentions such a race as +inhabiting the barren shores of the Mekran on the Arabian Sea; Pausanias +locates them on the western coast of the Red Sea. Ptolemy speaks of +fish-eaters in Ethiopia, and on the west coast of Africa; while Pliny +relates the existence of such tribes on the islands in the Persian Gulf. +Herodotus (book i. c. 200) mentions three tribes of the Babylonians who +were solely fish-eaters, and in book iii. c. 19 refers to Ichthyophagi +in Egypt. The existence of such tribes was confirmed by Sir Richard F. +Burton (_El-Medinah_, p. 144). + + + + +ICHTHYOSAURUS, a fish or porpoise-shaped marine reptile which +characterized the Mesozoic period and became extinct immediately after +the deposition of the Chalk. It was named _Ichthyosaurus_ (Gr. +fish-lizard) by C. König in 1818 in allusion to its outward form, and is +best known by nearly complete skeletons from the Lias of England and +Germany. The large head is produced into a slender, pointed snout; and +the jaws are provided with a row of conical teeth nearly uniform in size +and deeply implanted in a continuous groove. The eye is enormous, and is +surrounded by a ring of overlapping "sclerotic plates," which would +serve to protect the eye-ball during diving. The vertebrae are very +numerous, short and deeply biconcave, imparting great flexibility to the +backbone as in fishes. The neck is so short and thick that it is +practically absent. There are always two pairs of paddle-like limbs, the +hinder pair never disappearing as in porpoises and other Cetacea, though +often much reduced in size. A few specimens from the Upper Lias of +Württemberg (in the museums of Stuttgart, Tübingen, Budapest and +Chicago) exhibit remains of the skin, which is quite smooth and forms +two triangular median fins, one in the middle of the back, the other at +the end of the tail. The dorsal fin consists merely of skin without any +internal skeleton, while the tail-fin is expanded in a vertical plane +and has the lower lobe stiffened by the tapering end of the backbone, +which is sharply bent downwards. Immature individuals are sometimes +observable within the full-grown skeletons, suggesting that this reptile +was viviparous. + +[Illustration: From British Museum _Guide to Fossil Reptiles and +Fishes_, by permission of the Trustees. + +Skeleton of _Ichthyosaurus communis_, with outline of body and fins, +from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorset; original nearly four metres +in length.] + +The largest known species of _Ichthyosaurus_ is _I. trigonodon_ from the +Upper Lias of Banz, Bavaria, with the head measuring about two metres in +length and probably representing an animal not less than ten metres in +total length. _I. platyodon_, from the English Lower Lias, seems to have +been almost equally large. _I. intermedius_ and _I. communis_, which are +the commonest species in the English Lower Lias, rarely exceed a length +of three or four metres. The species in rocks later than the Lias are +known for the most part only by fragments, but the remains of Lower +Cretaceous age are noteworthy for their very wide geographical +distribution, having been found in Europe, the East Indies, Australia, +New Zealand and South America. Allied Ichthyosaurians named +_Ophthalmosaurus_ and _Baptanodon_, from the Upper Jurassic of England +and North America, are nearly or quite toothless and have very flexible +broad paddles. The earliest known Ichthyosaurians (_Mixosaurus_), which +occur in the Trias, are of diminutive size, with paddles which suggest +that these marine reptiles were originally descended from land or marsh +animals (see REPTILES). + + AUTHORITIES.--R. Owen, _A Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of the + Liassic Formations_, part iii. (Mon. Palaeont. Soc., 1881); E. Fraas, + _Die Ichthyosaurier der süddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen_ + (Tübingen, 1891). Also good figures in T. Hawkins, _The Book of the + Great Sea-dragons_ (London, 1840). (A. S. Wo.) + + + + +ICHTHYOSIS, or XERODERMA, a general thickening of the whole skin and +marked accumulation of the epidermic elements, with atrophy of the +sebaceous glands, giving rise to a hard, dry, scaly condition, whence +the names, from [Greek: ichthys], fish, and [Greek: xêros], dry, [Greek: +derma], skin. This disease generally first appears in infancy, and is +probably congenital. It differs in intensity and in distribution, and is +generally little amenable to any but palliative remedies, such as the +regular application of oily substances. Ichthyosis lingualis ("smokers' +tongue"), a variety common in heavy smokers, occurs in opaque white +patches on the tongue, gums and roof of the mouth. Cancer occasionally +starts from the patches. The affection is obstinate, but may disappear +spontaneously. + + + + +ICKNIELD STREET. (i) The Saxon name (earlier _Icenhylt_) of a +prehistoric (not Roman) "Ridgeway" along the Berkshire downs and the +Chilterns, which crossed the Thames near Streatley and ended somewhere +near Tring or Dunstable. In some places there are traces of a double +road, one line on the hills and one in the valley below, as if for +summer and winter use. No modern highroad follows it for any distance. +Antiquaries have supposed that it once ran on to Royston, Newmarket and +Norfolk, and have connected its name with the Iceni, the Celtic tribe +inhabiting East Anglia before the Roman conquest. But the name does not +occur in early documents so far east, and it has certainly nothing to do +with that of the Iceni (Haverfield, _Victoria History of Norfolk_, i. +286). See further ERMINE STREET. (2) A Roman road which ran through +Derby, Lichfield, Birmingham and Alcester is sometimes called Icknield +Street and sometimes Rycknield Street. The origin of this nomenclature +is very obscure (_Vict. Hist. of Warwick_, i. 239). (F. J. H.) + + + + +ICON (through the Latinized form, from Gr. [Greek: eikôn], portrait, +image), generally any image or portrait-figure, but specially the term +applied to the representations in the Eastern Church of sacred +personages, whether in painting or sculpture, and particularly to the +small metal plaques in archaic Byzantine style, venerated by the +adherents of the Greek Church. See ICONOCLASTS; IMAGE-WORSHIP; BYZANTINE +ART. The term "iconography," once confined to the study of engravings +(q.v.), is now applied to the history of portrait images in Christian +art, though it is also used with a qualifying adjective of Greek, Roman +and other art. + + + + +ICONIUM (mod. _Konia_), a city of Asia Minor, the last of the Phrygian +land towards Lycaonia, was commonly reckoned to Lycaonia in the Roman +time, but retained its old Phrygian connexion and population to a +comparatively late date. Its natural surroundings must have made it an +important town from the beginning of organized society in this region. +It lies in an excellently fertile plain, 6 m. from the Pisidian +mountains on the west, with mountains more distant on the north and +south, while to the east the dead level plain stretches away for +hundreds of miles, though the distant view is interrupted by island-like +mountains. Streams from the Pisidian mountains make the land on the +south-west and south of the city a garden; but on the east and +north-east a great part of the naturally fertile soil is uncultivated. +Trees grow nowhere except in the gardens near the city. Irrigation is +necessary for productiveness, and the water-supply is now deficient. A +much greater supply was available for agriculture in ancient times and +might be reintroduced. + +Originally a Phrygian city, as almost every authority who has come into +contact with the population calls it, and as is implied in Acts xiv. 6, +it was in a political sense the chief city of the Lycaonian tetrarchy +added to the Galatian country about 165 B.C., and it was part of the +Roman province Galatia from 25 B.C. to about A.D. 295. Then it was +included in the province Pisidia (as Ammianus Marcellinus describes it) +till 372, after which it formed part of the new province Lycaonia so +long as the provincial division lasted. Later it was a principal city of +the theme of Anatolia. It suffered much from the Arab raids in the three +centuries following A.D. 660; its capture in 708 is mentioned, but it +never was held as a city of the caliphs. In later Roman and Byzantine +times it must have been a large and wealthy city. It was a metropolis +and an archbishopric, and one of the earliest councils of the church was +held there in A.D. 235. The ecclesiastical organization of Lycaonia and +the country round Iconium on all sides was complete in the early 4th +century, and monuments of later 3rd and 4th century Christianity are +extremely numerous. The history of Christian Iconium is utterly obscure. +The city was thrice visited by St Paul, probably in A.D. 47, 50 and 53; +and it is the principal scene of the tale of Paul and Thecla (which +though apocryphal has certainly some historical basis; see THECLA). +There was a distinct Roman element in Iconium, arising doubtless from +the presence of Roman traders. This was recognized by Claudius, who +granted the honorary title Claudiconium, and by Hadrian, who elevated +the city to the rank of a Roman colony about A.D. 130 under the name +Colonia Aelia Hadriana Augusta Iconiensium. The period of its greatest +splendour was after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks about 1072-1074. It +soon became the capital of the Seljuk state, and one of the most +brilliant cities of the world. The palace of the sultans and the mosque +of Ala ed-din Kaikobad formerly covered great part of the Acropolis hill +in the northern part of the city. Farther south there is still the great +complex of buildings which form the chief seat of the Mevlevi dervishes, +a sect widely spread over Anatolia. Many other splendid mosques and +royal tombs adorned the city, and justified the Turkish proverb, "See +all the world; but see Konia." The walls, about 2 m. in circumference, +consisted of a core of rubble and concrete, coated with ancient stones, +inscriptions, sculptures and architectural marbles, forming a striking +sight, which no traveller ever examined in detail. Beyond the walls +extended the gardens and villas of a prosperous Oriental population, +especially on the south-west towards the suburb of Meram. + +When the Seljuk state broke up, and the Osmanli or Ottoman sovereignty +arose, Konia decayed, its population dwindled and the splendid early +Turkish buildings were suffered to go to ruin. As trade and intercourse +diminished Konia grew poorer and more ruinous. The walls and the palace, +still perfect in the beginning of the 19th century, were gradually +pulled down for building material, and in 1882 there remained only a +small part of the walls, from which all the outer stones had been +removed, while the palace was a ruin. At that time and for some years +later a large part of Konia was like a city of the dead. But about 1895 +the advent of the Anatolian railway began to restore its prosperity. A +good supply of drinking water was brought to the city by Ferid Pasha, +who governed the vilayet ably for several years, till in 1903 he was +appointed Grand Vizier. The sacred buildings, mosques, &c., were patched +up (except a few which were quite ruinous) and the walls wholly removed, +but an unsightly fragment of a palace-tower still remained in 1906. In +1904-1905 the first two sections of the Bagdad railway, 117 m., to +Karaman and Eregli, were built. In the city there is a branch of the +Ottoman bank, a government technical school, a French Catholic mission +and a school, an Armenian Protestant school for boys, an American +mission school for girls, mainly Armenian, and other educational +establishments. + +The founder of the Mevlevi dancing dervishes, the poet Mahommed +Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi), in 1307, though tempted to assume the inheritance +along with the empire of the Seljuk sultan Ala ed-din Kaikobad III., who +died without heirs, preferred to pass on the power to Osman, son of +Ertogrul, and with his own hands invested Osman and girt him with the +sword: this investiture was the legitimate beginning of the Osmanli +authority. The heirs of Jelal-ed-Din (Rumi) were favoured by the Osmanli +sultans until 1516, when Selim was on the point of destroying the +Mevlevi establishment as hostile to the Osmanli and the faith; and +though he did not do so the Mevlevi and their chiefs were deprived of +influence and dignity. In 1829 Mahmud II. restored their dignity in +part, and in 1889 Abd-ul-Hamid II. confirmed their exemption from +military duty. The head of the Mevlevi dervishes (Aziz-Effendi, +Hazreti-Mevlana, Mollah-Unkiar, commonly styled simply Chelebi-Effendi) +has the right to gird on the sultan's sword at his investiture, and is +master of the considerable revenues of the greatest religious +establishment in the empire. He has also the privilege of corresponding +direct with the caliph; but otherwise is regarded as rather opposed to +the Osmanli administration, and has no real power. + +Iconium is distant by rail 466 m. from the Bosporus at Haidar-Pasha, and +389 from Smyrna by way of Afium-Kara-Hissar. It has recently become the +seat of a considerable manufacture of carpets, owing to the cheapness of +labour. The population was estimated at 44,000 in 1890, and is now +probably over 50,000. Mercury mines have begun to be worked; other +minerals are known to exist. (W. M. Ra.) + + + + +ICONOCLASTS (Gr. [Greek: eikonoklastês: eikôn], image, and [Greek: +klaein], to break), the name applied particularly to the opponents in +the 8th and 9th centuries of the use of images in Christian cult. + +As regards the attitude towards religious images assumed by the +primitive Christian Church, several questions have often been treated as +one which cannot be too carefully kept apart. There can be no doubt that +the early Christians were unanimous in condemning heathen image-worship +and the various customs, some immoral, with which it was associated. A +form of iconolatry specially deprecated in the New Testament was the +then prevalent adoration of the images of the reigning emperors (see +Rev. xv. 2). It is also tolerably certain that, if for no other reasons +besides the Judaism, obscurity, and poverty of the early converts to +Christianity, the works of art seen in their meeting-houses cannot at +first have been numerous. Along with these reasons would co-operate +towards the exclusion of visible aids to devotion, not only the church's +sacramental use of Christ's name as a name of power, and its living +sense of his continued real though unseen presence, but also, during the +first years, its constant expectation of his second advent as imminent. +It was a common accusation brought against Jews and Christians that they +had "no altars, no temples, no known images" (Min. Fel. _Oct._ c. 10), +that "they set up no image or form of any god" (see Arnob. _Adv. Gent._ +vi. I; similarly Celsus); and this charge was never denied; on the +contrary Origen gloried in it (_c. Celsum_, bk. 7, p. 386). At a +comparatively early date, indeed, we read of various Gnostic sects +calling in the fine arts to aid their worship; thus Irenaeus (_Haer._ i. +25. 6), speaking of the followers of Marcellina, says that "they possess +images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of +material; and they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by +Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among men. They crown these images, +and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world; +that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras and Plato and Aristotle +and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images after +the same manner as the Gentiles" (cf. Aug. _De Haer._ c. 7). It is also +well known that the emperor Alexander Severus found a place for several +Scripture characters and even for Christ in his lararium (Lamprid. _Vit. +Alex. Sev._ c. 29). But there is no evidence that such a use of images +extended at that period to orthodox Christian circles. The first +unmistakable indication of the public use of the painter's art for +directly religious ends does not occur until A.D. 306, when the synod of +Elvira, Spain, decreed (can. 36) that "pictures ought not to be in a +church, lest that which is worshipped and adored be painted on +walls."[1] This canon is proof that the use of sacred pictures in public +worship was not at the beginning of the 4th century a thing unknown +within the church in Spain; and the presumption is that in other places, +about the same period, the custom was looked upon with a more tolerant +eye. Indications of the existence of allied forms of sacred Christian +art prior to this period are not wholly wanting. It seems possible to +trace some of the older and better frescos in the catacombs to a very +early age; and Bible manuscripts were often copiously illuminated and +illustrated even before the middle of the 4th century. An often-quoted +passage from Tertullian (_De Pudic._ c. 10, cf. c. 7) shows that in his +day the communion cup was wont to bear a representation of the Good +Shepherd. Clement of Alexandria (_Paedag._ iii. 11) mentions the dove, +fish, ship, lyre, anchor, as suitable devices for Christian signet +rings. Origen (c. _Celsum_, bk. 3) repudiates graven images as only fit +for demons. + +During the 4th and following centuries the tendency to enlist the fine +arts in the service of the church steadily advanced; not, however, so +far as appears, with the formal sanction of any regular ecclesiastical +authority, and certainly not without strong protests raised by more than +one powerful voice. From a passage in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa +(_Orat. de Laudibus Theodori Martyris_, c. 2) it is easy to see how the +stories of recent martyrs would offer themselves as tempting subjects +for the painter, and at the same time be considered to have received +from him their best and most permanent expression; that this feeling was +widespread is shown in many places by Paulinus of Nola (_ob._ 431), from +whom we gather that not only martyrdoms and Bible histories, but also +symbols of the Trinity were in his day freely represented pictorially. +Augustine (_De Cons. Ev._ i. 10) speaks less approvingly of those who +look for Christ and his apostles "on painted walls" rather than in his +written word. How far the Christian feeling of the 4th and 5th centuries +was from being settled in favour of the employment of the fine arts is +shown by such a case as that of Eusebius of Caesarea, who, in reply to a +request of Constantia, sister of Constantine, for a picture of Christ, +wrote that it was unlawful to possess images pretending to represent the +Saviour either in his divine or in his human nature, and added that to +avoid the reproach of idolatry he had actually taken away from a lady +friend the pictures of Paul and of Christ which she had.[2] Similarly +Epiphanius in a letter to John, bishop of Jerusalem, tells how in a +church at Anablatha near Bethel he had found a curtain painted with the +image "of Christ or of some other saint," which he had torn down and +ordered to be used for the burial of a pauper. The passage, however, +reveals not only what Epiphanius thought on the subject, but also that +such pictures must have been becoming frequent. Nilus, the disciple and +defender of Chrysostom, permitted the symbol of the cross in churches +and also pictorial delineations of Old and New Testament history, but +deprecated other symbols, pictures of martyrs, and most of all the +representation of Christ. In the time of Gregory the Great the Western +Church obtained something like an authoritative declaration on the +question about images, but in a sense not quite the same as that of the +synod of Elvira. Serenus of Marseilles had ordered the destruction of +all sacred images within his diocese; this action called forth several +letters from Pope Gregory (viii. 2. III; ix. 4. 11), in which he +disapproved of that course, and, drawing the distinction which has since +been authoritative for the Roman Church, pointed out that-- + + "It is one thing to worship a picture and another to learn from the + language of a picture what that is which ought to be worshipped. What + those who can read learn by means of writing, that do the uneducated + learn by looking at a picture.... That, therefore, ought not to have + been destroyed which had been placed in the churches, not for worship, + but solely for instructing the minds of the ignorant." + +With regard to the symbol of the cross, its public use dates from the +time of Constantine, though, according to many Christian archaeologists +it had, prior to that date, a very important place in the so-called +"disciplina arcani." The introduction of the crucifix was later; +originally the favourite combination was that of the figure of a lamb +lying at the foot of the cross; the council of Constantinople, called +"in Trullo," in 692 enjoined that this symbol should be discontinued, +and that where Christ was shown in connexion with his cross he should be +represented in his human nature. In the catacombs Christ is never +represented hanging on the cross, and the cross itself is only portrayed +in a veiled and hesitating manner. In the Egyptian churches the cross +was a pagan symbol of life borrowed by the Christians and interpreted in +the pagan manner. The cross of the early Christian emperors was a +_labarum_ or token of victory in war, a standard for use in battle. +Religious feeling in the West recoiled from the crucifix as late as the +6th century, and it was equally abhorrent to the Monophysites of the +East who regarded the human nature of Christ as swallowed up in the +divine. Nevertheless it seems to have originated in the East, perhaps as +a protest against the extreme Monophysites, who even denied the +passibility of Christ. Perhaps the Nestorians, who clung to the human +aspect of Christ, introduced it about 550. From the East it soon passed +to the West. + +Not until the 8th century were the religious and theological questions +which connect themselves with image-worship distinctly raised in the +Eastern Church in their entirety. The controversy began with an address +which Leo the Isaurian, in the tenth year of his reign (726), delivered +in public "in favour of overthrowing the holy and venerable images," as +says Theophanes (_Chronogr._, in Migne _Patr. Gr._ 108, 816). This +emperor had, in the years 717 and 718, hurled back the tide of Arab +conquest which threatened to engulf Byzantium, and had also shown +himself an able statesman and legislator. Born at Germanicia in Syria, +and, before he mounted the throne, captain-general of the Anatolian +theme, he had come under the influence of the anti-idolatrous sects, +such as the Jews, Montanists, Paulicians and Manicheans, which abounded +in Asia Minor, but of which he was otherwise no friend. But his +religious reform was unpopular, especially among the women, who killed +an official who, by the emperor's command, was destroying an image of +Christ in the vestibule of the imperial palace of Chalcé. This _émeute_ +provoked severe reprisals, and the partisans of the images were +mutilated and killed, or beaten and exiled. A rival emperor even, +Agallianus, was set up, who perished in his attempt to seize +Constantinople. Italy also rose in arms, and Pope Gregory II. wrote to +Leo blaming his interference in religious matters, though he dissuaded +the rebels in Venetia, the Exarchate and the Pentapolis from electing a +new emperor and marching against Leo. In 730 Germanus the patriarch +resigned rather than subscribe to a decree condemning images; later he +was strangled, in exile and replaced by an iconoclast, Anastasius. +Meanwhile, inside the Arab empire, John of Damascus wrote his three +dogmatic discourses against the traducers of images, arguing that their +use was not idolatry but only a relative worship ([Greek: proskynêsis +schetkê]). The next pope, Gregory III. convoked a council of +ninety-three bishops, which excommunicated the iconoclasts, and the +fleet which Leo sent to retaliate on the Latin peninsula was lost in a +storm in the Adriatic. The most Leo was able to do was to double the +tribute of Calabria and Sicily, confiscate the pope's revenues there, +and impose on the bishops of south Italy a servitude to Byzantium which +lasted for centuries. + +Leo III. died in June 740, and then his son Constantine V. began a +persecution of the image-worshippers in real earnest. In his eagerness to +restore the simplicity of the primitive church he even assailed +Mariolatry, intercession of saints, relics and perhaps infant baptism, to +the scandal even of the iconoclast bishops themselves. His reign began +with the seizure for eighteen months of Constantinople by his +brother-in-law Artavasdes, who temporarily restored the images. He was +captured and beheaded with his accomplices in November 742, and in +February 754 Constantine held in the palace of Hieria a council of 388 +bishops, mostly of the East; the patriarchs of Rome, Antioch, Alexandria +and Jerusalem refused to attend. In it images were condemned, but the +other equally conservative leanings of the emperor found no favour. The +chief upholders of images, the patriarch Germanus, George of Cyprus and +John of Damascus, were anathematized, and Christians forbidden to adore +or make images or even to hide them. These decrees were obstinately +resisted, especially by the monks, large numbers of whom fled to Italy. +In 765 the emperor demanded of his subjects all over his empire an oath +on the cross that they detested images, and St Stephen the younger, the +chief upholder of them, was murdered in the streets. A regular crusade +now began against monks and nuns, and images and relics were destroyed on +a great scale. In parts of Asia Minor (Lydia and Caria) the monks were +even forced to marry the nuns. In 769 Pope Stephen III. condemned the +council of Hieria, and in 775 Constantine V. died. His son Leo IV. died +in 780, leaving a widow, Irene, of Athenian birth, who seized the +opportunity presented by the minority of her ten-year-old son Constantine +VI. to restore the images and dispersed relics. In 784 she invited Pope +Adrian I. to come and preside over a fresh council, which was to reverse +that of 754 and heal the schism with Rome. In August 786 the council met, +but was broken up by the imperial guards, who were Easterns and sturdy +iconoclasts. Irene replaced them by a more trustworthy force, and +convoked a fresh council of three hundred bishops and monks innumerable +in September 787, at Nicaea in the church of St Sophia. The cult of +images was now solemnly restored, iconoclast bishops deposed or +reconciled, the dogmatic theory of images defined, and church discipline +re-established. The order thus imposed lasted twenty-four years, until a +military revolution placed a soldier of fortune, half Armenian, half +Persian, named Leo, on the throne; he, like his soldiers, was persuaded +that the ill-success of the Roman arms against Bulgarians and other +invaders was due to the idolatry rampant at court and elsewhere. The +soldiers stoned the image of Christ which Irene had set up afresh in the +palace of Chalcé, and this provoked a counter-demonstration of the +clergy. Leo feigned for a while to be on their side, but on the 2nd of +February 815, in the sanctuary of St Sophia, publicly refused to +prostrate himself before the images, with the approbation of the army and +of many bishops who were iconoclasts at heart. Irene's patriarch +Nicephorus was now deposed and one Theodotus, a kinsman of Constantine +Copronymus, consecrated in his place on the 1st of April 815. A fresh +council was soon convoked, which cursed Irene and re-enacted the decrees +of 754. This reaction lasted only for a generation under Leo the +Armenian, who died 820, Michael II. 820-829, and Theophilus 829-842; and +was frustrated mainly by the exertions of Theodore of Studion and his +monks, called the Studitae. Theodore refused to attend or recognize the +new council, and was banished first to Bithynia and thence to Smyrna, +whence he continued to address his appeals to the pope, to the eastern +patriarchs and to his dispersed monks. He died in 826. Theophilus, the +last of the iconoclast emperors, was a devoted Mariolater and +controversialist who invited the monks to discuss the question of images +with him, and whipped or branded them when he was out-argued; he at +length banished them from the cities, and branded on the hands a painter +of holy pictures, Lazarus by name, who declined to secularize his art; he +also raised to the patriarchal throne John Hylilas, chief instigator of +the reaction of 815. In 842 Theophilus died, leaving his wife Theodora +regent; she was, like Irene, addicted to images, and chose as patriarch a +monk, Methodius, whom the emperor Michael had imprisoned for laying +before him Pope Paschal I.'s letter of protest. John Hylilas was deposed +and flogged in turn. A fresh council was now held which re-enacted the +decrees of 787, and on the 20th of February 842 the new patriarch, the +empress, clergy and court dignitaries assisted in the church of St Sophia +at a solemn restoration of images which lasted until the advent of the +Turks. The struggle had gone on for 116 years. + +The iconoclastic movement is perhaps the most dramatic episode in +Byzantine history, and the above outline of its external events must be +completed by an appreciation of its deeper historical and religious +significance and results. We can distinguish three parties among the +combatants:-- + +1. The partisans of image worship. These were chiefly found in the +Hellenic portions of the empire, where Greek art had once held sway. The +monks were the chief champions of images, because they were illuminators +and artists. Their doctors taught that the same grace of the Holy Spirit +which imbued the living saint attaches after death to his relics, name, +image and picture. The latter are thus no mere representations, but as +it were emanations from the archetype, vehicles of the supernatural +personality represented, and possessed of an inherent sacramental value +and power, such as the name of Jesus had for the earliest believers. +Here Christian image-worship borders on the beliefs which underlie +sympathetic magic (see IMAGE WORSHIP). + +2. The iconoclasts proper, who not only condemned image worship in the +sense just explained but rejected all religious art whatever. Fleeting +matter to their mind was not worthy to embody or reflect heavenly +supersensuous energies denoted by the names of Christ and the saints. +For the same reason they rejected relics and, as a rule, the worship of +the cross. Statues of Christ, especially of him hanging on the cross, +inspired the greatest horror and indignation; and this is why none of +the graven images of Christ, common before the outbreak of the movement, +survive. More than this--although the synod of 692 specially allowed the +crucifix, yet Greek churches have discarded it ever since the 8th +century. + +This idea that material representation involves a profanation of divine +personages, while disallowing all religious art which goes beyond +scroll-work, spirals, flourishes and geometrical designs, yet admits to +the full of secular art; and accordingly the iconoclastic emperors +replaced the holy pictures in churches with frescoes of hunting scenes, +and covered their palaces with garden scenes where men were plucking +fruit and birds singing amid the foliage. Contemporary Mahommedans did +the same, for it is an error to suppose that this religion was from the +first hostile to profane art. At one time the mosques were covered with +mosaics, analogous to those of Ravenna, depicting scenes from the life +of Mahomet and the prophets. The Arabs only forbade plastic art in the +9th century, nor were their essentially Semitic scruples ever shared by +the Persians. + +The prejudice we are considering is closely connected with the +Manichaean view of matter, which in strict consistency rejected the +belief that God was really made flesh, or really died on the cross. The +Manichaeans were therefore, by reason of their dualism, arch-enemies no +less of Christian art than of relics and cross-worship; the Monophysites +were equally so by reason of their belief that the divine nature in +Christ entirely absorbed and sublated the human; they shaded off into +the party of the _aphthartodoketes_, who held that his human body was +incorruptible and made of ethereal fire, and that his divine nature was +impassible. Their belief made them, like the Manichaeans, hostile to +material portraiture of Christ, especially of his sufferings on the +cross. All these nearly allied schools of Christian thought could, +moreover, address, as against the image-worshippers, a very effective +appeal to the Bible and to Christian antiquity. Now Egypt, Asia Minor, +Armenia, western Syria and the Hauran were almost wholly given up to +these forms of opinion. Accordingly in all the remains of the Christian +art of the Hauran one seeks in vain for any delineation of human face or +figure. The art of these countries is mainly geometrical, and allows +only of monograms crowned with laurels, of peacocks, of animals +gambolling amid foliage, of fruit and flowers, of crosses which are +either _svastikas_ of Hindu and Mycenaean type, or so lost in enveloping +arabesques as to be merely decorative. Such was the only religious art +permitted by the Christian sentiment of these countries, and also of the +large _enclaves_ of semi-Manichaean belief formed in the Balkans by the +transportation thither of Armenians and Paulicians. And it is important +to remark that the protagonists of iconoclasm in Byzantium came from +these lands where image cult offended the deepest religious instincts of +the masses. Leo the Isaurian had all the scruples of a Paulician, even +to the rejection of the cult of Virgin and saints; Constantine V. was +openly such. Michael Balbus was reared in Phrygia among Montanists. The +soldiers and captains of the Byzantine garrisons were equally Armenians +and Syrians, in whom the sight of a crucifix or image set up for worship +inspired nothing but horror. + +The issue of the struggle was not a complete victory even in Byzantium +for the partisans of image-worship. The Iconoclasts left an indelible +impress on the Christian art of the Greek Church, in so far as they put +an end to the use of graven images; for the Eastern icon is a flat +picture, less easily regarded than would be a statue as a nidus within +which a spirit can lurk. Half the realm of creative art, that of +statuary, was thus suppressed at a blow; and the other half, painting, +forfeited all the grace and freedom, all the capacity of new themes, +forms and colours, all the development which we see in the Latin Church. +The Greeks have produced no Giotto, no Fra Angelico, no Raphael. Their +artists have no choice of subjects and no initiative. Colour, dress, +attitude, grouping of figures are all dictated by traditional rules, set +out in regular manuals. God the Father may not be depicted at all--a +restriction intelligible when we remember that the image in theory is +fraught with the virtue of the archetype; but everywhere the utmost +timidity is shown. What else could an artist do but make a slavish and +exact copy of old pictures which worked miracles and perhaps had the +reputation as well of having fallen from heaven? + +3. Between these extreme parties the Roman Church took the middle way of +common sense. The hair-splitting distinction of the Byzantine doctors +between veneration due to images ([Greek: proskynêsis timêtikê]), and +the adoration ([Greek: proskynêsis latreutikê]) due to God alone, was +dropped, and the utility of pictures for the illiterate emphasized. +Their use was declared to be this, that they taught the ignorant through +the eye what they should adore with the mind; they are not themselves to +be adored. Such was Gregory the Great's teaching, and such also is the +purport of the Caroline books, which embody the conclusions arrived at +by the bishops of Germany, Gaul and Aquitaine, presided over by papal +legates at the council of Frankfort in 794, and incidentally also reveal +the hatred and contempt of Charlemagne for the Byzantine empire as an +institution, and for Irene, its ruler, as a person. The theologians whom +Louis the Pious convened at Paris in 825, to answer the letter received +from the iconoclast emperor Michael Balbus, were as hostile to the +orthodox Greeks as to the image-worshippers, and did not scruple to +censure Pope Adrian for having approved of the empress Irene's attitude. +The council of Trent decided afresh in the same sense. + +Two incidental results of the iconoclastic movement must be noticed, the +one of less, the other of more importance. The lesser one was the flight +of Greek iconolatrous monks from Asia Minor and the Levant to Sicily and +Calabria, where they established convents which for centuries were the +western homes of Greek learning, and in which were written not a few of +the oldest Greek MSS. found in our libraries. The greater event was the +scission between East and West. The fury of the West against the +iconoclastic emperors was such that the whole of Italy clamoured for +war. It is true that Pope Stephen II. applied in 753 to Constantine V., +one of the worst destroyers of images, for aid against the Lombards, for +the emperor of Byzantium was still regarded as the natural champion of +the church. But Constantine refused aid, and the pope turned to the +Frankish King Pippin. The die was cast. Henceforth Rome was linked with +the Carolingian house in an alliance which culminated in the coronation +of Charlemagne by the pope on the 25th of December 800. + +In the crusading epoch the Cathars and Paulicians carried all over +Europe the old iconoclastic spirit, and perhaps helped to transmit it to +Wycliffe and Hus. Not the least racy clause in the document compiled +about 1389 by the Wycliffites in defence of their defunct teacher is the +following: "Hit semes that this offrynge ymages is a sotile cast of +Antichriste and his clerkis for to drawe almes fro pore men ... certis, +these ymages of hemselfe may do nouther gode nor yvel to mennis soules, +but thai myghtten warme a man's body in colde, if thai were sette upon a +fire." + +At the period of the Reformation it was unanimously felt by the +reforming party that, with the invocation of saints and the practice of +reverencing their relics, the adoration of images ought also to cease. +The leaders of the movement were not, however, perfectly agreed on the +question as to whether these might not in some circumstances be retained +in churches. Luther had no sympathy with the iconoclastic outbreaks +which then occurred; he classed images in themselves as among the +"adiaphora," and condemned only their cultus; so also the "Confessio +Tetrapolitana" leaves Christians free to have them or not, if only due +regard be had to what is expedient and edifying. The "Heidelberg +Catechism," however, emphatically declares that images are not to be +tolerated at all in churches. + + SOURCES.--"Acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in Nicaea, + 787," in Mansi's _Concilia_, vols. xii. and xiii.; "Acts of the + Iconoclast Council of 815," in a treatise of Nicephorus discovered by + M. Serruys and printed in the _Séances Acad. des Inscript._ (May + 1903); Theophanes, _Chronographia_, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, + 1883-1885); and _Patr. Gr._ vol. 108. Also his "Continuators" in + _Patr. Gr._ vol. 109; Nicephorus, _Chronicon_, edit. de Boor (Leipzig, + 1880), and _Patr. Gr._ vol. 100; Georgius Monachus, _Chronicon_, edit. + Muralt (Petersburg, 1859), and _Patr. Gr._ 110; anonymous "Life of Leo + the Armenian" in _Patr. Gr._ 108; _The Book of the Kings_, by Joseph + Genesios, _Patr. Gr._ 109; "Life of S. Stephanus, Junior," _Patr. Gr._ + 100; "St John of Damascus," three "Sermones" against the iconoclasts, + _Patr. Gr._ 95; Nicephorus Patriarch, "Antirrhetici," _Patr. Gr._ 100; + Theodore Studita, "Antirrhetici," _Patr. Gr. 99_. For bibliography of + contemporary hymns, letters, &c., bearing on the controversy see K. + Krumbacher's _History of Byzantine Literature_, 2nd ed. p. 674. + Literature: Louis Brehier, _La Querelle des images_, and _Les Origines + du crucifix_ (Paris, 1904); Librairie Blond, in French, each volume 60 + centimes (brief but admirable); Karl Schwartzlose, _Der Bilderstreit_ + (Gotha, 1890); Karl Schenk, "The Emperor Leo III.," in _Byzant. + Zeitschrift_ (1896, German); Tel. Uspenskij, _Skizzen zur Geschichte + der byzantinischen Kultur_ (St Petersburg, 1892, Russian); Lombard, + _Études d'histoire byzantine_; Constantine V.( Paris, 1902, _Biblioth. + de l'université de Paris_, xvi.); A. Tougard, _La Persécution + iconoclaste_ (Paris, 1897); and _Rev. des questions historiques_ + (1891); Marin, _Les Moines de Constantinople_ (Paris, 1897, bk. iv. + _Les Moines et les empereurs iconoclastes_); Alice Gardner, Theodore + of Studium (London, 1905); Louis Maimbourg, _Histoire de l'hérésie des + iconoclastes_ (Paris, 1679-1683); J. Daillé (Dallaeus), _De + imaginibus_ (Leiden, 1642, and in French, Geneva, 1641); Spanheim, + _Historia imaginum_ (Leiden, 1686). See also the account of this epoch + in the _Histories_ of Neander, Gibbon and Milman; Aug. Fr. Gfrörer, + "Der Bildersturm" in _Byzantinische Geschichte 2_ (1873); C. J. von + Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_ 3 (1877), 366 ff. (also in English + translation; Karl Krumbacher. _Byzant. Literaturgeschichte_ (2nd ed. + p. 1090). (F. C. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et + adoratur in parietibus depingatur." See Hefele, _Conciliengesch_. i. + 170. + + [2] The letter, which is most probably, though not certainly, + genuine, appears in the _Acta_ of the second council of Nice. + + + + +ICONOSTASIS, the screen in a Greek church which divides the altar and +sanctuary from the rest of the church. It is generally attached to the +first eastern pier or column and rises to the level of the springing of +the vault. The iconostasis or image-bearer has generally three doors, +one on each side of the central door, beyond which is the principal +altar. The screen is subdivided into four or five tiers, each tier +decorated with a series of panels containing representations of the +saints: of these only the heads, hands and feet are painted, the bodies +being covered with embossed metal work, richly gilded. There is a fine +example in the Russo-Greek chapel, Welbeck Street, London, which was +rebuilt in 1864-1865. + + + + +ICOSAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: eikosi], twenty, and [Greek: hedra], a face or +base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twenty faces. The "regular +icosahedron" is one of the Platonic solids; the "great icosahedron" is a +Kepler-Poinsot solid; and the "truncated icosahedron" is an Archimedean +solid (see POLYHEDRON). In crystallography the icosahedron is a possible +form, but it has not been observed; it is closely simulated by a +combination of the octahedron and pentagonal dodecahedron, which has +twenty triangular faces, but only eight are equilateral, the remaining +twelve being isosceles (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). + + + + +ICTERUS, a bird so called by classical authors, and supposed by Pliny to +be the same as the _Galgulus_, which is generally identified with the +golden oriole (_Oriolus galbula_).[1] It signified a bird in the plumage +of which yellow or green predominated, and hence Brisson did not take an +unhappy liberty when he applied it in a scientific sense to some birds +of the New World of which the same could be said. These are now held to +constitute a distinct family, _Icteridae_, intermediate it would seem +between the BUNTINGS (q.v.) and STARLINGS (q.v.); and, while many of +them are called troopials (the English equivalent of the French +_Troupiales_, first used by Brisson), others are known as the American +GRACKLES (q.v.). The typical species of _Icterus_ is the _Oriolus +icterus_ of Linnaeus, the _Icterus vulgaris_ of Daudin and modern +ornithologists, an inhabitant of northern Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, +occasionally visiting some of the Antilles and of the United States. +Thirty-three species of the genus _Icterus_ alone, and more than seventy +others belonging to upwards of a score of genera, are recognized by +Sclater and Salvin (_Nomenclator_, pp. 35-39) as belonging to the +Neotropical Region, though a few of them emigrate to the northward in +summer. _Cassicus_ and _Ostinops_ may perhaps be named as the most +remarkable. They are nearly all gregarious birds, many of them with loud +and in most cases, where they have been observed, with melodious notes, +rendering them favourites in captivity, for they readily learn to +whistle simple tunes. Some have a plumage wholly black, others are +richly clad, as is the well-known Baltimore oriole, golden robin or +hangnest of the United States, _Icterus baltimore_, whose brightly +contrasted black and orange have conferred upon it the name it most +commonly bears in North America, those colours being, says Catesby +(_Birds of Carolina_, i. 48), the tinctures of the armorial bearings of +the Calverts, Lords Baltimore, the original grantees of Maryland, but +probably more correctly those of their liveries. The most divergent form +of _Icteridae_ seems to be that known in the United States as the +meadow-lark, _Sturnella magna_ or _S. ludoviciana_, a bird which in +aspect and habits has considerable resemblance to the larks of the Old +World, _Alaudidae_, to which, however, it has no near affinity, while +_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_, the bobolink or rice-bird, with its very +bunting-like bill, is not much less aberrant. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The number of names by which this species was known in ancient + times--_Chloris_ or _Chlorion_, _Galbula_ (akin to _Galgulus_), + _Parra_ and _Vireo_--may be explained by its being a common and + conspicuous bird, as well as one which varied in plumage according to + age and sex (see ORIOLE). Owing to its general colour, _Chloris_ was + in time transferred to the Greenfinch (q.v.), while the names + _Galbula_, _Parra_ and _Vireo_ have since been utilized by + ornithologists (see JACAMAR and JACANA). + + + + +ICTINUS, the architect of the Parthenon at Athens, of the Hall of the +Mysteries at Eleusis, and of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, near +Phigalia. He was thus active about 450-430 B.C. We know little else +about him; but the remains of his two great temples testify to his +wonderful mastery of the principles of Greek architecture. + + + + +IDA (d. 559), king of Bernicia, became king in 547, soon after the +foundation of the kingdom of Bernicia by the Angles. He built the +fortress of Bebbanburh, the modern Bamborough, and after his death his +kingdom, which did not extend south of the Tees, passed in turn to six +of his sons. The surname of "Flame-Bearer," sometimes applied to him, +refers, however, not to Ida, but to his son Theodric (d. 587). + + See J. R. Green, _Making of England_, vol. i. (London, 1897). + + + + +IDAHO, a western state of the United States of America, situated between +42° and 49° N. lat. and 111° and 117° W. long. It is bounded N. by +British Columbia and Montana, E. by Montana and Wyoming, S. by Utah and +Nevada, and W. by Oregon and Washington. Its total area is 83,888 sq. +m., of which 83,354 sq. m. are land surface, and of this 41,851.55 sq. +m. were in July 1908 unappropriated and unreserved public lands of the +United States, and 31,775.7 sq. m. were forest reserves, of which +15,153.5 sq. m. were reserved between the 1st of July 1906 and the 1st +of July 1907. + + _Physical Features._--Idaho's elevation above sea-level varies from + 738 ft. (at Lewiston, Nez Perce county) to 12,078 ft. (Hyndman Peak, + on the boundary between Custer and Blaine counties), and its mean + elevation is about 4500 ft. The S.E. corner of the wedge-shaped + surface of the state is a part of the Great Basin region of the United + States. The remainder of the state is divided by a line running S.E. + and N.W., the smaller section, to the N. and E., belonging to the + Rocky Mountain region, and the larger, S. and W. of this imaginary + line, being a part of the Columbia Plateau region. The topography of + the Great Basin region in Idaho is similar to that of the same region + in other states (see NEVADA); in Idaho it forms a very small part of + the state; its mountains are practically a part of the Wasatch Range + of Utah; and the southward drainage of the region (into Great Salt + Lake, by Bear river) also separates it from the other parts of the + state. The Rocky Mountain region of Idaho is bounded by most of the + state's irregular E. boundary--the Bitter Root, the Coeur d'Alene and + the Cabinet ranges being parts of the Rocky Mountain System. The Rocky + Mountain region reaches across the N. part of the state (the + Panhandle), and well into the middle of the state farther S., where + the region is widest and where the Salmon River range is the principal + one. The region is made up in general of high ranges deeply glaciated, + preserving some remnants of ancient glaciers, and having fine "Alpine" + scenery, with many sharp peaks and ridges, U-shaped valleys, cirques, + lakes and waterfalls. In the third physiographic region, the Columbia + plateau, are the Saw Tooth, Boisé, Owyhee and other rugged ranges, + especially on the S. and W. borders of the region. The most prominent + features of this part of the state are the arid Snake river plains and + three mountain-like elevations--Big, Middle and East Buttes--that rise + from their midst. The plains extend from near the S.E. corner of the + state in a curved course to the W. and N.W. for about 350 m. over a + belt 50 to 75 m. wide, and cover about 30,000 sq. m. Where they cross + the W. border at Lewiston is the lowest elevation in the state, 738 + ft. above the sea. Instead of being one plain formed by erosion, this + region is rather a series of plains built up with sheets of lava, + several thousand feet deep, varying considerably in elevation and in + smoothness of surface according to the nature of the lava, and being + greater in area than any other lava beds in North America except those + of the Columbia river, which are of similar formation and, with the + Snake river plains, form the Columbia plateau. Many volcanic cones + mark the surface, but by far the most prominent among them are Big + Butte, which rises precipitously 2350 ft. above the plain (7659 ft. + above the sea) in the E. part of Blaine county, and East Butte, 700 + ft. above the plain, in the N.W. part of Bingham county. Middle Butte + (400 ft. above the plain, also in Bingham county) is an upraised block + of stratified basalt. The Snake river (which receives all the drainage + of Idaho except small amounts taken by the Spokane, the Pend Oreille + and the Kootenai in the N., all emptying directly into the Columbia, + and by some minor streams of the S.E. that empty into Great Salt Lake, + Utah) rises in Yellowstone National Park a few miles from the heads of + the Madison fork of the Missouri, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico, + and the Green fork of the Colorado, which flows to the Gulf of + California. It flows S.W. and then W. for about 800 m. in a tremendous + cañon across southern Idaho; turns N. and runs for 200 m. as the + boundary between Idaho and Oregon (and for a short distance between + Idaho and Washington); turns again at Lewiston (where it ceases to be + the boundary, and where the Clearwater empties into it) to the W. into + a deep narrow valley, and joins the Columbia in S.E. Washington. + Practically all the valley of the Snake from Idaho Falls in S.E. Idaho + (Bingham county) to the mouth is of cañon character, with walls from a + few hundred to 6000 ft. in height (about 650 m. in Idaho). The finest + parts are among the most magnificent in the west; among its falls are + the American (Oneida and Blaine counties), and the Shoshone and the + Salmon (Lincoln county). At the Shoshone Falls the river makes a + sudden plunge of nearly 200 ft., and the Falls have been compared with + the Niagara and Zambezi; a short distance back of the main fall is a + cataract of 125 ft., the Bridal Veil. Between Henry's Fork and Malade + (or Big Wood) river, a distance of 200 m., the river apparently has no + northern tributaries; but several streams, as the Camas, Medicine + Lodge and Birch creeks, and Big and Little Lost rivers, which fail to + penetrate the plain of the Snake after reaching its border, are + believed to join it through subterranean channels. The more important + affluents are the North Fork in the E., the Raft, Salmon Falls and the + Bruneau in the S., the Owyhee and the Payette in the S.W., and the + Salmon and Clearwater in the W. The scenery on some of these + tributaries is almost as beautiful as that of the Snake, though + lacking the grandeur of its greater scale. In 1904 electricity, + generated by water-power from the rivers, notably the Snake, began to + be utilized in mining operations. Scattered among the mountains are + numerous (glacial) lakes. In the N. are: Coeur d'Alene Lake, in + Kootenai county, about 30 m. long and from 2 to 4 m. wide, drained by + the Spokane river; Priest Lake, in Bonner county, 20 m. long and about + 10 m. wide; and mostly in Bonner, but partly in Kootenai county, a + widening of Clark Fork, Lake Pend Oreille, 60 m. long and from 3 to 15 + m. wide, which is spanned by a trestle of the Northern Pacific 8400 + ft. long. Bear Lake, in the extreme S.E., lies partly in Utah. Mineral + springs and hot springs are also a notable feature of Idaho's + physiography, being found in Washington, Ada, Blaine, Bannock, Cassia, + Owyhee, Oneida, Nez Perce, Kootenai, Shoshone and Fremont counties. At + Soda Springs in Bannock county are scores of springs whose waters, + some ice cold and some warm, contain magnesia, soda, iron, sulphur, + &c.; near Hailey, Blaine county, water with a temperature of 144° F. + is discharged from numerous springs; and at Boisé, water with a + temperature of 165° is obtained from wells. + + The fauna and flora of Idaho are similar in general to those of the + other states in the north-western part of the United States. + + _Climate._--The mean annual temperature of Idaho from 1898 to 1903 was + 45.5° F. There are several distinct climate zones within the state. + North of Clearwater river the climate is comparatively mild, the + maximum in 1902 (96° F.) being lower than the highest temperature in + the state and the minimum (-16°) higher than the lowest temperature + registered. The mildest region of the state is the Snake river basin + between Twin Falls and Lewiston, and the valley of the Boisé, Payette + and Weiser rivers; here the mean annual temperature in 1902 was 52° + F., the maximum was 106° F., and the minimum was -13° F. In the Upper + Snake basin, in the Camas prairie and Lost river regions, the climate + is much colder, the highest temperature in 1902 being 101° and the + lowest -35° F. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state in 1903 + was 16.60 in.; the highest amount recorded was at Murray, Shoshone + county (37.70 in.) and the lowest was at Garnet, Elmore county (5.69 + in.). + + _Agriculture._--The principal source of wealth in Idaho was in 1900 + agriculture, but it had long been secondary to mining, and its + development had been impeded by certain natural disadvantages. Except + for the broad valleys of the Panhandle, where the soils are black in + colour and rich in vegetable mould, the surface of the state is arid; + the Snake river valley is a vast lava bed, covered with deposits of + salt and sand, or soils of volcanic origin. And, apart from this, the + farming country was long without transport facilities. The fertile + northern plateaus, the Camas and Nez Perce prairies and the Palouse + country--a wonderful region for growing the _durum_ or macaroni + wheat--until 1898 had no market nearer than Lewiston, 50-70 m. away; + and even in 1898, when the railway was built, large parts of the + region were not tapped by it, and were as much as 30 m. from any + shipping point, for the road had followed the Clearwater. In the arid + southern region, also, there was no railway until 1885, when the + Oregon Short Line was begun. Like limitations in N. and S. had like + effects: for years the country was devoted to live-stock, which could + be driven to a distant market. Timothy was grown in the northern, and + alfalfa in the southern region as a forage crop. Even at this earliest + period, irrigation, simple and individual, had begun in the southern + section, the head waters of the few streams in this district being + soon surrounded by farms. Co-operation and colonization followed, and + more ditching was done, co-operative irrigation canals were + constructed with some elaborate and large dams and head gates. The + Carey Act (1894) and the Federal Reclamation Act (1902) introduced the + most important period of irrigation. Under the Carey Act the Twin + Falls project, deriving water from the Snake river near Twin Falls, + and irrigating more than 200,000 acres, was completed in 1903-1905. + The great projects undertaken with Federal aid were: the Minidoka, in + Lincoln and Cassia counties, of which survey began in March 1903 and + construction in December 1904, and which was completed in 1907, + commanding an irrigable area of 130,000-150,000 acres,[1] and has a + diversion dam (rock-fill type) 600 ft. long, and 130 m. of canals and + 100 m. of laterals; the larger Payette-Boisé project in Ada, Canyon + and Owyhee counties (372,000 acres irrigable; 300,000 now desert; 60% + privately owned), whose principal features are the Payette dam + (rock-fill), 100 ft. high and 400 ft. long, and the Boisé dam + (masonry), 33 ft. high and 400 ft. long, 200 m. of canals, 100 m. of + laterals, a tunnel 1100 ft. long and 12,500 h.p. transmitted 29 m., + 3000 h.p. being necessary to pump to a height of 50-90 ft. water for + the irrigation of 15,000 acres; and the Dubois project, the largest in + the state, on which survey and reconnaissance work were done in + 1903-1904, which requires storage sites on the North Fork of the + Snake and on nearly all the important branches of the North Fork, and + whose field is 200,000--250,000 acres, almost entirely Federal + property, in the W. end of Fremont county between Mud Lake and the + lower end of Big Lost river. A further step in irrigation is the + utilization of underground waters: in the Big Camas Prairie region, + Blaine county, water 10 ft. below the surface is tapped and pumped by + electricity generated from the only surface water of the region, Camas + Creek. In 1899 the value of the crops and other agricultural products + of the irrigated region amounted to more than seven-tenths of the + total for the state. In 1907, according to the _Report_ of the state + commissioner of immigration, 1,559,915 irrigated acres were under + cultivation, and 3,266,386 acres were "covered" by canals 3789 m. long + and costing $11,257,023. + + [Illustration: Map of Idaho and Montana.] + + Up to 1900 the most prosperous period (absolutely) in the agricultural + development of the state was the last decade of the 19th century; the + relative increase, however, was greater between 1880 and 1890. The + number of farms increased from 1885 in 1880 to 6603 in 1890 and to + 17,471 in 1900; the farm acreage from 327,798 in 1880 to 1,302,256 in + 1890 and to 3,204,903 acres in 1900; the irrigated area (exclusive of + farms on Indian reservations) from 217,005 acres in 1889 to 602,568 + acres in 1899; the value of products increased from $1,515,314 in 1879 + to $3,848,930 in 1889, and to $18,051,625 in 1899; the value of farm + land with improvements (including buildings) from $2,832,890 in 1880 + to $17,431,580 in 1890 and $42,318,183 in 1900; the value of + implements and machinery from $363,930 in 1880 to $1,172,460 in 1890 + and to $3,295,045 in 1900; and that of live-stock from $4,023,800 in + 1880 to $7,253,490 in 1890 and to $21,657,974 in 1900. In 1900 the + average size of farms was 183.4 acres. Cultivation by owners is the + prevailing form of tenure, 91.3% of the farms being so operated in + 1900 (2.3% by cash tenants and 6.4% by share tenants). As illustrative + of agricultural conditions the contrast of the products of farms + operated by Indians, Chinese and whites is of considerable interest, + the value of products (not fed to live-stock) per acre of the 563 + Indian farms being in 1899 $1.40, that of the 16,876 white farms + $4.67, and that of the 23 Chinese farms intensively cultivated and + devoted to market vegetables $69.83. + + The income from agriculture in 1899 was almost equally divided between + crops ($8,951,440) and animal products ($8,784,364)--in that year + forest products were valued at $315,821. Of the crops, hay and forage + were the most valuable ($4,238,993), yielding 47.4% of the total value + of crops, an increase of more than 200% over that of 1889, and in + 1907, according to the _Year-book_ of the Department of Agriculture, + the crop was valued at $8,585,000. Wheat, which in 1899 ranked second + ($2,131,953), showed an increase of more than 400% in the decade, and + the farm value of the crop of 1907, according to the _Year-book_ of + the United States Department of Agriculture, was $5,788,000; the value + of the barley crop in 1899 ($312,730) also increased more than 400% + over that of 1889, and in 1907 the farm value of the product, + according to the same authority, was $1,265,000; the value of the oat + crop in 1899 ($702,955) showed an increase of more than 300% in the + decade, and the value of the product in 1907, according to the United + States Department of Agriculture, was $2,397,000. + + More than one-half of the cereal crop in 1905 was produced in the + prairie and plateau region of Nez Perce and Latah counties. The + production of orchard fruits (apples, cherries, peaches, pears, plums + and prunes) increased greatly from 1889 to 1899; the six counties of + Ada, Canyon (probably the leading fruit county of the state), Latah + (famous for apples), Washington, Owyhee and Nez Perce had in 1900 89% + of the plum and prune trees, 85% of all pear trees, 78% of all cherry + trees, and 74% of all apple trees in the state, and in 1906 it was + estimated by the State Commissioner of Immigration that there were + nearly 48,000 acres of land devoted to orchard fruits in Idaho. + Viticulture is of importance, particularly in the Lewiston valley. In + 1906, 234,000 tons of sugar beets were raised, and fields in the Boisé + valley raised 30 tons per acre. + + Of the animal products in 1899, the most valuable was live-stock sold + during the year ($3,909,454); the stock-raising industry was carried + on most extensively in the S.E. part of the state. Wool ranked second + in value ($2,210,790), and according to the estimate of the National + Association of Wool Manufactures for 1907, Idaho ranked fourth among + the wool-producing states in number of sheep (2,500,000), third in + wool, washed and unwashed (17,250,000 lb.), and fourth in scoured wool + (5,692,500 lb.). In January 1908, according to the _Year-book_ of the + Department of Agriculture, the number and farm values of live-stock + were: milch cows, 69,000, valued at $2,208,000, and other neat cattle, + 344,000, valued at $5,848,000; horses, 150,000, $11,250,000; sheep, + 3,575,000, $12,691,000; and swine, 130,000, $910,000. According to + state reports for 1906, most of the neat cattle were then on ranges in + Lemhi, Idaho, Washington, Cassia and Owyhee counties; Nez Perce, + Canyon, Fremont, Idaho, and Washington counties had the largest number + of horses; Owyhee, Blaine and Canyon counties had the largest numbers + of sheep, and Idaho and Nez Perce counties were the principal + swine-raising regions. The pasture lands of the state have been + greatly decreased by the increase of forest reserves, especially by + the large reservations made in 1906-1907. + + _Mining._--The mineral resource of Idaho are second only to the + agricultural; indeed it was primarily the discovery of the immense + value of the deposits of gold and silver about 1860 that led to the + settlement of Idaho Territory. In Idaho, as elsewhere, the first form + of mining was a very lucrative working of placer deposits; this gave + way to vein mining and a greatly reduced production of gold and silver + after 1878, on account of the exhaustion of the placers. Then came an + adjustment to new conditions and a gradual increase of the product. + The total mineral product in 1906, according to the State Mine + Inspector, was valued at $24,138,317. The total gold production of + Idaho from 1860 to 1906 has been estimated at $250,000,000, of which a + large part was produced in the Idaho Basin, the region lying between + the N. fork of the Boisé and the S. fork of the Payette rivers. In + 1901-1902 rich gold deposits were discovered in the Thunder Mountain + district in Idaho county. The counties with the largest production of + gold in 1907 (state report) were Owyhee ($362,742), Boisé ($282,444), + Custer ($210,900) and Idaho; the total for the state was $1,075,618 in + 1905; in 1906 it was $1,149,100; and in 1907, according to state + reports, $1,373,031. The total of the state for silver in 1905 was + $5,242,172; in 1906 it was $6,042,606; in 1907, according to state + reports, it was $5,546,554. The richest deposits of silver are those + of Wood river and of the Coeur d'Alene district in Shoshone county + (opened up in 1886); the county's product in 1906 was valued at + $5,322,706, an increase of $917,743 over the preceding year; in 1907 + it was $4,780,093, according to state reports. The production of the + next richest county, Owyhee, in 1907, was less than one tenth that of + Shoshone county, which yields, besides, about one half of the lead + mined in the United States, its product of lead being valued at + $9,851,076 in 1904, at $14,365,265 in 1906, and at $12,232,233 (state + report) in 1907. Idaho was the first of the states in its output of + lead from 1896, when it first passed Colorado in rank, to 1906, + excepting the year 1899, when Colorado again was first; the value of + the lead mined in 1906 was $14,535,823, and of that mined in 1907 + (state report), $12,470,375. High grade copper ores have been produced + in the Seven Devils and Washington districts of Washington county; + there are deposits, little developed up to 1906, in Lemhi county + (which was almost inaccessible by railway) and in Bannock county; the + copper mined in 1905 was valued at $1,134,846, and in 1907, according + to state reports, at $2,241,177, of which about two-thirds was the + output of the Coeur d'Alene district in Shoshone county. Zinc occurs + in the Coeur d'Alene district, at Hailey, Blaine county and elsewhere; + according to the state reports, the state's output in 1906 was valued + at $91,426 and in 1907 at $534,087. Other minerals of economic value + are sandstone, quarried at Boisé, Ada county, at Preston, Oneida + county, and at Goshen, Prospect and Idaho Falls, Bingham county, + valued at $22,265 in 1905, and at $11,969 in 1906; limestone, valued + at $14,105 in 1905 and at $12,600 in 1906, used entirely for the local + manufacture of lime, part of which was used in the manufacture of + sugar; and coal, in the Horseshoe Bend and Jerusalem districts in + Boisé county, in Lemhi county near Salmon City, and in E. Bingham and + Fremont counties, with an output in 1906 of 5365 tons, valued at + $18,538 as compared with 20 and 10 tons respectively in 1899 and 1900. + Minerals developed slightly, or not at all, are granite, valued at + $1500 in 1905; surface salt, in the arid and semi-arid regions; nickel + and cobalt, in Lemhi county; tungsten, near Murray, Shoshone county; + monazite and zircon, in certain sands; and some pumice. + + _Manufactures._--The manufactures of Idaho in 1900 were relatively + unimportant, the value of all products of establishments under the + "factory system" being $3,001,442; in 1905 the value of such + manufactured products had increased 192.2%, to $8,768,743. The + manufacturing establishments were limited to the supply of local + demands. The principal industries were devoted to lumber and timber + products, valued at $908,670 in 1900, and in 1905 at $2,834,506, + 211.9% more. In 1906 the Weyerhauser Syndicate built at Potlatch, a + town built by the syndicate in Latah county, a lumber mill, supposed + to be the largest in the United States, with a daily capacity of + 750,000 ft. In Bonner county there are great mills at Sand Point and + at Bonner's Ferry. In these and the other 93 saw-mills in the state in + 1905 steam generated by the waste wood was the common power. The raw + material for these products was secured from the 35,000 sq. m. of + timber land in the state (6164 sq. m. having been reserved up to 1905, + and 31,775.7 sq. m. up to April 1907 by the United States government); + four-fifths of the cut in 1900 was yellow pine. Flour and grist mill + products ranked second among the manufactures, being valued at + $1,584,473 in 1905, an increase of nearly 116% over the product in + 1900; and steam-car construction and repairs ranked third, with a + value of $913,670 in 1905 and $523,631 in 1900. In 1903-1904 the + cultivation of sugar beets and the manufacture of beet sugar were + undertaken, and manufacturing establishments for that purpose were + installed at Idaho Falls and Blackfoot (Bingham county), at Sugar, or + Sugar City (Fremont county), a place built up about the sugar + refineries, and at Nampa, Canyon county. In 1906 between 57,000,000 + and 64,000,000 lb. of beet sugar were refined in the state. + Brick-making was of little more than local importance in 1906, the + largest kilns being at Boisé, Sand Point and Coeur d'Alene City. Lime + is made at Orofino, Shoshone county, and at Hope, Bonner county. + + _Communications._--The total railway mileage in January 1909 was + 2,022.04 m., an increase from 206 m. in 1880 and 946 m. in 1890. The + Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Oregon Railway & + Navigation lines cross the N. part of the state; the Oregon Short Line + crosses the S., and the Union Pacific, which owns the Oregon Railway & + Navigation and the Oregon Short Line roads, crosses the eastern part. + The constitution declares that railways are public highways, that the + legislature has authority to regulate rates, and that discrimination + in tolls shall not be allowed. + +_Population._--The population of Idaho in 1870 was 14,999; in 1880 it +was 32,610, an increase of 117.4%; in 1890 it was 88,548, an increase of +158.8%; in 1900 161,772 (82.7% increase); and in 1910 325,594 (101.3% +increase). Of the inhabitants 15.2% were in 1900 foreign-born and 4.5% +were coloured, the coloured population consisting of 293 negroes, 1291 +Japanese, 1467 Chinese and 4226 Indians. The Indians lived principally +in three reservations, the Fort Hall and Lemhi reservations (1350 sq. m. +and 100 sq. m. respectively), in S.E. and E. Idaho, being occupied by +the Shoshone, Bannock and Sheef-eater tribes, and the Coeur d'Alene +reservation (632 sq. m.), in the N.W., by the Coeur d'Alene and Spokane +tribes. The former Nez Perce reservation, in the N.W. part of the state, +was abolished in 1895, and the Nez Perces were put under the supervision +of the superintendent of the Indian School at Fort Lapwai, about 12 m. +E. of Lewiston, in Nez Perce county. Of these tribes, the Nez Perce and +Coeur d'Alene were self-supporting; the other tribes were in 1900 +dependent upon the United States government for 30% of their rations. Of +the 24,604 foreign-born inhabitants of the state, 3943 were from +England, 2974 were from Germany, 2528 were Canadian English, 2822 were +from Sweden, and 1633 were from Ireland, various other countries being +represented by smaller numbers. The urban population of Idaho in 1900 +(i.e. the population of places having 4000 or more inhabitants) was 6.2% +of the whole. There were thirty-three incorporated cities, towns and +villages, but only five had a population exceeding 2000; these were +Boisé (5957), Pocatello (4046), Lewiston (2425), Moscow (2484) and +Wallace (2265). In 1906 it was estimated that the total membership of +all religious denominations was 74,578, and that there were 32,425 +Latter-Day Saints or Mormons (266 of the Reorganized Church), 18,057 +Roman Catholics, 5884 Methodist Episcopalians (5313 of the Northern +Church), 3770 Presbyterians (3698 of the Northern Church), 3206 +Disciples of Christ, and 2374 Baptists (2331 of the Northern +Convention). + +_Government._--The present constitution of Idaho was adopted in 1889. +The government is similar in outline to that of the other states of the +United States. The executive officials serve for a term of two years. +Besides being citizens of the United States and residents of the state +for two years preceding their election the governor, lieutenant-governor +and attorney-general must each be at least thirty years of age, and the +secretary of state, state auditor, treasurer and superintendent of +education must be at least twenty-five years old. The governor's veto +may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature; the governor, +secretary of state, and the attorney-general constitute a Board of +Pardons and a Board of State Prison Commissioners. The legislature meets +biennially; its members, who must be citizens of the United States and +electors of the state for one year preceding their election, are chosen +biennially; the number of senators may never exceed twenty-four, that of +representatives sixty; each county is entitled to at least one +representative. The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three +judges, elected every six years, and circuit and probate courts, the +five district judges being elected every four years. Suffrage +requirements are citizenship in the United States, registration and +residence in the state for six months and in the county for thirty days +immediately before election, but mental deficiency, conviction of +infamous crimes (without restoration to rights of citizenship), bribery +or attempt at bribery, bigamy, living in "what is known as patriarchal, +plural or celestial marriage," or teaching its validity or belonging to +any organization which teaches polygamy,[2] are disqualifications. +Chinese or persons of Mongolian descent not born in the United States +are also excluded from suffrage rights. Women, however, since 1897, have +had the right to vote and to hold office, and they are subject to jury +service. An Australian ballot law was passed in 1891. The constitution +forbids the chartering of corporations except according to general laws. +In 1909 a direct primary elections law was passed which required a +majority of all votes to nominate, and, to make a majority possible, +provided for preferential (or second-choice) voting, such votes to be +canvassed and added to the first-choice vote for each candidate if there +be no majority by the first-choice vote. The right of eminent domain +over all corporations is reserved to the state; and no corporation may +issue stock except for labour, service rendered, or money paid in. The +waters of the state are, by the constitution of the state, devoted to +the public use, contrary to the common law theory of riparian rights. By +statute (1891) it has been provided that in civil actions three-fourths +of a jury may render a verdict, and in misdemeanour cases five-sixths +may give a verdict. Life insurance agents not residents of Idaho cannot +write policies in the state. Divorces may be obtained after residence of +six months on the ground of adultery, cruelty, desertion or neglect for +one year, habitual drunkenness for the same period, felony or insanity. +There are a state penitentiary at Boisé, an Industrial Training School +at St Anthony, an Insane Asylum at Blackfoot, and a North Idaho Insane +Asylum at Orofino. The care of all defectives was let by contract to +other states until 1906, when a state school for the deaf and blind was +opened in Boisé. No bureau of charities is in existence, but there is a +Labor Commission, and a Commissioner of Immigration and a Commissioner +of Public Lands to investigate the industrial resources. The offices of +State Engineer and Inspector of Mines have been created. + + _Education._--The public schools in 1905-1906 had an enrolment of + 62,726, or 81.5% of the population between 5 and 21 years of age. The + average length of school term was 6-8 months, the average expenditure + (year ending Aug. 31, 1906) for instruction for each child was $19.29, + and the expenditure for all school purposes was $1,008,481. There was + a compulsory attendance law, which, however, was not enforced. Higher + education is provided by the University of Idaho, established in 1899 + at Moscow, Latah county, which confers degrees in arts, science, music + and engineering, and offers free tuition. In 1907-1908 the institution + had 41 instructors and 426 regular and 58 special students. In 1901 + the Academy of Idaho, another state institution with industrial and + technical courses and a preparatory department, was established at + Pocatello, Bannock county, to be a connecting link between the public + schools and the university. There are two state normal schools, one at + Lewiston and the other at Albion. The only private institution of + college rank in 1908 was the College of Caldwell (Presbyterian, opened + 1891) at Caldwell, Canyon county, with 65 students in 1906-1907. There + are Catholic academies at Boisé and Coeur d'Alene and a convent, Our + Lady of Lourdes, at Wallace, Shoshone county, opened in 1905; Mormon + schools at Paris (Bear Lake county), Preston (Oneida county), Rexburg + (Fremont county), and Oakley (Cassia county); a Methodist Episcopal + school (1906) at Weiser (Washington county); and a Protestant + Episcopal school at Boisé (1892). The Idaho Industrial Institute + (non-denominational; incorporated in 1899) is at Weiser. + + _Finance._--The finances of Idaho are in excellent condition. The + bonded debt on the 30th of September 1908 was $1,364,000. The revenue + system is based on the general property tax and there is a State Board + of Equalization. Each year $100,000 is set aside for the sinking fund + for the payment of outstanding bonds as fast as they become due. The + constitution provides that the rate of taxation shall never exceed 10 + mills for each dollar of assessed valuation, that when the taxable + property amounts to $50,000,000 the rate shall not exceed 5 mills, + when it reaches $100,000,000, 3 mills shall be the limit, and when it + reaches $300,000,000 the rate shall not exceed 1½ mills; but a greater + rate may be established by a vote of the people. No public debt + (exclusive of the debt of the Territory of Idaho at the date of its + admission to the Union as a state) may be created that exceeds 1½% of + the assessed valuation (except in case of war, &c.); the state cannot + lend its credit to any corporation, municipality or individual; nor + can any county, city or town lend its credit or become a stockholder + in any company (except for municipal works). + +_History._--The first recorded exploration of Idaho by white men was +made by Lewis and Clark, who passed along the Snake river to its +junction with the Columbia; in 1805 the site of Fort Lemhi in Lemhi +county was a rendezvous for two divisions of the Lewis and Clark +expedition; later, the united divisions reached a village of the Nez +Perce Indians near the south fork of the Clearwater river, where they +found traces of visits by other white men. In 1810 Fort Henry, on the +Snake river, was established by the Missouri Fur Company, and in the +following year a party under the auspices of the Pacific Fur Company +descended the Snake river to the Columbia. In 1834 Fort Hall in E. Idaho +(Bingham county) was founded. It acquired prominence as the +meeting-point of a number of trails to the extreme western parts of +North America. Missions to the Indians were also established, both by +the Catholics and by the Protestants. But the permanent settlements date +from the revelation of Idaho's mineral resources in 1860, when the Coeur +d'Alene, Palouses and Nez Perces were in the North, and the Blackfoots, +Bannocks and Shoshones in the South. While trading with these Indians, +Capt. Pierce learned in the summer of 1860 that there was gold in Idaho. +He found it on Orofino Creek, and a great influx followed--coming to +Orofino, Newsome, Elk City, Florence, where the ore was especially rich, +and Warren. The news of the discovery of the Boisé Basin spread far and +wide, and Idaho City, Placerville, Buena Vista, Centreville and +Pioneerville grew up. The territory now constituting Idaho was comprised +in the Territory of Oregon from 1848 to 1853; from 1853 to 1859 the +southern portion of the present state was a part of Oregon, the northern +a part of Washington Territory; from 1859 to 1863 the territory was +within the bounds of Washington Territory. In 1863 the Territory of +Idaho was organized; it included Montana until 1864, and a part of +Wyoming until 1868, when the area of the Territory of Idaho was +practically the same as that of the present state. Idaho was admitted +into the Union as a state in 1890. There have been a few serious Indian +outbreaks in Idaho. In 1856 the Coeur d'Alenes, Palouses and Spokanes +went on the war-path; in April 1857 they put to flight a small force +under Col. Edward Tenner Steptoe; but the punitive expedition led by +Col. George Wright (1803-1865) was a success. In 1877 the Nez Perces, +led by Chief Joseph, refused to go on the reservation set apart for +them, defeated a small body of regulars, were pursued by Major-General +O. O. Howard, reinforced by frontier volunteers, and in September and +October were defeated and retreated into Northern Montana, where they +were captured by Major-General Nelson A. Miles. Occasional labour +troubles have been very severe in the Coeur d'Alene region, where the +attempt in 1892 of the Mine Owners' Association to discriminate in wages +between miners and surfacemen brought on a union strike. Rioting +followed the introduction of non-union men, the Frisco Mill was blown +up, and many non-union miners were killed. The militia was called out +and regular troops were hurried to Shoshone county from Fort Sherman, +Idaho and Fort Missoula, Montana. These soon quieted the district. But +the restlessness of the region caused more trouble in 1899. The famous +Bunker Hill and Sullivan mines were wrecked, late in April, by union +men. Federal troops, called for by Governor Frank Steunenberg, again +took charge, and about 800 suspected men in the district were arrested +and shut up in a stockade known as the "bull-pen." Ten prisoners, +convicted of destroying the property of the mine-owners, were sentenced +to twenty-two months in jail. The feeling among the union men was bitter +against Steunenberg, who was assassinated on the 30th of December 1905. +The trial in 1907 of Charles H. Haywood, secretary of the Western +Federation of Miners, who was charged with conspiracy in connexion with +the murder, attracted national attention; it resulted in Haywood's +acquittal. Before 1897 the administration of the state was controlled by +the Republican party; but in 1896 Democrats, Populists and those +Republicans who believed in free coinage of silver united, and until +1902 elected a majority of all candidates for state offices. In 1902, +1904, 1906 and 1908 a Republican state ticket was elected. + +GOVERNORS + + _Territorial._ + + William H. Wallace 1863 + W. B. Daniels, Secretary, Acting Governor 1863-1864 + Caleb Lyon 1864-1865 + C. de Witt Smith, Secretary, Acting Governor 1865 + Horace C. Gilson " " 1865-1866 + S. R. Howlett " " 1866 + David W. Ballard 1866-1870 + E. J. Curtis, Acting Governor 1870 + Thomas W. Bennett 1871-1875 + D. P. Thompson 1875-1876 + Mason Brayman 1876-1880 + John B. Neil 1880-1883 + John N. Irwin 1883-1884 + William M. Bunn 1884-1885 + Edward A. Stevenson 1885-1889 + George L. Shoup 1889-1890 + + STATE GOVERNORS + + George L. Shoup,[3] Republican 1890 + Norman B. Wiley, Acting Governor 1890-1892 + William J. McConnell, Republican 1893-1897 + Frank Steunenberg, Democrat Populist 1897-1901 + Frank W. Hunt, " " 1901-1903 + John T. Morrison, Republican 1903-1905 + Frank R. Gooding, " 1905-1909 + James H. Brady, " 1909- + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The physical features and economic resources of Idaho + are discussed in J. L. Onderdonk's _Idaho: Facts and Statistics_ (San + Francisco, 1885), Israel C. Russell's "Geology and Water Resources of + the Snake River Plains of Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin + 199_ (Washington, 1902), _The State of Idaho_ (a pamphlet issued by + the State Commissioner of Immigration), Waldmor Lindgren's "Gold and + Silver Veins of Silver City, De Lamar and other Mining Districts of + Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, 20th Annual Report_ (Washington, + 1900), and "The Mining Districts of the Idaho Basin and the Boisé + Ridge, Idaho," _U.S. Geological Survey, 18th Annual Report_ + (Washington, 1898). These reports should be supplemented by the + information contained elsewhere in the publications of the Geological + Survey (see the Indexes of the survey) and in various volumes of the + United States Census. W. B. Hepburn's _Idaho Laws and Decisions, + Annotated and Digested_ (Boisé, 1900), and H. H. Bancroft's + _Washington, Idaho, and Montana_ (San Francisco, 1890) are the + principal authorities for administration and history. The reports of + the state's various executive officers should be consulted also. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Of these 80,000 acres are reached directly--72,000 N., and 8000 + S. of the Snake river; and from 50,000 to 70,000 acres more are above + the level of the canals and will have water pumped to them by the + 11,000-30,000 h.p. developed. + + [2] This disqualification and much other legislation were due to the + large Mormon population in Idaho. In 1884-1885 all county and + precinct officers were required to take a test oath abjuring bigamy, + polygamy, or celestial marriage; and under this law in 1888 three + members of the territorial legislature were deprived of their seats + as ineligible. An act of 1889, when the Mormons constituted over 20% + of the population, forbade in the case of any who had since the 1st + of January 1888 practised, taught, aided or encouraged polygamy or + bigamy, their registration or voting until two years after they had + taken a test oath renouncing such practices, and until they had + satisfied the District Court that in the two years preceding they had + been guilty of no such practices. The Constitutional Convention which + met at Boisé in July-August 1889 was strongly anti-Mormon, and the + Constitution it framed was approved by a popular vote of 12,398 out + of 14,184. The United States Supreme Court decided the anti-Mormon + legislation case of Davis v. Beason in favour of the Idaho + legislature. In 1893 the disqualification was made no longer + retroactive, the two-year clause was omitted, and the test oath + covered only present renunciation of polygamy. + + [3] Governor Shoup resigned in December to take his seat in the U.S. + Senate. + + + + +IDAR, or EDAR, a native state of India, forming part of the Mahi Kantha +agency, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 1669 +sq. m., and a population (1901) of 168,557, showing a decrease of 44% in +the decade as the result of famine. Estimated gross revenue, £29,000; +tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2000. In 1901 the raja and his +posthumous son both died, and the succession devolved upon Sir Pertab +Singh (q.v.) of Jodhpur. The line of railway from Ahmedabad through +Parantij runs mainly through this state. Much of the territory is held +by kinsmen of the raja on feudal tenure. The products are grain, +oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The town of Idar is 64 m. N.E. of Ahmedabad. +Pop. (1901) 7085. It was formerly the capital, but Ahmednagar (pop. +3200) is the present capital. + + + + +IDAS, in Greek legend, son of Aphareus of the royal house of Messene, +brother of Lynceus. He is only mentioned in a single passage in Homer +(_Iliad_, ix. 556 sqq.), where he is called the strongest of men on +earth. He carried off Marpessa, daughter of Evenus, as his wife and +dared to bend his bow against Apollo, who was also her suitor. Zeus +intervened, and left the choice to Marpessa, who declared in favour of +Idas, fearing that the god might desert her when she grew old +(Apollodorus i. 7). The Apharetidae are best known for their fight with +the Dioscuri. A quarrel had arisen about the division of a herd of +cattle which the four had stolen. Idas claimed the whole of the booty as +the victor in a contest of eating, and drove the cattle off to Messene. +The Dioscuri overtook him and lay in wait in a hollow oak. But Lynceus, +whose keenness of sight was proverbial, saw Castor through the trunk and +warned his brother, who thereupon slew the mortal Castor; finally, +Pollux slew Lynceus, and Idas was struck by lightning (Apollodorus iii. +11; Pindar, _Nem._, x. 60; Pausanias iv. 3. 1). According to others, the +Dioscuri had carried off the daughters of Leucippus, who had been +betrothed to the Apharetidae (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 699; Theocritus xxii. +137). The scene of the combat is placed near the grave of Aphareus at +Messene, at Aphidna in Attica, or in Laconia; and there are other +variations of detail in the accounts (see also Hyginus, _Fab._ 80). Idas +and Lynceus were originally gods of light, probably the sun and moon, +the herd of cattle (for the possession of which they strove with the +Dioscuri) representing the heavenly bodies. The annihilation of the +Apharetidae in the legend indicates the subordinate position held by the +Messenians after the loss of their independence and subjugation by +Sparta, the Dioscuri being distinctly Spartan, as the Apharetidae were +Messenian heroes. The grave of Idas and Lynceus was shown at Sparta, +according to Pausanias (iii. 13. 1), whose own opinion, however, is that +they were buried in Messenia. On the chest of Cypselus, Marpessa is +represented as following Idas from the temple of Apollo (by whom, +according to some, she had been carried off), and there was a painting +by Polygnotus of the rape of the Leucippidae in the temple of the +Dioscuri at Athens. + + In the article GREEK ART, fig. 66 (Pl. iv.) represents Idas and the + Dioscuri driving off cattle. + + + + +IDDESLEIGH, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, 1ST EARL OF (1818-1887), British +statesman, was born in London, on the 27th of October 1818. His +ancestors had long been settled in Devonshire, their pedigree, according +to Burke, being traceable to the beginning of the 12th century. After a +successful career at Balliol College, Oxford, he became in 1843 private +secretary to Mr Gladstone at the board of trade. He was afterwards legal +secretary to the board; and after acting as one of the secretaries to +the Great Exhibition of 1851, co-operated with Sir Charles Trevelyan in +framing the report which revolutionized the conditions of appointment to +the Civil Service. He succeeded his grandfather, Sir Stafford Henry +Northcote, as 8th baronet in 1851. He entered Parliament in 1855 as +Conservative M.P. for Dudley, and was elected for Stamford in 1858, a +seat which he exchanged in 1866 for North Devon. Steadily supporting his +party, he became president of the board of trade in 1866, secretary of +state for India in 1867, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1874. In the +interval between these last two appointments he had been one of the +commissioners for the settlement of the "Alabama" difficulty with the +United States, and on Mr Disraeli's elevation to the House of Lords in +1876 he became leader of the Conservative party in the Commons. As a +finance minister he was largely dominated by the lines of policy laid +down by Mr Gladstone; but he distinguished himself by his dealings with +the Debt, especially his introduction of the New Sinking Fund (1876), by +which he fixed the annual charge for the Debt in such a way as to +provide for a regular series of payments off the capital. His temper as +leader was, however, too gentle to satisfy the more ardent spirits among +his own followers, and party cabals (in which Lord Randolph +Churchill--who had made a dead set at the "old gang," and especially Sir +Stafford Northcote--took a leading part) led to Sir Stafford's transfer +to the Lords in 1885, when Lord Salisbury became prime minister. Taking +the titles of earl of Iddesleigh and Viscount St Cyres, he was included +in the cabinet as first lord of the treasury. In Lord Salisbury's 1886 +ministry he became secretary of state for foreign affairs, but the +arrangement was not a comfortable one, and his resignation had just been +decided upon when on the 12th of January 1887 he died very suddenly at +Lord Salisbury's official residence in Downing Street. Lord Iddesleigh +was elected lord rector of Edinburgh University in 1883, in which +capacity he addressed the students on the subject of "Desultory +Reading." He had little leisure for letters, but amongst his works were +_Twenty Years of Financial Policy_ (1862), a valuable study of +Gladstonian finance, and _Lectures and Essays_ (1887). His _Life_ by +Andrew Lang appeared in 1890. Lord Iddesleigh married in 1843 Cecilia +Frances Farrer (d. 1910) (sister of Thomas, 1st Lord Farrer), by whom he +had seven sons and three daughters. + +He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son, WALTER STAFFORD +NORTHCOTE (1845- ), who for some years was his father's private +secretary. He was chairman of the Inland Revenue Board from 1877 to +1892; and is also known as a novelist. His eldest son STAFFORD HENRY +NORTHCOTE, Viscount St Cyres (1869- ), was educated at Eton and Merton +College Oxford. After taking a 1st class in History, he was elected a +senior student of Christ Church, where he resided for a while as tutor +and lecturer. His interest in the development of religious thought led +him to devote himself specially to the history of the Roman Catholic +Church in the 17th century, the first-fruits of which was his _François +de Fénelon_ (London, 1901); eight years later he published his _Pascal_ +(ib. 1909). + +The second son of the 1st earl of Iddesleigh, STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, +1st Baron Northcote (b. 1846), was educated at Eton and at Merton +College, Oxford. He became a clerk in the foreign office in 1868, acted +as private secretary to Lord Salisbury, and was attached to the embassy +at Constantinople from 1876 to 1877. From 1877 to 1880 he was secretary +to the chancellor of the exchequer, was financial secretary to the war +office from 1885 to 1886, surveyor-general of ordnance, 1886 to 1887, +and charity commissioner, 1891 to 1892. In 1887 he was created a +baronet. In 1880 he was elected M.P. for Exeter as a Conservative, and +retained the seat until 1899, when he was appointed governor of Bombay +(1899-1903), being created a peer in 1900. Lord Northcote was appointed +governor-general of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1903, and held this +post till 1908. He married in 1873 Alice, adopted daughter of the 1st +Lord Mount Stephen. + + + + +IDEA (Gr. [Greek: idea], connected with [Greek: idein], to see; cf. Lat. +_species_ from _specere_, to look at), a term used both popularly and in +philosophical terminology with the general sense of "mental picture." To +have no _idea_ how a thing happened is to be without a mental picture of +an occurrence. In this general sense it is synonymous with concept +(q.v.) in its popular usage. In philosophy the term "idea" is common to +all languages and periods, but there is scarcely any term which has been +used with so many different shades of meaning. Plato used it in the +sphere of metaphysics for the eternally existing reality, the archetype, +of which the objects of sense are more or less imperfect copies. Chairs +may be of different forms, sizes, colours and so forth, but "laid up in +the mind of God" there is the one permanent _idea_ or type, of which the +many physical chairs are derived with various degrees of imperfection. +From this doctrine it follows that these _ideas_ are the sole reality +(see further IDEALISM); in opposition to it are the empirical thinkers +of all time who find reality in particular physical objects (see +HYLOZOISM, EMPIRICISM, &c.). In striking contrast to Plato's use is that +of John Locke, who defines "idea" as "whatever is the object of +understanding when a man thinks" (_Essay on the Human Understanding_ +(I.), vi. 8). Here the term is applied not to the mental process, but to +anything whether physical or intellectual which is the object of it. +Hume differs from Locke by limiting "idea" to the more or less vague +mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process being +described as an "impression." Wundt widens the term to include +"conscious representation of some object or process of the external +world." In so doing he includes not only ideas of memory and +imagination, but also perceptual processes, whereas other psychologists +confine the term to the first two groups. G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin, +in the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_, i. 498, define "idea" +as "the reproduction with a more or less adequate image, of an object +not actually present to the senses." They point out that an idea and a +perception are by various authorities contrasted in various ways. +"Difference in degree of intensity," "comparative absence of bodily +movement on the part of the subject," "comparative dependence on mental +activity," are suggested by psychologists as characteristic of an idea +as compared with a perception. + +It should be observed that an idea, in the narrower and generally +accepted sense of a mental reproduction, is frequently composite. That +is, as in the example given above of the idea of chair, a great many +objects, differing materially in detail, all call a single idea. When a +man, for example, has obtained an idea of chairs in general by +comparison with which he can say "This is a chair, that is a stool," he +has what is known as an "abstract idea" distinct from the reproduction +in his mind of any particular chair (see ABSTRACTION). Furthermore a +complex idea may not have any corresponding physical object, though its +particular constituent elements may severally be the reproductions of +actual perceptions. Thus the idea of a centaur is a complex mental +picture composed of the ideas of man and horse, that of a mermaid of a +woman and a fish. + + See PSYCHOLOGY. + + + + +IDEALISM (from Gr. [Greek: idea], archetype or model, through Fr. +_idéalisme_), a term generally used for the attitude of mind which is +prone to represent things in an imaginative light and to lay emphasis +exclusively or primarily on abstract perfection (i.e. in "ideals"). With +this meaning the philosophical use of the term has little in common. + +To understand the philosophical theory that has come to be known under +this title, we may ask (1) what in general it is and how it is +differentiated from other theories of knowledge and reality, (2) how it +has risen in the history of philosophy, (3) what position it occupies at +present in the world of speculation. + +1. _General Definition of Idealism._--Idealism as a philosophical +doctrine conceives of knowledge or experience as a process in which the +two factors of subject and object stand in a relation of entire +interdependence on each other as warp and woof. Apart from the activity +of the self or subject in sensory reaction, memory and association, +imagination, judgment and inference, there can be no world of objects. A +thing-in-itself which is not a thing to some consciousness is an +entirely unrealizable, because self-contradictory, conception. But this +is only one side of the truth. It is equally true that a subject apart +from an object is unintelligible. As the object exists through the +constructive activity of the subject, so the subject lives in the +construction of the object. To seek for the true self in any region into +which its opposite in the form of a not-self does not enter is to grasp +a shadow. It is in seeking to realize its own ideas in the world of +knowledge, feeling and action that the mind comes into possession of +itself; it is in becoming permeated and transformed by the mind's ideas +that the world develops the fullness of its reality as object. + +Thus defined, idealism is opposed to ordinary common-sense dualism, +which regards knowledge or experience as the result of the more or less +accidental relation between two separate and independent entities--the +mind and its ideas on one side, the thing with its attributes on the +other--that serve to limit and condition each other from without. It is +equally opposed to the doctrine which represents the subject itself and +its state and judgments as the single immediate datum of consciousness, +and all else, whether the objects of an external world or person other +than the individual subject whose states are known to itself, as having +a merely problematic existence resting upon analogy or other process of +indirect inference. This theory is sometimes known as idealism. But it +falls short of idealism as above defined in that it recognizes only one +side of the antithesis of subject and object, and so falls short of the +doctrine which takes its stand on the complete correlativity of the two +factors in experience. It is for this reason that it is sometimes known +as subjective or incomplete idealism. Finally the theory defined is +opposed to all forms of realism, whether in the older form which sought +to reduce mind to a function of matter, or in any of the newer forms +which seek for the ultimate essence of both mind and matter in some +unknown force or energy which, while in itself it is neither, yet +contains the potentiality of both. It is true that in some modern +developments of idealism the ultimate reality is conceived of in an +impersonal way, but it is usually added that this ultimate or absolute +being is not something lower but higher than self-conscious personality, +including it as a more fully developed form may be said to include a +more elementary. + +2. _Origin and Development of Idealism._--In its self-conscious form +idealism is a modern doctrine. In it the self or subject may be said to +have come to its rights. This was possible in any complete sense only +after the introspective movement represented by the middle ages had done +its work, and the thought of the individual mind and will as possessed +of relative independence had worked itself out into some degree of +clearness. In this respect Descartes' dictum--_cogito ergo sum_--may be +said to have struck the keynote of modern philosophy, and all subsequent +speculation to have been merely a prolonged commentary upon it. While in +its completer form it is thus a doctrine distinctive of modern times, +idealism has its roots far back in the history of thought. One of the +chief proofs that has been urged of the truth of its point of view is +the persistency with which it has always asserted itself at a certain +stage in philosophical reflection and as the solution of certain +recurrent speculative difficulties. All thought starts from the ordinary +dualism or pluralism which conceives of the world as consisting of the +juxtaposition of mutually independent things and persons. The first +movement is in the direction of dispelling this appearance of +independence. They are seen to be united under the relation of cause and +effect, determining and determined, which turns out to mean that they +are merely passing manifestations of some single entity or energy which +constitutes the real unknown essence of the things that come before our +knowledge. In the pantheism that thus takes the place of the old dualism +there seems no place left for the individual. Mind and will in their +individual manifestations fade into the general background of appearance +without significance except as a link in a fated chain. Deliverance from +the pantheistic conception of the universe comes through the recognition +of the central place occupied by thought and purpose in the actual +world, and, as a consequence of this, of the illegitimacy of the +abstraction whereby material energy is taken for the ultimate reality. + + + Ancient idealism: Socrates. + + Plato + +The first illustration of this movement on a large scale was given in +the Socratic reaction against the pantheistic conclusions of early Greek +philosophy (see IONIAN SCHOOL). The whole movement of which Socrates was +a part may be said to have been in the direction of the assertion of the +rights of the subject. Its keynote is to be found in the Protagorean +"man is the measure." This seems to have been interpreted by its author +and by the Sophists in general in a subjective sense, with the result +that it became the motto of a sceptical and individualistic movement in +contemporary philosophy and ethics. It was not less against this form of +idealism than against the determinism of the early physicists that +Socrates protested. Along two lines the thought of Socrates led to +idealistic conclusions which may be said to have formed the basis of all +subsequent advance. (1) He perceived the importance of the universal or +conceptual element in knowledge, and thus at a single stroke broke +through the hard realism of ordinary common sense, disproved all forms +of naturalism that were founded on the denial of the reality of thought, +and cut away the ground from a merely sensational and subjective +idealism. This is what Aristotle means by claiming for Socrates that he +was the founder of definition. (2) He taught that life was explicable +only as a system of ends. Goodness consists in the knowledge of what +these are. It is by his hold upon them that the individual is able to +give unity and reality to his will. In expounding these ideas Socrates +limited himself to the sphere of practice. Moreover, the end or ideal of +the practical life was conceived of in too vague a way to be of much +practical use. His principle, however, was essentially sound, and led +directly to the Platonic Idealism. Plato extended the Socratic +discovery to the whole of reality and while seeking to see the +pre-Socratics with the eyes of Socrates sought "to see Socrates with the +eyes of the pre-Socratics." Not only were the virtues to be explained by +their relation to a common or universal good which only intelligence +could apprehend, but there was nothing in all the furniture of heaven or +earth which in like manner did not receive reality from the share it had +in such an intelligible idea or essence. But these ideas are themselves +intelligible only in relation to one another and to the whole. +Accordingly Plato conceived of them as forming a system and finding +their reality in the degree in which they embody the one all-embracing +idea and conceived of not under the form of an efficient but of a final +cause, an inner principle of action or tendency in things to realize the +fullness of their own nature which in the last resort was identical with +the nature of the whole. This Plato expressed in the myth of the Sun, +but the garment of mythology in which Plato clothed his idealism, +beautiful as it is in itself and full of suggestion, covered an +essential weakness. The more Plato dwelt upon his world of ideas, the +more they seemed to recede from the world of reality, standing over +against it as principles of condemnation instead of revealing themselves +in it. In this way the Good was made to appear as an end imposed upon +things from without by a creative intelligence instead of as an inner +principle of adaptation. + + + Aristotle. + +On one side of his thought Aristotle represents a reaction against +idealism and a return to the position of common-sense dualism, but on +another, and this the deeper side, he represents the attempt to restore +the theory in a more satisfactory form. His account of the process of +knowledge in his logical treatises exhibits the idealistic bent in its +clearest form. This is as far removed as possible either from dualism or +from empiricism. The universal is the real; it is that which gives +coherence and individuality to the particulars of sense which apart from +it are like the routed or disbanded units of an army. Still more +manifestly in his _Ethics_ and _Politics Aristotle_ makes it clear that +it is the common or universal will that gives substance and reality to +the individual. In spite of these and other anticipations of a fuller +idealism, the idea remains as a form imposed from without on a reality +otherwise conceived of as independent of it. As we advance from the +logic to the metaphysics and from that to his ontology, it becomes clear +that the concepts are only "categories" or predicates of a reality lying +outside of them, and there is an ultimate division between the world as +the object or matter of thought and the thinking or moving principle +which gives its life. It is this that gives the Aristotelian doctrine in +its more abstract statements an air of uncertainty. Yet besides the +particular contribution that Aristotle made to idealistic philosophy in +his logical and ethical interpretations, he advanced the case in two +directions, (a) He made it clear that no explanation of the world could +be satisfactory that was not based on the notion of continuity in the +sense of an order of existence in which the reality of the lower was to +be sought for in the extent to which it gave expression to the +potentialities of its own nature--which were also the potentialities of +the whole of which it was a part. (b) From this it followed that +difficult as we might find it to explain the relation of terms so remote +from each other as sense and thought, the particular and the universal, +matter and mind, these oppositions cannot in their nature be absolute. +These truths, however, were hidden from Aristotle's successors, who for +the most part lost the thread which Socrates had put into their hand. +When the authority of Aristotle was again invoked, it was its dualistic +and formal, not its idealistic and metaphysical, side that was in +harmony with the spirit of the age. Apart from one or two of the +greatest minds, notably Dante, what appealed to the thinkers of the +middle ages was not the idea of reality as a progressive self-revelation +of an inner principle working through nature and human life, but the +formal principles of classification which it seemed to offer for a +material of thought and action given from another source. + + + Modern Idealism. + +Modern like ancient idealism came into being as a correction of the +view that threatened to resolve the world of matter and mind alike into +the changing manifestations of some single non-spiritual force or +substance. While, however, ancient philosophy may be said to have been +unilinear, modern philosophy had a twofold origin, and till the time of +Kant may be said to have pursued two independent courses. + +All philosophy is the search for reality and rational certainty as +opposed to mere formalism on the one hand, to authority and dogmatism on +the other. In this sense modern philosophy had a common root in revolt +against medievalism. In England this revolt sought for the certainty and +clearness that reason requires In the assurance of an outer world given +to immediate sense experience; on the continent of Europe, in the +assurance of an inner world given immediately in thought. Though +starting from apparently opposite poles and following widely different +courses the two movements led more or less directly to the same results. +It is easy to understand how English empiricism issued at once in the +trenchant naturalism of Hobbes. It is less comprehensible how the +Cartesian philosophy from the starting-point of thought allied itself +with a similar point of view. This can be understood only by a study of +the details of Descartes' philosophy (see CARTESIANISM). Suffice it to +say that in spite of its spiritualistic starting-point its general +result was to give a stimulus to the prevailing scientific tendency as +represented by Galileo, Kepler and Harvey to the principle of mechanical +explanations of the phenomena of the universe. True it was precisely +against this that Descartes' immediate successors struggled. But the +time-spirit was too strong for them. Determinism had other forms besides +that of a crude materialism, and the direction that Malebranche +succeeded in giving to speculation led only to the more complete denial +of freedom and individuality in the all-devouring pantheism of Spinoza. + + + Berkeley. + +The foundations of idealism in the modern sense were laid by the +thinkers who sought breathing room for mind and will in a deeper +analysis of the relations of the subject to the world that it knows. +From the outset English philosophy had a leaning to the psychological +point of view, and Locke was only carrying on the tradition of his +predecessors and particularly of Hobbes in definitely accepting it as +the basis of his _Essay_. It was, however, Berkeley who first sought to +utilize the conclusions that were implicit in Locke's starting-point to +disprove "the systems of impious and profane persons which exclude all +freedom, intelligence, and design from the formation of things, and +instead thereof make a self-existent, stupid, unthinking substance the +root and origin of all beings." Berkeley's statement of the view that +all knowledge is relative to the subject--that no object can be known +except under the form which our powers of sense-perception, our memory +and imagination, our notions and inference, give it--is still the most +striking and convincing that we possess. To have established this +position was a great step in speculation. Henceforth ordinary dogmatic +dualism was excluded from philosophy; any attempt to revive it, whether +with Dr Johnson by an appeal to common prejudice, or, in the more +reflective Johnsonianism of the 18th-century Scottish philosophers, must +be an anachronism. Equally impossible was it thenceforth to assert the +mediate or immediate certainty of material substance as the cause either +of events in nature or of sensations in ourselves. But with these +advances came the danger of falling into error from which common-sense +dualism and naturalistic monism were free. From the point of view which +Berkeley had inherited from Locke it seemed to follow that not only +material substance, but the whole conception of a world of objects, is +at most an inference from subjective modifications which are the only +immediately certain objects of knowledge. The implications of such a +view were first clearly apparent when Hume showed that on the basis of +it there seemed to be nothing that we could confidently affirm except +the order of our own impressions and ideas. This being so, not only were +physics and mathematics impossible as sciences of necessary objective +truth, but our apparent consciousness of a permanent self and object +alike must be delusive. + + + Kant. + +It was these paradoxes that Kant sought to rebut by a more thoroughgoing +criticism of the basis of knowledge the substance of which is summed up +in his celebrated Refutation of Idealism,[1] wherein he sought to +undermine Hume's scepticism by carrying it one step further and +demonstrating that not only is all knowledge of self or object excluded, +but the consciousness of any series of impressions and ideas is itself +impossible except in relation to some external permanent and universally +accepted world of objects. + + + Leibnitz. + +But Kant's refutation of subjective idealism and his vindication of the +place of the object can be fully understood only when we take into +account the other defect in the teaching of his predecessors that he +sought in his _Critique_ to correct. In continental philosophy the +reaction against mechanical and pantheistic explanations of the universe +found even more definite utterance than in English psychological +empiricism in the metaphysical system of Leibnitz, whose theory of +self-determined monads can be understood only when taken in the light of +the assertion of the rights of the subject against the substance of +Spinoza and the atoms of the materialist. But Leibnitz also anticipated +Kant in seeking to correct the empirical point of view of the English +philosophers. True, sense-given material is necessary in order that we +may have thought. "But by what means," he asks, "can experience and the +senses give ideas? Has the soul windows? Is it like a writing tablet? Is +it like wax? It is plain that all those who think thus of the soul make +it at bottom corporeal. True, nothing is in the intellect which has not +been in the senses, but we must add except the intellect itself. The +soul contains the notions of being, substance, unity, identity, cause, +perception, reasoning and many others which the senses cannot give" +(_Nouveaux essais_, ii. 1). But Leibnitz's conception of the priority of +spirit had too little foundation, and the different elements he sought +to combine were too loosely related to one another to stand the strain +of the two forces of empiricism and materialism that were opposed to his +idealism. More particularly by the confusion in which he left the +relation between the two logical principles of identity and of +sufficient reason underlying respectively analytic and synthetic, +deductive and inductive thought, he may be said to have undermined in +another way the idealism he strove to establish. It was in seeking to +close up the fissure in his system represented by this dualism that his +successors succeeded only in adding weakness to weakness by reducing the +principle of sufficient reason to that of formal identity (see WOLFF) +and representing all thought as in essence analytic. From this it +immediately followed that, so far as the connexion of our experiences of +the external world does not show itself irreducible to that of formal +identity, it must remain unintelligible. As empiricism had foundered on +the difficulty of showing how our thoughts could be an object of sense +experience, so Leibnitzian formalism foundered on that of understanding +how the material of sense could be an object of thought. On one view as +on the other scientific demonstration was impossible. + + + Kant. + +The extremity to which philosophy had been brought by empiricism on the +one hand and formalism on the other was Kant's opportunity. Leibnitz's +principle of the "nisi intellectus ipse" was expanded by him into a +demonstration the completest yet effected by philosophy of the part +played by the subject not merely in the manipulation of the material of +experience but in the actual constitution of the object that is known. +On the other hand he insisted on the synthetic character of this +activity without which it was impossible to get beyond the circle of our +own thoughts. The parts of the _Critique of Pure Reason_, more +particularly the "Deduction of the Categories" in which this theory is +worked out, may be said to have laid the foundation of modern +idealism--"articulum stantis aut cadentis doctrinae." In spite of the +defects of Kant's statement--to which it is necessary to return--the +place of the concepts and ideals of the mind and the synthetic +organizing activity which these involve was established with a +trenchancy which has been acknowledged by all schools alike. The +"Copernican revolution" which he claimed to have effected may be said to +have become the starting-point of all modern philosophy. Yet the +divergent uses that have been made of it witness to the ambiguity of his +statement which is traceable to the fact that Kant was himself too +deeply rooted in the thought of his predecessors and carried with him +too much of their spirit to be able entirely to free himself from their +assumptions and abstractions. His philosophy was more like +Michaelangelo's famous sculpture of the Dawn, a spirit yet encumbered +with the stubble of the material from which it was hewn, than a clear +cut figure with unmistakable outlines. Chief among these encumbering +presuppositions was that of a fundamental distinction between perception +and conception and consequent upon it between the synthetic and the +analytic use of thought. It is upon this in the last resort that the +distinction between the phenomenal world of our experience and a +noumenal world beyond it is founded. Kant perceives that "perception +without conception is blind, conception without perception is empty," +but if he goes so far ought he not to have gone still further and +inquired whether there can be any perception at all without a concept, +any concept which does not presuppose a precept, and, if this is +impossible, whether the distinction between a world of appearance which +is known and a world of things-in-themselves which is not, is not +illusory? + + + Hegel. + +It was by asking precisely these questions that Hegel gave the finishing +strokes to the Kantian philosophy. The starting-point of all valid +philosophy must be the perception that the essence of all conscious +apprehension is the union of opposites--of which that of subject and +object is the most fundamental and all-pervasive. True, before +differences can be united they must have been separated, but this merely +proves that differentiation or analysis is only one factor in a single +process. Equally fundamental is the element of synthesis. Nor is it +possible at any point in knowledge to prove the existence of a merely +given in whose construction the thinking subject has played no part nor +a merely thinking subject in whose structure the object is not an +organic factor. In coming, as at a certain point in its development it +does, to the consciousness of an object, the mind does not find itself +in the presence of an opponent, or of anything essentially alien to +itself but of that which gives content and stability to its own +existence. True, the stability it seems to find in it is incomplete. The +object cannot rest in the form of its immediate appearance without +involving us in contradiction. The sun does not "rise," the dew does not +"fall." But this only means that the unity between subject and object to +which the gift of consciousness commits us is incompletely realized in +that appearance: the apparent truth has to submit to correction and +supplementation before it can be accepted as real truth. It does not +mean that there is anywhere a mere fact which is not also an +interpretation nor an interpreting mind whose ideas have no hold upon +fact. From this it follows that ultimate or absolute reality is to be +sought not beyond the region of experience, but in the fullest and most +harmonious statement of the facts of our experience. True a completely +harmonious world whether of theory or of practice remains an ideal. But +the fact that we have already in part realized the ideal and that the +degree in which we have realized it is the degree in which we may regard +our experience as trustworthy, is proof that the ideal is no mere idea +as Kant taught, but the very substance of reality. + + + Stumbling blocks in Hegel's statements. + +Intelligible as this development of Kantian idealism seems in the light +of subsequent philosophy, the first statement of it in Hegel was not +free from obscurity. The unity of opposites translated into its most +abstract terms as the "identity of being and not-being," the principle +that the "real is the rational," the apparent substitution of +"bloodless" categories for the substance of concrete reality gave it an +air of paradox in the eyes of metaphysicians while physicists were +scandalized by the premature attempts at a complete philosophy of nature +and history. For this Hegel was doubtless partly to blame. But +philosophical critics of his own and a later day are not hereby absolved +from a certain perversity in interpreting these doctrines in a sense +precisely opposite to that in which they were intended. The doctrine of +the unity of contraries so far from being the denial of the law of +non-contradiction is founded on an absolute reliance upon it. Freed from +paradox it means that in every object of thought there are different +aspects or elements each of which if brought separately into +consciousness may be so emphasized as to appear to contradict another. +Unity may be made to contradict diversity, permanence change, the +particular the universal, individuality relatedness. Ordinary +consciousness ignores these "latent fires"; ordinary discussion brings +them to light and divides men into factions and parties over them; +philosophy not because it denies but because it acknowledges the law of +non-contradiction as supreme is pledged to seek a point of view from +which they may be seen to be in essential harmony with one another as +different sides of the same truth. The "rationality of the real" has in +like manner been interpreted as intended to sanctify the existing order. +Hegel undoubtedly meant to affirm that the actual was rational in the +face of the philosophy which set up subjective feeling and reason +against it. But idealism has insisted from the time of Plato on the +distinction between what is actual in time and space and the reality +that can only partially be revealed in it. Hegel carried this principle +further than had yet been done. His phrase does not therefore sanctify +the established fact but, on the contrary, declares that it partakes of +reality only so far as it embodies the ideal of a coherent and stable +system which it is not. As little is idealism responsible for any +attempt to pass off logical abstractions for concrete reality. The +"Logic" of Hegel is merely the continuation of Kant's "Deduction" of the +categories and ideas of the reason which has generally been recognized +as the soberest of attempts to set forth the presuppositions which +underlie all experience. "What Hegel attempts to show is just that the +categories by which thought must determine its object are stages in a +process that, beginning with the idea of 'Being,' the simplest of all +determinations is driven on by its own dialectic till it reaches the +idea of self-consciousness. In other words the intelligence when it once +begins to define an object for itself, finds itself launched on a +movement of self-asserting synthesis in which it cannot stop until it +had recognized that the unity of the object with itself involves its +unity with all other objects and with the mind that knows it. Hence, +whatever we begin by saying, we must ultimately say 'mind'" (Caird, +_Kant_, i. 443). + + While the form in which these doctrines were stated proved fatal to + them in the country of their birth, they took deep root in the next + generation in English philosophy. Here the stone that the builders + rejected was made the head of the corner. The influences which led to + this result were manifold. From the side of literature the way was + prepared for it by the genius of Coleridge, Wordsworth and Carlyle; + from the side of morals and politics by the profound discontent of the + constructive spirit of the century with the disintegrating conceptions + inherited from utilitarianism. In taking root in England idealism had + to contend against the traditional empiricism represented by Mill on + the one hand and the pseudo-Kantianism which was rendered current by + Mansel and Hamilton on the other. As contrasted with the first it + stood for the necessity of recognizing a universal or ideal element as + a constitutive factor in all experience whether cognitive or + volitional; as contrasted with the latter for the ultimate unity of + subject and object, knowledge and reality, and therefore for the + denial of the existence of any thing-in-itself for ever outside the + range of experience. Its polemic against the philosophy of experience + has exposed it to general misunderstanding, as though it claimed some + a priori path to truth. In reality it stands for a more thoroughgoing + and consistent application of the test of experience. The defect of + English empiricism from the outset had been the uncritical acceptance + of the metaphysical dogma of a pure unadulterated sense-experience as + the criterion of truth. This assumption idealism examines and rejects + in the name of experience itself. Similarly it only carried the + doctrine of relativity to its logical conclusion in denying that there + could be any absolute relativity. Object stands in essential relation + to subject, subject to object. This being so, it is wholly illogical + to seek for any test of the truth and reality of either except in the + form which that relation itself takes. In its subsequent development + idealism in England has passed through several clearly marked stages + which may be distinguished as (a) that of exploration and tentative + exposition in the writings of J. F. Ferrier,[2] J. Hutchison + Stirling,[3] Benjamin Jowett,[4] W. T. Harris;[5] (b) of confident + application to the central problems of logic, ethics and politics, + fine art and religion, and as a principle of constructive criticism + and interpretation chiefly in T. H. Green,[6] E. Caird,[7] B. + Bosanquet;[8] (c) of vigorous effort to develop on fresh lines its + underlying metaphysics in F. H. Bradley,[9] J. M. E. McTaggart,[10] A. + E. Taylor,[11] Josiah Royce[12] and others. Under the influence of + these writers idealism, as above expounded though with difference of + interpretation in individual writers, may be said towards the end of + the 19th century to have been on its way to becoming the leading + philosophy in the British Isles and America. + + + New Dualism and Pragmatism. + +3. _Reaction against Traditional Idealism._--But it was not to be +expected that the position idealism had thus won for itself would remain +long unchallenged. It had its roots in a literature and in forms of +thought remote from the common track; it had been formulated before the +great advances in psychology which marked the course of the century; its +latest word seemed to involve consequences that brought it into conflict +with the vital interest the human mind has in freedom and the +possibility of real initiation. It is not, therefore, surprising that +there should have been a vigorous reaction. This has taken mainly two +opposite forms. On the one hand the attack has come from the old ground +of the danger that is threatened to the reality of the external world +and may be said to be in the interest of the object. On the other hand +the theory has been attacked in the interest of the subject on the +ground that in the statuesque world of ideas into which it introduces us +it leaves no room for the element of movement and process which recent +psychology and metaphysic alike have taught us underlies all life. The +conflict of idealism with these two lines of criticism--the accusation +of subjectivism on the one side of intellectualism and rigid objectivism +on the other--may be said to have constituted the history of Anglo-Saxon +philosophy during the first decade of the 20th century. + +I. Whatever is to be said of ancient Idealism, the modern doctrine may +be said notably in Kant to have been in the main a vindication of the +subjective factor in knowledge. But that space and time, matter and +cause should owe their origin to the action of the mind has always +seemed paradoxical to common sense. Nor is the impression which its +enunciation in Kant made, likely to have been lightened in this country +by the connexion that was sure to be traced between Berkeleyanism and +the new teaching or by the form which the doctrine received at the hands +of T. H. Green, its leading English representative between 1870 and +1880. If what is real in things is ultimately nothing but their +relations, and if relations are inconceivable apart from the relating +mind, what is this but the dissolution of the solid ground of external +reality which my consciousness seems to assure me underlies and eludes +all the conceptual network by which I try to bring one part of my +experience into connexion with another? It is quite true that modern +idealists like Berkeley himself have sought to save themselves from the +gulf of subjectivism by calling in the aid of a universal or infinite +mind or by an appeal to a total or absolute experience to which our own +is relative. But the former device is too obviously a _deus ex machina_, +the purpose of which would be equally well served by supposing with +Fichte the individual self to be endowed with the power of +subconsciously extraditing a world which returns to it in consciousness +under the form of a foreign creation. The appeal to an Absolute on the +other hand is only to substitute one difficulty for another. For +granting that it places the centre of reality outside the individual +self it does so only at the price of reducing the reality of the latter +to an appearance; and if only one thing is real what becomes of the +many different things which again my consciousness assures me are the +one world with which I can have any practical concern? To meet these +difficulties and give back to us the assurance of the substantiality of +the world without us it has therefore been thought necessary to maintain +two propositions which are taken to be the refutation of idealism. (1) +There is given to us immediately in knowledge a world entirely +independent of and different from our own impressions on the one hand +and the conceptions by which we seek to establish relations between them +upon the other. The relation of these impressions (and for the matter of +that of their inter-relations among themselves) to our minds is only one +out of many. As a leading writer puts it: "There is such a thing as +greenness having various relations, among others that of being +perceived."[13] (2) Things may be, and may be known to be simply +different. They may exclude one another, exist so to speak in a +condition of armed neutrality to one another, without being positively +thereby related to one another or altered by any change taking place in +any of them. As the same writer puts it: "There is such a thing as +numerical difference, different from conceptual difference,"[14] or +expressing the same thing in other words "there are relations not +grounded in the nature of the related terms." + +In this double-barrelled criticism it is important to distinguish what +is really relevant. Whatever the shortcomings of individual writers may +be, modern idealism differs, as we have seen, from the arrested idealism +of Berkeley precisely in the point on which dualism insists. In all +knowledge we are in touch not merely with the self and its passing +states, but with a real object which is different from them. On this +head there is no difference, and idealism need have no difficulty in +accepting all that its opponents here contend. The difference between +the two theories does not consist in any difference of emphasis on the +objective side of knowledge, but in the standard by which the nature of +the object is to be tested--the difference is logical not +metaphysical--it concerns the definition of truth or falsity in the +knowledge of the reality which both admit. To idealism there can be no +ultimate test, but the possibility of giving any fact which claims to be +true its place in a coherent system of mutually related truths. To this +dualism opposes the doctrine that truth and falsehood are a matter of +mere immediate intuition: "There is no problem at all in truth and +falsehood, some propositions are true and some false just as some roses +are red and some white."[15] The issue between the two theories under +this head may here be left with the remark that it is a curious comment +on the logic of dualism that setting out to vindicate the reality of an +objective standard of truth it should end in the most subjective of all +the way a thing appears to the individual. The criticism that applies to +the first of the above contentions applies _mutatis mutandis_ to the +second. As idealism differs from Berkeleyanism in asserting the reality +of an "external" world so it differs from Spinozism in asserting the +reality of difference within it. Determination is not merely negation. +On this head there need be no quarrel between it and dualism. Ours is a +many-sided, a many-coloured world. The point of conflict again lies in +the nature and ground of the assigned differences. Dualism meets the +assertion of absolute unity by the counter assertion of mere difference. +But if it is an error to treat the unity of the world as its only real +aspect, it is equally an error to treat its differences as something +ultimately irreducible. No philosophy founded on this assumption is +likely to maintain itself against the twofold evidence of modern +psychology and modern logic. According to the first the world, whether +looked at from the side of our perception or from the side of the object +perceived, can be made intelligible only when we accept it for what it +is as a real continuity. Differences, of course, there are; and, if we +like to say so, every difference is unique, but this does not mean that +they are given in absolute independence of everything else, "fired at us +out of a cannon." They bear a definite relation to the structure of our +physical and psychical nature, and correspond to definite needs of the +subject that manifests itself therein. Similarly from the side of logic. +It is not the teaching of idealism alone but of the facts which logical +analysis has brought home to us that all difference in the last resort +finds its ground in the quality or content of the things differentiated, +and that this difference of content shows in turn a double strand, the +strand of sameness and the strand of otherness--that _in_ which and that +_by_ which they differ from one another. Idealism has, of course, no +quarrel with numerical difference. All difference has its numerical +aspect: two different things are always two both in knowledge and in +reality. What it cannot accept is the doctrine that there are two things +which are two in themselves apart from that which makes them two--which +are not two _of something_. So far from establishing the truth for which +dualism is itself concerned--the reality of all differences--such a +theory can end only in a scepticism as to the reality of any difference. +It is difficult to see what real difference there can be between things +which are differences of nothing. + +II. More widespread and of more serious import is the attack from the +other side to which since the publication of A. Seth's _Hegelianism and +Personality_ (1887) and W. James's _Will to Believe_ (1903) idealism has +been subjected. Here also it is important to distinguish what is +relevant from what is irrelevant in the line of criticism represented by +these writers. There need be no contradiction between idealism and a +reasonable pragmatism. In so far as the older doctrine is open to the +charge of neglecting the conative and teleological side of experience it +can afford to be grateful to its critics for recalling it to its own +eponymous principle of the priority of the "ideal" to the "idea," of +_needs_ to the conception of their object. The real issue comes into +view in the attempt, undertaken in the interest of freedom, to +substitute for the notion of the world as a cosmos pervaded by no +discernible principle and in its essence indifferent to the form +impressed upon it by its active parts. + + To the older idealism as to the new the essence of mind or spirit is + freedom. But the guarantee of freedom is to be sought for not in the + denial of law, but in the whole nature of mind and its relation to the + structure of experience. _Without mind no orderly world_: only through + the action of the subject and its "ideas" are the confused and + incoherent data of sense-perception (themselves shot through with both + strands) built up into that system of things we call Nature, and which + stands out against the subject as the body stands out against the soul + whose functioning may be said to have created it. On the other hand, + _without the world no mind_: only through the action of the + environment upon the subject is the idealizing activity in which it + finds its being called into existence. Herein lies the paradox which + is also the deepest truth of our spiritual life. In interpreting its + environment first as a world of things that seem to stand in a + relation of exclusion to one another and to itself, then as a natural + system governed by rigid mechanical necessity, the mind can yet feel + that in its very opposition the world is akin to it, bone of its bone + and flesh of its flesh. What is true of mind is true of will. Idealism + starts from the relativity of the world to purposive consciousness. + But this again may be so stated as to represent only one side of the + truth. It is equally true that the will is relative to the world of + objects and interests to which it is attached through instincts and + feelings, habits and sentiments. In isolation from its object the will + is as much an abstraction as thought apart from the world of percepts, + memories and associations which give it content and stability. And + just as mind does not lose but gain in individuality in proportion as + it parts with any claim to the capricious determination of what its + world shall be, and becomes dominated by the conception of an order + which is immutable so the will becomes free and "personal" in + proportion as it identifies itself with objects and interests, and + subordinates itself to laws and requirements which involve the + suppression of all that is merely arbitrary and subjective. Here, too, + subject and object grow together. The power and vitality of the one is + the power and vitality of the other, and this is so because they are + not two things with separate roots but are both rooted in a common + reality which, while it includes, is more than either. + + Passing by these contentions as unmeaning or irrelevant and seeing + nothing but irreconcilable contradiction between the conceptions of + the world as immutable law and a self-determining subject pragmatism + (q.v.) seeks other means of vindicating the reality of freedom. It + agrees with older forms of libertarianism in taking its stand on the + fact of spontaneity as primary and self-evidencing, but it is not + content to assert its existence side by side with rigidly determined + sequence. It carries the war into the camp of the enemy by seeking to + demonstrate that the completely determined action which is set over + against freedom as the basis of explanation in the material world is + merely a hypothesis which, while it serves sufficiently well the + limited purpose for which it is devised, is incapable of verification + in the ultimate constituents of physical nature. There seems in fact + nothing to prevent us from holding that while natural laws express the + average tendencies of multitudes they give no clue to the movement of + individuals. Some have gone farther and argued that from the nature of + the case no causal explanation of any real change in the world of + things is possible. A cause is that which contains the effect ("causa + aequat effectum"), but this is precisely what can never be proved with + respect to anything that is claimed as a real cause in the concrete + world. Everywhere the effect reveals an element which is + indiscoverable in the cause with the result that the identity we seek + for ever eludes us. Even the resultant of mechanical forces refuses to + resolve itself into its constituents. In the "resultant" there is a + new direction, and with it a new quality the component forces of which + no analysis can discover.[16] + +It is not here possible to do more than indicate what appear to be the +valid elements in these two conflicting interpretations of the +requirements of a true idealism. On behalf of the older it may be +confidently affirmed that no solution is likely to find general +acceptance which involves the rejection of the conception of unity and +intelligible order as the primary principle of our world. The assertion +of this principle by Kant was, we have seen, the corner-stone of +idealistic philosophy in general, underlying as it does the conception +of a permanent subject not less than that of a permanent object. As +little from the side of knowledge is it likely that any theory will find +acceptance which reduces all thought to a process of analysis and the +discovery of abstract identity. There is no logical principle which +requires that we should derive qualitative change by logical analysis +from quantitative difference. Everywhere experience is synthetic: it +gives us multiplicity in unity. Explanation of it does not require the +annihilation of all differences but the apprehension of them in organic +relation to one another and to the whole to which they belong. It was, +as we have seen, this conception of thought as essentially synthetic for +which Kant paved the way in his polemic against the formalism of his +continental predecessors. The revival as in the above argument of the +idea that the function of thought is the elimination of difference, and +that rational connexion must fail where absolute identity is +indiscoverable merely shows how imperfectly Kant's lesson has been +learned by some of those who prophesy in his name. + +Finally, apart from these more academic arguments there is an undoubted +paradox in a theory which, at a moment when in whatever direction we +look the best inspiration in poetry, sociology and physical science +comes from the idea of the unity of the world, gives in its adhesion to +pluralism on the ground of its preponderating practical value. + +On the other hand, idealism would be false to itself if it interpreted +the unity which it thus seeks to establish in any sense that is +incompatible with the validity of moral distinctions and human +responsibility in the fullest sense of the term. It would on its side +be, indeed, a paradox if at a time when the validity of human ideals and +the responsibility of nations and individuals to realize them is more +universally recognized than ever before on our planet, the philosophical +theory which hitherto has been chiefly identified with their vindication +should be turned against them. Yet the depth and extent of the +dissatisfaction are sufficient evidence that the most recent +developments are not free from ambiguity on this vital issue. + +What is thus suggested is not a rash departure from the general point of +view of idealism (by its achievements in every field to which it has +been applied, "stat mole sua") but a cautious inquiry into the +possibility of reaching a conception of the world in which a place can +be found at once for the idea of unity and determination and of movement +and freedom. Any attempt here to anticipate what the course of an +idealism inspired by such a spirit of caution and comprehension is +likely to be cannot but appear dogmatic. + + Yet it may be permitted to make a suggestion. Taking for granted the + unity of the world idealism is committed to interpret it as spiritual + as a unity of spirits. This is implied in the phrase by which it has + sought to signalize its break with Spinozism: "from substance to + subject." The universal or infinite is one that realizes itself in + finite particular minds and wills, not as accidents or imperfections + of it, but as its essential form. These on their side, to be subject + in the true sense must be conceived of as possessing a life which is + truly their own, the expression of their own nature as + self-determinant. In saying subject we say self, in saying self we say + free creator. No conception of the infinite can therefore be true + which does not leave room for movement, process, free creation. + Oldness, sameness, permanence of principle and direction, these must + be, otherwise there is _nothing_; but newness of embodiment, + existence, realization also, otherwise nothing _is_. + + Now it is just to these implications in the idea of spirit that some + of the prominent recent expositions of Idealism seem to have failed to + do justice. They have failed particularly when they have left the idea + of "determination" unpurged of the suggestion of time succession. The + very word lends itself to this mistake. Idealists have gone beyond + others in asserting that the subject in the sense of a being which + merely repeats what has gone before is timeless. This involves that + its activity cannot be truly conceived of as included in an + antecedent, as an effect in a cause or one term of an equation in the + other. As the activity of a subject or spirit it is essentially a new + birth. It is this failure that has led to the present revolt against a + "block universe." But the difficulty is not to be met by running to + the, opposite extreme in the assertion of a loose and ramshackle one. + This is merely another way of perpetuating the mistake of allowing the + notion of determination by an _other_ or a preceding to continue to + dominate us in a region where we have in reality passed from it to the + notion of determination by self or by self-acknowledged ideals. As the + correction from the one side consists in a more whole-hearted + acceptance of the conception of determination by an ideal as the + essence of mind, so from the other side it must consist in the + recognition of the valuelessness of a freedom which does not mean + submission to a self-chosen, though not self-created, law. + + The solution here suggested is probably more likely to meet with + opposition from the side of Idealism than of Pragmatism. It involves, + it will be said, the reality of time, the dependence of the Infinite + in the finite, and therewith a departure from the whole line of + Hegelian thought. (1) It does surely involve the reality of time in + the sense that it involves the reality of existence, which it is + agreed is process. Without process the eternal is not complete or, if + eternity means completeness, is not truly eternal. Our mistake lies in + abstraction of the one from the other, which, as always, ends in + confusion of the one with the other. Truth lies in giving each its + place. Not only does eternity assert the conception of the hour but + the hour asserts the conception of eternity--with what adequacy is + another question. (2) The second of the above objections takes its + point from the contradiction to religious consciousness which seems to + be involved. This is certainly a mistake. Religious consciousness + asserts, no doubt, that God is necessary to the soul: from Him as its + inspiration, to Him as its ideal are all things. But it asserts with + equal emphasis that the soul is necessary to God. To declare itself an + unnecessary creation is surely on the part of the individual soul the + height of impiety. God lives in the soul as it in Him. He also might + say, from it as His offspring, to it as the object of His outgoing + love are all things. (3) It is a mistake to attribute to Hegel the + doctrine that time is an illusion. If in a well-known passage (_Logic_ + § 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately + corrects it by assigning an "actualizing force" to this illusion and + making it a "necessary dynamic element of truth." Consistently with + this we have the conclusion stated in the succeeding section on the + Will. "Good, the final end of the world, has being only while it + constantly produces itself. And the world of the spirit and the world + of nature continue to have this distinction, that the latter moves + only in a recurring cycle while the former certainly also makes + progress." The mistake is not Hegel's but ours. It is to be remedied + not by giving up the idea of the Infinite but by ceasing to think of + the Infinite as of a being endowed with a static perfection which the + finite will merely reproduces, and definitely recognizing the forward + effort of the finite as an essential element in Its self-expression. + If there be any truth in this suggestion it seems likely that the last + word of idealism, like the first, will prove to be that the type of + the highest reality is to be sought for not in any fixed Parmenidean + circle of achieved being but in an ideal of good which while never + fully expressed under the form of time can never become actual and so + fulfil itself under any other. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(A) General works besides those of the writers + mentioned above: W. Wallace, _Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel_ + (1894), and Hegel's _Philosophy of Mind_ (1894); A. Seth and R. B. + Haldane, _Essays in Phil. Criticism_ (1883); John Watson, _Kant and + his English Critics_ (1881); J. B. Baillie, _Idealistic Construction + of Experience_ (1906); J. S. Mackenzie, _Outlines of Metaphysics_ + (1902); A. E. Taylor, _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903); R. L. + Nettleship, _Lectures and Remains_ (1897); D. G. Ritchie, + _Philosophical Studies_ (1905). + + (B) Works on particular branches of philosophy: (a) _Logic_--F. H. + Bradley, _Principles of Logic_ (1883); B. Bosanquet, _Logic_ (1888) + and _Essentials of Logic_ (1895). (b) _Psychology_--J. Dewey, + _Psychology_ (1886); G. F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (1896); B. + Bosanquet, _Psychology of the Moral Self_ (1897). (c) _Ethics_--F. H. + Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); J. Dewey, _Ethics_ (1891); W. R. + Sorley, _Ethics of Naturalism_ (2nd ed., 1904); J. S. Mackenzie, + _Manual of Ethics_ (4th ed., 1900); J. H. Muirhead, _Elements of + Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1910). (d) _Politics and Economics_--B. Bosanquet, + _Philosophical Theory of the State_ (1899), and _Aspects of the Social + Problem_ (1895); B. Bonar, _Philosophy and Political Economy in their + historical Relations_ (1873); D. G. Ritchie, _Natural Rights_ (1895); + J. S. Mackenzie, _An Introd. to Social Phil._ (1890); J. MacCunn, _Six + Radical Thinkers_ (1907). (e) _Aesthetic_--B. Bosanquet, _History of + Aesthetic_ (1892), and _Introd. to Hegel's Phil. of the Fine Arts_ + (1886); W. Hastie, _Phil. of Art by Hegel and Michelet_ (1886). (f) + _Religion_--J. Royce, _Religious Aspect of Philosophy_ (1885), and + _The Conception of God_ (1897); R. B. Haldane, _The Pathway to + Reality_ (1903); E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_ (1893); J. Caird, + _Introd. to the Phil. of Religion_ (1880); H. Jones, _Idealism as a + Practical Creed_ (1909). + + (C) Recent Criticism. Besides works mentioned in the text: W. James, + _Pragmatism_ (1907), _A Pluralistic Universe_ (1909), _The Meaning of + Truth_ (1909); H. Sturt, _Personal Idealism_ (1902); F. C. S. + Schiller, _Humanism_ (1903); G. E. Moore, _Principia Ethica_; H. + Rashdall, _The Theory of Good and Evil_ (1907). + + See also ETHICS and METAPHYSICS. (J. H. Mu.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_, p. 197 (ed. Hartenstein). + + [2] _Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854); _Works_ (1866). + + [3] _Secret of Hegel_ (1865). + + [4] _Dialogues of Plato_ (1871). + + [5] _Journal of Spec. Phil._ (1867). + + [6] Hume's _Phil. Works_ (1875). + + [7] _Critical account of the Phil. of Kant_ (1877). + + [8] _Knowledge and Reality_ (1885); Logic (1888). + + [9] _Appearance and Reality_ (1893). + + [10] _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901). + + [11] _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903). + + [12] _The World and the individual_ (1901). + + [13] See _Mind_, New Series, xii. p. 433 sqq. + + [14] _Proceedings_ of the Aristotelian Society (1900-1901), p. 110. + + [15] _Mind_, New Series, xiii. p. 523; cf. 204, 350. + + [16] The most striking statement of this argument is to be found in + Boutroux's treatise _De la contingence des lois de la nature_, first + published in 1874 and reprinted without alteration in 1905. The same + general line of thought underlies James Ward's _Naturalism and + Agnosticism_ (2nd ed., 1903), and A. J. Balfour's _Foundations of + Belief_ (8th ed., 1901). H. Bergson's works on the other hand contain + the elements of a reconstruction similar in spirit to the suggestions + of the present article. + + + + +IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1766-1846), German chronologist and +astronomer, was born near Perleberg on the 21st of September 1766. After +holding various official posts under the Prussian government he became +professor at the university of Berlin in 1821, and eighteen years later +foreign member of the Institute of France. From 1816 to 1822 he was +tutor to the young princes William Frederick and Charles. He died in +Berlin on the 10th of August 1846. He devoted his life chiefly to the +examination of ancient systems of chronology. In 1825-1826 he published +his great work, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen +Chronologie_ (2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1883), re-edited as _Lehrbuch der +Chronologie_ (1831); a supplementary volume, _Die Zeitrechnung der +Chinesen_, appeared in 1839. Beside these important works he wrote also +_Untersuchungen über d. Ursprung und d. Bedeutung d. Sternnamen_ (1809) +and _Über d. Ursprung d. Thierkreises_ (1838). With Nolte he published +handbooks on English and French language and literature. His son, JULIUS +LUDWIG IDELER (1809-1842), wrote _Meteorologia veterum Graecorum et +Romanorum_ (1832). + + + + +IDENTIFICATION (Lat. _idem_, the same), the process of proving any one's +identity, i.e. that he is the man he purports to be, or--if he is +pretending to be some one else--the man he really is; or in case of +dispute, that he is the man he is alleged to be. As more strenuous +efforts have been made for the pursuit of criminals, and more and more +severe penalties are inflicted on old offenders, means of identification +have become essential, and various processes have been tried to secure +that desirable end. For a long time they continued to be most imperfect; +nothing better was devised than rough and ready methods of recognition +depending upon the memories of officers of the law or the personal +impressions of witnesses concerned in the case, supplemented in more +recent years by photographs, not always a safe and unerring guide. The +machinery employed was cumbrous, wasteful of time and costly. Detective +policemen were marched in a body to inspect arrested prisoners in the +exercising yards of the prison. Accused persons were placed in the midst +of a number of others of approximately like figure and appearance, and +the prosecutor and witnesses were called in one by one to pick out the +offender. Inquiries, with a detailed description of distinctive marks, +and photographs were circulated far and wide to local police forces. +Officers, police and prison wardens were despatched in person to give +evidence of identity at distant courts. Mis-identification was by no +means rare. Many remarkable cases may be quoted. One of the most notable +was that of the Frenchman Lesurques, in the days of the Directory, who +was positively identified as having robbed the Lyons mail and suffered +death, protesting his innocence of the crime, which was afterwards +brought home to another man, Duboscq, and this terrible judicial error +proved to be the result of the extraordinary likeness between the two +men. Another curious case is to be found in American records, when a man +was indicted for bigamy as James Hoag, who averred that he was really +Thomas Parker. There was a marvellous conflict of testimony, even wives +and families and personal friends being misled, and there was a narrow +escape of mis-identification. The leading modern case in England is that +of Adolf Beck (1905). Beck (who eventually died at the end of 1909) was +arrested on the complaint of a number of women who positively swore to +his identity as Smith, a man who had defrauded them. An ex-policeman who +had originally arrested Smith also swore that Beck was the same man. +There was a grave miscarriage of justice. Beck was sentenced to penal +servitude, and although a closer examination of the personal marks +showed that Beck could not possibly be Smith, it was only after a +scandalous delay, due to the obstinacy of responsible officials, that +relief was afforded. It has to be admitted that evidence as to identity +based on personal impressions is perhaps of all classes of evidence the +least to be relied upon. + +Such elements of uncertainty cannot easily be eliminated from any system +of jurisprudence, but some improvements in the methods of identification +have been introduced in recent years. The first was in the adoption of +anthropometry (q.v.), which was invented by the French savant, A. +Bertillon. The reasons that led to its general supersession may be +summed up in its costliness, the demand for superior skill in +subordinate agents and the liability to errors not easy to trace and +correct. A still more potent reason remained, the comparative failure of +results. It was found in the first four years of its use in England and +Wales that an almost inappreciable number of identifications were +effected by the anthropometric system; namely, 152 in 1898, 243 in 1899, +462 in 1900, and 503 in 1901, the year in which it was supplemented by +the use of "finger prints" (q.v.). The figures soon increased by leaps +and bounds. In 1902 the total number of searches among the records were +6826 and the identifications 1722 for London and the provinces; in 1903 +the searches were 11,919, the identifications 3642; for the first half +of 1904 the searches were 6697 and the identifications 2335. In India +and some of the colonies the results were still more remarkable; the +recognitions in 1903 were 9512, and 17,289 in 1904. Were returns +available from other countries very similar figures would no doubt be +shown. Among these countries are Ireland, Australasia, Ceylon, South +Africa, and many great cities of the United States; and the system is +extending to Germany, Austria-Hungary and other parts of Europe. + +The record of finger prints in England and Wales is kept by the +Metropolitan police at New Scotland Yard. They were at first limited to +persons convicted at courts at quarter sessions and assizes and to all +persons sentenced at minor courts to more than a month without option of +fine for serious offences. The finger prints when taken by prison +warders are forwarded to London for registration and reference on +demand. The total number of finger-print slips was 70,000 in 1904, and +weekly additions were being made at the rate of 350 slips. The +advantages of the record system need not be emphasized. By its means +identification is prompt, inevitable and absolutely accurate. By +forwarding the finger prints of all remanded prisoners to New Scotland +Yard, their antecedents are established beyond all hesitation. + +In past times identification of criminals who had passed through the +hands of the law was compassed by branding, imprinting by a hot iron, or +tattooing with an indelible sign, such as a crown, fleur de lys or +initials upon the shoulder or other part of the body. This practice, +long since abandoned, was in a measure continued in the British army, +when offenders against military law were ordered by sentence of +court-martial to be marked with "D" for deserter and "B.C." bad +character; this ensured their recognition and prevented re-enlistment; +but all such penalties have now disappeared. (A. G.) + + + + +IDEOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek: graphein], to write), a +symbol or character painted, written or inscribed, representing ideas +and not sounds; such a form of writing is found in Chinese and in most +of the Egyptian hieroglyphs (see WRITING). + + + + +IDIOBLAST (Gr. [Greek: idios], peculiar, and [Greek: blastos], a shoot), +a botanical term for an individual cell which is distinguished by its +shape, size or contents, such as the stone-cells in the soft tissue of a +pear. + + + + +IDIOM (Gr. [Greek: idiôma], something peculiar and personal; [Greek: +idios], one's own, personal), a form of expression whether in words, +grammatical construction, phraseology, &c., which is peculiar to a +language; sometimes also a special variety of a particular language, a +dialect. + + + + +IDIOSYNCRASY (Gr. [Greek: idiosynkrasia], peculiar habit of body or +temperament; [Greek: idios], one's own, and [Greek: synkrasis], +blending, tempering, from [Greek: sygkerannusthai], to put together, +compound, mix), a physical or mental condition peculiar to an individual +usually taking the form of a special susceptibility to particular +stimuli; thus it is an idiosyncrasy of one individual that abnormal +sensations of discomfort should be excited by certain odours or colours, +by the presence in the room of a cat, &c.; similarly certain persons are +found to be peculiarly responsive or irresponsive to the action of +particular drugs. The word is also used, generally, of any eccentricity +or peculiarity of character, appearance, &c. + + + + +IDOLATRY, the worship (Gr. [Greek: latreia]) of idols (Gr. [Greek: +eidôlon]), i.e. images or other objects, believed to represent or be the +abode of a superhuman personality. The term is often used generically to +include such varied, forms as litholatry, dendrolatry, pyrolatry, +zoolatry and even necrolatry. In an age when the study of religion was +practically confined to Judaism and Christianity, idolatry was regarded +as a degeneration from an uncorrupt primeval faith, but the comparative +and historical investigation of religion has shown it to be rather a +stage of an upward movement, and that by no means the earliest. It is +not found, for instance, among Bushmen, Fuegians, Eskimos, while it +reached a high development among the great civilizations of the ancient +world in both hemispheres.[1] Its earliest stages are to be sought in +naturism and animism. To give concreteness to the vague ideas thus +worshipped the idol, at first rough and crude, comes to the help of the +savage, and in course of time through inability to distinguish +subjective and objective, comes to be identified with the idea it +originally symbolized. The degraded form of animism known as fetichism +is usually the direct antecedent of idolatry. A fetich is adored, not +for itself, but for the spirit who dwells in it and works through it. +Fetiches of stone or wood were at a very early age shaped and polished +or coloured and ornamented. A new step was taken when the top of the log +or stone was shaped like a human head; the rest of the body soon +followed. The process can be followed with some distinctness in Greece. +Sometimes, as in Babylonia and India, the representation combined human +and animal forms, but the human figure is the predominant model; man +makes God after his own image. + +Idols may be private and personal like the teraphim of the Hebrews or +the little figures found in early Egyptian tombs, or--a late +development, public and tribal or national. Some, like the ancestral +images among the Maoris, are the intermittent abodes of the spirits of +the dead. + +As the earlier stages in the development of the religious consciousness +persist and are often manifest in idolatry, so in the higher stages, +when men have attained loftier spiritual ideas, idolatry itself survives +and is abundantly visible as a reactionary tendency. The history of the +Jewish people whom the prophets sought, for long in vain, to wean from +worshipping images is an illustration: so too the vulgarities of modern +popular Hinduism contrasted with the lofty teaching of the Indian sacred +books. + +In the New Testament the word [Greek: eidôlolatreia] (_idololatria_, +afterwards shortened occasionally to [Greek: eidolatreia], _idolatria_) +occurs in all four times, viz. in 1 Cor. x. 14; Gal. v. 20; 1 Peter iv. +3; Col. iii. 5. In the last of these passages it is used to describe the +sin of covetousness or "mammon-worship." In the other places it +indicates with the utmost generality all the rites and practices of +those special forms of paganism with which Christianity first came into +collision. It can only be understood by reference to the LXX., where +[Greek: eidôlon] (like the word "idol" in A.V.) occasionally translates +indifferently no fewer than sixteen words by which in the Old Testament +the objects of what the later Jews called "strange worship" (Hebrew: +avoda zara) are denoted (see _Encyclopaedia Biblica_). In the widest +acceptation of the word, idolatry in any form is absolutely forbidden in +the second commandment, which runs "Thou shalt not make unto thee a +graven image; [and] to no visible shape in heaven above, or in the earth +beneath, or in the water under the earth, shalt thou bow down or render +service" (see DECALOGUE). For some account of the questions connected +with the breaches of this law which are recorded in the history of the +Israelites see the article JEWS; those differences as to the +interpretation of the prohibition which have so seriously divided +Christendom are discussed under the head of ICONOCLASTS. + +In the ancient church, idolatry was naturally reckoned among those +_magna crimina_ or great crimes against the first and second +commandments which involved the highest ecclesiastical censures. Not +only were those who had gone openly to heathen temples and partaken in +the sacrifices (_sacrificati_) or burnt incense (_thurificati_) held +guilty of this crime; the same charge, in various degrees, was incurred +by those whose renunciation of idolatry had been private merely, or who +otherwise had used unworthy means to evade persecution, by those also +who had feigned themselves mad to avoid sacrificing, by all promoters +and encouragers of idolatrous rites, and by idol makers, incense sellers +and architects or builders of structures connected with idol worship. +Idolatry was made a crime against the state by the laws of Constantius +(_Cod. Theod._ xvi. 10. 4, 6), forbidding all sacrifices on pain of +death, and still more by the statutes of Theodosius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. +10. 12) enacted in 392, in which sacrifice and divination were declared +treasonable and punishable with death; the use of lights, incense, +garlands and libations was to involve the forfeiture of house and land +where they were used; and all who entered heathen temples were to be +fined. See Bingham, _Antiqq._ bk. xvi. c. 4. + + See also IMAGE-WORSHIP; and on the whole question, RELIGION. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to Varro the Romans had no animal or human image of a + god for 170 years after the founding of the city; Herodotus (i. 131) + says the Persians had no temples or idols before Artaxerxes I.; + Lucian (_De sacrif._ 11) bears similar testimony for Greece and as to + idols (_Dea Syr._ 3) for Egypt. Eusebius (_Praep. Evang._ i. 9) sums + up the theory of antiquity in his statement "the oldest peoples had + no idols." Images of the gods indeed presuppose a definiteness of + conception and powers of discrimination that could only be the result + of history and reflection. The iconic age everywhere succeeded to an + era in which the objects of worship were aniconic, e.g. wooden posts, + stone steles, cones. + + + + +IDOMENEUS, in Greek legend, son of Deucalion, grandson of Minos and +Pasiphaë, and king of Crete. As a descendant of Zeus and famous for his +beauty, he was one of the suitors of Helen; hence, after her abduction +by Paris, he took part in the Trojan War, in which he distinguished +himself by his bravery. He is mentioned as a special favourite of +Agamemnon (_Iliad_, iv. 257). According to Homer (_Odyssey_, iii. 191), +he returned home safely with all his countrymen who had survived the +war, but later legend connects him with an incident similar to that of +Jephtha's daughter. Having been overtaken by a violent storm, to ensure +his safety he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon the first living thing that +met him when he landed on his native shore. This proved to be his son, +whom he slew in accordance with his vow; whereupon a plague broke out in +the island, and Idomeneus was driven out. He fled to the district of +Sallentum in Calabria, and subsequently to Colophon in Asia Minor, where +he settled near the temple of the Clarian Apollo and was buried on Mount +Cercaphus (Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 121, 400, 531, and Servius on those +passages). But the Cretans showed his grave at Cnossus, where he was +worshipped as a hero with Meriones (Diod. Sic. v. 79). + + + + +IDRIA, a mining town in Carniola, Austria, 25 m. W. of Laibach. Pop. +(1900) 5772. It is situated in a narrow Alpine valley, on the river +Idria, an affluent of the Isonzo, and owes its prosperity to the rich +mines of quicksilver which were accidentally discovered in 1497. Since +1580 they have been under the management of the government. The +mercurial ore lies in a bed of clay slate, and is found both mingled +with schist and in the form of cinnabar. A special excellence of the ore +is the greatness of the yield of pure metal compared with the amount of +the refuse. As regards the quantity annually extracted, the mines of +Idria rank second to those of Almaden in Spain, which are the richest in +the world. + + + + +IDRIALIN, a mineral wax accompanying the mercury ore in Idria. According +to Goldschmidt it can be extracted by means of xylol, amyl alcohol or +turpentine; also without decomposition, by distillation in a current of +hydrogen, or carbon dioxide. It is a white crystalline body, very +difficultly fusible, boiling above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition +C40H28O. Its solution in glacial acetic acid, by oxidation with chromic +acid, yielded a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and +exhibiting all the characters of a mixture of palmitic and stearic +acids. + + + + +IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn +Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154], Arabic geographer. Very little is known of +his life. Having left Islamic lands and become the courtier and +panegyrist of a Christian prince, though himself a descendant of the +Prophet, he was probably regarded by strict Moslems as a scandal, whose +name should not, if possible, be mentioned. His great-grandfather, +Idrisi II., "Biamrillah," a member of the great princely house which had +reigned for a time as caliphs in north-west Africa, was prince of +Malaga, and likewise laid claim to the supreme title (Commander of the +Faithful). After his death in 1055, Malaga was seized by Granada (1057), +and the Idrisi family then probably migrated to Ceuta, where a freedman +of theirs held power. Here the geographer appears to have been born in +A.H. 493 (A.D. 1099). He is said to have studied at Cordova, and this +tradition is confirmed by his elaborate and enthusiastic description of +that city in his geography. From this work we know that he had visited, +at some period of his life before A.D. 1154, both Lisbon and the mines +of Andalusia. He had also once resided near Morocco city, and once was +at (Algerian) Constantine. More precisely, he tells us that in A.D. 1117 +he went to see the cave of the Seven Sleepers at Ephesus; he probably +travelled extensively in Asia Minor. From doubtful readings in his text +some have inferred that he had seen part of the coasts of France and +England. We do not know when Roger II. of Sicily (1101-1154) invited him +to his court, but it must have been between 1125 and 1150. Idrisi made +for the Norman king a celestial sphere and a disk representing the known +world of his day--both in silver. These only absorbed one-third of the +metal that had been given him for the work, but Roger bestowed on him +the remaining two-thirds as a present, adding to this 100,000 pieces of +money and the cargo of a richly-laden ship from Barcelona. Roger next +enlisted Idrisi's services in the compilation of a fresh description of +the "inhabited earth" from observation, and not merely from books. The +king and his geographer chose emissaries whom they sent out into various +countries to observe, record and design; as they returned, Idrisi +inserted in the new geography the information they brought. Thus was +gradually completed (by the month of Shawwal, A.H. 548 = mid-January, +A.D. 1154), the famous work, best known, from its patron and originator, +as _Al Rojari_, but whose fullest title seems to have been, _The going +out of a Curious Man to explore the Regions of the Globe, its Provinces, +Islands, Cities and their Dimensions and Situation_. This has been +abbreviated to _The Amusement of him who desires to traverse the Earth_, +or _The Relaxation of a Curious Mind_. The title of _Nubian Geography_, +based upon Sionita and Hezronita's misreading of a passage relating to +Nubia and the Nile, is entirely unwarranted and misleading. The +_Rogerian Treatise_ contains a full description of the world as far as +it was known to the author. The "inhabited earth" is divided into seven +"climates," beginning at the equinoctial line, and extending northwards +to the limit at which the earth was supposed to be rendered +uninhabitable by cold. Each climate is then divided by perpendicular +lines into eleven equal parts, beginning with the western coast of +Africa and ending with the eastern coast of Asia. The whole world is +thus formed into seventy-seven equal square compartments. The geographer +begins with the first part of the first climate, including the +westernmost part of the Sahara and a small (north-westerly) section of +the Sudan (of which a vague knowledge had now been acquired by the +Moslems of Barbary), and thence proceeds eastward through the different +divisions of this climate till he finds its termination in the Sea of +China. He then returns to the first part of the second climate, and so +proceeds till he reaches the eleventh part of the seventh climate, which +terminates in north-east Asia, as he conceives that continent. The +inconveniences of the arrangement (ignoring all divisions, physical, +political, linguistic or religious, which did not coincide with those of +his "climates") are obvious. + +Though Idrisi was in such close relations with one of the most civilized +of Christian courts and states, we find few traces of his influence on +European thought and knowledge. The chief exception is perhaps in the +delineation of Africa in the world-maps of Marino Sanuto (q.v.) and +Pietro Vesconte. His account of the voyage of the _Maghrurin_ or +"Deceived Men" of Lisbon in the Atlantic (a voyage on which they seem to +have visited Madeira and one of the Canaries) may have had some effect in +stimulating the later ocean enterprise of Christian mariners; but we have +no direct evidence of this. Idrisi's Ptolemaic leanings give a distinctly +retrograde character to certain parts of his work, such as east Africa +and south Asia; and, in spite of the record of the Lisbon Wanderers, he +fully shares the common Moslem dread of the black, viscous, stormy and +wind-swept waters of the western ocean, whose limits no one knew, and +over which thick and perpetual darkness brooded. At the same time his +breadth of view, his clear recognition of scientific truths (such as the +roundness of the world) and his wide knowledge and intelligent +application of preceding work (such as that of Ptolemy, Masudi and Al +Jayhani) must not be forgotten. He also preserves and embodies a +considerable amount of private and special information--especially as to +Scandinavia (in whose delineation he far surpasses his predecessors), +portions of the African coast, the river Niger (whose name is perhaps +first to be found, after Ptolemy's doubtful Nigeir, in Idrisi), portions +of the African coast, Egypt, Syria, Italy, France, the Adriatic +shore-lands, Germany and the Atlantic islands. No other Arabic work +contains a larger assortment of valuable geographical facts; +unfortunately the place-names are often illegible or hopelessly corrupted +in the manuscripts. Idrisi's world-map, with all its shortcomings, is +perhaps the best product of that strangely feeble thing--the Mahommedan +cartography of the middle ages. + +Besides the _Rojari_, Idrisi wrote another work, largely geographical, +cited by Abulfida as _The Book of Kingdoms_, but apparently entitled by +its author _The Gardens of Humanity and the Amusement of the Soul_. This +was composed for William the Bad (1154-1166), son and successor of Roger +II., but is now lost. He likewise wrote, according to Ibn Said, on +_Medicaments_, and composed verses, which are referred to by the +Sicilian Mahommedan poet Ibn Bashrun. + + Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, + and other two in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. One of the English + MSS., brought from Egypt by Greaves, is illustrated by a map of the + known world, and by thirty-three sectional maps (for each part of the + first three climates). The second manuscript, brought by Pococke from + Syria, bears the date of A.H. 906, or A.D. 1500. It consists of 320 + leaves, and is illustrated by one general and seventy-seven particular + maps, the latter consequently including all the parts of every + climate. The general map was published by Dr Vincent in his _Periplus + of the Erythraean Sea_. A copy of Idrisi's work in the Escorial was + destroyed by the fire of 1671. + + An epitome of Idrisi's geography, in the original Arabic, was printed, + with many errors, in 1592 at the Medicean press in Rome, from a MS. + preserved in the Grand Ducal library at Florence (_De geographia + universali. Hortulus cultissimus ..._ ). Even the description of Mecca + is here omitted. Pococke supplied it from his MS. In many + bibliographical works this impression has been wrongly characterized + as one of the rarest of books. In 1619 two Maronite scholars, Gabriel + Sionita, and Joannes Hezronita, published at Paris a Latin translation + of this epitome (_Geographia Nubiensis, id est, accuratissima totius + orbis in VII. climata divisi descriptio_). Besides its many + inaccuracies of detail, this edition, by its unlucky title of _Nubian + Geography_, started a fresh and fundamental error as to Idrisi's + origin; this was founded on a misreading of a passage where Idrisi + describes the Nile passing into Egypt through Nubia--not "_terram + nostram_," as this version gives, but "_terram illius_" is here the + true translation. George Hieronymus Velschius, a German scholar, had + prepared a copy of the Arabic original, with a Latin translation, + which he purposed to have illustrated with notes; but death + interrupted this design, and his manuscript remains in the university + library of Jena. Casiri (_Bib. Ar. Hisp._ ii. 13) mentions that he had + determined to re-edit this work, but he appears never to have executed + his intention. The part relating to Africa was ably edited by Johann + Melchior Hartmann (_Commentatio de geographia Africae Edrisiana_, + Göttingen, 1791, and _Edrisii Africa_, Göttingen, 1796), Here are + collected the notices of each region in other Moslem writers, so as to + form, for the time, a fairly complete body of Arabic geography as to + Africa. Hartmann afterwards published Idrisi's Spain (_Hispania_, + Marburg, 3 vols., 1802-1818). + + An (indifferent) French translation of the whole of Idrisi's geography + (the only complete version which has yet appeared), based on one of + the MSS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, was published by Amédée + Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes v. and vi. of the _Recueil de + voyages_ issued by the Paris Société de Géographie; but a good and + complete edition of the original text is still a desideratum. A number + of Oriental scholars at Leiden determined in 1861 to undertake the + task. Spain and western Europe were assigned to Dozy; eastern Europe + and western Asia to Engelmann; central and eastern Asia to Defrémery; + and Africa to de Goeje. The first portion of the work appeared in + 1866, under the title of _Description de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne par + Edrisi, texte arabe, publié avec une traduction, des notes et un + glossaire par R. Dozy et M. J. de Goeje_ (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1866); + but the other collaborators did not furnish their quota. Other parts + of Idrisi's work have been separately edited; e.g. "Spain" + (_Descripcion de España de ... Aledris_), by J. A. Condé, in Arabic + and Spanish (Madrid, 1799); "Sicily" (_Descrizione della Sicilia ... + di Elidris_), by P. D. Magri and F. Tardia (Palermo, 1764); "Italy" + (_Italia descritta nel "libro del Re Ruggero," compilato da Edrisi_), + by M. Amari and C. Schiaparelli, in Arabic and Italian (Rome, 1883); + "Syria" (_Syria descripta a ... El Edrisio ..._ ), by E. F. C. + Rosenmüller, in Arabic and Latin, 1825, and (_Idrisii ... Syria_), by + J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1885) (the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the + _Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palästina-Vereins_). See also M. Casiri, + _Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis_ (2 vols., Madrid, + 1760-1770); V. Lagus, "Idrisii notitiam terrarum Balticarum ex + commerciis Scandinavorum et Italorum ... ortam esse" in _Atti del IV° + Congresso internaz. degli orientalisti in Firenze_, p. 395 (Florence, + 1880); R. A. Brandel "Om och ur den arabiske geografen Idrisi," _Akad. + afhand._ (Upsala, 1894). (C. R. B.) + + + + +IDUMAEA ([Greek: 'Idoumaia]), the Greek equivalent of Edom ([Hebrew: +Edom]), a territory which, in the works of the Biblical writers, is +considered to lie S.E. of the Dead Sea, between the land of Moab and the +Gulf of Akaba. Its name, which is connected with the root meaning "red," +is probably applied in reference to the red sandstone ranges of the +mountains of Petra.[1] This etymology, however, is not certain. The +apparently theophorous name Obed-Edom (2 Sam. vi. 10) shows that Edom is +the name of a divinity. Of this there is other evidence; a Leiden +papyrus names Etum as the wife of the Semitic fire-god Reshpu. + +The early history of Edom is hidden in darkness. The Egyptian references +to it are few, and do not give us much light regarding its early +inhabitants. In the early records of the Pentateuch, the country is +often referred to by the name of Seir, the general name for the whole +range of mountains on the east side of the Jordan-Araba depression south +of the Dead Sea. These mountains were occupied, so early as we can find +any record, by a cave-dwelling aboriginal race known as Horites, who +were smitten by the much-discussed king Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 6) and +according to Deut. ii. 22 were driven out by the Semitic tribes of +Esau's descendants. The Horites are to us little more than a name, +though the discovery of cave-dwellers of very early date at Gezer in the +excavations of 1902-1905 has enabled us to form some idea as to their +probable culture-status and physical character. + +The occupants of Edom during practically the whole period of Biblical +history were the Bedouin tribes which claimed descent through Esau from +Abraham, and were acknowledged by the Israelites (Deut. xxiii. 7) as +kin. That they intermarried with the earlier stock is suggested by the +passage in Gen. xxxvi. 2, naming, as one of the wives of Esau, +Oholibamah, daughter of Zibeon the Horite (corrected by verse 20). Among +the peculiarities of the Edomites was government by certain officials +known as [Hebrew: alufim][2] which the English versions (by too close a +reminiscence of the Vulgate _duces_) translate "dukes." The now +naturalized word "sheikhs" would be the exact rendering. In addition to +this Bedouin organization there was the curious institution of an +elective monarchy, some of whose kings are catalogued in Gen. xxxvi. +31-39 and 1 Chron. i. 43-54. These kings reigned at some date anterior +to the time of Saul. No deductions as to their chronology can be based +on the silence regarding them in Moses' song, Exodus xv. 15. There was a +king in Edom (Num. xx. 14) who refused passage to the Israelites in +their wanderings. + +The history of the relations of the Edomites and Israelites may be +briefly summarized. Saul, whose chief herdsman, Doeg, was an Edomite (1 +Sam. xxi. 7), fought successfully against them (1 Sam. xiv. 47). Joab (1 +Kings xi. 16) or Abishai, as his deputy (1 Chron. xviii. 11, 13), +occupied Edom for six months and devastated it; it was garrisoned and +permanently held by David (2 Sam. viii. 14). But a refugee named Hadad, +who escaped as a child to Egypt and grew up at the court of the Egyptian +king, returned in Solomon's reign and made a series of reprisal raids on +the Israelite territory (1 Kings xi. 14). This did not prevent Solomon +introducing Edomites into his harem (1 Kings xi. 1) and maintaining a +navy at Ezion-geber, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings ix. 26). +Indeed, until the time of Jehoram, when the land revolted (2 Kings viii. +20, 22), Edom was a dependency of Judah, ruled by a viceroy (1 Kings +xxii. 47). An attempt at recovering their independence was temporarily +quelled in a campaign by Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. 7), and Azariah his +successor was able to renew the sea trade of the Gulf of Akaba (2 Kings +xiv. 22) which had probably languished since the wreck of Jehoshaphat's +ships (1 Kings xxii. 48); but the ancient kingdom had been +re-established by the time of Ahaz, and the king's name, Kaush-Malak, is +recorded by Tiglath Pileser. He made raids on the territory of Judah (2 +Chron. xxviii. 17). The kingdom, however, was short-lived, and it was +soon absorbed into the vassalage of Assyria. + +The later history of Edom is curious. By the constant westward pressure +of the eastern Arabs, which (after the restraining force of the great +Mesopotamian kingdoms was weakened) assumed irresistible strength, the +ancient Edomites were forced across the Jordan-Araba depression, and +with their name migrated to the south of western Palestine. In 1 +Maccabees v. 65 we find them at Hebron, and this is one of the first +indications that we discover of the cis-Jordanic Idumaea of Josephus and +the Talmud. + +Josephus used the name Idumaea as including not only Gobalitis, the +original Mount Seir, but also Amalekitis, the land of Amalek, west of +this, and Akrabatine, the ancient Acrabbim, S.W. of the Dead Sea. In +_War_ IV. viii. 1, he mentions two villages "in the very midst of +Idumaea," named Betaris and Caphartobas. The first of these is the +modern Beit Jibrin (see ELEUTHEROPOLIS), the second is Tuffuh, near +Hebron. Jerome describes Idumaea as extending from Beit Jibrin to Petra, +and ascribes the great caves at the former place to cave-dwellers like +the aboriginal Horites. Ptolemy's account presents us with the last +stage, in which the name Idumaea is entirely restricted to the +cis-Jordanic district, and the old trans-Jordanic region is absorbed in +Arabia. + +The Idumaean Antipater was appointed by Julius Caesar procurator of +Judaea, Samaria and Galilee, as a reward for services rendered against +Pompey. He was the father of Herod the Great, whose family thus was +Idumaean in origin. (See PALESTINE.) (R. A. S. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A curious etymological speculation connects the name with the + story of Esau's begging for Jacob's pottage, Gen. xxv. 30. + + [2] The same word is used in the anonymous prophecy incorporated in + the book of Zachariah (xii. 5), and in one or two other places as + well, of _Hebrew_ leaders. + + + + +IDUN, or IDUNA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of youth and +spring. She was daughter of the dwarf Svald and wife of Bragi. She was +keeper of the golden apples, the eating of which preserved to the gods +their eternal youth. Loki, the evil spirit, kidnapped her and the +apples, but was forced by the gods to restore her liberty. Idun +personifies the year between March and September, and her myth +represents the annual imprisonment of spring by winter. + + + + +IDYL, or IDYLL (Gr. [Greek: eidyllion], a descriptive piece, from +[Greek: eidos], a shape or style; Lat. _idyllium_), a short poem of a +pastoral or rural character, in which something of the element of +landscape is preserved or felt. The earliest commentators of antiquity +used the term to designate a great variety of brief and homely poems, in +which the description of natural objects was introduced, but the +pastoral idea came into existence in connexion with the Alexandrian +school, and particularly with Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, in the 3rd +century before Christ. It appears, however, that [Greek: eidyllion] was +not, even then, used consciously as the name of a form of verse, but as +a diminutive of [Greek: eidos], and merely signified "a little piece in +the style of" whatever adjective might follow. Thus the idyls of the +pastoral poets were [Greek: eidyllia aipolika], little pieces in the +goatherd style. We possess ten of the so-called "Idyls" of Theocritus, +and these are the type from which the popular idea of this kind of poem +is taken. But it is observable that there is nothing in the technical +character of these ten very diverse pieces which leads us to suppose +that the poet intended them to be regarded as typical. In fact, if he +had been asked whether a poem was or was not an idyl he would doubtless +have been unable to comprehend the question. As a matter of fact, the +first of his poems, the celebrated "Dirge for Daphnis," has become the +prototype, not of the modern idyl, but of the modern elegy, and the not +less famous "Festival of Adonis" is a realistic mime. It was the six +little epical romances, if they may be so called, which started the +conception of the idyl of Theocritus. It must be remembered, however, +that there is nothing in ancient literature which justifies the notion +of a form of verse recognized as an "idyl." In the 4th century after +Christ the word seems to have become accepted in Latin as covering short +descriptive poems of very diverse characters, for the early MSS. of +Ausonius contain a section of "Edyllia," which embraces some of the most +admirable of the miscellaneous pieces of that writer. But that Ausonius +himself called his poems "idyls" is highly doubtful. Indeed, it is not +certain that the heading is not a mistake for "Epyllia." The word was +revived at the Renaissance and applied rather vaguely to Latin and Greek +imitations of Theocritus and of Virgil. It was also applied to modern +poems of a romantic and pastoral character published by such writers as +Tasso in Italy, Montemayor in Portugal and Ronsard in French. In 1658 +the English critic, Edward Phillips, defined an "idyl" as "a kind of +eclogue," but it was seldom used to describe a modern poem. Mme +Deshoulières published a series of seven _Idylles_ in 1675, and Boileau +makes a vague reference to the form. The sentimental German idyls of +Salomon Gessner (in prose, 1758) and Voss (in hexameters, 1800) were +modelled on Theocritus. Goethe's _Alexis und Dora_ is an idyl. It +appears that the very general use, or abuse, of the word in the second +half of the 19th century, both in English and French, arises from the +popularity of two works, curiously enough almost identical in date, by +two eminent and popular poets. The _Idylles héroïques_ (1858) of Victor +de Laprade and the _Idylls_ of the King (1859) of Tennyson enjoyed a +success in either country which led to a wide imitation of the title +among those who had, perhaps, a very inexact idea of its meaning. Among +modern Germans, Berthold Auerbach and Jeremias Gotthelf have been +prominent as the composers of sentimental idyls founded on anecdotes of +village-life. On the whole, it is impossible to admit that the idyl has +a place among definite literary forms. Its character is vague and has +often been purely sentimental, and our conception of it is further +obscured by the fact that though the noun carries no bucolic idea with +it in English, the adjective ("idyllic") has come to be synonymous with +pastoral and rustic. (E. G.) + + + + +IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM (1759-1814), German actor and dramatic author, +was born at Hanover on the 19th of April 1759. His father intended his +son to be a clergyman, but the boy preferred the stage, and at eighteen +ran away to Gotha in order to prepare himself for a theatrical career. +He was fortunate enough to receive instruction from Hans Ekhof, and made +such rapid progress that he was able in 1779 to accept an engagement at +the theatre in Mannheim, then rising into prominence. He soon stood high +in his profession, and extended his reputation by frequently playing in +other towns. In 1796 he settled in Berlin, where he became director of +the national theatre of Prussia; and in 1811 he was made general +director of all representations before royalty. Iffland produced the +classical works of Goethe and Schiller with conscientious care; but he +had little understanding for the drama of the romantic writers. The form +of play in which he was most at home, both as actor and playwright, was +the domestic drama, the sentimental play of everyday life. His works are +almost entirely destitute of imagination; but they display a thorough +mastery of the technical necessities of the stage, and a remarkable +power of devising effective situations. His best characters are simple +and natural, fond of domestic life, but too much given to the utterance +of sentimental commonplace. His best-known plays are _Die Jäger_, +_Dienstpflicht_, _Die Advokaten_, _Die Mündel_ and _Die Hagestolzen_. +Iffland was also a dramatic critic, and German actors place high value +on the reasonings and hints respecting their art in his _Almanach für +Theater und Theaterfreunde_. In 1798-1802 he issued his _Dramatischen +Werke_ in 16 volumes, to which he added an autobiography (_Meine +theatralische Laufbahn_). In 1807-1809 Iffland brought out two volumes +of _Neue dramatische Werke_. Selections from his writings were +afterwards published, one in 11 (Leipzig, 1827-1828), the other in 10 +volumes (Leipzig, 1844, and again 1860). As an actor, he was conspicuous +for his brilliant portrayal of comedy parts. His fine gentlemen, +polished men of the world, and distinguished princes were models of +perfection, and showed none of the traces of elaborate study which were +noticed in his interpretation of tragedy. He especially excelled in +presenting those types of middle-class life which appear in his own +comedies. Iffland died at Berlin on the 22nd of September 1814. A bronze +portrait statue of him was erected in front of the Mannheim theatre in +1864. + + See K. Duncker, _Iffland in seinen Schriften als Künstler, Lehrer, und + Direktor der Berliner Bühne_ (1859); W. Koffka, _Iffland und Dalberg_ + (1865); and Lampe, _Studien über Iffland als Dramatiker_ (Celle, + 1899). Iffland's interesting autobiography, _Meine theatralische + Laufbahn_, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885. + + + + +IGLAU (Czech _Jihlava_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 56 m. N.W. of +Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom 4200 are Czechs and the +remainder Germans. Iglau is situated on the Iglawa, close to the +Bohemian frontier, and is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, being the +centre of a German-speaking enclave. Among the principal buildings are +the churches of St Jakob, St Ignatius, St John and St Paul, the +town-hall, and the barracks formed from a monastery suppressed under the +emperor Joseph II. There is also a fine cemetery, containing some +remarkable monuments. It has the principal tobacco and cigar factory of +the state monopoly, which employs about 2500 hands, and has besides a +large and important textile and glass industry, corn and saw-mills, +pottery and brewing. Fairs are periodically held in the town; and the +trade in timber, cereals, and linen and woollen goods is generally +brisk. + +Iglau is an old mining town where, according to legend, the silver mines +were worked so early as 799. King Ottakar I. (1198-1230) established +here a mining-office and a mint. At a very early date it enjoyed +exceptional privileges, which were confirmed by King Wenceslaus I. in +the year 1250. The town-hall contains a collection of municipal and +mining laws dating as far back as 1389. At Iglau, on the 5th of July +1436, the treaty was made with the Hussites, by which the emperor +Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A granite column near the +town marks the spot where Ferdinand I., in 1527, swore fidelity to the +Bohemian states. During the Thirty Years' War Iglau was twice captured +by the Swedes. In 1742 it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in +December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town. + + + + +IGLESIAS, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia in the province of +Cagliari, from which it is 34 m. W.N.W. by rail, 620 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,436 (town), 20,874 (commune). It is finely +situated among the mountains in the S.W. portion of the island, and is +chiefly important as the centre of a mining district; it has a +government school for mining engineers. The minerals are conveyed by a +small railway via Monteponi (with its large lead and zinc mine) to +Portovesme (15 m. S.W. of Iglesias in the sheltered gulf of Carloforte), +near Portoscuso, where they are shipped. The total amount of the +minerals extracted in Sardinia in 1905 was 170,236 tons and their value +£765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc, 26,051 of +blende zinc, 24,798 tons of lead and 15,429 tons of lignite): the +greater part of them--118,009 tons--was exported from Portoscuso by sea +and most of the rest from Cagliari, the zinc going mainly to Antwerp, +and in a less proportion to Bordeaux and Dunkirk, while the lead is sent +to Pertusola near Spezia, to be smelted. At Portoscuso is also a tunny +fishery. + +The cathedral of Iglesias, built by the Pisans, has a good façade +(restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San Francesco is a fine +Gothic church with a gallery over the entrance, while Sta Chiara and the +church of the Capuchins (the former dating from 1285) show a transition +between Romanesque and Gothic. The battlemented town walls are well +preserved and picturesque; the castle, built in 1325, now contains a +glass factory. The church of Nostra Signora del Buon Cammino above the +town (1080 ft.) commands a fine view. + + + + +IGNATIEV, NICHOLAS PAVLOVICH, COUNT (1832-1908), Russian diplomatist, +was born at St Petersburg on the 29th of January 1832. His father, +Captain Paul Ignatiev, had been taken into favour by the tsar Nicholas +I., owing to his fidelity on the occasion of the military conspiracy in +1825; and the grand duke Alexander (afterwards tsar) stood sponsor at +the boy's baptism. At the age of seventeen he became an officer of the +Guards. His diplomatic career began at the congress of Paris, after the +Crimean War, where he took an active part as military attaché in the +negotiations regarding the rectification of the Russian frontier on the +Lower Danube. Two years later (1858) he was sent with a small escort on +a dangerous mission to Khiva and Bokhara. The khan of Khiva laid a plan +for detaining him as a hostage, but he eluded the danger and returned +safely, after concluding with the khan of Bokhara a treaty of +friendship. His next diplomatic exploit was in the Far East, as +plenipotentiary to the court of Peking. When the Chinese government was +terrified by the advance of the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 and the +burning of the Summer Palace, he worked on their fears so dexterously +that he obtained for Russia not only the left bank of the Amur, the +original object of the mission, but also a large extent of territory and +sea-coast south of that river. This success was supposed to prove his +capacity for dealing with Orientals, and paved his way to the post of +ambassador at Constantinople, which he occupied from 1864 till 1877. +Here his chief aim was to liberate from Turkish domination and bring +under the influence of Russia the Christian nationalities in general and +the Bulgarians in particular. His restless activity in this field, +mostly of a semi-official and secret character, culminated in the +Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878, at the close of which he negotiated with +the Turkish plenipotentiaries the treaty of San Stefano. As the war +which he had done so much to bring about did not eventually secure for +Russia advantages commensurate with the sacrifices involved, he fell +into disfavour, and retired from active service. Shortly after the +accession of Alexander III. in 1881, he was appointed minister of the +interior on the understanding that he would carry out a nationalist, +reactionary policy, but his shifty ways and his administrative +incapacity so displeased his imperial master that he was dismissed in +the following year. After that time he exercised no important influence +in public affairs. He died on the 3rd of July 1908. + + + + +IGNATIUS ([Greek: Ignatios]), bishop of Antioch, one of the "Apostolic +Fathers." No one connected with the history of the early Christian +Church is more famous than Ignatius, and yet among the leading churchmen +of the time there is scarcely one about whose career we know so little. +Our only trustworthy information is derived from the letters which he +wrote to various churches on his last journey from Antioch to Rome, and +from the short epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians. The earlier +patristic writers seem to have known no more than we do. Irenaeus, for +instance, gives a quotation from his Epistle to the Romans and does not +appear to know (or if he knew he has forgotten) the name of the author, +since he describes him (_Adv. haer._ v. 28. 4) as "one of those +belonging to us" ([Greek: tis tôn hêmeterôn]). If Eusebius possessed any +knowledge about Ignatius apart from the letters he never reveals it. The +only shred of extra information which he gives us is the statement that +Ignatius "was the second successor of Peter in the bishopric of Antioch" +(_Eccles. hist._ iii. 36). Of course in later times a cloud of tradition +arose, but none of it bears the least evidence of trustworthiness. The +martyrologies, from which the account of his martyrdom that used to +appear in uncritical church histories is taken, are full of anachronisms +and impossibilities. There are two main types--the Roman and the +Syrian--out of which the others are compounded. They contradict each +other in many points and even their own statements in different places +are sometimes quite irreconcilable. Any truth that the narrative may +contain is hopelessly overlaid with fiction. We are therefore limited to +the Epistles for our information, and before we can use even these we +are confronted with a most complex critical problem, a problem which for +ages aroused the most bitter controversy, but which happily now, thanks +to the labours of Zahn, Lightfoot, Harnack and Funk, may be said to have +reached a satisfactory solution. + +I. _The Problem of the Three Recensions._--The Ignatian problem arises +from the fact that we possess three different recensions of the +Epistles. (a) _The short recension_ (often called the Vossian) contains +the letters to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, +Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. This recension was derived +in its Greek form from the famous Medicean MS. at Florence and first +published by Vossius in 1646 (see _Theol. Literaturzeitung_, 1906, 596 +f., for an early papyrus fragment in the Berlin Museum, containing _Ad +Smyrn._ iii. fin. xii. init.). In the Medicean MS. the Epistle to the +Romans is missing, but a Greek version of this epistle was discovered by +Ruinart, embedded in a _martyrium_, in the National Library at Paris and +published in 1689. There are also (1) a Latin version made by Robert +Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, about 1250, and published by Ussher in +1644--two years before the Vossian edition appeared; (2) an Armenian +version which was derived from a Syriac not earlier than the 5th century +and published at Constantinople in 1783; (3) some fragments of a Syriac +version published in Cureton's edition of Ignatius; (4) fragments of a +Coptic version first published in Lightfoot's work (ii. 859-882). (b) +_The long recension_ contains the seven Epistles mentioned above in an +expanded form and several additional letters besides. The Greek form of +the recension, which has been preserved in ten MSS., has thirteen +letters, the additional ones being to the Tarsians, the Philippians, the +Antiochians, to Hero, to Mary of Cassobola and a letter of Mary to +Ignatius. The Latin form, of which there are thirteen extant MSS., omits +the letter of Mary of Cassobola, but adds to the list the Laus Heronis, +two Epistles to the apostle John, one to the Virgin Mary and one from +Mary to Ignatius. (c) _The Syriac or Curetonian recension_ contains only +three Epistles, viz. to Polycarp, to the Romans, and to the Ephesians, +and these when compared with the same letters in the short and long +recensions are found to be considerably abbreviated. The Syriac +recension was made by William Cureton in 1845 from three Syriac MSS. +which had recently been brought from the Nitrian desert and deposited +in the British Museum. One of these MSS. belongs to the 6th century, the +other two are later. Summed up in a word, therefore, the Ignatian +problem is this: which of these three recensions (if any) represents the +actual work of Ignatius? + +II. _History of the Controversy._--The history of the controversy may be +divided into three periods: (a) up to the discovery of the short +recension in 1646; (b) between 1646 and the discovery of the Syriac +recension in 1845; (c) from 1845 to the present day. In the first stage +the controversy was theological rather than critical. The Reformation +raised the question as to the authority of the papacy and the hierarchy. +Roman Catholic scholars used the interpolated Ignatian Epistles very +freely in their defence and derived many of their arguments from them, +while Protestant scholars threw discredit on these Epistles. The +Magdeburg centuriators expressed the gravest doubts as to their +genuineness, and Calvin declared that "nothing was more foul than those +fairy tales (_naeniis_) published under the name of Ignatius!" It should +be stated, however, that one Roman Catholic scholar, Denys Petau +(Petavius), admitted that the letters were interpolated, while the +Protestant Vedelius acknowledged the seven letters mentioned by +Eusebius. In England the Ignatian Epistles took an important place in +the episcopalian controversy in the 17th century. Their genuineness was +defended by the leading Anglican writers, e.g. Whitgift, Hooker and +Andrewes, and vigorously challenged by Dissenters, e.g. the five +Presbyterian ministers who wrote under the name of Smectymnuus and John +Milton.[1] The second period is marked by the recognition of the +superiority of the Vossian recension. This was speedily demonstrated, +though some attempts were made, notably by Jean Morin or Morinus (about +1656), Whiston (in 1711) and Meier (in 1836), to resuscitate the long +recension. Many Protestants still maintained that the new recension, +like the old, was a forgery. The chief attack came from Jean Daillé, who +in his famous work (1666) drew up no fewer than sixty-six objections to +the genuineness of the Ignatian literature. He was answered by Pearson, +who in his _Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii_ (1672) completely +vindicated the authenticity of the Vossian Epistles. No further attack +of any importance was made till the time of Baur, who like Daillé +rejected both recensions. In the third stage--inaugurated in 1845 by +Cureton's work--the controversy has ranged round the relative claims of +the Vossian and the Curetonian recensions. Scholars have been divided +into three camps, viz. (1) those who followed Cureton in maintaining +that the three Syriac Epistles alone were the genuine work of Ignatius. +Among them may be mentioned the names of Bunsen, A. Ritschl, R. A. +Lipsius, E. de Pressensé, H. Ewald, Milman, Bohringer. (2) Those who +accepted the genuineness of the Vossian recension and regarded the +Curetonian as an abbreviation of it, e.g. Petermann, Denzinger, Uhlhorn, +Merx, and in more recent times Th. Zahn, J. B. Lightfoot, Ad. Harnack +and F. X. Funk. (3) Those who denied the authenticity of both +recensions, e.g. Baur and Hilgenfeld and in recent times van Manen,[2] +Völter[3] and van Loon.[4] The result of more than half a century's +discussion has been to restore the Vossian recension to the premier +position. + +III. _The Origin of the Long Recension._--The arguments against the +genuineness of the long recension are decisive. (1) It conflicts with +the statement of Eusebius. (2) The first trace of its use occurs in +Anastasius of Antioch (A.D. 598) and Stephen Gobarus (c. 575-600). (3) +The ecclesiastical system of the letters implies a date not earlier than +the 4th century. (4) The recension has been proved to be dependent on +the _Apostolical Constitutions_. (5) The doctrinal atmosphere implies +the existence of Arian and Apollinarian heresies. (6) The added passages +reveal a difference in style which stamps them at once as +interpolations. There are several different theories with regard to the +origin of the recension. Some, e.g. Leclerc, Newman and Zahn, think that +the writer was an Arian and that the additions were made in the interest +of Arianism. Funk, on the other hand, regards the writer as an +Apollinarian. Lightfoot opposes both views and suggests that it is +better "to conceive of him as writing with a conciliatory aim." + +IV. _The Objections to the Curetonian Recension._--The objections to the +Syriac recension, though not so decisive, are strong enough to carry +conviction with them. (1) We have the express statement of Eusebius that +Ignatius wrote seven Epistles. (2) There are statements in Polycarp's +Epistle which cannot be explained from the three Syriac Epistles. (3) +The omitted portions are proved by Lightfoot after an elaborate analysis +to be written in the same style as the rest of the epistles and could +not therefore have been later interpolations. (4) The Curetonian letters +are often abrupt and broken and show signs of abridgment. (5) The +discovery of the Armenian version proves the existence of an earlier +Syriac recension corresponding to the Vossian of which the Curetonian +may be an abbreviation. It seems impossible to account for the origin of +the Curetonian recension on theological grounds. The theory that the +abridgment was made in the interests of Eutychianism or Monophysitism +cannot be substantiated. + +V. _The Date and Genuineness of the Vossian Epistles._--We are left +therefore with the seven Epistles. Are they the genuine work of +Ignatius, and, if so, at what date were they written? The main +objections are as follows: (1) The conveyance of a condemned prisoner to +Rome to be put to death in the amphitheatre is unlikely on historical +grounds, and the route taken is improbable for geographical reasons. +This objection has very little solid basis. (2) The heresies against +which Ignatius contends imply the rise of the later Gnostic and Docetic +sects. It is quite certain, however, that Docetism was in existence in +the 1st century (cf. 1 John), while many of the principles of Gnosticism +were in vogue long before the great Gnostic sects arose (cf. the +Pastoral Epistles). There is nothing in Ignatius which implies a +knowledge of the teaching of Basilides or Valentinus. In fact, as +Harnack says: "No Christian writer after 140 could have described the +false teachers in the way that Ignatius does." (3) The ecclesiastical +system of Ignatius is too developed to have arisen as early as the time +of Trajan. At first sight this objection seems to be almost fatal. But +we have to remember that the bishops of Ignatius are not bishops in the +modern sense of the word at all, but simply pastors of churches. They +are not mentioned at all in two Epistles, viz. _Romans_ and +_Philippians_, which seems to imply that this form of government was not +universal. It is only when we read modern ecclesiastical ideas into +Ignatius that the objection has much weight. To sum up, as Uhlhorn says: +"The collective mass of internal evidence against the genuineness of the +letters ... is insufficient to counterbalance the testimony of the +Epistle of Polycarp in their favour. He who would prove the Epistles of +Ignatius to be spurious must begin by proving the Epistle of Polycarp to +be spurious, and such an undertaking is not likely to succeed." This +being so, there is no reason for rejecting the opinion of Eusebius that +the Epistles were written in the reign of Trajan. Harnack, who formerly +dated them about 140, now says that they were written in the latter +years of Trajan, or possibly a little later (117-125). The majority of +scholars place them a few years earlier (110-117).[5] + +The letters of Ignatius unfortunately, unlike the Epistles of St Paul, +contain scant autobiographical material. We are told absolutely nothing +about the history of his career. The fact that like St Paul he describes +himself as an [Greek: ektrôma] (_Rom._ 9), and that he speaks of himself +as "the last of the Antiochene Christians" (_Trall._ 13; _Smyrn._ xi.), +seems to suggest that he had been converted from paganism somewhat late +in life and that the process of conversion had been abrupt and violent. +He bore the surname of Theophorus, i.e. "God-clad" or "bearing God." +Later tradition regarded the word as a passive form ("God-borne") and +explained it by the romantic theory that Ignatius was the child whom +Christ took in his arms (Mark ix. 36-37). The date at which he became +bishop of Antioch cannot be determined. At the time when the Epistles +were written he had just been sentenced to death, and was being sent in +charge of a band of soldiers to Rome to fight the beasts in the +amphitheatre. The fact that he was condemned to the amphitheatre proves +that he could not have been a Roman citizen. We lose sight of him at +Troas, but the presumption is that he was martyred at Rome, though we +have no early evidence of this. + +But if the Epistles tell us little of the life of Ignatius, they give us +an excellent picture of the man himself, and are a mirror in which we +see reflected certain ideals of the life and thought of the day. +Ignatius, as Schaff says, "is the incarnation of three closely connected +ideas: the glory of martyrdom, the omnipotence of episcopacy, and the +hatred of heresy and schism." + +1. Zeal for martyrdom in later days became a disease in the Church, but +in the case of Ignatius it is the mark of a hero. The heroic note runs +through all the Epistles; thus he says: + + "I bid all men know that of my own free will I die for God, unless ye + should hinder me.... Let me be given to the wild beasts, for through + them I can attain unto God. I am God's wheat, and I am ground by the + wild beasts that I may be found the pure bread of Christ. Entice the + wild beasts that they may become my sepulchre...; come fire and cross + and grapplings with wild beasts, wrenching of bones, hacking of limbs, + crushings of my whole body; only be it mine to attain unto Jesus + Christ" (_Rom._ 4-5). + +2. Ignatius constantly contends for the recognition of the authority of +the ministers of the church. "Do nothing," he writes to the Magnesians, +"without the bishop and the presbyters." The "three orders" are +essential to the church, without them no church is worthy of the name +(cf. _Trall._ 3). "It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to +baptize or to hold a love-feast" (_Smyrn._ 8). Respect is due to the +bishop as to God, to the presbyters as the council of God and the +college of apostles, to the deacons as to Jesus Christ (_Trall._ 3). +These terms must not, of course, be taken in their developed modern +sense. The "bishop" of Ignatius seems to represent the modern pastor of +a church. As Zahn has shown, Ignatius is not striving to introduce a +special form of ministry, nor is he endeavouring to substitute one form +for another. His particular interest is not so much in the form of +ministry as in the unity of the church. It is this that is his chief +concern. Centrifugal forces were at work. Differences of theological +opinion were arising. Churches had a tendency to split up into sections. +The age of the apostles had passed away and their successors did not +inherit their authority. The unity of the churches was in danger. +Ignatius was resisting this fatal tendency which threatened ruin to the +faith. The only remedy for it in those days was to exalt the authority +of the ministry and make it the centre of church life. It should be +noted that (1) there is no trace of the later doctrine of apostolical +succession; (2) the ministry is never sacerdotal in the letters of +Ignatius. As Lightfoot puts it: "The ecclesiastical order was enforced +by him (Ignatius) almost solely as a security for doctrinal purity. The +threefold ministry was the husk, the shell, which protected the precious +kernel of the truth" (i. 40). + +3. Ignatius fights most vehemently against the current forms of heresy. +The chief danger to the church came from the Docetists who denied the +reality of the humanity of Christ and ascribed to him a phantom body. +Hence we find Ignatius laying the utmost stress on the fact that Christ +"was _truly_ born and ate and drank, was _truly_ persecuted under +Pontius Pilate ... was _truly_ raised from the dead" (_Trall._ 9). "I +know that He was in the flesh even after the resurrection, and when He +came to Peter and his company, He said to them, 'Lay hold and handle me, +and see that I am not an incorporeal spirit'" (_Smyrn._ 3). Equally +emphatic is Ignatius's protest against a return to Judaism. "It is +monstrous to talk of Jesus Christ and to practise Judaism, for +Christianity did not believe in Judaism but Judaism in Christianity" +(_Magn._ 10). + +Reference must also be made to a few of the more characteristic points +in the theology of Ignatius. As far as Christology is concerned, +besides the insistence on the reality of the humanity of Christ already +mentioned, there are two other points which call for notice. (1) +Ignatius is the earliest writer outside the New Testament to describe +Christ under the categories of current philosophy; cf. the famous +passage in _Eph._ 7, "There is one only physician, of flesh and of +spirit ([Greek: sarkikos kai pneumatikos]), generate and ingenerate +([Greek: gennêtos kai agennêtos]), God in man, true life in death, son +of Mary and son of God, first passible and then impassible" ([Greek: +prôton pathêtos kai apathês]). (2) Ignatius is also the first writer +outside the New Testament to mention the Virgin Birth, upon which he +lays the utmost stress. "Hidden from the prince of this world were the +virginity of Mary and her child-bearing and likewise also the death of +the Lord, three mysteries to be cried aloud, the which were wrought in +the silence of God" (_Eph._ 19). Here, it will be observed, we have the +nucleus of the later doctrine of the deception of Satan. In regard to +the Eucharist also later ideas occur in Ignatius. It is termed a [Greek: +mystêrion] (_Trall._ 2), and the influence of the Greek mysteries is +seen in such language as that used in _Eph._ 20, where Ignatius +describes the Eucharistic bread as "the medicine of immortality and the +antidote against death." When Ignatius says too that "the heretics +abstain from Eucharist because they do not allow that the Eucharist is +the flesh of Christ," the words seem to imply that materialistic ideas +were beginning to find an entrance into the church (_Smyr._ 6). Other +points that call for special notice are: (1) Ignatius's rather +extravagant angelology. In one place for instance he speaks of himself +as being able to comprehend heavenly things and "the arrays of angels +and the musterings of principalities" (_Trall._ 5). (2) His view of the +Old Testament. In one important passage Ignatius emphatically states his +belief in the supremacy of Christ even over "the archives" of the faith, +i.e. the Old Testament: "As for me, my archives--my inviolable +archives--are Jesus Christ, His cross, His death, His resurrection and +faith through Him" (_Philadel._ 8). + + AUTHORITIES.--T. Zahn, _Ignatius von Antiochien_ (Gotha, 1873); J. B. + Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, part ii. (London, 2nd ed., 1889); F. + X. Funk, _Die Echtheit der ignat. Briefe_ (Tübingen, 1892); A. + Harnack, _Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur_ (Leipzig, 1897). + There is a good bibliography in G. Krüger, _Early Christian + Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1897, pp. 28-29). See also APOSTOLIC + FATHERS. (H. T. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In his short treatise "Of Prelatical Episcopacy," works iii. p. + 72 (Pickering, 1851). + + [2] _Theologisch. Tijdschrift_ (1892), 625-633. + + [3] _Ib._ (1886) 114-136; _Die Ignatianischen Briefe_ (1892). + + [4] _Ib._ (1893) 275-316. + + [5] But there are still a few scholars, e.g. van Manen and Völter, + who prefer a date about 150 or later; van Loon goes as late as 175. + See article "Old-Christian Literature," _Ency. Bib._ iii. col. 3488. + + + + +IGNORAMUS (Latin for "we do not know," "we take no notice of"), properly +an English law term for the endorsement on the bill of indictment made +by a grand jury when they "throw out" the bill, i.e. when they do not +consider that the case should go to a petty jury. The expression is now +obsolete, "not a true bill," "no bill," being used. The expressions +"ignoramus jury," "ignoramus Whig," &c., were common in the political +satires and pamphlets of the years following on the throwing out of the +bill for high treason against the 2nd earl of Shaftesbury in 1681. The +application of the term to an ignorant person dates from the early part +of the 17th century. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes two examples +illustrating the early connexion of the term with the law or lawyers. +George Ruggle (1575-1622) in 1615 wrote a Latin play with the title +Ignoramus, the name being also that of the chief character in it, +intended for one Francis Brakin, the recorder of Cambridge. It is a +satire against the ignorance and pettifogging of the common lawyers of +the day. It was answered by a prose tract (not printed till 1648) by one +Robert Callis, serjeant-at-law. This bore the title of _The Case and +Argument against Sir Ignoramus of Cambridge_. + + + + +IGNORANCE (Lat. _ignorantia_, from _ignorare_, not to know), want of +knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A +well-known legal maxim runs: _ignorantia juris non excusat_ ("ignorance +of the law does not excuse"). With this is sometimes coupled another +maxim: _ignorantia facti excusat_ ("ignorance of the fact excuses"). +That every one who has capacity to understand the law is presumed to +know it is a very necessary principle, for otherwise the courts would be +continually occupied in endeavouring to solve problems which by their +very impracticability would render the administration of justice next to +impossible. It would be necessary for the court to engage in endless +inquiries as to the true inwardness of a man's mind, whether his state +of ignorance existed at the time of the commission of the offence, +whether such a condition of mind was inevitable or brought about merely +by indifference on his part. Therefore, in English, as in Roman law, +ignorance of the law is no ground for avoiding the consequences of an +act. So far as regards criminal offences, the maxim as to _ignorantia +juris_ admits of no exception, even in the case of a foreigner +temporarily in England, who is likely to be ignorant of English law. In +Roman law the harshness of the rule was mitigated in the case of women, +soldiers and persons under the age of twenty-five, unless they had good +legal advice within reach (_Dig._ xxii. 6. 9). Ignorance of a matter of +fact may in general be alleged in avoidance of the consequences of acts +and agreements, but such ignorance cannot be pleaded where it is the +duty of a person to know, or where, having the means of knowledge at his +disposal, he wilfully or negligently fails to avail himself of it (see +CONTRACT). + +In logic, ignorance is that state of mind which for want of evidence is +equally unable to affirm or deny one thing or another. Doubt, on the +other hand, can neither affirm nor deny because the evidence seems +equally strong for both. For _Ignoratio Elenchi_ (ignorance of the +refutation) see FALLACY. + + + + +IGNORANTINES (_Frères Ignorantins_), a name given to the Brethren of the +Christian Schools (_Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes_), a religious +fraternity founded at Reims in 1680, and formally organized in 1683, by +the priest Jean Baptiste de la Salle, for the purpose of affording a +free education, especially in religion, to the children of the poor. In +addition to the three simple vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, +the brothers were required to give their services without any +remuneration and to wear a special habit of coarse black material, +consisting of a cassock, a hooded cloak with hanging sleeves and a +broad-brimmed hat. The name Ignorantine was given from a clause in the +rules of the order forbidding the admission of priests with a +theological education. Other popular names applied to the order are +_Frères de Saint-Yon_, from the house at Rouen, which was their +headquarters from 1705 till 1770, _Frères à quatre bras_, from their +hanging sleeves, and _Frères Fouetteurs_, from their former use of the +whip (_fouet_) in punishments. The order, approved by Pope Benedict +XIII. in 1724, rapidly spread over France, and although dissolved by the +National Assembly's decree in February 1790, was recalled by Napoleon I. +in 1804, and formally recognized by the French government in 1808. Since +then its members have penetrated into nearly every country of Europe, +and into America, Asia and Africa. They number about 14,000 members and +have over 2000 schools, and are the strongest Roman Catholic male order. +Though not officially connected with the Jesuits, their organization and +discipline are very similar. + + See J. B. Blain, _La Vie du vénérable J. B. de la Salle_ (Versailles, + 1887). + + + + +IGUALADA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on +the left bank of the river Noya, a right-hand tributary of the Llobregat, +and at the northern terminus of the Igualada-Martorell-Barcelona railway. +Pop. (1900) 10,442. Igualada is the central market of a rich agricultural +and wine-producing district. It consists of an old town with narrow and +irregular streets and the remains of a fortress and ramparts, and a new +town which possesses regular and spacious streets and many fine houses. +The local industries, chiefly developed since 1880, include the +manufacture of cotton, linen, wool, ribbons, cloth, chocolate, soap, +brandies, leather, cards and nails. The famous mountain and convent of +Montserrat or Monserrat (q.v.) is 12 m. E. + + + + +IGUANA, systematically _Iguanidae_ (Spanish quivalent of Carib _iwana_), +a family of pleurodont lizards, comprising about 50 genera and 300 +species. With three exceptions, all the genera of this extensive family +belong to the New World, being specially characteristic of the +Neotropical region, where they occur as far south as Patagonia, while +extending northward into the warmer parts of the Nearctic regions as far +as California and British Columbia. The exceptional genera are +_Brachylophus_ in the Fiji Islands, _Hoplurus_ and _Chalarodon_ in +Madagascar. The iguanas are characterized by the peculiar form of their +teeth, these being round at the root and blade-like, with serrated edges +towards the tip, resembling in this respect the gigantic extinct reptile +_Iguanodon_. The typical forms belonging to this family are +distinguished by the large dewlap or pouch situated beneath the head and +neck, and by the crest, composed of slender elongated scales, which +extends in gradually diminishing height from the nape of the neck to the +extremity of the tail. The latter organ is very long, slender and +compressed. The tongue is generally short and not deeply divided at its +extremity, nor is its base retracted into a sheath; it is always moist +and covered with a glutinous secretion. The prevailing colour of the +iguanas is green; and, as the majority of them are arboreal in their +habits, such colouring is generally regarded as protective. Those on the +other hand which reside on the ground have much duller, although as a +rule equally protective hues. Some iguanas, however (e.g. _Anolis +carolinensis_), possess, to an extent only exceeded by the chameleon, +the power of changing their colours, their brilliant green becoming +transformed under the influence of fear or irritation, into more sombre +hues and even into black. They differ greatly in size, from a few inches +to several feet in length. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Iguana.] + +One of the largest and most widely distributed is the common iguana +(_Iguana tuberculata_), which occurs in the tropical parts of Central +and South America and the West Indies, with the closely allied _I. +rhinolophus_. It attains a length of 6 ft., weighing then perhaps 30 +lb., and is of a greenish colour, occasionally mixed with brown, while +the tail is surrounded with alternate rings of those colours. Its food +consists of vegetable substances, mostly leaves, which it obtains from +the forest trees among whose branches it lives and in the hollows of +which it deposits its eggs. These are of an oblong shape about 1½ in. in +length, and are said by travellers to be very pleasant eating, +especially when taken raw, and mixed with farina. They are timid, +defenceless animals, depending for safety on the comparative +inaccessibility of their arboreal haunts, and their protective +colouring, which is rendered even more effective by their remaining +still on the approach of danger. But the favourite resorts of the iguana +are trees which overhang the water, into which they let themselves fall +with a splash, whatever the height of the tree, and then swim away, or +hide at the bottom for many minutes. Otherwise they exhibit few signs of +animal intelligence. "The iguana," says H. W. Bates (_The Naturalist on +the Amazons_), "is one of the stupidest animals I ever met. The one I +caught dropped helplessly from a tree just ahead of me; it turned round +for a moment to have an idiotic stare at the intruder and then set off +running along the path. I ran after it and it then stopped as a timid +dog would do, crouching down and permitting me to seize it by the neck +and carry it off." Along with several other species, notably _Ctenosura +acanthinura_, which is omnivorous, likewise called iguana, the common +iguana, is much sought after in tropical America; the natives esteem its +flesh a delicacy, and capture it by slipping a noose round its neck as +it sits in fancied security on the branch of a tree. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head of _Iguana rhinolophus_.] + +Although chiefly arboreal, many of the iguanas take readily to the +water; and there is at least one species, _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_, +which leads for the most part an aquatic life. These marine lizards +occur only in the Galapagos Islands, where they are never seen more than +20 yds. inland, while they may often be observed in companies several +hundreds of yards from the shore, swimming with great facility by means +of their flattened tails. Their feet are all more or less webbed, but in +swimming they are said to keep these organs motionless by their sides. +Their food consists of marine vegetation, to obtain which they dive +beneath the water, where they are able to remain, without coming to the +surface to breathe, for a very considerable time. Though they are thus +the most aquatic of lizards, Darwin, who studied their habits during his +visit to those islands, states that when frightened they will not enter +the water. Driven along a narrow ledge of rock to the edge of the sea, +they preferred capture to escape by swimming, while if thrown into the +water they immediately returned to the point from which they started. A +land species belonging to the allied genus _Conolophus_ also occurs in +the Galapagos, which differs from most of its kind in forming burrows in +the ground. + + + + +IGUANODON, a large extinct herbivorous land reptile from the Wealden +formation of western Europe, almost completely known by numerous +skeletons from Bernissart, near Mons, Belgium. It is a typical +representative of the ornithopodous (Gr. for bird-footed) Dinosauria. +The head is large and laterally compressed with a blunt snout, nearly +terminal nostrils and relatively small eyes. The sides of the jaws are +provided with a close series of grinding teeth, which are often worn +down to stumps; the front of the jaws forms a toothless beak, which +would be encased originally in a horny sheath. When unworn the teeth are +spatulate and crimped or serrated round the edge, closely resembling +those of the existing Central American lizard, _Iguana_--hence the name +_Iguanodon_ (Gr. Iguana-tooth) proposed by Mantell, the discoverer of +this reptile, in 1825. The bodies of the vertebrae are solid; and they +are convexo-concave (i.e. _opisthocoelous_) in the neck and anterior +part of the back, where there must have been much freedom of motion. The +hindquarters are comparatively large and heavy, while the tail is long, +deep and more or less laterally compressed, evidently adapted for +swimming. The small and mobile fore-limbs bear four complete fingers, +with the thumb reduced to a bony spur. The pelvis and hind-limbs much +resemble those of a running bird, such as those of an emu or the extinct +moa; but the basal bones (metatarsals) of the three-toed foot remain +separate throughout life, thus differing from those of the running +birds, which are firmly fused together even in the young adult. No +external armour has been found. The reptile doubtless frequented +marshes, feeding on the succulent vegetation, and often swimming in the +water. Footprints prove that when on land it walked habitually on its +hind-limbs. + +[Illustration: Skeleton of _Iguanadon bernissartensis_. (After Dollo.)] + +The earliest remains of _Iguanodon_ were found by Dr G. A. Mantell in +the Wealden formation of Sussex, and a large part of the skeleton, +lacking the head, was subsequently discovered in a block of ragstone in +the Lower Greensand near Maidstone, Kent. These fossils, which are now +in the British Museum, were interpreted by Dr Mantell, who made +comparisons with the skeleton of _Iguana_, on the erroneous supposition +that the resemblance in the teeth denoted some relationship to this +existing lizard. Several of the bones, however, could not be understood +until the much later discoveries of Mr S. H. Beckles in the Wealden +cliffs near Hastings; and an accurate knowledge of the skeleton was only +obtained when many complete specimens were disinterred by the Belgian +government from the Wealden beds at Bernissart, near Mons, during the +years 1877-1880. These skeletons, which now form the most striking +feature of the Brussels Museum, evidently represent a large troop of +animals which were suddenly destroyed and buried in a deep ravine or +gully. The typical species, _Iguanodon mantelli_, measures 5 to 6 metres +in length, while _I. bernissartensis_ (see fig.) attains a length of 8 +to 10 metres. They are found both at Bernissart and in the south of +England, while other species are also known from Sussex. Nearly complete +skeletons of allied reptiles have been discovered in the Jurassic and +Cretaceous rocks of North America. + + REFERENCES.--G. A. Mantell, _Petrifactions and their Teaching_ + (London, 1851); L. Dollo, papers in _Bull. Mus. Roy. d'Hist. Nat. + Belg._, vols. i.-iii. (1882-1884). (A. S. Wo.) + + + + +IGUVIUM (mod. Gubbio, q.v.), a town of Umbria, situated among the +mountains, about 23 m. N.N.E. of Perusia and connected with it by a +by-road, which joined the Via Flaminia near the temple of Jupiter +Appenninus, at the modern Scheggia. It appears to have been an important +place in pre-Roman times, both from its coins and from the celebrated +_tabulae Iguvinae_ (see below). + +We find it in possession of a treaty with Rome, similar to that of the +Camertes Umbri; and in 167 B.C. it was used as a place of safe custody +for the Illyrian King Gentius and his sons (Livy xlv. 43). After the +Social War, in which it took no part, it received Roman citizenship. At +that epoch it must have received full citizen rights since it was +included in the tribus Clustumina (_C.I.L._ xi. e.g. 5838). In 49 B.C. +it was occupied by Minucius Thermus on behalf of Pompey, but he +abandoned the town. Under the empire we hear almost nothing of it. +Silius Italicus mentions it as subject to fogs. A bishop of Iguvium is +mentioned as early as A.D. 413. It was taken and destroyed by the Goths +in 552, but rebuilt with the help of Narses. The Umbrian town had three +gates only, and probably lay on the steep mountain side as the present +town does, while the Roman city lay in the lower ground. Here is the +theatre, which, as an inscription records, was restored by Cn. Satrius +Rufus in the time of Augustus. The diameter of the orchestra is 76½ ft. +and of the whole 230 ft., so that it is a building of considerable size; +the stage is well preserved and so are parts of the external arcades of +the auditorium. Not far off are ruins probably of ancient baths, and the +concrete core of a large tomb with a vaulted chamber within. (T. As.) + +Of Latin inscriptions (_C.I.L._ xi. 5803-5926) found at Iguvium two or +three are of Augustan date, but none seem to be earlier. A Latin +inscription of Iguvium (_C.I.L._ xi. 5824) mentions a priest whose +functions are characteristic of the place "L. Veturius Rufio avispex +extispecus, sacerdos publicus et privatus." + +The ancient town is chiefly celebrated for the famous _Iguvine_ (less +correctly _Eugubine_) _Tables_, which were discovered there in 1444, +bought by the municipality in 1456, and are still preserved in the town +hall. A Dominican, Leandro Alberti (_Descrizione d'Italia_, 1550), +states that they were originally nine in number, and an independent +authority, Antonio Concioli (_Statuta civitatis Eugubii_, 1673), states +that two of the nine were taken to Venice in 1540 and never reappeared. +The existing seven were first published in a careful but largely +mistaken transcript by Buonarotti in 1724, as an appendix to Dempster's +_De Etruria Regali_.[1] + +The first real advance towards their interpretation was made by Otfried +Müller (_Die Etrusker_, 1828), who pointed out that though their +alphabet was akin to the Etruscan their language was Italic. Lepsius, in +his essay _De tabulis Eugubinis_ (1833), finally determined the value of +the Umbrian signs and the received order of the Tables, pointing out +that those in Latin alphabet were the latest. He subsequently published +what may be called the _editio princeps_ in 1841. The first edition, +with a full commentary based on scientific principles, was that of +Aufrecht and Kirchhoff in 1849-1851, and on this all subsequent +interpretations are based (Bréal, Paris, 1875; Bücheler, _Umbrica_, +Bonn, 1883, a reprint and enlargement of articles in Fleckeisen's +_Jahrbuch_, 1875, pp. 127 and 313). The text is everywhere perfectly +legible, and is excellently represented in photographs by the marquis +Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, published with Bréal's edition. + + _Language._--The dialect in which this ancient set of liturgies is + written is usually known as Umbrian, as it is the only monument we + possess of any length of the tongue spoken in the Umbrian district + before it was latinized (see UMBRIA). The name, however, is certainly + too wide, since an inscription from Tuder of, probably, the 3rd + century B.C. (R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, 352) shows a final + -_s_ and a medial -_d_-, both apparently preserved from the changes + which befell these sounds, as we shall see, in the dialect of Iguvium. + On the other hand, inscriptions of Fulginia and Assisium (ibid. + 354-355) agree very well, so far as they go, with Iguvine. It is + especially necessary to make clear that the language known as Umbrian + is that of a certain limited area, which cannot yet be shown to have + extended very far beyond the eastern half of the Tiber valley (from + Interamna Nahartium to Urvinum Mataurense), because the term is often + used by archaeologists with a far wider connotation to include all the + Italic, pre-Etruscan inhabitants of upper Italy; Professor Ridgeway, + for instance, in his _Early Age of Greece_, frequently speaks of the + "Umbrians" as the race to which belonged the Villanova culture of the + Early Iron age. It is now one of the most urgent problems in the + history of Italy to determine the actual historical relation (see + further ROME: _History, ad. init._) between the [Greek: 'Ombroi] of, + say, Herodotus and the language of Iguvium, of which we may now offer + some description, using the term Umbrian strictly in this sense. + + Under the headings LATIN LANGUAGE and OSCA LINGUA there have been + collected (1) the points which separate all the Italic languages from + their nearest congeners, and (2) those which separate Osco-Umbrian + from Latin. We have now to notice (3) the points in which Umbrian has + diverged from Oscan. The first of them antedates by six or seven + centuries the similar change in the Romance languages (see ROMANCE + LANGUAGES). + + (1) The palatalization of _k_ and _g_ before a following _i_ or _e_, + or consonant _i_ as in _tiçit_ (i.e. _diçit_) = Lat. _decet_; _muieto_ + past part. passive (pronounced as though the _i_ were an English or + French _j_) beside Umb. imperative _mugatu_, Lat. _mugire_. + + (2) The loss of final -_d_, e.g. in the abl. sing. fem. Umb. _tota_ = + Osc. _toutad_. + + (3) The change of _d_ between vowels to a sound akin to _r_, written + by a special symbol q (_d_) in Umbrian alphabet and by RS in Latin + alphabet, e.g. _teda_ in Umbrian alphabet = _dirsa_ in Latin alphabet + (see below), "let him give," exactly equivalent to Paelignian _dida_ + (see PAELIGNI). + + (4) The change of -_s_- to -_r_- between vowels as in _erom_, "esse" = + Osc. _ezum_, and the gen. plur. fem. ending in -_aru_ = Lat. -_arum_, + Osc. -_azum_. + + To this there appear a long string of exceptions, e.g. _asa_ = Lat. + _ara_. These are generally regarded as mere archaisms, and + unfortunately the majority of them are in words of whose origin and + meaning very little is known, so that (for all we can tell) in many + the -_s_- may represent -_ss_- or -_ps_- as in _osatu_ = Lat. + _operato_, cf. Osc. _opsaom_. + + (5) The change of final -_ns_ to -_f_ as in the acc. plur. masc. + _vitluf_ = Lat. _vitulos_. + + (6) In the latest stage of the dialect (see below) the change of final + -_s_ to -_r_, as in abl. plur. _arver_, _arviis_, i.e. "arvorum + frugibus." + + (7) The decay of all diphthongs; _ai_, _oi_, _ei_ all become a + monophthong variously written _e_ and _i_ (rarely _ei_), as in the + dat. sing. fem. _tote_, "civitati"; dat. sing. masc. _pople_, + "populo"; loc. sing. masc. _onse_ (from *_om(e)sei_), "in umero." So + _au_, _eu_, _ou_ all become _o_, as in _ote_ = Osc. _auti_, Lat. + _aut_. + + (8) The change of initial _l_ to _v_, as in _vutu_ = Lat. _lavito_. + + Owing to the peculiar character of the Tables no grammatical statement + about Umbrian is free from difficulty; and these bare outlines of its + phonology must be supplemented by reference to the lucid discussion in + C. D. Buck's _Oscan and Umbrian Grammar_ (Boston, 1904), or to the + earlier and admirably complete _Oskischumbrische Grammatik_ of R. von + Planta (Strassburg, 1892-1897). Some of the most important questions + are discussed by R. S. Conway in _The Italic Dialects_, vol. ii. p. + 495 seq. + + Save for the consequences of these phonetic changes, Umbrian + morphology and syntax exhibit no divergence from Oscan that need be + mentioned here, save perhaps two peculiar perfect-formations with + -_l_- and -_nçi_-; as in _ampelust_, fut. perf. "impenderit," + _combifiançiust_, "nuntiaverit" (or the like). Full accounts of the + accidence and syntax, so far as it is represented in the inscriptions, + will be found in the grammars of Buck and von Planta already + mentioned, and in the second volume of Conway, _op. cit._ + + _Chronology._ (I.) _The Relative Dates of the Tables._--At least four + periods in the history of the dialect can be distinguished in the + records we have left to us, by the help of the successive changes (a) + in alphabet and (b) in language, which the Tables exhibit. Of these + only the outstanding features can be mentioned here; for a fuller + discussion the reader must be referred to _The Italic Dialects_, pp. + 400 sqq. + + (a) _Changes in Alphabet._--Observe first that Tables I., II., III. + and IV., and the first two inscriptions of V. are in Umbrian + character; the Latin alphabet is used in the _Claverniur_ paragraph + (V. iii.), and the whole of VI. (_a_ and _b_) and VII. (_a_ and _b_). + + What we may call the normal Umbrian alphabet (in which e.g. Table I. + _a_ is written) consists of the following signs, the writing being + always from right to left: [Symbols: A a, B b, D d] (i.e. a sound akin + to _r_ derived from _d_), [Symbols: E e, F v, Z z, H h, I i, K k] and + g, [Symbols: L l, M m, N n, P p, R r, S s X t] and d, V u and o, + [Symbols: F f, S s] (i.e. a voiceless palatal consonant.) + + In the Latin alphabet, in which Tables VI. and VII. and the third + inscription of Table V. are written, _d_ is represented by RS, _g_ by + G, but _k_ by C, _d_ by D, _t_ by T, _v_ and _u_ by V but _o_ by O, s + by S, though the diacritic is often omitted. The interpunct is double + with the Umbrian alphabet, single and medial with the Latin. + + Tables VI. and VII., then, and V. iii., were written later than the + rest. But even in the earlier group certain variations appear. + + The latest form of the Umbrian alphabet is that of Table V. i. and + ii., where the abbreviated form of _m_ (^) and the angular and + undivided form of _k_ ([Symbols: k not K] are especially + characteristic. + + Nearest to this is that of Tables III. and IV., which form a single + document; then that of I. (a) and (b); earliest would seem that of II. + (a) and II. (b). In II. _a_, 18 and 24, we have the archaic letter + _san_ (M = _s_) of the abecedaria (E. S. Roberts, _Int. Gr. Epig._ pp. + 17 ff.), which appears in no other Italic nor in any Chalcidian + inscription, though it survived longer in Etruscan and Venetic use. + Against this may be set the use of [Symbol: O] for _t_ in I. _b_ 1, + but this appears also in IV. 20 and should be called rather Etruscan + than archaic. These characteristics of II. _a_ and _b_ would be in + themselves too slight to prove an earlier date, but they have perhaps + some weight as confirming the evidence of the language. + + (b) _Changes in Language._--The evidence of date derived from changes + in the language is more difficult to formulate, and the inquiry calls + for the most diligent use of scientific method and critical judgment. + Its intricacy lies in the character of the documents before + us--religious formularies consisting partly of matter established in + usage long before they were written down in their present shape, + partly of additions made at the time of writing. The best example of + this is furnished by the expansion and modernisation of the + subject-matter of Table I. into Tables VI. and VII._a_. Hence we + frequently meet with forms which had passed out of the language that + was spoken at the time they were engraved, side by side with their + equivalents in that language. We may distinguish four periods, as + follows: + + 1. The first period is represented, not by any complete table, but by + the old unmodernised forms of Tables III. and IV., which show the + original guttural plosives unpalatalized, e.g. _kebu_ = Lat. _cibum_. + + 2. In the second period the gutturals have been palatalized, but there + yet is no change of final _s_ to _r_. This is represented by the rest + of III. and IV. and by II. (_a_ and _b_). + + 3. In the third period final _s_ has everywhere become _r_. This + appears in V. (i. and ii. and also iii.). Table I. is a copy or + redraft made from older documents during this period. This is shown by + the occasional appearance of _r_ instead of final _s_. + + 4. Soon after the dialect had reached its latest form, the Latin + alphabet was adopted. Tables VI. and VII._a_ contain an expanded form + of the same liturgical direction as Table I. + + It is probable that further research will amend this classification in + detail, but its main lines are generally accepted. + + (II.) _Actual Date of the Tables._--Only the leading points can be + mentioned here. + + (i.) The Latin alphabet of the latest Tables resembles that of the + _Tabula Bantina_, and might have been engraved at almost any time + between 150 B.C. and 50 B.C. It is quite likely that the closer + relations with Rome, which began after the Social War, led to the + adoption of the Latin alphabet. Hence we should infer that the Tables + in Umbrian alphabet were at all events older than 90 B.C. + + (ii.) For an upper limit of date, in default of definite evidence, it + seems imprudent to go back beyond the 5th century B.C., since neither + in Rome nor Campania have we any evidence of public written documents + of any earlier century. When more is known of the earliest Etruscan + inscriptions it may become possible to date the Iguvine Tables by + their alphabetic peculiarities as compared with their mother-alphabet, + the Etruscan. The "Tuscan name" is denounced in the comprehensive + curse of Table VI. b, 53-60, and we may infer that the town of Iguvium + was independent but in fear of the Etruscans at the time when the + curse was first composed. The absence of all mention of either Gauls + or Romans seems to prove that this time was at least earlier than 400 + B.C.; and the curse may have been composed long before it was written + down. + + The chief sources in which further information may be sought have been + already mentioned. (R. S. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A portion of this article is taken by permission from R. S. + Conway's _Italic Dialects_ (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897). + + + + +IJOLITE (derived from the first syllable of the Finnish words _Jiwaru_, +_Jijoki_, &c., common as geographical names in the Kola peninsula, and +the Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone), a rock consisting essentially of +nepheline and augite, and of great rarity, but of considerable +importance from a mineralogical and petrographical standpoint. It occurs +in various parts of the Kola peninsula in north Finland on the shores of +the White Sea. The pyroxene is morphic, yellow or green, and is +surrounded by formless areas of nepheline. The accessory minerals are +apatite, cancrinite, calcite, titanite and jiwaarite, a dark-brown +titaniferous variety of melanite-garnet. This rock is the plutonic and +holocrystalline analogue of the nephelenites and nepheline-dolerites; +it bears the same relation to them as the nepheline-syenites have to the +phonolites. It is worth mentioning that a leucite-augite rock, +resembling ijolite except in containing leucite in place of nepheline, +is known to occur at Shonkin Creek, near Fort Benton, Montana, and has +been called missourite. + + + + +IKI, an island belonging to Japan, lying off the north-western coast of +Kiushiu, in 33° 45´ N. lat. and 129° 40´ E. long. It has a circumference +of 86 m., an area of 51 sq. m., and a population of 36,530. The island +is, for the most part, a tableland about 500 ft. above sea-level. The +anchorage is at Gonoura, on the south-west. A part of Kublai Khan's +Mongols landed at Iki when about to invade Japan in the 13th century, +for it lies in the direct route from Korea to Japan via Tsushima. In the +immediate vicinity are several rocky islets. + + + + +ILAGAN, the capital of the province of Isabela, Luzon, Philippine +Islands, on an elevated site at the confluence of the Pinacanauan river +with the Grande de Cagayan, about 200 m. N.N.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) +16,008. The neighbouring country is the largest tobacco-producing +section in the Philippines. + + + + +ILCHESTER, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of +Somersetshire, England, in the valley of the river Ivel or Yeo, 5 m. +N.W. of Yeovil. It is connected by a stone bridge with the village of +Northover on the other side of the river. Ilchester has lost the +importance it once possessed, and had in 1901 a population of only 564, +but its historical interest is considerable. The parish church of St +Mary is Early English and Perpendicular, with a small octagonal tower, +but has been largely restored in modern times. The town possesses +almshouses founded in 1426, a picturesque cross, and a curious ancient +mace of the former corporation. + +Ilchester (_Cair Pensavelcoit_, _Ischalis_, _Ivelcestre_, +_Yevelchester_) was a fortified British settlement, and subsequently a +military station of the Romans, whose Fosse Way passed through it. Its +importance continued in Saxon times, and in 1086 it was a royal borough +with 107 burgesses. In 1180 a gild merchant was established, and the +county gaol was completed in 1188. Henry II. granted a charter, +confirmed by John in 1203, which gave Ilchester the same liberties as +Winchester, with freedom from tolls and from being impleaded without the +walls, the fee farm being fixed at £26, 10s. 0d. The bailiffs of +Ilchester are mentioned before 1230. The borough was incorporated in +1556, the fee farm being reduced to £8. Ilchester was the centre of the +county administration from the reign of Edward III. until the 19th +century, when the change from road to rail travelling completed the +decay of the town. Its place has been taken by Taunton. The corporation +was abolished in 1886. Parliamentary representation began in 1298, and +the town continued to return two members until 1832. A fair on the 29th +of August was granted by the charter of 1203. Other fairs on the 27th of +December, the 21st of July, and the Monday before Palm Sunday, were held +under a charter of 1289. The latter, fixed as the 25th of March, was +still held at the end of the 18th century, but there is now no fair. The +Wednesday market dates from before the Conquest. The manufacture of +thread lace was replaced by silk weaving about 1750, but this has +decayed. + + + + +ÎLE-DE-FRANCE, an old district of France, forming a kind of island, +bounded by the Seine, the Marne, the Beuvronne, the Thève and the Oise. +In this sense the name is not found in written documents before 1429; +but in the second half of the 15th century it designated a wide military +province of government, bounded N. by Picardy, W. by Normandy, S. by +Orléanais and Nivernais, and E. by Champagne. Its capital was Paris. +From the territory of Île-de-France were formed under the Revolution the +department of the Seine, together with the greater part of +Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Oise and Aisne, and a small part of +Loiret and Nièvre. (The term Île-de-France is also used for Mauritius, +q.v.). + + See A. Longnon, "L'Île-de-France, son origine, ses limites, ses + gouverneurs," in the _Mémoires de la Société de l'histoire de Paris et + de l'Île-de-France_, vol. i. (1875). + + + + +ILETSK, formerly _Fort Iletskaya Zashchita_, a town of Russia, in the +government of Orenburg, 48 m. S. of the town of Orenburg by the railway +to Tashkent, near the Ilek river, a tributary of the Ural. Pop. 11,802 +in 1897. A thick bed of excellent rock-salt is worked here to the extent +of about 100,000 tons annually. The place is resorted to for its salt, +mud and brine baths, and its koumiss cures. + + + + +ILFELD, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated +at the south foot of the Harz, at the entrance to the Bährethal, 8 m. N. +from Nordhausen by the railway to Wernigerode. Pop. 1600. It contains an +Evangelical church, a celebrated gymnasium, once a monasterial school, +with a fine library, and manufactures of parquet-flooring, paper and +plaster of Paris, while another industry in the town is brewing. It is +also of some repute as a health resort. + +Ilfeld, as a town, dates from the 14th century, when it sprang up round +a Benedictine monastery. Founded about 1190 this latter was reformed in +1545, and a year later converted into the school mentioned above, which +under the rectorship of Michael Neander (1525-1595) enjoyed a reputation +for scholarship which it has maintained until to-day. + + See Förstemann, _Monumenta rerum Ilfeldensium_ (Nordhausen, 1843); M. + Neander, _Bericht vom Kloster Ilfeld_, edited by Bouterwek (Göttingen, + 1873); and K. Meyer, _Geschichte des Klosters Ilfeld_ (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +ILFORD [GREAT ILFORD], an urban district in the Romford parliamentary +division of Essex, England, on the Roding, 7 m. E.N.E. of London by the +Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 10,913, (1901) 41,234. A portion of +Hainault Forest lies within the parish. The hospital of St Mary and St +Thomas, founded in the 12th century as a leper hospital, now contains +almshouses and a chapel, and belongs to the marquess of Salisbury, who +as "Master" is required to maintain a chaplain and six aged inmates. The +chapel appears to be of the date of this foundation. Claybury Hall is a +lunatic asylum (1893) of the London County Council. There are large +photographic material works and paper mills. LITTLE ILFORD is a parish +on the opposite (west) side of the Roding. The church of St Mary retains +Norman portions, and has a curious monumental brass commemorating a boy +in school-going clothes (1517). Pop. (1901) 17,915. + + + + +ILFRACOMBE, a seaport and watering-place in the Barnstaple parliamentary +division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol Channel, 225 m. W. by S. +of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 8557. The picturesque old town, built on the cliffs above its +harbour, consists of one street stretching for about a mile through a +network of lanes. Behind it rise the terraces of a more modern town, +commanding a fine view across the Channel. With its beautiful scenery +and temperate climate, Ilfracombe is frequented by visitors both in +summer and winter. Grand rugged cliffs line the coast; while, inland, +the country is celebrated for the rich colouring of its woods and glens. +Wooded heights form a semicircle round the town, which is protected from +sea winds by Capstone Hill. Along the inner face of this rock has been +cut the Victoria Promenade, a long walk roofed with glass and used for +concerts. The restored church of Holy Trinity dates originally from the +12th century. Sea-bathing is insecure, and is confined to a few small +coves, approached by tunnels hewn through the rock. The harbour, a +natural recess among the cliffs, is sheltered on the east by Hilsborough +Head, where there are some alleged Celtic remains; on the west by +Lantern Hill, where the ancient chapel of St Nicholas has been +transformed into a lighthouse. In summer, passenger steamers run to and +from Ilfracombe pier; but the shipping trade generally has declined, +though herring fisheries are carried on with success. In the latter part +of the 13th century Ilfracombe obtained a grant for holding a fair and +market, and in the reign of Edward III. it was a place of such +importance as to supply him with six ships and ninety-six men for his +armament against Calais. During the Civil War, being garrisoned for the +Roundheads, it was in 1644 captured by the Royalists, but in 1646 it +fell into the hands of Fairfax. + + + + +ILHAVO, a seaport in the district of Aveiro, formerly included in the +province of Beira, Portugal, 3 m. S.W. of Aveiro (q.v.), on the lagoon +of Aveiro, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 12,617. Ilhavo is +inhabited chiefly by fishermen, but has a celebrated manufactory of +glass and porcelain, the Vista-Alegre, at which the art of glass-cutting +has reached a high degree of perfection. Salt is largely exported. +Ilhavo is celebrated for the beauty of its women. It is said to have +been founded by Greek colonists about 400 B.C., but this tradition is of +doubtful validity. + + + + +ILI, one of the principal rivers of Central Asia, in the Russian +province of Semiryechensk. The head-stream, called the Tekez, rises at +an altitude of 11,600 ft. E. of Lake Issyk-kul, in 82° 25´ E. and 43° +23´ N., on the W. slopes of mount Kash-katur. At first it flows eastward +and north-eastward, until, after emerging from the mountains, it meets +the Kungez, and then, assuming the name of Ili, it turns westwards and +flows between the Trans-Ili Ala-tau mountains on the south and the +Boro-khoro and Talki ranges on the north for about 300 m. to Iliysk. The +valley between 79° 30´ and 82° E. is 50 m. wide, and the portion above +the town of Kulja (Old Kulja) is fertile and populous, Taranchi villages +following each other in rapid succession, and the pastures being well +stocked with sheep and cattle and horses. At Iliysk the river turns +north-west, and after traversing a region of desert and marsh falls by +at least seven mouths into the Balkash Lake, the first bifurcation of +the delta taking place about 115 m. up the river. But it is only the +southern arm of the delta that permanently carries water. The total +length of the river is over 900 m. From Old Kulja to New Kulja the Ili +is navigable for at most only two and a half months in the year, and +even then considerable difficulty is occasioned by the shoals and +sandbanks. From New Kulja to Iliysk (280 m.) navigation is easy when the +water is high, and practicable even at its lowest for small boats. At +Iliysk there is a ferry on the road from Kopal to Vyernyi. The principal +tributaries of the Ili are the Kash, Chilik and Charyn. A vast number of +streams flow towards it from the mountains on both sides, but most of +them are used up by the irrigation canals and never reach their goal. +The wealth of coal in the valley is said to be great, and when the +Chinese owned the country they worked gold and silver with profit. Fort +Ili or Iliysk, a modern Russian establishment, must not be confounded +with Ili, the old capital of the Chinese province of the same name. The +latter, otherwise known as Hoi-yuan-chen, New Kulja (Gulja), or Manchu +Kulja, was formerly a city of 70,000 inhabitants, but now lies +completely deserted. Old Kulja, Tatar Kulja or Nin-yuan, is now the +principal town of the district. The Chinese district of Ili formerly +included the whole of the valley of the Ili river as far as Issyk-kul, +but now only its upper part. Its present area is about 27,000 sq. m. and +its population probably 70,000. It belongs administratively to the +province of Sin-kiang or East Turkestan. (See KULJA.) + + + + +ILION, a village of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A., about 12 m. S.E. +of Utica, on the S. bank of the Mohawk river. Pop. (1890) 4057; (1900) +5138 (755 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 5924; (1910) 6588. It is +served by the New York Central & Hudson river, and the West Shore +railways, by the Utica & Mohawk Valley Electric railroad, and by the +Erie canal. It has a public library (1868) of about 13,500 volumes, a +public hospital and a village hall. The village owns its water-works and +its electric-lighting plant. Its principal manufactures are Remington +typewriters and Remington fire-arms (notably the Remington rifle); other +manufactures are filing cabinets and cases and library and office +furniture (the Clark & Baker Co.), knit goods, carriages and harness, +and store fixtures. In 1828 Eliphalet Remington (1793-1861) established +here a small factory for the manufacture of rifles. He invented, and, +with the assistance of his sons, Philo (1816-1889), Samuel and +Eliphalet, improved the famous Remington rifle, which was adopted by +several European governments, and was supplied in large numbers to the +United States army. In 1856 the company added the manufacture of farming +tools, in 1870 sewing-machines, and in 1874 typewriters. The last-named +industry was sold to the Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict Company in 1886, +and soon afterwards, on the failure of the original Remington company, +the fire-arms factory was bought by a New York City firm. A store was +established on the present site of Ilion as early as 1816, but the +village really dates from the completion of the Erie canal in 1825. On +the canal list it was called Steele's Creek, but it was also known as +Morgan's Landing, and from 1830 to 1843 as Remington's Corners. The +post-office, which was established in 1845, was named Remington, in +honour of Eliphalet Remington; but later the present name was adopted. +The village was incorporated in 1852. Ilion is a part of the township of +German Flats (pop. in 1900, 8663; in 1910, 10,160), settled by +Palatinate Germans about 1725. The township was the scene of several +Indian raids during the French and Indian War and the War of +Independence. Here General Herkimer began his advance to raise the siege +of Fort Schuyler (1777), and subsequently Ilion was the rendezvous of +Benedict Arnold's force during the same campaign. + + + + +ILKESTON, a market town and municipal borough, in the Ilkeston +parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Derby, on +the Midland and the Great Northern railways. Pop. (1891) 19,744, (1901) +25,384. It is situated on a hill commanding fine views of the Erewash +valley. The church of St Mary is Norman and Early English, and has a +fine chancel screen dating from the later part of the 13th century. The +manufactures of the town are principally hosiery and lace, and various +kinds of stoneware. Coal and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood. An +alkaline mineral spring, resembling the seltzer water of Germany, was +discovered in 1830, and baths were then erected, which, however, were +subsequently closed. The town, which is very ancient, being mentioned in +Domesday, obtained a grant for a market and fair in 1251, and received +its charter of incorporation in 1887. It is governed by a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2526 acres. + + + + +ILKLEY, an urban district in the Otley parliamentary division of the +West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m. N.W. from Leeds, on the Midland +and the North-Eastern railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7455. It +is beautifully situated in the upper part of the valley of the Wharfe, +and owing to the fine scenery of the neighbourhood, and to the bracing +air of the high moorlands above the valley, has become a favourite +health resort. Here and at Ben Rhydding, 1 m. E., are several +hydropathic establishments. The church of All Saints is in the main +Decorated, largely restored in 1860. Three ancient sculptured crosses +are preserved in the churchyard. The institutions include a museum of +local antiquities, a grammar school, the Siemens Convalescent Home and +the Ilkley Bath Charitable Institution. The fine remains of Bolton Abbey +lie in the Wharfe valley, 5 m. above Ilkley. Ilkley has been identified +with the _Olicana_ of Ptolemy, one of the towns of the British tribe of +the Brigantes. There was a Roman fort near the present church of All +Saints, and the site has yielded inscriptions and other small remains. +Numerous relics are preserved in the museum. + + + + +ILL, a river of Germany, entirely within the imperial territory of +Alsace-Lorraine. It rises on a north foothill of the Jura, S.W. of +Basel, and flows N.N.E. parallel with the Rhine, which it enters from +the left, 9 m. below Strassburg. Its course lies for the most part +through low meadowland; and the stream, which is 123 m. long, receives +numerous small affluents, which pour out of the short narrow valleys of +the Vosges. It is navigable from Ladhof near Colmar to its confluence +with the Rhine, a distance of 59 m. It is on this river, and not on the +Rhine, that the principal towns of Upper Alsace are situated, e.g. +Mülhausen, Colmarl, Schlettstadt and Strassburg. The Ill feeds two +important canals, the Rhine-Marne canal and the Rhine-Rhone canal, both +starting from the neighbourhood of Strassburg. + + + + +ILLAWARRA, a beautiful and fertile district of New South Wales, +Australia, extending from a point 33 m. S. of Sydney, along the coast +southwards for 40 m. to Shoalhaven. It is thickly populated, and +supplies Sydney with the greater part of its dairy produce. There are +also numerous collieries, producing coal of superior quality, and iron +ore, fireclay and freestone are plentiful. The Illawarra Lake, a salt +lagoon, 9 m. long and 3 m. wide, is encircled by hills and is connected +with the sea by a narrow channel; quantities of fish are caught in it +and wild fowl are abundant along its shores. The chief towns in the +district are Wollongong, Kiama, Clifton and Shellharbour. + + + + +ILLE-ET-VILAINE, a maritime department of north-western France, formed +in 1790 out of the eastern part of the old province of Brittany. Pop. +(1906) 611,805. Area 2699 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the English +Channel, the Bay of St Michel and the department of Manche; E. by +Mayenne; S. by Loire-Inférieure; and W. by Morbihan and Côtes-du-Nord. +The territory of Ille-et-Vilaine constitutes a depression bordered by +hills which reach their maximum altitudes (over 800 ft.) in the N.E. and +W. of the department. The centre of this depression, which separates the +hills of Brittany from those of Normandy, is occupied by Rennes, capital +of the department and an important junction of roads, rivers and +railways. The department takes its name from its two principal rivers, +the Ille and the Vilaine. The former joins the Vilaine at Rennes after a +course of 18 m. through the centre of the department; and the latter, +which rises in Mayenne, flows westwards as far as Rennes, where it turns +abruptly south. The stream is tidal up to the port of Redon, and is +navigable for barges as far as Rennes. The Vilaine receives the Meu and +the Seiche, which are both navigable. There are two other navigable +streams, the Airon and the Rance, the long estuary of which falls almost +entirely within the department. The Ille-et-Rance canal connects the +town of Rennes with those of Dinan and St Malo. The greater portion of +the shore of the Bay of St Michel is covered by the Marsh of Dol, +valuable agricultural land, which is protected from the inroads of the +sea by dykes. Towards the open channel the coast is rocky. Small lakes +are frequent in the interior of the department. The climate is +temperate, humid and free from sudden changes. The south-west winds, +while they keep the temperature mild, also bring frequent showers, and +in spring and autumn thick fogs prevail. The soil is thin and not very +fertile, but has been improved by the use of artificial manure. Cereals +of all kinds are grown, but the principal are wheat, buckwheat, oats and +barley. Potatoes, early vegetables, flax and hemp are also largely +grown, and tobacco is cultivated in the arrondissement of St Malo. +Apples and pears are the principal fruit, and the cider of the canton of +Dol has a high reputation. Cheese is made in considerable quantities, +and the butter of Rennes is amongst the best in France. Large numbers of +horses and cattle are raised. Mines of iron, lead and zinc (Pont-Péan) +and quarries of slate, granite, &c., are worked. There are flour and +saw-mills, brick works, boat-building yards, iron and copper foundries +and forges, dyeworks, and a widespread tanning industry. Sail-cloth, +rope, pottery, boots and shoes (Fougères), edge-tools, nails, farming +implements, paper and furniture are also among the products of the +department. The chief ports are St Malo and St Servan. Fishing is very +active on the coast, and St Malo, St Servan and Cancale equip fleets for +the Newfoundland cod-banks. There are also important oyster-fisheries in +the Bay of St Michel, especially at Cancale. The little town of Dinard +is well known as a fashionable bathing-resort. Exports include +agricultural products, butter, mine-posts and dried fish; imports, +live-stock, coal, timber, building materials and American wheat. The +department is served by the Western railway, and has over 130 m. of +navigable waterway. The population is of less distinctively Celtic +origin than the Bretons of Western Brittany, between whom and the +Normans and Angevins it forms a transitional group. Ille-et-Vilaine is +divided into the arrondissements of Fougères, St Malo, Montfort-sur-Meu, +Redon, Rennes and Vitré, with 43 cantons and 360 communes. The chief +town is Rennes, which is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of +appeal, headquarters of the X. army corps, and the centre of an académie +(educational division). + +In addition to the capital, Fougères, St Malo, St Servan, Redon, Vitré, +Dol, Dinard and Cancale are the towns of chief importance and are +separately noticed. At Combourg there is a picturesque château of the +14th and 15th centuries where Chateaubriand passed a portion of his +early life. St Aubin-du-Cormier has the ruins of an important feudal +fortress of the 13th century built by the dukes of Brittany for the +protection of their eastern frontier. Montfort-sur-Meu has a cylindrical +keep of the 15th century which is a survival of its old ramparts. + + + + +ILLEGITIMACY (from "illegitimate," Lat. _illegitimus_, not in accordance +with law, hence born out of lawful wedlock), the state of being of +illegitimate birth. The law dealing with the legitimation of children +born out of wedlock will be found under LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION. How +far the prevalence of illegitimacy in any community can be taken as a +guide to the morality of that community is a much disputed question. The +phenomenon itself varies so much in different localities, even in +localities where the same factors seem to prevail, that affirmative +conclusions are for the most part impossible to draw. In the United +Kingdom, where the figures differ considerably for the three +countries--England, Scotland, Ireland--the reasons that might be +assigned for the differences are negatived if applied on the same lines, +as they might well be, to certain other countries. Then again, racial, +climatic and social differences must be allowed for, and the influence +of legislation is to be taken into account. The fact that in some +countries marriage is forbidden until a man has completed his military +service, in another, that consent of parents is requisite, in another, +that "once a bastard always a bastard" is the rule, while in yet another +that the merest of subsequent formalities will legitimize the offspring, +must account in some degree for variations in figures. + + TABLE I.--_Illegitimate Births per 1000 Births (excluding + still-born)._ + + +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |1876-|1881-|1886-|1891-|1896-|1901-| + | |1880.|1885.|1890.|1895.|1900.|1905.| + +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | England and Wales| 48 | 48 | 46 | 42 | 41 | 40 | + | Scotland | 85 | 83 | 81 | 74 | 68 | 64 | + | Ireland | 24 | 27 | 28 | 36 | 36 | 26 | + | Denmark | 101 | 100 | 95 | 94 | 96 | 101 | + | Norway | 84 | 81 | 75 | 71 | 74 | .. | + | Sweden | 100 | 102 | 103 | 105 | 113 | .. | + | Finland | 73 | 70 | 65 | 65 | 66 | .. | + | Russia | 28 | 27 | 27 | 27 | 27 | .. | + | Austria | 138 | 145 | 147 | 146 | 141 | .. | + | Hungary | 73 | 79 | 82 | 85 | 90 | 94 | + | Switzerland | 47 | 48 | 47 | 46 | 45 | .. | + | Germany | 87 | 92 | 92 | 91 | 90 | 84 | + | Netherlands | 31 | 30 | 32 | 31 | 27 | 23 | + | Belgium | 74 | 82 | 87 | 88 | 80 | 68 | + | France | 72 | 78 | 83 | 87 | 88 | 88 | + | Portugal | .. | .. | 123 | 122 | 121 | .. | + | Spain | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 | 44 | + | Italy | 72 | 76 | 74 | 69 | 62 | 56 | + | New South Wales | 42 | 44 | 49 | 60 | 69 | 70 | + | Victoria | 43 | 46 | 49 | 60 | 69 | 70 | + | Queensland | 39 | 41 | 44 | 48 | 59 | 65 | + | South Australia | .. | 22 | 25 | 30 | 38 | 41 | + | West Australia | .. | .. | .. | 48 | 51 | 42 | + | Tasmania | .. | 44 | 38 | 46 | 57 | .. | + | New Zealand | 23 | 29 | 32 | 38 | 44 | 45 | + +------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +Table I. gives the number of illegitimate births per 1000 births in +various countries of the world for quinquennial periods. It is to be +noted that still-born births are excluded, as in the United Kingdom +(contrary to the practice prevailing in most European countries) +registration of such births is not compulsory. The United States is +omitted, as there is no national system of registration of births. + +This method of measuring illegitimacy by ascertaining the proportion of +illegitimate births in every thousand births is a fairly accurate one, +but there is another valuable one which is often applied, that of +comparing the number of illegitimate births with each thousand unmarried +females at the child-bearing age the "corrected" rate as opposed to the +"crude," as it is usually termed. This is given for certain countries +in Table II. + + TABLE II.--_Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Females, + aged 15-49 years._ + + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + | Country. |1846-55.|1856-65.|1866-75.|1876-85.|1886-95.|1896-1905.| + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + | England and Wales| 17 | 18 | 16 | 13 | 10 | 8 | + | Scotland | .. | 22 | 23 | 20 | 17 | 13 | + | Ireland | .. | .. | 5 | 4 | 5 | 3 | + | Denmark | .. | 28 | 27 | 26 | 24 | 23 | + | Sweden | 20 | 22 | 23 | 22 | 22 | .. | + | Germany | .. | .. | .. | 28 | 27 | 26 | + | Netherlands | .. | .. | 10 | 9 | 9 | 6 | + | Belgium | 16 | 16 | 17 | 19 | 17 | 17 | + | France | 15 | 17 | 17 | 16 | 17 | 18 | + | Italy | .. | .. | .. | 24 | 24 | 19 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + +The generally accepted idea that the inhabitants of the warmer countries +of the south of Europe are more ardent in temperament has at least no +support as shown in the figures in Table I., where we find a higher rate +of illegitimacy in Sweden and Denmark than in Spain or Italy. Religion, +however, must be taken into account as having a strong influence in +preventing unchastity, though it cannot be concluded that any particular +creed is more powerful in this direction than another; for example, the +figures for Austria and Ireland are very different. It cannot be said, +either, that figures bear out the statement that where there is a high +rate of illegitimacy there is little prostitution. It is more probable +that in a country where the standard of living is low, and early +marriages are the rule, the illegitimate birth-rate will be low. As +regards England and Wales, the illegitimate birth-rate has been steadily +declining for many years, not only in actual numbers, but also in +proportion to the population. + + TABLE III.--_England and Wales._ + + +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ + | | Illegitimate | Proportion | Illegitimate | + | Year.| Births. | to 1000 of | Births in | + | | | population. | 1000 Births. | + +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ + | 1860 | 43,693 | 2.2 | 64 | + | 1865 | 46,585 | 2.2 | 62 | + | 1870 | 44,737 | 2.0 | 56 | + | 1875 | 40,813 | 1.7 | 48 | + | 1880 | 42,542 | 1.6 | 48 | + | 1885 | 42,793 | 1.6 | 48 | + | 1890 | 38,412 | 1.3 | 44 | + | 1895 | 38,836 | 1.3 | 42 | + | 1900 | 36,814 | 1.1 | 40 | + | 1905 | 37,515 | 1.1 | 40 | + | 1907 | 36,189 | 1.0 | 39 | + +------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ + +The corrected rate bears out the result shown in Table III as follows: + + TABLE IV.--_England and Wales. Illegitimate Birth-rate calculated on + the Unmarried and Widowed Female Population, aged 15-45 years._ + + +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ + | | | Compared with | + | | Rate per 1000. | rate in 1876-1880, | + | | | taken as 100. | + +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ + | 1876-1880 | 14.4 | 100.0 | + | 1881-1885 | 13.5 | 93.8 | + | 1886-1890 | 11.8 | 81.9 | + | 1891-1895 | 10.1 | 70.1 | + | 1896-1900 | 9.2 | 63.9 | + | 1901-1905 | 8.4 | 58.3 | + | 1906 | 8.1 | 56.3 | + | 1907 | 7.8 | 54.2 | + +-----------+----------------+--------------------+ + + TABLE V.--_England and Wales. Illegitimate Births to 1000 Births._ + + +----------------+------------+-------+ + | | Ten years | 1907. | + | | 1897-1906. | | + +----------------+------------+-------+ + | Bedford | 49 | 53 | + | Berks | 47 | 48 | + | Bucks | 40 | 44 | + | Cambridge | 48 | 53 | + | Chester | 41 | 39 | + | Cornwall | 50 | 48 | + | Cumberland | 61 | 58 | + | Derby | 41 | 41 | + | Devon | 39 | 39 | + | Dorset | 40 | 37 | + | Durham | 34 | 37 | + | Essex | 28 | 27 | + | Gloucester | 36 | 36 | + | Hants | 40 | 36 | + | Hereford | 66 | 66 | + | Hertford | 40 | 42 | + | Huntingdon | 49 | 46 | + | Kent | 40 | 41 | + | Lancashire | 38 | 37 | + | Leicestershire | 40 | 39 | + | Lincolnshire | 55 | 54 | + | London | 37 | 38 | + | Middlesex | 30 | 28 | + | Monmouth | 29 | 27 | + | Norfolk | 62 | 65 | + | Northampton | 41 | 42 | + | Northumberland | 39 | 38 | + | Nottingham | 50 | 49 | + | Oxford | 53 | 56 | + | Rutland | 46 | 70 | + | Shropshire | 64 | 61 | + | Somerset | 37 | 35 | + | Stafford | 40 | 38 | + | Suffolk | 56 | 62 | + | Surrey | 38 | 37 | + | Sussex | 52 | 52 | + | Warwick | 32 | 30 | + | Westmorland | 61 | 62 | + | Wilts | 41 | 42 | + | Worcester | 37 | 38 | + | Yorks-- | | | + | E. Riding | 52 | 49 | + | N. " | 53 | 45 | + | W. " | 43 | 41 | + | | | | + | Anglesey | 81 | 75 | + | Brecon | 44 | 40 | + | Cardigan | 64 | 61 | + | Carmarthen | 37 | 41 | + | Carnarvon | 60 | 72 | + | Denbigh | 49 | 47 | + | Flint | 42 | 42 | + | Glamorgan | 26 | 26 | + | Merioneth | 71 | 77 | + | Montgomery | 76 | 73 | + | Pembroke | 52 | 47 | + | Radnor | 66 | 67 | + +----------------+------------+-------+ + + TABLE VI.--_Annual Illegitimate Birth-rates in each Registration + County of England and Wales, 1970-1907._ + + +---------------+-----------------------------------------+--------------+ + | | Illegitimate Births to 1000 Unmarried | Decrease per | + | | and Widowed Females aged 15-45 years. | cent in each | + | Registration +-----------------------------+-----------+ County | + | Counties. | Three-year Periods. | Years. | between | + | +-----------------------------+-----------+ the period | + | |1870-|1880-|1890-|1900-|1903-|1906.|1907.| 1870-1872 | + | |1872.|1882.|1892.|1902.|1905.| | | and 1907. | + +---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------+ + | England | | | | | | | | | + | and Wales |17.0 |14.1 |10.5 | 8.5 | 8.3 | 8.1 | 7.8 | 54.1 | + | London |10.3 | 9.8 | 8.1 | 6.9 | 6.9 | 6.8 | 6.4 | 37.9 | + | Bedford |21.1 |18.0 |11.2 | 8.4 | 8.0 | 8.2 | 8.7 | 58.8 | + | Berks |16.8 |13.4 |10.3 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 8.1 | 8.4 | 50.0 | + | Bucks |19.0 |16.5 |12.6 | 9.1 | 8.9 | 7.3 | 8.8 | 53.7 | + | Cambridge |19.3 |15.6 |12.4 | 9.6 |10.1 | 9.7 |10.4 | 46.1 | + | Chester |17.5 |14.2 |10.3 | 7.7 | 7.3 | 7.2 | 6.9 | 60.6 | + | Cornwall |16.5 |14.8 |11.2 | 8.6 | 8.1 | 7.5 | 7.5 | 54.5 | + | Cumberland |29.2 |23.9 |18.6 |12.3 |12.3 |12.3 |11.0 | 62.3 | + | Derby |22.5 |17.7 |12.8 |10.0 |10.0 |10.0 | 9.4 | 58.2 | + | Devon |14.0 |10.6 | 8.1 | 6.7 | 6.5 | 6.7 | 6.1 | 56.4 | + | Dorset |14.2 |13.1 | 9.6 | 7.2 | 7.2 | 8.1 | 6.4 | 54.9 | + | Durham |24.0 |18.0 |13.8 |11.1 |11.1 |10.8 |11.6 | 51.7 | + | Essex |16.2 |12.7 | 9.1 | 7.3 | 7.1 | 6.7 | 6.4 | 60.5 | + | Gloucester |12.9 |11.6 | 8.2 | 6.3 | 6.1 | 6.8 | 5.8 | 55.0 | + | Hants |13.6 |11.8 | 8.5 | 7.3 | 7.1 | 6.9 | 6.4 | 52.9 | + | Hereford |21.4 |19.0 |13.4 |11.2 |11.5 |10.3 |11.0 | 48.6 | + | Hertford |18.4 |15.3 |10.4 | 7.0 | 7.2 | 6.6 | 7.5 | 59.2 | + | Huntingdon |19.8 |14.0 |12.9 |10.9 | 9.7 | 9.7 | 9.7 | 51.0 | + | Kent |14.7 |12.1 | 9.3 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 7.5 | 7.2 | 51.0 | + | Lancashire |16.2 |13.6 |10.2 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 7.5 | 7.2 | 55.6 | + | Leicestershire|19.9 |16.1 |11.4 | 8.6 | 7.9 | 7.5 | 7.3 | 63.3 | + | Lincolnshire |22.3 |18.5 |14.2 |12.2 |12.1 |12.7 |11.9 | 46.6 | + | Middlesex | 9.4 | 9.4 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 5.7 | 39.4 | + | Monmouth |18.6 |15.9 |11.3 |10.2 | 9.1 | 9.6 | 9.3 | 50.0 | + | Norfolk |27.3 |22.6 |16.7 |13.4 |13.4 |12.5 |12.8 | 53.1 | + | Northampton |18.7 |15.9 |11.7 | 9.1 | 8.8 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 58.8 | + | Northumberland|21.1 |17.9 |12.4 |10.2 |10.0 |10.4 | 9.3 | 55.9 | + | Nottingham |24.5 |21.7 |15.4 |13.7 |12.6 |12.0 |11.9 | 51.4 | + | Oxford |19.0 |15.4 |10.4 | 9.0 | 9.1 | 9.3 | 9.2 | 51.6 | + | Rutland |18.1 |12.7 | 7.9 | 7.2 | 6.8 | 9.0 |11.4 | 37.0 | + | Salop |28.2 |21.8 |16.6 |12.8 |13.4 |13.0 |11.8 | 58.2 | + | Somerset |13.3 |11.3 | 7.4 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 5.4 | 5.5 | 58.6 | + | Stafford |24.6 |19.4 |14.5 |11.2 |11.4 |10.9 |10.1 | 58.9 | + | Suffolk |22.0 |17.8 |14.0 |12.0 |11.7 |12.4 |12.5 | 43.2 | + | Surrey | 9.5 | 8.5 | 6.6 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 5.7 | 40.0 | + | Sussex |13.7 |11.5 | 8.7 | 7.2 | 7.0 | 6.5 | 6.4 | 53.3 | + | Warwick |14.9 |13.2 | 9.7 | 7.6 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 6.8 | 54.4 | + | Westmorland |21.9 |17.9 |13.1 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 8.5 | 7.8 | 64.4 | + | Wilts |17.1 |14.7 |10.3 | 9.2 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 9.3 | 45.6 | + | Worcester |16.3 |13.7 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 6.8 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 59.5 | + | Yorks-- | | | | | | | | | + | E. Riding |23.0 |18.2 |14.3 |12.2 |11.7 |12.2 |10.6 | 53.9 | + | N. Riding |27.7 |20.2 |15.4 |12.1 |11.6 |11.9 |10.2 | 63.2 | + | W. Riding |20.4 |16.1 |11.4 | 9.4 | 9.2 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 60.3 | + | Anglesey |19.7 |16.7 |15.7 |16.1 |14.9 |13.3 |12.9 | 34.5 | + | Brecon |19.9 |18.0 |12.5 |10.1 | 9.2 | 9.2 | 8.3 | 58.3 | + | Cardigan |16.0 |14.8 |11.8 | 8.9 | 7.8 | 6.3 | 7.3 | 54.4 | + | Carmarthen |18.2 |13.9 | 9.4 | 7.7 | 8.2 | 7.7 | 8.9 | 51.1 | + | Carnarvon |18.3 |13.9 |12.7 |10.3 | 9.6 | 9.4 |10.5 | 42.6 | + | Denbigh |21.1 |17.6 |13.4 |12.3 |11.6 |13.5 |10.3 | 51.2 | + | Flint |18.7 |18.4 |13.1 | 9.7 |11.2 |11.9 |11.0 | 41.2 | + | Glamorgan |17.7 |13.5 |10.3 | 8.5 | 9.1 | 8.9 | 8.4 | 52.5 | + | Merioneth |24.4 |19.5 |16.4 |13.5 |13.4 |13.2 |12.7 | 48.0 | + | Montgomery |29.5 |24.3 |16.7 |13.1 |13.4 |12.6 |11.7 | 60.3 | + | Pembroke |21.6 |15.9 |12.4 | 8.9 |10.2 |10.7 | 8.4 | 61.1 | + | Radnor |41.8 |33.2 |20.1 |14.4 |13.4 | 8.3 |11.3 | 73.0 | + +---------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------+ + + TABLE VII.--_Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births._ + + Belfast 31 | Liverpool 54 + Birmingham 35 | Manchester 28 + Bradford 40 | Middlesboro' 25 + Bristol 31 | Newcastle 36 + Cork 18 | Nottingham 60 + Dublin 28 | Portsmouth 33 + Edinburgh 69 | Salford 28 + Glasgow 63 | Sunderland 30 + Leeds 54 | + + TABLE VIII.--_Scotland 1906._ + + +-------+-----------+-------------+------------+---------------+ + | Total |Legitimate.|Illegitimate.| Births per | Percentage of | + |Births.| | |1000 of pop.|Illegitimate to| + | | | | | Total Births. | + +-------+-----------+-------------+------------+---------------+ + |132,005| 122,699 | 9306 | 27.93 | 7.05 | + +-------+--+--------+-------------+---+--------+---------------+ + | | | Percentage of | + | | Illegitimate | Illegitimate | + | | Births. | to Total | + | | | Births. | + +----------+--------------------------+------------------------+ + | 1860 | 9,736 | 9.22 | + | 1865 | 11,262 | 9.96 | + | 1870 | 11,108 | 9.63 | + | 1875 | 10,786 | 8.73 | + | 1880 | 10,589 | 8.50 | + | 1885 | 10,680 | 8.47 | + | 1890 | 9,241 | 7.60 | + | 1895 | 9,204 | 7.28 | + | 1900 | 8,534 | 6.49 | + | 1901 | 8,359 | 6.32 | + | 1902 | 8,300 | 6.28 | + | 1903 | 8,295 | 6.21 | + | 1904 | 9,010 | 6.79 | + | 1905 | 9,082 | 6.91 | + | 1906 | 9,306 | 7.05 | + +----------+--------------------------+------------------------+ + + TABLE IX.--_Scotland 1906._ + + +------------------+-----------------+-----------------------+ + | | Illegitimate | Illegitimate Births | + | | Births. | per 1000 of Unmarried | + | +------+----------+ Women and | + | | No. | Per 1000 | Widows between | + | | | of Pop. | 15 and 45. | + +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ + | Districts: | | | | + | Principal Town | 4318 | 7.14 | | + | Large Town | 1029 | 5.58 | | + | Small Town | 1724 | 6.23 | | + | Mainland-rural | 2099 | 9.08 | | + | Insular-rural | 136 | 5.88 | | + +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ + | Shetland | 31 | 5.30 | 7.0 | + | Orkney | 29 | 5.99 | 7.7 | + | Caithness | 84 | 9.96 | 19.4 | + | Sutherland | 28 | 6.81 | 10.1 | + | Ross and Cromarty| 74 | 4.40 | 6.9 | + | Inverness | 145 | 8.02 | 11.5 | + | Nairn | 18 | 10.29 | 13.2 | + | Elgin (or Moray) | 169 | 15.66 | 26.3 | + | Banff | 202 | 12.93 | 25.4 | + | Aberdeen | 1083 | 12.38 | 24.2 | + | Kincardine | 93 | 8.15 | 17.0 | + | Forfar | 676 | 9.43 | 14.2 | + | Perth | 215 | 7.93 | 10.8 | + | Fife | 308 | 4.56 | 9.7 | + | Kinross | 20 | 9.95 | 22.2 | + | Clackmannan | 53 | 6.69 | 10.9 | + | Stirling | 235 | 4.91 | 13.2 | + | Dumbarton | 163 | 4.14 | 9.7 | + | Argyll | 148 | 10.07 | 12.7 | + | Bute | 30 | 8.36 | 9.2 | + | Renfrew | 410 | 4.46 | 8.5 | + | Ayr | 499 | 6.23 | 14.3 | + | Lanark | 2872 | 6.28 | 15.9 | + | Linlithgow | 99 | 3.88 | 15.4 | + | Edinburgh | 930 | 7.23 | 11.0 | + | Haddington | 66 | 5.92 | 11.8 | + | Berwick | 60 | 9.63 | 12.7 | + | Peebles | 21 | 6.18 | 7.9 | + | Selkirk | 46 | 9.13 | 11.5 | + | Roxburgh | 83 | 8.67 | 9.8 | + | Dumfries | 218 | 12.51 | 19.9 | + | Kirkcudbright | 92 | 10.71 | 15.7 | + | Wigtoun | 106 | 12.79 | 22.5 | + +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ + | Scotland | 9306 | 7.05 | 14.1 | + +------------------+------+----------+-----------------------+ + +Table V. gives the illegitimate births to 1000 births in England and +Wales for the ten years 1897-1906 and for the year 1907. Table VI. gives +the "corrected" rate for certain three-year periods. In connexion with +these tables the following extract from the Registrar-General's _Report_ +for 1907 (p. xxx.) is important. + + "It is difficult to explain the variations in the rates of + illegitimacy in the several counties. It may be stated generally that + the proportion of illegitimate children cannot alone serve as a + standard of morality. Broadly speaking, however, the single and + widowed women in London, in the counties south of the Thames, and in + the south-western counties have comparatively few illegitimate + children; on the other hand, the number of illegitimate children is + comparatively high in Shropshire, in Herefordshire, in Staffordshire, + in Nottinghamshire, in Cumberland, in North Wales, and also in nearly + all the counties on the eastern seaboard, viz. Suffolk, Norfolk, + Lincolnshire, the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire, and Durham. In + the Registrar-General's Report for the year 1851 it was assumed that + there was an indirect connexion between female illiteracy and + illegitimacy. This may have been the case in the middle of the last + century, but there is no conclusive evidence that such is the case at + the present day. The proportions of illegitimacy and the proportions + of married women who signed the marriage register by mark are + relatively high in Staffordshire, in North Wales, in Durham and in the + North Riding of Yorkshire; on the other hand, in Norfolk, in Suffolk + and in Lincolnshire there is a comparatively high proportion of + illegitimacy and a low proportion of illiteracy." + + TABLE X.--_Ireland. Proportion per cent of Illegitimate Births._ + + +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |1903.|1904.|1905.|1906.|1907.| + +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Ireland | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.5 | + | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | Leinster | 2.6 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 2.7 | + | Munster | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.1 | + | Ulster | 3.3 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.3 | + | Connaught | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | + +------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + TABLE XI.--_Ireland 1907._ + + +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ + | | No. of | Per cent of | + | County. |Illegitimate|Total Births.| + | | Births. | | + +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ + | Leinster-- | | | + | Carlow | 27 | 3.56 | + | Dublin | 34 | 1.15 | + | Dublin Co. Borough | 314 | 3.29 | + | Kildare | 22 | 1.46 | + | Kilkenny | 54 | 3.29 | + | King's | 24 | 2.07 | + | Longford | 11 | 1.23 | + | Louth | 27 | 2.01 | + | Meath | 30 | 2.27 | + | Queen's | 18 | 1.70 | + | Westmeath | 19 | 1.57 | + | Wexford | 89 | 4.11 | + | Wicklow | 37 | 2.91 | + | Munster-- | | | + | Clare | 23 | 1.04 | + | Cork Co. and Co. Borough | 151 | 1.69 | + | Kerry | 51 | 1.34 | + | Limerick Co. and Co. Borough | 107 | 3.14 | + | Tipperary N.R. | 19 | 1.49 | + | Tipperary S.R. | 66 | 3.32 | + | Waterford Co. and Co. Borough | 68 | 3.69 | + | Ulster-- | | | + | Antrim | 230 | 5.08 | + | Armagh | 99 | 3.49 | + | Belfast Co. Borough | 355 | 3.13 | + | Cavan | 27 | 1.54 | + | Donegal | 54 | 1.36 | + | Fermanagh | 41 | 3.15 | + | Londonderry Co. and Borough | 145 | 4.35 | + | Monaghan | 24 | 1.55 | + | Tyrone | 116 | 3.80 | + | Connaught-- | | | + | Galway | 32 | .80 | + | Leitrim | 10 | .77 | + | Mayo | 21 | .45 | + | Roscommon | 9 | .50 | + | Sligo | 9 | .52 | + +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ + | Leinster | 716 | 2.67 | + | Munster | 495 | 2.11 | + | Ulster | 1272 | 3.32 | + | Connaught | 81 | .60 | + | +------------+ | + | | 2564 | | + +----------------------------------+------------+-------------+ + +This latter conclusion may be carried further by saying that in those +European countries where elementary education is most common, the rate +of illegitimacy is high, and that it is low in the more illiterate +parts, e.g. Ireland and Brittany. + +It has been said that one of the contributory causes of illegitimacy is +the contamination of great cities; statistics, however, disprove this, +there being more illegitimacy in the rural districts. Table VII. gives +the rate of illegitimacy in some of the principal towns of the United +Kingdom. + +That poverty is a determining factor in causing illegitimacy the +following figures, giving the rate of illegitimacy in the poorest parts +of London and in certain well-to-do parts, clearly disprove:-- + + _Rate of Illegitimacy per 1000 Births._ + + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | London. | 1901. | 1903. | 1905. | 1907. | + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Stepney | 12 | 9 | 18 | 10 | + | Bethnal Green | 13 | 15 | 13 | 11 | + | Mile End Old Town | 15 | 13 | 16 | 15 | + | Whitechapel | 22 | 24 | 19 | 19 | + | +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | St George's, Hanover Sq. | 40 | 45 | 45 | 45 | + | Kensington | 48 | 44 | 49 | 54 | + | Fulham | 43 | 42 | 45 | 40 | + | Marylebone | 182 | 186 | 198 | 182 | + +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + +Tables VIII. and IX. give the rate of illegitimacy for the various +counties of Scotland, and Table X. the rate for Ireland. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Annual _Reports_ of the Registrars-General for + England, Scotland and Ireland; statistical returns of foreign + countries; A. Leffingwell, _Illegitimacy and the Influence of the + Seasons upon Conduct_ (1892). (T. A. I.) + + + + +ILLER, a river of Bavaria, rising in the south-west extremity of the +kingdom, among the Algäuer Alps. Taking a northerly course, it quits the +mountains at Immenstadt, and, flowing by Kempten, from which point it is +navigable for rafts, forms for some distance the boundary between +Bavaria and Württemberg, and eventually strikes the Danube (right bank) +just above Ulm. Its total length is 103 m. + + + + +ILLINOIS, a North Central state of the United States of America, +situated between 37° and 42° 30´ N. lat. and 87° 35´ and 91° 40´ W. +long. It is bounded N. by Wisconsin, E. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, +S.E. and S. by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky, and +S.W. and W. by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Missouri +and Iowa. The Enabling Act of Congress, which provided for the +organization of Illinois Territory into a state, extended its +jurisdiction to the middle of Lake Michigan and the Mississippi river; +consequently the total area of the state is 58,329 sq. m., of which 2337 +sq. m. are water surface, though the official figures of the United +States Geological Survey, which does not take into account this +extension of jurisdiction, are 56,665 sq. m. + + _Physiography._--Physiographically, the state (except the extreme + southern point) lies wholly in the Prairie Plains region. The N.E. + corner is by some placed in the "Great Lakes District." The southern + point touches the Coastal Plain Belt at its northward extension called + the "Mississippi Embayment." The surface of Illinois is an inclined + plane, whose general slope is toward the S. and S.W. The average + elevation above sea-level is about 600 ft.; the highest elevation is + Charles Mound (1257 ft.), on the Illinois-Wisconsin boundary line, one + of a chain of hills that crosses Jo Daviess, Stephenson, Winnebago, + Boone and McHenry counties. An elevation from 6 to 10 m. wide crosses + the southern part of the state from Grand Tower, in Jackson county, on + the Mississippi to Shawneetown, in Gallatin county, on the Ohio, the + highest point being 1047 ft. above the sea; from Grand Tower N. along + the Mississippi to the mouth of the Illinois there is a slight + elevation and there is another elevation of minor importance along the + Wabash. Many of the river bluffs rise to an unusual height, Starved + Rock, near Ottawa, in La Salle county, being 150 ft. above the bed of + the Illinois river. Cave in Rock, on the Ohio, in Hardin county, was + once the resort of river pirates. The country S. of the elevation + (mentioned above) between Grand Tower and Shawneetown was originally + covered with forests. + + The drainage of Illinois is far better than its low elevation and + comparatively level surface would suggest. There are more than 275 + streams in the state, grouped in two river systems, one having the + Mississippi, which receives three-fourths of the waters of Illinois, + as outlet, the other being tributary to the Wabash or Ohio rivers. The + most important river is the Illinois, which, formed by the junction of + the Des Plaines and the Kankakee, in the N.E. part of Grundy county, + crosses the N. central and W. portions of the state, draining 24,726 + sq. m. At some points, notably at Lake Peoria, it broadens into vast + expanses resembling lakes. The Kaskaskia, in the S., notable for its + variations in volume, and the Rock, in the N., are the other important + rivers emptying into the Mississippi; the Embarrass and Little Wabash, + the Saline and Cache in the E., are the important tributaries of the + Wabash and Ohio rivers. The Chicago river, a short stream 1 m. long, + formed by the union of its N. and S. branches, naturally flowed into + Lake Michigan, but by the construction of the Chicago Drainage Canal + its waters were turned in 1900 so that they ultimately flow into the + Mississippi. + + The soil of Illinois is remarkable for its fertility. The surface + soils are composed of drift deposits, varying from 10 to 200 ft. in + depth; they are often overlaid with a black loam 10 to 15 in. deep, + and in a large portion of the state there is a subsoil of yellow clay. + The soil of the prairies is darker and coarser than that of the + forests, but all differences disappear with cultivation. The soil of + the river valleys is alluvial and especially fertile, the "American + Bottom," extending along the Mississippi from Alton to Chester, having + been in cultivation for more than 150 years. Along the river bluffs + there is a silicious deposit called loess, which is well suited to the + cultivation of fruits and vegetables. In general the N. part of the + state is especially suited to the cultivation of hay, the N. and + central parts to Indian corn, the E. to oats, and the S.W. to wheat. + + _Climate._--The climate of Illinois is notable for its extremes of + temperature. The warm winds which sweep up the Mississippi Valley from + the Gulf of Mexico are responsible for the extremes of heat, and the + Arctic winds of the north, which find no mountain range to break their + strength, cause the extremes of cold. The mean annual temperature at + Winnebago, near the N. border, is 47° F., and it increases to the + southward at the rate of about 2° for every degree of latitude, being + 52° F. at Springfield, and 58° F. in Cairo, at the S. extremity. The + lowest temperature ever recorded in the state was -32° F., in February + 1905, at Ashton in the N.W. and the highest was 115° F., in July 1901, + at Centralia, in the S., making a maximum range of 147° F. The range + of extremes is considerably greater in the N. than in the S.; for + example, at Winnebago extremes have ranged from -26° F. to 110° F. or + 136° F., but at Cairo they have ranged only from -16° F. to 106° F. or + 122° F. The mean annual precipitation is about 39 in. in the S. + counties, but this decreases to the northward, being about 36 in. in + the central counties and 34 in. along the N. border. The mean annual + snowfall increases from 12 in. at the S. extremity to approximately 40 + in. in the N. counties. In the N. the precipitation is 44.8% greater + in spring and summer than it is in autumn and winter, but in the S. + only 26.17% greater. At Cairo the prevailing winds are southerly + during all months except February, and as far north as Springfield + they are southerly from April to January; but throughout the N. half + of the state, except along the shore of Lake Michigan, where they vary + from N.E. to S.W., the winds are mostly from the W. or N.W. from + October to March and very variable for the remainder of the year. The + dampness and miasma, to which so many of the early settlers' fatal + "chills and fever" were due, have practically disappeared before + modern methods of sanitary drainage. + + _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna and flora, which are similar to those of + the other North Central States of North America, impressed the early + explorers with their richness and variety. "We have seen nothing like + this for the fertility of the land, its prairies, woods, and wild + cattle," wrote Père Jacques Marquette of the Illinois region, and + later explorers also bore witness to the richness of the country. Many + of the original wild animals, such as the bison, bear, beaver, deer + and lynx, have disappeared; wolves, foxes and mink are rare; but + rabbits, squirrels and raccoons are still common. The fish are mainly + the coarser species, such as carp, buffalo-fish and white perch; of + better food fish, the principal varieties are bass (black, striped and + rock), crappie, pike, "jack salmon" or wall-eyed pike, and sun fish. + The yield of the fisheries in 1900 was valued at $388,876. The most + important fisheries on the Illinois river and its tributaries were at + Havana, Pekin and Peoria, which in 1907-1908 were represented by a + total catch of about 10,000,000 lb., out of a total for this river + system of 17,570,000 lb. The flora is varied. Great numbers of grasses + and flowering plants which once beautified the prairie landscape are + still found on uncultivated lands, and there are about 80 species of + trees, of which the oak, hickory, maple and ash are the most common. + The cypress is found only in the S. and the tamarack only in the N. + The forest area, estimated at 10,200 sq. m. in 1900, is almost wholly + in the southern counties, and nearly all the trees which the northern + half of the state had before the coming of the whites were along the + banks of streams. Among wild fruits are the cherry, plum, grape, + strawberry, blackberry and raspberry. + +_Industry and Commerce._--The fertility of the soil, the mineral wealth +and the transportation facilities have given Illinois a vast economic +development. In 1900 more than seven-tenths of the inhabitants in +gainful occupations were engaged in agriculture (25.6%), manufactures +and mechanical pursuits (26.7%), and trade and transportation (22%). + +[Illustration: Map of Illinois.] + + Historically and comparatively, agriculture is the most important + industry. In 1900 about nine-tenths of the total land area was + inclosed in farms; the value of farm property ($2,004,316,897) was + greater than that of any other state; as regards the total value of + farm products in 1899 Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa; in the + value of crops Illinois led all the states, and the values of property + and of products were respectively 35.6% and 87.1% greater than at the + end of the preceding decade. During the last half of the 19th century + the number of farms increased rapidly, and the average size declined + from 158 acres in 1850 to 127.6 acres in 1870 and 124.2 acres in 1900. + The prevailing form of tenure is that of owners, 60.7% of the farms + being so operated in 1900; but during the decade 1890-1900 the number + of farms cultivated by cash tenants increased 30.8%, and the number by + share tenants 24.5%, while the increase of cultivation by owners was + only 1%. In proportion of farm land improved (84.5%), Illinois was + surpassed only by Iowa among the states. Cereals form the most + important agricultural product (600,107,378 bushels in 1899--in value + about three-fourths of the total agricultural products of the state). + In the production of cereals Illinois surpassed the other states at + the close of each decade during the last half of the 19th century + except that ending in 1890, when Iowa was the leading state. Indian + corn and oats are the most valuable crops. The rank of Illinois in the + production of Indian corn was first in 1899 with about one-fifth of + the total product of the United States, and first in 1907[1] with + nearly one-tenth of the total crop of the country (9,521,000 bushels + out of 99,931,000). In 1879, in 1899 and in 1905 (when it produced + 132,779,762 bushels out of 953,216,197 from the entire country) it was + first among the states producing oats, but it was surpassed by Iowa in + 1889, 1906 and 1907; in 1907 the Illinois crop was 101,675,000 + bushels. From 1850 until 1879 Illinois also led in the production of + wheat; the competition of the more western states, however, caused a + great decline in both acreage and production of that cereal, the + state's rank in the number of bushels produced declining to third in + 1889 and to fourteenth in 1899, but the crop and yield per acre in + 1902 was larger than any since 1894; in 1905 the state ranked ninth, + in 1906 eighth and in 1907 fifth (the crop being 40,104,000 bushels) + among the wheat-growing states of the country. The rank of the state + in the growing of rye also declined from second in 1879 to eighth in + 1899 and to ninth in 1907 (when the crop was 1,106,000 bushels), and + the rank in the growing of barley from third in 1869 to sixteenth in + 1899. In 1907 the barley crop was 600,000 bushels. Hay and forage are, + after cereals, the most important crops; in 1907 2,664,000 acres + produced 3,730,000 tons of hay valued at $41,030,000. Potatoes and + broom corn are other valuable products. The potato crop in 1907 was + 13,398,000 bushels, valued at $9,647,000, and the sugar beet, first + introduced during the last decade of the 19th century, gave promise of + becoming one of the most important crops. From 1889 to 1899 there was + a distinct decline in the production of apples and peaches, but there + was a great increase in that of cherries, plums and pears. The large + urban population of the state makes the animal products very valuable, + Illinois ranking third in 1900 in the number of dairy cows, and in the + farm value of dairy products; indeed, all classes of live stock, + except sheep, increased in number from 1850 to 1900, and at the end of + the latter year Illinois was surpassed only by Iowa in the number of + horses and swine; in 1909 there were more horses in Illinois than in + Iowa. Important influences in the agricultural development of the + state have been the formation of Farmers' Institutes, organized in + 1895, a Corn Breeders' Association in 1898, and the introduction of + fertilizers, the use of which in 1899 was nearly seven times the + amount in 1889, and the study of soils, carried on by the State + Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of + Agriculture. + + The growth of manufacturing in Illinois during the last half of the + 19th century, due largely to the development of her exceptional + transportation facilities, was the most rapid and remarkable in the + industrial history of the United States. In 1850 the state ranked + fifteenth, in 1860 eighth, in 1870 sixth, in 1880 fourth, in 1890 and + again in 1900 third, in the value of its manufactures. The average + increases of invested capital and products for each decade from + 1850-1900 were, respectively, 189.26% and 152.9%; in 1900 the capital + invested ($776,829,598, of which $732,829,771 was in establishments + under the "factory system"), and the product ($1,259,730,168, of which + $1,120,868,308 was from establishments under the "factory system"), + showed unusually small percentages of increase over those for 1890 + (54.7% and 38.6% respectively); and in 1905 the capital and product of + establishments under the "factory system" were respectively + $975,844,799 and $1,410,342,129, showing increases of 33.2% and 25.8% + over the corresponding figures for 1900. + + The most important industry was the wholesale slaughtering and packing + of meats, which yielded 22.9% of the total manufactured product of the + state in 1900, and 22.5% of the total in 1905. From 1870 to 1905 + Illinois surpassed the other states in this industry, yielding in 1900 + and in 1905 more than one-third of the total product of the United + States. The increase in the value of the product in this industry in + Illinois between 1900 and 1905 was over 10%. An interesting phase of + the industry is the secondary enterprises that have developed from it, + nearly all portions of the slaughtered animal being finally put to + use. The blood is converted into clarifying material, the entrails are + used for sausage coverings, the hoofs and small bones furnish the raw + material for the manufacture of glue, the large bones are carved into + knife handles, and the horns into combs, the fats are made to yield + butterine, lard and soap, and the hides and hair are used in the + manufacture of mattresses and felts. + + The manufacture of iron and steel products, and of products depending + upon iron and steel as raw material, is second in importance. The iron + for these industries is secured from the Lake Superior region, the + coal and limestone from mines within the state. Indeed, in the + manufacture of iron and steel, Illinois was surpassed in 1900 only by + Pennsylvania and Ohio, the 1900 product being valued at $60,303,144; + but the value of foundry and machine shop products was even greater + ($63,878,352). In 1905 the iron and steel product had increased in + value since 1900 44.9%, to $87,352,761; the foundry and machine shop + products 25.2%, to $79,961,482; and the wire product showed even + greater increase, largely because of a difference of classification in + the two censuses, the value in 1905 being $14,099,566, as against + $2,879,188 in 1900, showing an increase of nearly 390%. The + development of agriculture, by creating a demand for improved farm + machinery, has stimulated the inventive genius; in many cases + blacksmith shops have been transformed into machinery factories; also + well-established companies of the eastern states have been induced to + remove to Illinois by the low prices of iron and wood, due to cheap + transportation rates on the Great Lakes. Consequently, in 1890, in + 1900 and again in 1905, Illinois surpassed any one of the other states + in the production of agricultural implements, the product in 1900 + being valued at $42,033,796, or 41.5% of the total output of + agricultural machinery in the United States; and in 1905 with a value + of $38,412,452 it represented 34.3% of the product of the entire + country. In the building of railway cars by manufacturing + corporations, Illinois also led the states in 1900 and in 1905, the + product being valued at $24,845,606 in 1900 and at $30,926,464 (an + increase of nearly one-fourth) in 1905; and in construction by railway + companies was second in 1900, with a product valued at $16,580,424, + which had increased 53.7% in 1905, when the product was valued at + $25,491,209. The greatest increase of products between 1890 and 1900 + was in the manufacture of electrical apparatus (2400%), in which the + increase in value of product was 37.2% between 1900 and 1905. + + Another class of manufactures consists of those dependent upon + agricultural products for raw material. Of these, the manufacture of + distilled liquors was in 1900 and in 1905 the most important, Illinois + leading the other states; the value of the 1900 product, which was + nearly 12% less than that of 1890, was increased by 41.6%, to + $54,101,805, in 1905. Peoria, the centre of the industry, is the + largest producer of whisky and high-class wines of the cities in the + United States. There were also, in 1900, 35 direct and other indirect + products made from Indian corn by glucose plants, which consumed + one-fifth of the Indian corn product of the state, and the value of + these products was $18,122,814; in 1905 it was only $14,532,180. Of + other manufactures dependent upon agriculture, flour and grist mill + products declined between 1890 and 1900, but between 1900 and 1905 + increased 39.6% to a value of $39,892,127. The manufacture of cheese, + butter and condensed milk increased 60% between 1890 and 1900, but + between 1900 and 1905 only 3.1%, the product in 1905 being valued at + $13,276,533. + + Other prosperous industries are the manufacture of lumber and timber + products (the raw material being floated down the Mississippi river + from the forests of other states), whose output increased from 1890 to + 1900 nearly 50%, but declined slightly between 1900 and 1905; of + furniture ($22,131,846 in 1905; $15,285,475 in 1900; showing an + increase of 44.8%), and of musical instruments ($13,323,358 in 1905; + $8,156,445 in 1900; an increase of 63.3% in the period), in both of + which Illinois was second in 1900 and in 1905; book and job printing, + in which the state ranked second in 1900 ($28,293,684 in 1905; + $19,761,780 in 1900; an increase of 43.2%), newspaper and periodical + printing ($28,644,981 in 1905; $19,404,955 in 1900; an increase of + 47.6%), in which it ranked third in 1900; and the manufacture of + clothing, boots and shoes. The value of the clothing manufactured in + 1905 was $67,439,617 (men's $55,202,999; women's $12,236,618), an + increase of 30.1% over 1900. The great manufacturing centre is + Chicago, where more than seven-tenths of the manufactured products of + the state were produced in 1900, and more than two-thirds in 1905. + + In this development of manufactures, the mineral resources have been + an important influence, nearly one-fourth (23.6%) of the manufactured + product in 1900 depending upon minerals for raw material. Although the + iron ore, for the iron and steel industry, is furnished by the mines + of the Lake Superior region, bituminous coal and limestone are + supplied by the Illinois deposits. The great central coal field of + North America extends into Illinois from Indiana as far N. as a line + from the N. boundary of Grundy county to Rock Island, W. from Rock + Island to Henderson county, then S.W. to the southern part of Jackson + county, when it runs S. into Kentucky, thus including more than + three-fourths (42,900 sq. m.) of the land surface of the state. In + 1679 Hennepin reported deposits of coal near what is now Ottawa on the + Illinois; there was some mining in 1810 on the Big Muddy river in + Jackson county; and in 1833, 6000 tons were mined. In 1907 (according + to state authorities) coal was produced in 52 counties, Williamson, + Sangamon, St Clair, Macoupin and Madison giving the largest yield. In + that year the tonnage was 51,317,146, and the value of the total + product $54,687,882; in 1908 the value of the state's product of coal + was exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania (nearly six times as great). + Nearly 30% of all coal mined in the state was mined by machinery in + 1907. The output of petroleum in Illinois was long unimportant. The + first serious attempts to find oil and gas in the state were in the + 'fifties of the 19th century. In 1889 the yield of petroleum was 1460 + barrels. In 1902 it was only 200 barrels, nearly all of which came + from Litchfield, Montgomery county (where oil had been found in + commercial quantities in 1886), and Washington, Tazewell county, in + the west central part of the state; at this time it was used locally + for lubricating purposes. There had been some drilling in Clark county + in 1865, and in 1904 this field was again worked at Westfield. In 1905 + the total output of the state was 181,084 barrels; in 1906 the amount + increased to 4,397,050 barrels, valued at $3,274,818; and in 1907, + according to state reports, the output was 24,281,973 barrels, being + nearly as great as that of the Appalachian field. The + petroleum-producing area of commercial importance is a strip of land + about 80 m. long and 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 m. wide in the S.E. part of + the state, centring about Crawford county. In April 1906 the first + pipe lines for petroleum in Illinois were laid; before that time all + shipments had been in tank cars. In connexion with petroleum, natural + gas has been found, especially in Clark and Crawford counties; in 1906 + the state's product of natural gas was valued at $87,211. Limestone is + found in about 30 counties, principally Cook, Will and Kankakee; the + value of the product in 1906 was $2,942,331. Clay and clay products of + the state were valued in 1906 at $12,765,453. Deposits of lead and + zinc have been discovered and worked in Jo Daviess county, near Galena + and Elizabeth, in the N.W. part of the state. A southern district, + including parts of Hardin, Pope and Saline counties, has produced, + incidentally to fluorspar, some lead, the maximum amount being 176,387 + lb. from the Fairview mine in 1866-1867. In 1905 the zinc from the + entire state was valued at $5,499,508; the lead product in 1906 was + valued at $65,208. Sandstone, quarried in 10 counties, was valued in + 1905 at $29,115 and in 1906 at $19,125. Pope and Hardin counties were + the only sources of fluorspar in the United States from 1842 until + 1898, when fluorspar began to be mined in Kentucky; in 1906 the output + was 28,268 tons, valued at $160,623, and in 1905 33,275 tons, valued + at $220,206. The centre of the fluorspar district was Rosiclare in + Hardin county. The cement deposits are also of value, natural cement + being valued at $118,221 and Portland cement at $2,461,494 in 1906. + Iron ore has been discovered. Glass sand is obtained from the Illinois + river valley in La Salle county; in 1906 it was valued at $156,684, + making the state in this product second only to Pennsylvania and West + Virginia (in 1905 it was second only to Pennsylvania). The value of + the total mineral product of the state in 1906 was estimated at + $121,188,306.[2] + +_Communications._--Transportation facilities have been an important +factor in the economic development of Illinois. The first European +settlers, who were French, came by way of the Great Lakes, and +established intimate relations with New Orleans by the Mississippi +river. The American settlers came by way of the Ohio river, and the +immigrants from the New England and Eastern states found their way to +Illinois over the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes. The first +transportation problem was to connect Lake Michigan and the Mississippi +river; this was accomplished by building the Illinois & Michigan canal +to La Salle, at the head of the navigation on the Illinois river, a work +which was begun in 1836 and completed in 1848 under the auspices of the +state. In 1890 the Sanitary District of Chicago undertook the +construction of a canal from Chicago to Joliet, where the new canal +joins the Illinois & Michigan canal; this canal is 24 ft. deep and 160 +ft. wide. The Federal government completed in October 1907 the +construction of a new canal, the Illinois & Mississippi, popularly +known as the Hennepin, from Hennepin to Rock river (just above the mouth +of Green river), 7 ft. deep, 52 ft. wide (at bottom), and 80 ft. wide at +the water-line. This canal provides, with the Illinois & Michigan canal +and the Illinois river, an improved waterway from Chicago to the +Mississippi river, and greatly increases the commercial and industrial +importance of the "twin cities" of Sterling and Rock Falls, where the +Rock river is dammed by a dam nearly 1500 ft. long, making the main +feeder for the canal. This feeder, formally opened in 1907, runs nearly +due S. to a point on the canal N.W. of Sheffield and N.E. of Mineral; +there are important locks on either side of this junction. At the +general election in November 1908 the people of Illinois authorized the +issue of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000 to provide for the +canalizing of the Desplaines and Illinois rivers as far as the city of +Utica, on the latter river, and connecting with the channel of the +Chicago Sanitary District at Joliet. The situation of Illinois between +the Great Lakes and the Appalachian Mountains has made it a natural +gateway for railroads connecting the North Atlantic and the far Western +states. The first railway constructed in the West was the Northern-Cross +railroad from Meredosia on the Illinois river to Springfield, completed +in 1842; during the last thirty years of the 19th century Illinois had a +larger railway mileage than any of the American states, her mileage in +January 1909 amounting to 12,215.63 m., second only to that of Texas. A +Railway and Warehouse Commission has authority to fix freight and +passenger rates for each road. It is the oldest commission with such +power in the United States, and the litigation with railways which +followed its establishment in 1871 fully demonstrated the public +character of the railway business and was the precedent for the policy +of state control elsewhere.[3] + +_Population._--In 1870 and 1880 Illinois was fourth among the states of +the United States in population; but in 1890, in 1900, and in 1910, its +rank was third, the figures for the last three years named being +respectively 3,826,351, 4,821,550, and 5,638,591.[4] The increase from +1880 to 1890 was 24.3%; from 1890 to 1900, 26%. Of the population in +1900, 98.2% was white, 79.9% was native-born, and 51.2% was of foreign +parentage (either one or both parents foreign-born). The principal +foreign element was German, the Teutonic immigration being especially +large in the decade ending in 1860; the immigrants from the United +Kingdom were second in importance, those from the Scandinavian countries +third, and those from southern Europe fourth. The urban population, on +the basis of places having 4000 inhabitants or more, was 51% of the +total; indeed the population of Cook county, in which the city of +Chicago is situated, was two-fifths of the total population of the +state; during the decade of the Civil War (1860-1870) the population of +the state increased only 48.4%, and that of Cook county about 140%, +while from 1870 to 1900 the increase of all counties, excluding Cook, +was about 36%, the increase in Chicago was about 468%. Of the 930 +incorporated cities, towns and villages, 614 had less than 1000 +inhabitants, 27 more than 5000 and less than 10,000, 14 more than 10,000 +and less than 20,000, 4 more than 20,000 and less than 25,000, and 7 +more than 25,000. These seven were Chicago (1,698,575), the second city +in population in the United States, Peoria (56,100), Quincy (36,252), +Springfield (34,159), Rockford (31,051), East St Louis (29,655), and +Joliet (29,353). In 1906 it was estimated that the total number of +communicants of all denominations was 2,077,197, and that of this total +932,084 were Roman Catholics, 263,344 were Methodist (235,092 of the +Northern Church, 7198 of the Southern Church, 9833 of the African +Methodist Episcopal Church, 5512 of the Methodist Protestant Church, and +3597 of the Free Methodist Church of North America), 202,566 were +Lutherans (113,527 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference, +36,366 of the General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 14,768 +of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and 14,005 of +the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and other states), 152,870 were +Baptists (118,884 of the Northern Convention, 16,081 of the National +(Colored) Baptist Convention, 7755 Free Baptists, 6671 General Baptists, +and 5163 Primitive Baptists), 115,602 were Presbyterian (86,251 of the +Northern Church, 17,208 of the Cumberland Church (now a part of the +Northern Church), and 9555 of the United Presbyterian Church), 101,516 +were Disciples of Christ, 50,973 were members of the German Evangelical +Synod of North America, 54,875 were Congregationalists, and 36,364 were +Protestant Episcopalians. + +_Government._--Illinois has been governed under four constitutions, a +Territorial constitution of 1812, and three State constitutions of 1818, +1848 and 1870 (subsequently amended). Amendments may be made by a +Constitutional Convention or a two-thirds vote of all the members +elected to the legislature, ratification by the people being required in +either instance. To call a Constitutional Convention it is necessary +that a majority popular vote concur in the demand therefor of two-thirds +of the members of each house of the General Assembly. The executive +officials hold office for four years, with the exception of the +treasurer, whose term of service is two years. The governor must be at +least thirty years of age, and he must also have been a citizen of the +United States and of Illinois for the five years preceding his election. +His veto may be over-ridden by a two-thirds vote of all the members +elected to the legislature. Members of the legislature, which meets +biennially, are chosen by districts, three representatives and one +senator from each of the 51 districts, 18 of which are in Cook county. +The term of senators is four years, that of representatives two years; +and in the election of representatives since 1870 there has been a +provision for "minority" representation, under which by cumulative +voting each voter may cast as many votes for one candidate as there are +representatives to be chosen, or he may distribute his votes (giving +three votes to one candidate, or 1½ votes each to two candidates, or one +vote each to three candidates), the candidate or candidates receiving +the highest number of votes being elected. A similar system of +cumulative voting for aldermen may be provided for by ordinance of +councils in cities organized under the general state law of 1872. +Requisites for membership in the General Assembly are citizenship in the +United States; residence in Illinois for five years, two of which must +have been just preceding the candidate's election; and an age of 25 +years for senators, and of 21 years for representatives. Conviction for +bribery, perjury or other infamous crime, or failure (in the case of a +collector or holder of public moneys) to account for and pay over all +moneys due from him are disqualifications; and before entering upon the +duties of his office each member of the legislature must take a +prescribed oath that he has neither given nor promised anything to +influence voters at the election, and that he will not accept, directly +or indirectly, "money or other valuable thing from any corporation, +company or person" for his vote or influence upon proposed legislation. +Special legislation is prohibited when general laws are applicable, and +special and local legislation is forbidden in any of twenty-three +enumerated cases, among which are divorce, changing of an individual's +name or the name of a place, and the grant to a corporation of the right +to build railways or to exercise any exclusive franchise or privilege. +The judiciary consists of a supreme court of 7 members elected for a +term of 9 years; a circuit court of 54 judges, 3 for each of 18 judicial +districts, elected for 6 years; and four appellate courts--one for Cook +county (which has also a "branch appellate court," both the court and +the branch court being presided over by three circuit judges appointed +by the Supreme Court) and three other districts, each with three judges +appointed in the same way. In Cook county a criminal court, and the +supreme court of Cook county (originally the supreme court of Chicago), +supplement the work of the circuit court. There are also county courts, +consisting of one judge who serves for four years; in some counties +probate courts have been established, and in counties of more than +500,000 population juvenile courts for the trial and care of delinquent +children are provided for. + +The local government of Illinois includes both county and township +systems. The earliest American settlers came from the Southern States +and naturally introduced the county system; but the increase of +population from the New England and Middle States led to a recognition +of township organization in the constitution of 1848, and this form of +government, at first prevalent only in the northern counties, is now +found in most of the middle and southern counties. Cook county, although +it has a township system, is governed, like those counties in which +townships are not found, by a Board of Commissioners, elected by the +townships and the city of Chicago. A general law of 1872 provides for +the organization of municipalities, only cities and villages being +recognized, though there are still some "towns" which have failed to +reorganize under the new law. City charters are granted only to such +municipalities as have a population of at least 1000. + +Requirements for suffrage are age of 21 years or more, citizenship in +the United States, and residence in the state for one year, in the +county ninety days, and the election precinct thirty days preceding the +exercise of suffrage. Women are permitted to vote for certain school +officials and the trustees of the State University. Disfranchisement is +brought about by conviction for bribery, felony or infamous crime, and +an attempt to vote after such conviction is a felony. + +The relation of the state to corporations and industrial problems has +been a subject of important legislation. The constitution declares that +the state's rights of eminent domain shall never be so abridged as to +prevent the legislature from taking the property and franchises of +incorporated companies and subjecting them to the public necessity in a +way similar to the treatment of individuals. In 1903 the legislature +authorized the municipal ownership of public service corporations, and +in 1905 the city of Chicago took steps to acquire ownership of its +street railways--a movement which seemed to have spent its force in +1907, when the municipal ownership candidates were defeated in the +city's elections--and in 1902 the right of that city to regulate the +price of gas was recognized by the United States Circuit Court of +Appeals. Railways organized or doing business in the state are required +by the constitution to have a public office where books for public +inspection are kept, showing the amount of stock, its owners, and the +amount of the road's liabilities and assets. No railway company may now +issue stock except for money, labour, or property actually received and +applied to purposes for which the corporation was organized. In 1907 a +law went into effect making two cents a mile a maximum railway fare. An +anti-trust law of 1893 exempted from the definition of trust +combinations those formed by producers of agricultural products and live +stock, but the United States Supreme Court in 1902 declared the statute +unconstitutional as class legislation. According to a revised mining law +of 1899 (subsequently amended), all mines are required to be in charge +of certified mine managers, mine examiners, and hoisting engineers, when +the services of the engineers are necessary; and every mine must have an +escapement shaft distinct from the hoisting shaft. The number of men +permitted to work in any mine not having an escapement shaft cannot, in +any circumstances, exceed ten during the time in which the escapement or +connexion is being completed. + +Economic conditions have also led to an increase of administrative +boards. A State Civil Service Commission was created by an act of the +General Assembly of 1905. A Bureau of Labor Statistics (1879), whose +members are styled Commissioners of Labor, makes a study of economic and +financial problems and publishes biennial reports; a Mining Board (1883) +and an inspector of factories and workshops (since 1893) have for their +duty the enforcement of labour legislation. There are also a State Food +Commission (1899) and a Live Stock Commission (1885). A Board of +Arbitration (1895) has authority to make and publish investigations of +all facts relating to strikes and lock-outs, to issue subpoenas for the +attendance and testifying of witnesses, and "to adjust strikes or +lock-outs by mediation or conciliation, without a formal submission to +arbitration." + +The employment of children under 14 years of age in factories or mines, +and working employees under 16 years of age for more than 60 hours a +week, are forbidden by statute. The state has an excellent "Juvenile +Court Law," which came into force on the 1st of July 1899 and has done +much good, especially in Chicago. The law recognized that a child should +not be treated like a mature malefactor, and provided that there should +be no criminal procedure, that the child should not be imprisoned or +prosecuted, that his interests should be protected by a probation +officer, that he should be discharged unless found dependent, delinquent +or truant, and in such case that he should be turned over to the care of +an approved individual or charitable society. This law applies to +counties having a minimum population of 500,000. The legal rate of +interest is 5%, but this may be increased to 7% by written contract. A +homestead owned and occupied by a householder having a family is exempt +(to the amount of $1000) from liability for debts, except taxes upon, +and purchase money for, the same. Personal property to the value of $300 +also is exempt from liability for debt. Grounds for divorce are +impotence of either party at time of marriage, previous marriage, +adultery, wilful desertion for two years, habitual drunkenness, attempt +on life, extreme and repeated cruelty, and conviction of felony or other +infamous crime. The marriage of cousins of the first degree is declared +incestuous and void. In June 1907 the Supreme Court of Illinois declared +the sale of liquor not a common right and "sale without license a +criminal offence," thus forcing clubs to close their bars or take out +licences. + + The charitable institutions of the state are under the management of + local trustees appointed by the governor. They are under the + supervision of the Board of State Commissioners of Public Charities + (five non-salaried members appointed by the governor); in 1908 there + were 18 institutions under its jurisdiction. Of these, seven were + hospitals for the insane--six for specific parts of the state, viz. + northern at Elgin, eastern at Kankakee, central at Jacksonville, + southern at Anna, western at Watertown, and general at South + Bartonville, and one at Chester for insane criminals. The others were + the State Psychopathic Institute at Kankakee (established in 1907 as + part of the insane service) for systematic study of mental and nervous + diseases; one at Lincoln having charge of feeble-minded children; two + institutions for the blind--a school at Jacksonville and an industrial + home at Marshall Boulevard and 19th Street, Chicago; a home for + soldiers and sailors (Quincy), one for soldiers' orphans (Normal), and + one for soldiers' widows (Wilmington); a school for the deaf + (Jacksonville), and an eye and ear infirmary (Chicago). The Board of + Charities also had supervision of the State Training School for + (delinquent) Girls (1893) at Geneva, and of the St Charles School for + (delinquent) Boys (1901) at St Charles. + + The trustees of each penal institution are appointed by the governor, + and the commissioners of the two penitentiaries and the managers of + the state reformatory compose a Board of Prison Industries. There were + in 1908 two penitentiaries, one at Joliet and one at Chester, and, in + addition to the two reformatory institutions for young offenders under + the supervision of the Board of Charities, there is a State + Reformatory for boys at Pontiac. The indeterminate sentence and parole + systems are important features of the treatment of criminals. All but + two of the counties have almshouses. In 1908, in some counties, the + care of paupers was still let by contract to the lowest bidder or the + superintendent was paid between $1.00 and $1.80--seldom more than + $1.50--a week for each patient, and he paid a small (or no) rent on + the county farm. Complete state control of the insane and the + introduction of modern hospital and curative treatment in the state + asylums (or hospitals) are gradually taking the place of county care + for the insane and of antiquated custodial treatment in and political + control of the state asylums--changes largely due to the action of + Governor Deneen, who appointed in 1906 a Board of Charities pledged to + reform. By a law of 1905 all employed in such institutions were put on + a civil service basis. In 1907-1908, $1,500,000 was spent in + rehabilitating old buildings and in buying new land and erecting + buildings. + +_Education._--Public education in Illinois had its genesis in the land +of the North-West Territory reserved for educational purposes by the +Ordinance of 1787. The first state school law, which provided for state +taxation for public schools, was enacted in 1825. The section providing +for taxation, however, was repealed, but free schools supported by the +sale of land reserved for education and by local taxation were +established as early as 1834. In 1855 a second school law providing for +a state school tax was enacted, and this is the foundation of the +existing public school system; the constitution of 1870 also requires +the legislature to provide a thorough and efficient system of public +schools. In 1907-1908 the total school revenue, nine-tenths of which was +derived from local taxation and the remainder chiefly from a state +appropriation (for the year in question, $1,057,000) including the +proceeds derived from permanent school funds secured by the gift and +sale of public lands on the part of the United States Government, was +$39,989,510.22. The attendance in some school of all children from 7 to +16 years of age is compulsory, and of the population of school age +(1,500,066) 988,078 were enrolled in public schools. The average length +of the school term in 1908 was 7.8 months, and the average monthly +salary of teachers was $82.12 for men and $60.76 for women. + +The state provides for higher education in the University of Illinois, +situated in the cities of Champaign and Urbana. It was founded in 1867, +through the United States land grant of 1862, as the Illinois Industrial +University, and received its present name in 1885; since 1870 it has +been co-educational. Associated with the University are the State +Laboratory of Natural History, the State Water Survey, the State +Geological Survey, the State Entomologist's Office, and Agricultural and +Engineering Experiment Stations. The University confers degrees in arts, +science, engineering, agriculture, law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, +music, and library science; besides the usual subjects, it has a course +in ceramics. The University publishes _Bulletins_ of the Agricultural +and Engineering Experiment Stations; _Reports_ of the State Water +Survey, of the State Natural History Survey, of the State Geological +Survey, and of the State Entomologist's Office; _University Studies_; +and _The Journal of English and Germanic Philology_. The schools of +medicine, pharmacy and dentistry are in Chicago. The faculty in 1907 +numbered 408, and the total enrolment of students in 1907-1908 was 4743 +(of whom 991 were women), distributed (with 13 duplicates in the +classification) as follows: Graduate School, 203; Undergraduate +Colleges, 2812; Summer Session, 367; College of Law, 186; College of +Medicine, 476; College of Dentistry, 76; School of Pharmacy, 259; +Academy, 377. In 1908 the University had a library of 103,000 volumes. +The trustees of the institution, who have legislative power only, are +the governor, the President of the Board of Agriculture, the State +Superintendent of Public Instruction, and nine others elected by the +people. There were in 1907 more than forty other universities and +colleges in the state, the most important being the University of +Chicago, North-western University at Evanston, Illinois Wesleyan +University at Bloomington, Knox College, Galesburg, and Illinois College +at Jacksonville. There were also six normal colleges, five of them +public: the Southern Illinois State Normal College at Carbondale, the +Eastern Illinois State Normal School at Charleston, the Western Illinois +State Normal School at Macomb, the Chicago Normal School at Chicago, the +Northern Illinois State Normal School at DeKalb, and the Illinois State +Normal University at Normal. + + _Finance._--The total receipts for the biennial period ending the 30th + of September 1908 were $19,588,842.06, and the disbursements were + $21,278,805.27; and on the 1st of October 1908 there was a balance in + the treasury of $3,859,263.44. The bonded debt on the same date was + $17,500; these bonds ceased to bear interest in 1882, but although + called in by the governor they have never been presented for payment. + The system of revenue is based upon the general property tax; the + local assessment of all real and personal property is required, with + the aim of recording all kinds of property upon the assessment rolls. + Boards of Revision and Boards of Supervision then equalize the + assessments in the counties and townships, while a State Board of + Equalization seeks to equalize the total valuation of the various + counties. The tendency is for property valuations to decline, the + estimated valuation from 1873 to 1893 decreasing 27% in Cook county + and 39% in the other counties, while the assessments from 1888 to 1898 + were in inverse ratio to the increase of wealth. There has also been + great inequality in valuations, the increase of valuation in Cook + county made in compliance with the revenue law of 1898 being + $200,000,000, while that for the rest of the state was only + $4,000,000. Among other sources of revenue are an inheritance tax, + which yields approximately $1,000,000 a year, and 7% of the annual + gross earnings of the Illinois Central railway, given in return for + the state aid in the construction of the road. The constitution + prohibits the state from lending its credit or making appropriations + in aid of any corporation, association or individual, and from + constructing internal improvements, and the counties, townships, and + other political units cannot incur indebtedness in excess of 5% of + their assessed property valuation. The legislature may not contract a + debt of more than $250,000 except to suppress treason, war or + invasion, and no legislative appropriation may extend longer than the + succeeding legislature. General banking laws must be submitted to the + people for ratification. + +_History._--Illinois is the French form of Iliniwek, the name of a +confederacy of Algonquian tribes. The first exploration by Europeans was +that of the French. In 1659 Pierre Radisson and Medard Chouart des +Groseilliers seem to have reached the upper Mississippi. It is certain +that in 1673 part of the region known as the Illinois country was +explored to some extent by two Frenchmen, Louis Joliet and Jacques +Marquette, a Jesuit father. Marquette, under orders to begin a mission +to the Indians, who were known to the French by their visits to the +French settlements in the Lake Superior region, and Joliet, who acted +under orders of Jean Talon, Intendant of Canada, ascended the Fox river, +crossed the portage between it and the Wisconsin river, and followed +that stream to the Mississippi, which they descended to a point below +the mouth of the Arkansas. On their return journey they ascended the +Illinois river as far as Lake Peoria; they then crossed the portage to +Lake Michigan, and in 1675 Marquette founded a mission at the Indian +town of Kaskaskia, near the present Utica, Ill. In 1679 the explorer La +Salle, desiring to find the mouth of the Mississippi and to extend the +domain of France in America, ascended the St Joseph river, crossed the +portage separating it from the Kankakee, which he descended to the +Illinois, and built in the neighbourhood of Lake Peoria a fort which he +called Fort Crevecoeur. The vicissitudes of the expedition, the +necessity for him to return to Canada for tools to construct a large +river-boat, and opposition in Canada to his plans, prevented him from +reaching the mouth of the Illinois until the 6th of February 1682. After +such preliminary explorations, the French made permanent settlements, +which had their origin in the missions of the Jesuits and the bartering +posts of the French traders. Chief of these were Kaskaskia, established +near the mouth of the Kaskaskia river, about 1720; Cahokia, a little +below the mouth of the Missouri river, founded at about the same time; +and Fort Chartres, on the Mississippi between Cahokia and Kaskaskia, +founded in 1720 to be a link in a chain of fortifications intended to +extend from the St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. A monument of the +labours of the missionaries is a manuscript dictionary (c. 1720) of the +language of the Illinois, with catechism and prayers, probably the work +of Father Le Boulanger. + +In 1712 the Illinois river was made the N. boundary of the French +province of Louisiana, which was granted to Antoine Crozat (1655-1738), +and in 1721 the seventh civil and military district of that province was +named Illinois, which included more than one-half of the present state, +the country between the Arkansas river and the line 43° N. lat., as well +as the country between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi; but in +1723 the region around the Wabash river was formed into a separate +district. The trade of the Illinois country was now diverted to the +settlements in the lower Mississippi river, but the French, although +they were successful in gaining the confidence and friendship of the +Indians, failed to develop the resources of the country. By the treaty +of Paris, 1763, France ceded to Great Britain her claims to the country +between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, but on account of the +resistance of Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas who drew into conspiracy +most of the tribes between the Ottawa river and the lower Mississippi, +the English were not able to take possession of the country until 1765, +when the French flag was finally lowered at Fort Chartres. + +The policy of the British government was not favourable to the economic +development of the newly-acquired country, since it was feared that its +prosperity might react against the trade and industry of Great Britain. +But in 1769 and the succeeding years of English control, this policy was +relaxed, and immigration from the seaboard colonies, especially from +Virginia, began. In 1771 the people of the Illinois country, through a +meeting at Kaskaskia, demanded a form of self-government similar to that +of Connecticut. The petition was rejected by General Thomas Gage; and +Thomas Legge, earl of Dartmouth (1731-1801), Secretary of State for +Plantations and President of the Board of Trade, drew up a plan of +government for Illinois in which all officials were appointed by the +crown. This, however, was never operative, for in 1774, by the famous +Quebec Act, the Illinois country was annexed to the province of Quebec, +and at the same time the jurisdiction of the French civil law was +recognized. These facts explain the considerable sympathy in Illinois +for the colonial cause in the War of Independence. Most of the +inhabitants, however, were French, and these were Loyalists. +Consequently, the British government withdrew their troops from the +Illinois country. The English authorities instigated the Indians to make +attacks upon the frontiers of the American colonies, and this led to one +of the most important events in the history of the Illinois country, the +capture of the British posts of Cahokia and Kaskaskia in 1778, and in +the following year of Vincennes (Indiana), by George Rogers Clark +(q.v.), who acted under orders of Patrick Henry, Governor of Virginia. +These conquests had much to do with the securing by the United States of +the country W. of the Alleghanies and N. of the Ohio in the treaty of +Paris, 1783. + +The Virginia House of Delegates, in 1778, extended the civil +jurisdiction of Virginia to the north-west, and appointed Captain John +Todd (1750-1782), of Kentucky, governor of the entire territory north of +the Ohio, organized as "The County of Illinois"; the judges of the +courts at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and Vincennes, who had been appointed +under the British administration, were now chosen by election; but this +government was confined to the old French settlements and was entirely +inefficient. In 1787, Virginia and the other states having relinquished +their claims to the country west of the Alleghanies, the North-West +Territory was organized by Congress by the famous Ordinance of 1787. Two +years later St Clair county was formed out of the S.W. part of the +Illinois country, while the E. portion and the settlements around +Vincennes (Indiana) were united into the county of Knox, and in 1795 the +S. part of St Clair county was organized into Randolph county, with +Kaskaskia as the seat of administration. In 1800 the Illinois country +was included in the Territory of Indiana, and in 1809 the W. part of +Indiana from Vincennes N. to Canada was organized as the Territory of +Illinois; it included, besides the present territory of the state, all +of Wisconsin except the N. part of the Green Bay peninsula, a +considerable part of Michigan, and all of Minnesota E. of the +Mississippi. In 1812, by permission of Congress, a representative +assembly was chosen, a Territorial constitution was adopted, and the +Territorial delegate in Congress was elected directly by the people. + +In 1818 Illinois became a state of the American Union, the Enabling Act +fixing the line 42° 30' as the N. boundary, instead of that provided by +the Ordinance of 1787, which passed through the S. bend of Lake +Michigan. The reason given for this change was that if the Mississippi +and Ohio rivers were the only outlets of Illinois trade, the interests +of the state would become identified with those of the southern states; +but if an outlet by Lake Michigan were provided, closer relations would +be established with the northern and middle states, and so "additional +security for the perpetuity of the Union" would be afforded. + +Among the first problems of the new state were those relating to lands +and Indians. Throughout the Territorial period there was conflict +between French and English land claims. In 1804 Congress established +land offices at Kaskaskia and Vincennes to examine existing claims and +to eliminate conflict with future grants; in 1812 new offices were +established at Shawneetown and Edwardsville for the sale of public +lands; and in 1816 more than 500,000 acres were sold. In 1818, however, +many citizens were in debt for their lands, and "squatters" invaded the +rights of settlers. Congress therefore reduced the price of land from $2 +to $1.25 per acre, and adopted the policy of pre-emption, preference +being given to the claims of existing settlers. The Indians, however, +resisted measures looking toward the extinguishment of their claims to +the country. Their dissatisfaction with the treaties signed in 1795 and +1804 caused them to espouse the British cause in the War of 1812, and in +1812 they overpowered a body of soldiers and settlers who had abandoned +Fort Dearborn (See CHICAGO). For a number of years after the end of the +conflict, the Indians were comparatively peaceful; but in 1831 the delay +of the Sauk and Foxes in withdrawing from the lands in northern +Illinois, caused Governor John Reynolds (1788-1865) to call out the +militia. The following year Black Hawk, a Sauk leader, opened an +unsuccessful war in northern Illinois and Wisconsin (the Black Hawk +War); and by 1833 all Indians in Illinois had been removed from the +state. + +The financial and industrial policy of the state was unfortunate. Money +being scarce, the legislature in 1819 chartered a state bank which was +authorized to do business on the credit of the state. In a few years the +bank failed, and the state in 1831 borrowed money to redeem the +depreciated notes issued by the bank. A second state bank was chartered +in 1835; two years later it suspended payment, and in 1843 the +legislature provided for its liquidation. The state also undertook to +establish a system of internal improvements, granting a loan for the +construction of the Illinois and Michigan canal in 1836, and in 1837 +appropriating $10,000,000 for the building of railroads and other +improvements. The experiment proved unsuccessful; the state's credit +declined and a heavy debt was incurred, and in 1840 the policy of aiding +public improvements was abandoned. Through the efforts of Governor +Thomas Ford (1800-1850) a movement to repudiate the state debt was +defeated, and a plan was adopted by which the entire debt could be +reduced without excessive taxation, and by 1880 practically the entire +debt was extinguished. + +A notable incident in the history of the state was the immigration of +the Mormons from Missouri, about 1840. Their principal settlements were +in Hancock county. They succeeded in securing favours from the +legislature, and their city of Nauvoo had courts and a military +organization that was independent of state control. Political intrigue, +claims of independence from the state, as well as charges of polygamy +and lawless conduct, aroused such intense opposition to the sect that in +1844 a civil war broke out in Hancock county which resulted in the +murder of Joseph Smith and the removal of the Mormons from Illinois in +1846. + +The slavery question, however, was the problem of lasting political +importance. Slaves had been brought into the Illinois country by the +French, and Governor Arthur St Clair (1734-1818) interpreted the article +of the Ordinance of 1787, which forbade slavery in the North-West +Territory, as a prohibition of the introduction of slaves into the +Territory, not an interference with existing conditions. The idea also +arose that while negroes could not become slaves, they could be held as +indentured servants, and such servitude was recognized in the Indiana +Code of 1803, the Illinois constitution of 1818, and Statutes of 1819; +indeed there would probably have been a recognition of slavery in the +constitution of 1818 had it not been feared that such recognition would +have prevented the admission of the state to the Union. In 1823 the +legislature referred to the people a resolution for a constitutional +convention to amend the constitution. The aim, not expressed, was the +legalization of slavery. Although a majority of the public men of the +state, indeed probably a majority of the entire population, was either +born in the Southern states or descended from Southern people, the +resolution of the legislature was rejected, the leader of the opposition +being Governor Edward Coles (1786-1868), a Virginia slave-holder, who +had freed his slaves on coming to Illinois, and at least one half the +votes against the proposed amendment of the constitution were cast by +men of Southern birth. The opposition to slavery, however, was at first +economic, not philanthropic. In 1837 there was only one abolition +society in the state, but chiefly through the agitation of Elijah P. +Lovejoy (see ALTON), the abolition sentiment grew. In 1842 the moral +issue had become political, and the Liberty Party was organized, which +in 1848 united with the Free Soil Party; but as the Whig Party approved +the policy of non-extension of slavery, these parties did not succeed so +well united as under separate existence. In 1854, however, the Liberty +and Free Soil parties, the Democrats opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska +Bill, and some Whigs united, secured a majority in the legislature, and +elected Lyman Trumbull United States senator. Two years later these +elements formally organized as the Republican Party, though that name +had been used locally in 1854, and elected their candidates for state +offices. This was the first time that the Democratic Party had been +defeated, its organization having been in control since the admission of +Illinois to the Union. An important influence in this political +revolution was a change in the character of the population. Until 1848 +the Southern element predominated in the population, but after that year +the immigration from the Northern states was greater than that from the +South, and the foreign element also increased.[5] The opposition to +slavery continued to be political and economic rather than +philanthropic. The constitution of 1848, which abolished slavery, also +forbade the immigration of slaves into the state.[6] In 1858 occurred +the famous contest for the office of United States senator between +Stephen A. Douglas (Democrat) and Abraham Lincoln (Republican). Douglas +was elected, but the vote showed that Illinois was becoming more +Northern in sympathy, and two years later Lincoln, then candidate for +the presidency, carried the state. + +The policy of Illinois in the early period of secession was one of +marked loyalty to the Union; even in the S. part of the state, where +there was a strong feeling against national interference with slavery, +the majority of the people had no sympathy with the pro-slavery men in +their efforts to dissolve the Union. The legislature of 1861 provided +for a war fund of $2,000,000; and Capt. James H. Stokes (1814-1890) of +Chicago transferred a large amount of munitions of war from St Louis, +where the secession sentiment was strong, to Alton. The state +contributed 255,092 men to the Federal armies. From 1862-1864, however, +there was considerable opposition to a continuance of the war. This was +at first political; the legislature of 1862 was Democratic, and for +political purposes that body adopted resolutions against further +conflict, and recommended an armistice, and a national convention to +conclude peace. The same year a convention, whose duty was to revise the +constitution, met. It declared that the law which called it into being +was no longer binding, and that it was supreme in all matters incident +to amending the constitution. Among its acts was the assumption of the +right of ratifying a proposed amendment to the constitution of the +United States which prohibited Congress from interfering with the +institution of slavery within a state, although the right of +ratification belonged to the legislature. The convention also inserted +clauses preventing negroes and mulattoes from immigrating into the state +and from voting and holding office; and although the constitution as a +whole was rejected by the people, these clauses were ratified. In 1863 +more pronounced opposition to the policy of the National Government +developed. A mass meeting, which met at Springfield in July, at the +instance of the Democratic Party, adopted resolutions that condemned +the suspension of the writ of Habeas Corpus, endorsed the doctrine of +state sovereignty, demanded a national assembly to determine terms of +peace, and asked President Lincoln to withdraw the proclamation that +emancipated the slaves, and so to permit the people of Illinois to fight +only for "Union, the Constitution and the enforcement of the laws." The +Knights of the Golden Circle, and other secret societies, whose aims +were the promulgation of state sovereignty and the extension of aid to +the Confederate states, began to flourish, and it is said that in 1864 +there were 50,000 members of the Sons of Liberty in the state. Captain +T. Henry Hines, of the Confederate army, was appointed by Jefferson +Davis to co-operate with these societies. For a time his headquarters +were in Chicago, and an elaborate attempt to liberate Confederate +prisoners in Chicago (known as the Camp Douglas Conspiracy) was thwarted +by a discovery of the plans. In the elections of 1864 the Republicans +and Union Democrats united, and after an exciting campaign they were +successful. The new legislature was the first among the legislatures of +the states to ratify (on the 1st of February 1865) the Thirteenth +Amendment. + +From the close of the Civil War until the end of the 19th century the +Republican Party was generally dominant, but the trend of political +development was not without interest. In 1872 many prominent men of the +state joined the Liberal Republican Party, among them Governor John M. +Palmer, Senator Lyman Trumbull and Gustavus Koerner (1809-1896), one of +the most prominent representatives of the German element in Illinois. +The organization united locally, as in national politics, with the +Democratic Party, with equally ineffective results. Economic depression +gave the Granger Movement considerable popularity, and an outgrowth of +the Granger organization was the Independent Reform Party, of 1874, +which advocated retrenchment of expenses, the state regulation of +railways and a tariff for revenue only. A Democratic Liberal Party was +organized in the same year, one of its leaders being Governor Palmer; +consequently no party had a majority in the legislature elected in 1874. +In 1876 the Greenback Party, the successor in Illinois of the +Independent Reform Party, secured a strong following; although its +candidate for governor was endorsed by the Democrats, the Republicans +regained control of the state administration. + +The relations between capital and labour have resulted in serious +conditions, the number of strikes from 1880-1901 having been 2640, and +the number of lock-outs 95. In 1885 the governor found it necessary to +use the state militia to suppress riots in Will and Cook counties +occasioned by the strikes of quarrymen, and the following year the +militia was again called out to suppress riots in St Clair and Cook +counties caused by the widespread strike of railway employees. The most +noted instance of military interference was in 1894, when President +Grover Cleveland sent United States troops to Chicago to prevent +strikers and rioters from interfering with the transmission of the +United States mails. + +Municipal problems have also reacted upon state politics. From 1897 to +1903 the efforts of the Street Railway Companies of Chicago to extend +their franchise, and of the city of Chicago to secure municipal control +of its street railway system, resulted in the statute of 1903, which +provided for municipal ownership. But the proposed issue under this law +of bonds with which Chicago was to purchase or construct railways would +have increased the city's bonded indebtedness beyond its constitutional +limit, and was therefore declared unconstitutional in April 1907 by the +supreme court of the state. + +A law of 1901 provided for a system of initiative whereby any question +of public policy might be submitted to popular vote upon the signature +of a written petition therefor by one-tenth of the registered voters of +the state; such a petition must be filed at least 60 days before the +election day when it is to be voted upon, and not more than three +questions by initiative may be voted on at the same election; to become +operative a measure must receive a majority of all votes cast in the +election. Under this act, in 1902, there was a favourable vote (451,319 +to 76,975) for the adoption of measures requisite to securing the +election of United States senators by popular and direct vote, and in +1903 the legislature of the state (which in 1891 had asked Congress to +submit such an amendment) adopted a joint resolution asking Congress to +call a convention to propose such an amendment to the Federal +Constitution; in 1904 there was a majority of all the votes cast in the +election for an amendment to the primary laws providing that voters may +vote at state primaries under the Australian ballot. The direct primary +law, however, which was passed immediately afterwards by the +legislature, was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of the +state, as were a second law of the same sort passed soon afterwards and +a third law of 1908, which provided for direct nominations of all +officers and an "advisory" nomination of United States senators. + +AMERICAN GOVERNORS OF ILLINOIS + + _Territorial._ + + Ninian Edwards 1809-1818 + + _State._ + + Shadrach Bond 1818-1822 Democrat + Edward Coles 1822-1826 " + Ninian Edwards 1826-1830 " + John Reynolds 1830-1834 " + Wm. L. D. Ewing (acting) 1834 " + Joseph Duncan 1834-1838 " + Thomas Carlin 1838-1842 " + Thomas Ford 1842-1846 " + Augustus C. French 1846-1853[7] " + Joel A. Matteson 1853-1857 " + William H. Bissell 1857-1860 Republican + John Wood (acting) 1860-1861 " + Richard Yates 1861-1865 " + Richard J. Oglesby 1865-1869 " + John M. Palmer 1869-1873 " + Richard J. Oglesby 1873 " + John L. Beveridge (acting) 1873-1877 " + Shelby M. Cullom 1877-1883 " + John M. Hamilton (acting) 1883-1885 " + Richard J. Oglesby 1885-1889 " + Joseph W. Fifer 1889-1893 " + John P. Altgeld 1893-1897 Democrat + John R. Tanner 1897-1901 Republican + Richard Yates 1901-1905 " + Charles S. Deneen 1905- " + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is no complete bibliography of the varied and + extensive literature relating to Illinois; but Richard Bowker's _State + Publications_, part ii. (New York, 1902), and the chapters of E. B. + Greene's _The Government of Illinois_ (New York, 1904) contain useful + lists of documents, monographs and books. Physiography is well + described in _The Illinois Glacial Lobe_ (U.S. Geological Survey, + Monograph, xxxviii.) and _The Water Resources of Illinois_ (U.S. + Geological Survey, Annual Report, xviii.). The Illinois State + Laboratory of Natural History, connected with the State University, + has published S. A. Forbes and R. E. Richardson's _Fishes of Illinois_ + (Urbana, 1909). Information concerning economic conditions may be + derived from the volumes of the _Twelfth Census of the United States_, + which treat of Agriculture, Manufactures and Mines and Quarries: a + summary of agricultural conditions may be found in _Census Bulletin + No. 213_. Constitutional and administrative problems are discussed in + Elliott Anthony's _Constitutional History of Illinois_; Greene's _The + Government of Illinois_, and H. P. Judson's _The Government of + Illinois_ (New York, 1900). Among the reports of the state officials, + those of the Railroad and Ware House Commission, of the Bureau of + Labor Statistics, and of the Commissioners of Charity are especially + valuable. There is an historical study of the problem of taxation, + entitled, "History of the Struggle in Illinois to realize Equality in + Taxation," by H. B. Hurd, in the _Publications of the Michigan + Political Science Association_ (1901). Local government is described + by Albert Shaw, _Local Government in Illinois_ (Johns Hopkins + University Studies, vol. i. No. 10). The _Blue Book of the State of + Illinois_ (Springfield, 1903); H. B. Hurd's Revised Statutes of + Illinois (Chicago, 1903), and Starr and Curtis, _Annotated Statutes of + the State of Illinois_ (Chicago, 1896), are also of value. + + The standard histories of the state are J. Moses, _Illinois, + Historical and Statistical_ (2 vols., Chicago, 1889); and H. Davidson + and B. Stuvé, _Complete History of Illinois_ (Springfield, 1874). + Edward G. Mason's _Chapters from Illinois History_ (Chicago, 1901) is + of interest for the French explorations and the colonial period. C. + E. Boyd in "The County of Illinois" (_American Hist. Rev._ vol. iv.), + "Record Book and Papers of John Todd" (_Chicago Historical Society, + Collections_, iv.), C. E. Carter, _Great Britain and the Illinois + Country, 1763-1774_ (Washington, 1910), R. L. Schuyler, _The + Transition of Illinois to American Government_ (New York, 1909), and + W. H. Smith in _The St Clair Papers_ (Cincinnati, 1882), and the + _Territorial Records of Illinois_ ("Publications of the State + Historical Library," No. 3) are important for the period until 1818. + Governor Thomas Ford's _History of Illinois_ (Chicago, 1854), and + Governor John Reynolds's _My Own Times_ (1855), are contemporary + sources for 1818-1846; they should be supplemented by N. W. Edwards's + _History of Illinois (1778-1833)_ and _Life of Ninian Edwards_ + (Springfield, 1870), E. B. Washburne's _Edwards Papers_ (Chicago, + 1884), C. H. Garnett's _State Banks of Issue in Illinois_ (Univ. of + Ill., 1898), and N. G. Harris's _History of Negro Servitude in + Illinois_ (Chicago, 1904). C. E. Carr's _The Illini_ (Chicago, 1904) + is a study of conditions in Illinois from 1850-1860. W. W. Lusk's + _Politics and Politicians of Illinois, the Illinois Constitutional + Convention_ (1862), _the Granger Movement in Illinois_, and _Illinois + Railway Legislation and Common Control_ (University of Illinois + Studies), _Street Railway Legislation in Illinois_ (_Atlantic + Monthly_, vol. xciii.), are of value for conditions after 1860. The + publications of the Chicago Historical Society, of the "Fergus + Historical" series, of the State Historical Library, of the Wisconsin + Historical Society, also the Michigan Pioneer Collections, contain + valuable documents and essays. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The statistics for years prior to 1900 are taken from reports of + the U.S. Census, those for years after 1900 from the _Year Books_ of + the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It should be borne in mind that + in census years, when comparison can be made, the two sets of + statistics often vary considerably. + + [2] According to the report of the State Geological Survey, the value + of the total mineral product in the state for 1907 was $152,122,648, + the values of the different minerals being as follows: coal, + $54,687,382; pig iron, about $52,228,000; petroleum, $16,432,947; + clay and clay products, $13,351,362; zinc, $6,614,608; limestone, + $4,333,651; Portland cement, $2,632,576; sand and gravel, $1,367,653; + natural slag, $174,282; fluorspar, $141,971; mineral waters, $91,700; + lead ore, $45,760; sandstone, $14,996; and pyrite, $5700. + + [3] See the so-called _McLean County Case_ (67 Ill. 11), the _Neal + Ruggles Case_ (91 Ill. 256), _The People_ v. _The Illinois Central + Railroad Co._ (95 Ill. 313), and _Munn_ v. _Ill._ (94 U.S. 113). + + [4] The populations in other census years were: (1810), 12,282; + (1820), 55,211; (1830), 157,445; (1840), 476,183; (1850), 851,470; + (1860), 1,711,951; (1870), 2,539,891; (1880), 3,077,871. + + [5] The influence of immigration and sectionalism upon Illinois + politics is well illustrated by the fact that the first six governors + (1818-1838) were born in the Southern states, six of the eight United + States senators of that period were also Southern born, and all of + the representatives, with one exception, also came to Illinois from + the Southern states. After 1838 the Eastern states began to be + represented among the governors, but until 1901 no governor was + elected who was a native of Illinois. See E. B. Greene, _Sectional + Forces in the History of Illinois_ (Publications of the Historical + Library of Illinois, No. 8, 1903). + + [6] In the slavery issue of 1848 the sentiment for abolition centred + in the northern counties, the opposition in the southern. + + [7] Mr French's service of seven years is due to the fact that the + Constitutional Convention of 1848 ordered a new election of state + officials. French was re-elected Governor, beginning his new term in + 1849. + + + + +ILLORIN, a province of British West Africa in the protectorate of +Nigeria. It has an area of 6300 m., with an estimated population of +about 250,000. Its inhabitants are of various tribes, among which the +Yoruba now predominate. There are two minor emirates, Shonga and Lafiagi +in this province, and a number of semi-independent towns of which the +chief are Awton, Ajassa, Offa and Patiji. Under British administration +the province is divided into three divisions, Illorin (central), Offa +(southern) and Patiji (northern). The province is rich in agricultural +and sylvan products. Among the former are tobacco, cotton, rice, +peppers, ground-nuts and kolas. The latter include great quantities of +shea as well as palm-oil and rubber. The capital is a town of the same +name as the province. It is 160 m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Lagos, and +50 m. S.S.W. of Jebba, a port on the Niger, being connected with both +places by railway. The town is surrounded by a mud wall partly in ruins, +which has a circuit of some 10 m. Illorin is a great trading centre, +Hausa caravans bringing goods from central Africa, and merchandise from +the coasts of the Mediterranean, which is distributed from Illorin to +Dahomey, Benin and the Lagos hinterland, while from the Guinea coast the +trade is in the hands of the Yoruba and comes chiefly through Lagos. A +variety of manufactures are carried on, including the making of leather +goods, carved wooden vessels, finely plaited mats, embroidered work, +shoes of yellow and red leather and pottery of various kinds. Before the +establishment of British administration traders from the south, with a +few selected exceptions, were prohibited from entering the city. Illorin +middlemen transacted all business between the traders from the north, +who were not allowed to pass to the south, and those from the south. +Since the establishment of British authority the town has been thrown +open, crowds of petty traders from Lagos have flocked into Illorin, and +between 4000 and 5000 trade licences are issued yearly. The British +resident estimated in 1904 that at least 3000 loads of British cotton +goods, which he valued at £5 a load, were imported. The population of +the town is estimated at from 60,000 to 70,000. The chief buildings are +the palace of the emir and the houses of the _baloguns_ (war chiefs). +From the centre of the town roads radiate like spokes of a wheel to the +various gates. Baobabs and other shade trees are numerous. There are a +number of mosques in the town, and the Mahommedans are the dominant +power, but the Yoruba, who constitute the bulk of the people, are +pagans. + +The town of Illorin was founded, towards the close of the 18th century, +by Yoruba, and rose to be the capital of one of the Yoruba kingdoms. +About 1825 the kingdom, which had come under Mahommedan influence, +ceased its connexion with the Yoruba states and became an emirate of the +Sokoto empire. The Fula, however, maintained the Yoruba system of +government, which places the chief power in a council of elders. In +1897 Illorin was occupied by the forces of the Royal Niger Company, and +the emir placed himself "entirely under the protection and power of the +company." After the assumption of authority by the British government in +1900, Illorin was organized for administration on the same system as the +remainder of northern Nigeria. The emir took the oath of allegiance to +the sovereign of Great Britain. A resident was placed at his court. +Courts of justice have been established and British garrisons quartered +at various places in the province. (See also NIGERIA and LAGOS.) + + + + +ILLUMINATED MSS.--"Illumination," in art, is a term used to signify the +embellishment of written or printed text or design with colours and +gold, rarely also with silver. The old form of the verb "to illuminate" +was "to enlumine" (O. Fr. _enluminer_; Lat. _illuminare_, "to throw +light on," "to brighten"), as used by Chaucer (_A.B.C._, 73), "kalendres +enlumyned ben they," and other medieval writers. Joinville likens the +action of St Louis in adorning his kingdom with monastic foundations to +a writer "qui a fait son livre qui l'enlumine d'or et d'azur"; while +Dante (_Purgat._ xi. 79) alludes to this kind of decoration as "quell' +arte che alluminare chiamata è in Parisi." But while the term should be +strictly applied to the brilliant book-ornamentation which was developed +in the later middle ages, it has been extended, by usage, to the +illustration and decoration of early MSS. in general. + + + Early. + +From remote times the practice of illustrating texts by means of +pictorial representations was in vogue. The survival of papyrus rolls +containing the text of the Egyptian ritual known as _The Book of the +Dead_, dating back fifteen centuries B.C., and accompanied with numerous +scenes painted in brilliant colours, proves how ancient was this very +natural method of elucidating a written text by means of pictures. There +are many passages in the writings of Latin authors showing that +illustrated books were not uncommon in Rome at least in the early period +of the empire; and the oldest extant paintings in ancient classical MSS. +may with little hesitation be accepted as representative of the style of +illustration which was practised very much earlier. But such paintings +are rather illustrative than decorative, and the only strictly +ornamental adjuncts are the frames in which they are set. Yet +independent decoration appears in a primitive form in the papyri and the +earliest vellum MSS. At the head or at the end of the text designs +composed of cross-hatchings, cables, dotted patterns and scrolls, +sometimes with birds or simple domestic objects, are found. The early +practice of writing the initial lines or even the entire text of a +volume in gold or coloured inks, and of staining with purple and of +gilding the vellum, while it undoubtedly enhanced the decorative aspect, +does not properly fall within the scope of this article; it concerns the +material rather than the artistic element of the MS. (See MANUSCRIPTS, +PALAEOGRAPHY.) + +It will be seen, then, that in the earliest examples of book decorations +we find the germs of the two lines on which that decoration was destined +to develop in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages: the illustrative +picture was the precursor of the medieval miniature (the technical term +for a picture in an illuminated MS.); and the independent simple +ornament was to expand into the brilliant initial letters and borders of +illumination. And yet, while the miniature has a career of its own in +artistic development which may be more conveniently dealt with under a +separate heading (see MINIATURE), its decorative qualities are so +closely bound up with those of the initial and border that an historical +description of illumination must give full recognition to its prominent +position in the general scheme of book-ornamentation of the middle ages. + +The first examples to come under consideration are the few surviving +MSS. of early origin which, preserving as they do the classical +tradition, form the connecting link between the art of the Roman empire +and that of the middle ages. The most ancient of these, it is now +agreed, is the fragmentary copy of the _Iliad_, on vellum, in the +Ambrosian Library of Milan, which consists of cuttings of the coloured +drawings with which the volume was adorned in illustration of the +various scenes of the poem. The MS. may have been executed in Italy, +and there is good reason to assign the fragments to the 3rd century. The +character of the art is quite classical, bearing comparison with that of +the wall-paintings of Pompeii and the catacombs. Equally classical in +their style are the fifty illustrative pictures of the Vatican Virgil, +known as the _Schedae Vaticanae_, of the 4th century; but in these we +find an advance on the Homeric fragments in the direction of decoration, +for gilt shading is here employed to heighten the lights, and the frames +in which the pictures are set are ornamented with gilt lozenges. A +second famous MS. of Virgil in the Vatican library is the _Codex +Romanus_, a curious instance of rough and clumsy art, with its series of +illustrations copied by an unskilful hand from earlier classical models. +And a still later example of persistence of the classical tradition is +seen in the long roll of the book of Joshua, also in the Vatican, +perhaps of the 10th century, which is filled with a series of outline +drawings of considerable merit, copied from an earlier MS. But all such +MSS. exhibit little tendency to decoration, and if the book +ornamentation of the early middle ages had been practised only in the +western empire and not also at Constantinople, it is very doubtful if +the brilliant illumination which was afterwards developed would have +ever existed. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.--ABOUT A.D. 700. + + (British Museum. Cotton MS., Nero D. iv. f. 211.)] + + + Byzantine. + +When the centre of government passed eastward, Roman art came under +Oriental influence with its sense of splendour, and developed the style +known as Byzantine which, in its earlier stages, and until it became +stereotyped in character, was broad in its drawing, on classical lines, +and brilliant in its colouring, and which introduced a profuse +application of gold in the details of ornament. Reacting on the art of +the west, the influence of the Byzantine or Greek school is not only +prominent in such early works as the mosaics of Ravenna, but it has also +left its mark in the peculiar character of Italian pictorial art of the +middle ages. + +Very few examples of early Byzantine work in MSS. have survived; but two +fragmentary leaves (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 5111) of tables of the Eusebian +canons, which must have stood at the beginning of a copy of the Gospels, +executed no doubt in the Eastern capital in the 6th century, are +sufficient to exemplify the splendour of ornament which might be +lavished on book decoration at that date. The surface of the vellum is +entirely gilt, and the ornamental designs are in classical style and +painted in bright colours. Two well-known MSS., the Genesis of the +Imperial Library of Vienna, of the latter part of the 6th century, and +the Gospels of Rossano in southern Italy, of the same period, both +containing series of illustrative paintings of a semi-classical type, +are very interesting specimens of Byzantine art; but they depend on +their purple vellum and their silver-written texts to claim a place +among highly ornamented MSS., for the paintings themselves are devoid of +gold. On the other hand, the Greek MS. of Genesis, of the 5th or 6th +century, which once formed part of the Cottonian collection in the +British Museum, but which was almost totally destroyed by fire, was of a +more artistic character: the drawing of its miniatures was of great +merit and classical in style, and gold shading was largely employed in +the details. The famous MS. of Dioscorides at Vienna, executed in the +year 472, is another excellent example of the early Byzantine school, +its series of paintings at the beginning of the volume well maintaining +the classical sentiment. + +From such early examples Byzantine art advanced to a maturer style in +the 9th and 10th centuries, two MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale of +Paris being types of the best work of this time. These are: the copy of +the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen (MS. _Grec._ 510), executed about the +year 880 and containing a series of large miniatures, some being of the +highest excellence; and a psalter of the 10th century (MS. Grec. 139), +among whose miniatures are examples which still maintain the old +sentiment of classical art in a remarkable degree, one in particular, +representing David as the psalmist, being an adapted copy of a classical +scene of Orpheus and the Muses. The same scene is repeated in a later +Psalter in the Vatican: an instance of the repetition of favourite +subjects from one century to another which is common throughout the +history of medieval art. At the period of the full maturity of the +Byzantine school great skill is displayed in the best examples of +figure-drawing, and a fine type of head and features is found in the +miniatures of such MSS. as the _Homilies of Chrysostom_ at Paris, which +belonged to the emperor Nicephorus III., 1078-1081, and in the best +copies of the Gospels and Saints' Lives of that period, some of them +being of exquisite finish. By this time also the scheme of decoration +was established. Brilliant gilded backgrounds, give lustre to the +miniatures. Initial letters in gold and colours are in ordinary use; +but, it is to be observed, they never become very florid, but are rather +meagre in outline, nor do they develop the pendants and borders which +are afterwards so characteristic of the illuminated MSS. of the west. By +way of general decoration, the rectangular head-pieces, which are such +prominent features in Greek MSS. from the 10th to the 13th centuries, +flourish in flowered and tesselated and geometric patterns in bright +colours and gold. These are palpably of Oriental design, and may very +well have been suggested by the woven fabrics of western Asia. + +But Byzantine art was not destined to have a great history. Too +self-contained and, under ecclesiastical influence, too much secluded +from the contact with other ideas and other influences which are vitally +necessary for healthy growth and expansion, it fell into stereotyped and +formal convention and ran in narrow grooves. A general tendency was set +up to paint the flesh tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and emaciate +the limbs, to stiffen the gait, and generally to employ sombre colours +in the miniatures, the depressing effect of which the artist seems to +have felt himself compelled to relieve by rather startling contrasts of +bright vermilion and lavish employment of gold. Still the initials and +head-pieces continued to retain their brilliancy, of which they could +scarcely be deprived without losing their _raison d'être_ as decorative +adjuncts. But, with all faults, fine and delicate drawing, with +technical finish in the applied colours, is still characteristic of the +best Greek miniatures of the 10th to 12th centuries, and the fine type +of head and features of the older time remains a tradition. For example, +in the Gospel lectionary, Harleian MS. 1810, in the British Museum, of +the 12th century, there is a series of scenes from the life of Christ +which are more than usually free from the contemporary conventionalism +and which contain many figures of noble design. After the 12th century +there is little in the art of Greek MSS. to detain us. The later +examples, as far as they exist, are decadent and are generally lifeless +copies of the earlier MSS. + +Byzantine art, as seen in Greek MSS., stands apart as a thing of itself. +But we shall have to consider how far and in what manner it had an +influence on western art. Its reaction and influence on Italian art have +been mentioned. That that influence was direct is manifest both in the +style of such works as the mosaics of Italy and in the character of the +paintings of the early Italian masters, and eventually in the earliest +examples of the illuminated MSS. of central and southern Italy. But it +is not so obvious how the influence which the eastern art of the Greek +school undoubtedly exercised on the illuminated MSS. of the Frankish +empire was conveyed. All things considered, however, it seems more +probable that it passed westward through the medium of Italian art +rather than by actual contact, except perhaps in accidental instances. + + + Franco-Lombardic. + +We turn to the west of Europe, and we shall see how in the elaborately +ornamented Frankish MSS. of the Carolingian school was combined the +lingering tradition of the classical style with a new and independent +element which had grown up spontaneously in the north. This new factor +was the Celtic art which had its origin and was brought to perfection in +the illuminated MSS. of Ireland and afterwards of Britain. It will +therefore be convenient to trace the history of that school of book +ornamentation. But before doing so we must dispose, in few words, of the +more primitive style which preceded the Carolingian development in +western continental Europe. This primitive style, which we may call the +native style, as distinguished from the more artificially compounded +art of the revival under Charlemagne, seems to have been widely extended +throughout the Frankish empire and to have been common in Lombardy, and +to some degree in Spain, as well as in France, and is known as +Merovingian and Franco-Lombardic. This kind of ornamentation appears +chiefly in the form of initial letters composed of birds, fishes and +animals contorted into the shapes of the alphabetical letters; and in a +less degree of head-pieces and borders filled with interlacings, or +bands, or geometrical patterns, and even details of animal life. In +these patterns, barbarous as they usually are, the influence of such +artistic objects as mosaics and enamels is evident. The prevailing +colours are crude green, red, orange and yellow, which hold their place +with persistence through successive generations of MSS. This native +style also, in course of time, came under Celtic influence, and adopted +into its scheme the interlaced designs of animal forms and other details +of the ornament of the north. It is therefore necessary to bear in mind +that, side by side with the great series of Carolingian MSS., executed +with all possible magnificence, there was existent this native school +producing its examples of a more rustic character, which must be taken +into account when studying the development of the later national style +in France, in the 10th and succeeding centuries. + + + Celtic + +To turn now to the Celtic style of ornament in MSS. This we find in full +development in Ireland as early as the 7th century. The Irish school of +book ornamentation was essentially a native school working out its own +ideas, created and fostered by the early civilization of the country and +destined to have a profound influence on the art of Britain and +eventually on that of the continent. It may be described as a mechanical +art brought to the highest pitch of perfection by the most skilful and +patient elaboration. Initials, borders and full-page designs are made up +of interlaced ribbons, interlaced and entangled zoomorphic creatures, +intricate knots, spirals, zig-zag ornaments, and delicate interwoven +patterns, together with all kinds of designs worked out in red dots--all +arranged and combined together with mathematical accuracy and with +exquisite precision of touch; and painted in harmonious colours in thick +pigments, which lend to the whole design the appearance of enamel. Gold +is never used. In the production of his designs the Irish artist +evidently took for his models the objects of early metal work in which +the Celtic race was so skilled, and probably, too, the classical enamels +and mosaics and jewelry which had been imported and copied in the +country. The finest example of early Celtic book ornamentation is the +famous copy of the Gospels known as the _Book of Kells_, of the latter +part of the 7th century, preserved in Trinity College, Dublin: a miracle +of minute and accurate workmanship, combining in its brilliant pages an +endless variety of design. + +But, with all his artistic excellence, the Irish artist failed +completely in figure drawing; in fact he can hardly be said to have +seriously attempted it. When we contemplate, for example, the rude +figures intended to represent the evangelists in early copies of the +Gospels, their limbs contorted and often composed of extraordinary +interlacings and convolutions, we wonder that the sense of beauty which +the Irish artist indubitably possessed in an eminent degree was not +shocked by such barbarous productions. The explanation is probably to be +found in tradition. These figures in course of time had come to be +regarded rather as details to be worked into the general scheme of the +ornament of the pages in which they occur than representations of the +human form, and were accordingly treated by the artist as subjects on +which to exercise his ingenuity in knotting them into fantastic shapes. + + + Lindisfarne Gospels. + +Passing from Ireland, the Celtic style of book ornamentation was +naturally practised in the monastic settlements of Scotland, and +especially in St Columba's foundation in the island of Iona. Thence it +spread to other houses in Britain. In the year 635, at the request of +Oswald, king of Northumbria, Aidan, a monk of Iona, was sent to preach +Christianity in that kingdom, and became the founder of the abbey and +see of Lindisfarne in Holy Isle off the Northumbrian coast. Here was +established by the brethren who accompanied the missionary the famous +school of Lindisfarne, from which issued a wonderful series of finely +written and finely ornamented MSS. in the Celtic style, some of which +still survive. The most perfect is the _Lindisfarne Gospels_ or _St +Cuthbert's Gospels_ or the _Durham Book_, as it is more commonly called +from the fact of its having rested for some time at Durham after early +wanderings. This MS., written in honour of St Cuthbert and completed +early in the 8th century, is in the Cottonian collection in the British +Museum--a beautiful example of writing, and of the Celtic style of +ornament, and in perfect condition. The contact with foreign influences, +unknown in Ireland, is manifested in this volume by the use of gold, but +in very sparing quantity, in some of the details. An interesting point +in the artistic treatment of the MS. is the style in which the figures +of the four evangelists are portrayed. Here the conventional Irish +method, noticed above, is abandoned; the figures are mechanical copies +from Byzantine models. The artist was unskilled in such drawing and has +indicated the folds of the draperies, not by shading, but by streaks of +paint of contrasting colours. Explanations of such instances of the +unexpected adoption of a foreign style are rarely forthcoming; but in +this case there is one. The sections of the text have been identified as +following the Neapolitan use. The Greek Theodore, archbishop of +Canterbury, arrived in Britain in the year 688 and was accompanied by +Adrian, abbot of a monastery in the island of Nisita near Naples; and +they both visited Lindisfarne. There can therefore be little doubt that +the Neapolitan MS. from which the text of the _Durham Book_ was derived, +was one which Abbot Adrian had brought with him; and it may also be +assumed that his MS. also contained paintings of the evangelists in the +Byzantine style, which served as models to the Northumbrian artist. + + + Carolingian. + +The Celtic style was thus established through the north of England, and +thence it spread to the southern parts of the country. But, for the +moment, the account of its further development in Britain must be +suspended in order to resume the thread of the story of the later +classical influence on the illumination of MSS. of the Frankish empire. +Under Charlemagne, who became emperor of the West in the year 800, art +revived in many branches, and particularly in that of the writing and +the illumination of MSS. During the reigns of this monarch and his +immediate successors was produced a series of magnificent volumes, +mostly biblical and liturgical, made resplendent by a lavish use of +gold. The character of the decoration runs still, as of old, in the two +lines of illustration and of pure ornament. We find a certain amount of +general illustration, usually of the biblical narrative, in pictorial +scenes drawn in freehand in the later classical style, and undoubtedly +inspired by the western art of Rome. But those illustrations are small +in number compared with the numerous examples of pure ornament. Such +ornament was employed in the tables of the Eusebian canons, in the +accessories of the traditional pictures of the evangelists, in the +full-page designs which introduced the opening words of the several +books of Bibles or Gospels, in the large initial letters profusely +scattered through the volumes, in the infinite variety of borders which, +in some MSS., adorned page after page. In all this ornament the debased +classical element is prominently in evidence, columns and arches of +variegated marbles, and leaf mouldings and other architectural details +are borrowed from the Roman basilicas, to serve as decorations for text +and miniature. The conventional portrait-figures of the evangelists are +modelled on the Byzantine pattern, but with differences which appear to +indicate an intervening influence, such as would be exercised on the +eastern art by its transmission through Italy. Such figures, which +indeed become, in course of time, so formal as almost to be decorative +details along with their settings, grew stereotyped and passed on +monotonously from artist to artist, always subject to deterioration, and +were perpetuated especially in MSS. of German origin down to the 11th +and 12th centuries. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + PSALTER OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.--LATE TWELFTH CENTURY. + + (British Museum. _Royal MS._ 2A. xxii.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE III. + + LECTIONARY, OF THE USE OF PARIS. LATE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. (British + Museum. Add. M.S. 17,341.)] + +But it is not the debased classical decoration alone which marks the +illumination of the Carolingian school. The influence of the Celtic art, +which has been described, imposed itself and combined with it. This +combination was due to the Englishman, Alcuin of York, who became abbot +of the Benedictine house of St Martin of Tours, and who did so much to +aid Charlemagne in the revival of letters. Thus, in the finest examples +of the Carolingian illuminated MSS., Celtic interlaced patterns stand +side by side with the designs of classical origin; and, at the same +time, it is interesting to observe that the older native Merovingian +style of ornament makes its presence felt, now and again, in this or +that detail. But with all the artistic effort bestowed upon it, it must +be conceded that Carolingian illumination, as presented in the MSS., is +not always pleasing. Indeed, it is often coarse and monotonous, and +there is a tendency to conceal inferiority under a dazzling abundance of +gold. The leading idea of the ornament of the great MSS. was splendour. +Gold was used in profusion even in the writing of the text, and silver +also in a minor degree; and the vellum, stained or painted purple, +enhanced the gorgeous effect of the illumination. But undoubtedly the +purer style of the Celtic school balanced and restrained the tendency to +coarseness; and this foreign influence naturally was stronger in some +centres than in others. For example, in the abbey of Saint-Denis, near +Paris, if we may draw conclusions from surviving examples, the Celtic +style was in great favour. Another peculiarity in the decoration of the +Carolingian MSS. is the tendency of the artist to mix his styles, and to +attach details on a small scale, such as delicate sprays and flourishes, +and minute objects, to large-scale initial letters, as though he felt +that grossness required a corrective contrast. The art became more +refined under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, and under Charles +the Bald it culminated. The most famous MSS. of the Carolingian school +are the _Evangeliarium_, written and illuminated by the scribe Godescalc +for Charlemagne in the year 787; the _Sacramentarium_ written for +Drogon, son of Charlemagne and bishop of Metz; the Gospels of the +emperor Lothair, once at Tours; the first Bible of Charles the Bald, +presented by Count Vivien, abbot of St Martin of Tours; the second +Bible, called the Bible of Saint Denis, in Franco-Saxon style; and the +so-called Gospels of Francis II. There are also in the British Museum +(Harleian MS. 2788) an Evangeliarium written in gold and known as the +_Codex aureus_, of this school; and a Bible of Alcuin's recension, +probably executed at Tours in the middle of the 9th century, with +illustrative miniatures and initial letters, but of a less elaborate +degree of ornament. + +After this brilliant period decadence sets in; and in the course of the +11th century Frankish illumination sinks to its lowest point, the +miniatures being for the most part coarse and clumsy copies of earlier +models. The colours become harsh, often assuming an unpleasant chalky +appearance. + +We have now to trace the development of another kind of book decoration, +quite different from the florid style of gold and colours just now +described, which had a lasting influence on the early art of England, +where it was specially cultivated, and where it developed a character +which at length became distinctively national. This is the style of +outline drawing which fills so large a space in the Anglo-Saxon MSS. of +the 10th and 11th centuries. + + + Anglo-Saxon. + +We have already seen how the Celtic style of ornamentation was +introduced into the north of England. Thence it appears to have spread +rapidly southward. As early as the beginning of the 8th century it was +practised at Canterbury, as is testified by a famous psalter in the +British Museum (Cott. MS. Vespasian A. 1), in which much of the ornament +is of Celtic type. But the same MS. is also witness to the presence of +another influence in English art, that of the classical style of Rome, +certain details of the ornament being of that character and a miniature +in the MS. being altogether of the classical type. With little +hesitation this element may be ascribed to MSS. brought from Rome, in +the first instance by St Augustine, and afterwards by the incoming +missionaries who succeeded him, and deposited in such centres as +Canterbury and Winchester. But this importation of MSS. from Italy was +not confined to the south. We have distinct evidence that they were +brought into northern monasteries, such as those of Jarrow and Wearmouth +and York. Thus the English artists of both south and north were in a +position to take advantage of material from two sources; and they +naturally did so. Thus we find that mingling of the Celtic and classical +styles just noticed. In this way, early grown accustomed to take +classical models for their drawings, the Anglo-Saxon artists were the +more susceptible to the later development of the classical style of +outline drawing which was next introduced into the country from the +continent. The earliest MS. in which this style of drawing is exhibited +in fullest detail is the volume known as the _Utrecht Psalter_, once in +the Cottonian Library, in which the text of the psalms is profusely +illustrated with minute pen-sketches remarkably full of detail. The +period of the MS. is about the year 800; and it was probably executed in +the north or north-east of France. But the special interest of the +drawings is that they are evidently copies of much older models and +provide a valuable link with the late classical art of some two or three +centuries earlier. The work is very sketchy, the movement of the +draperies indicated by lightly scribbled strokes of the pen, the limbs +elongated, the shoulders humped--all characteristic features which are +repeated in the later Anglo-Saxon work. The drawings of the _Utrecht +Psalter_ are clearly typical examples of a style which, founded on Roman +models, must at one time have been widely practised in western Europe. +For instance, there are traces of it in such a centre as St Gallen in +Switzerland, and there are extant MSS. of the _Psychomachia_ of +Prudentius (a favourite work) with drawings of this character which were +executed in France in the 10th century. But the style does not appear to +have taken much hold on the fancy of continental artists. It was +reserved for England to welcome and to make this free drawing her own, +and to develop it especially in the great school of illumination at +Winchester. Introduced probably in such examples as the _Utrecht +Psalter_ and copies of the _Psychomachia_, this free drawing of +semi-classical origin had fully established itself here in the course of +the 10th century, and by that time had assumed a national character. A +fair number of MSS. of the 10th and 11th centuries which issued from the +Winchester school are still to be seen among the collections of the +British museum, in most of which the light style of outline drawing with +the characteristic fluttering drapery is more or less predominant, +although body colours were also freely employed in many examples. But +the most elaborate specimen of Anglo-Saxon illumination of the 10th +century is one belonging to the duke of Devonshire: the _Benedictional_ +of the see of Winchester, executed under the direction of Æthelwold, +bishop from 963 to 984, which contains a series of miniatures, in this +instance in body colours, but drawn in the unmistakable style of the new +school. In the scheme of decoration, however, another influence is at +work. As England had sent forth its early Celtic designs to modify the +art of the Frankish empire, so the Carolingian style of ornament now, in +its turn, makes its way into this country, and appears in the purely +ornamental details of the Anglo-Saxon illuminated volumes. The frames of +the miniatures are chiefly composed of conventional foliage, and the +same architectural leaf-mouldings of classical origin which are seen in +the foreign MSS. are here repeated. Profuse gilding also, which is +frequently applied, sometimes with silver, is due to foreign influence. +But this character of decoration soon assumed a national cast. Under the +hands of the Anglo-Saxon artist the conventional foliage flourished with +greater freedom; and the colouring which he applied was generally softer +and more harmonious than that which was employed abroad. Examples of +outline drawing of the best type exist in the Harleian _Psalter_ (No. +2904), of the same period as the Æthelwold _Benedictional_; in the +register of New Minster (Stowe MS. 944), A.D. 1016-1020; and in the +Prudentius (Cotton MS. Cleop. C. viii.), executed early in the 11th +century. + + + Norman. + +With the Norman Conquest naturally great changes were effected in the +illumination of English MSS., as in other branches of art; no doubt to +the ultimate improvement of English draughtsmanship. Left to itself the +outline drawing of the Anglo-Saxons, inclining as it did to affectation, +would probably have sunk into fantastic exaggeration and feebleness. +Brought more directly under Norman domination it resulted in the fine, +bold freehand style which is conspicuous in MSS. executed in England in +the next three centuries. Then we come to the period when the art of +illumination is brought into line in the countries of western Europe, in +England and in France, in Flanders and in western Germany, by the +splendid outburst of artistic sentiment of the 12th century. This +century is the period of large folios providing ample space in their +pages for the magnificent initial letters drawn on a grand scale which +are to be seen in the great Bibles and psalters of the time. The leading +feature is a wealth of foliage with twining and interlacing branches, +among which human and animal life is freely introduced, the whole design +being thrown into relief by brilliant colours and a generous use of +gold. The figure drawing both in miniatures and initials is stiff, the +figures elongated but bold, and with sweeping lines in the draperies; +and a tendency to represent the latter clinging closely to the limbs is +a legacy of the tradition of the later classical style. In England the +school of Winchester appears to have maintained the same excellence +after the Norman Conquest as before it. A remarkable MS. (Cotton, Nero +C. iv.), a psalter of about the year 1160, with a series of fine +miniatures, is a good example of its work. In France, Flanders and +western Germany we find the same energy in producing boldly ornamented +volumes, as in England; a certain heaviness of outline distinguishing +the work of the Flemish and German artists from that of the English and +French schools. Such MSS. as the Stavelot Bible (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. +28,107), of the close of the 11th century, the Bible of Floreffe (Add. +MS. 17,737-17,738), of about the year 1160, and the Worms Bible (Harl. +MS. 2803-2804), of the same time, are fine specimens of Flemish and +German work. + + + 13th Century. + +It is towards the close of the 12th century and in the beginning of the +13th century that the character of illumination settles down on more +conventional lines. Hitherto gold had been applied in a liquid state; +now it is laid on in leaf and is highly burnished, a process which lends +a brilliant effect to initial and miniature. A great change passes over +the face of things. The large, bold style gives place to the minute. +Volumes decrease in size; the texts are written in close-packed +characters; the large and simple is superseded by the small and +decorated. The period has arrived when book ornamentation becomes more +settled and accurately defined within limits, and starts on the course +of regulated expansion which was to run for three hundred years down to +the close of the 15th century. In the 13th century the historiated or +miniature initial, that is, the initial letter containing within its +limits a miniature illustrating the subject of the immediate text, is +established as a favourite detail of ornamentation, in addition to the +regular independent miniature. Such initials form a prominent feature in +the pretty little Bibles which were produced in hundreds at this period. +But a still more interesting subject for study is the development of the +border which was to have such a luxuriant growth in the 13th, 14th and +15th centuries. Commencing as a pendant from the initial, with terminal +in form of bud or cusp, it gradually pushes its way along the margins, +unfolding foliage as it proceeds, and in course of time envelopes the +entire page of text in a complete framework formulating in each country +a national style. + +In the miniatures of the 13th century the art of England, of France, and +of the Low Countries runs very much in one channel. The Flemish art, +however, may be generally distinguished from the others by the heavier +outline already noticed. The French art is exquisitely exact and +clean-cut, and in its best examples it is the perfection of +neat-handedness. English art is perhaps less exact, but makes up for any +deficiency in this direction by its gracefulness. However, there is +often little to choose between the productions of the three countries, +and they are hard to distinguish. As an aid for such distinction, among +small differences, we may notice the copper tone of French gold +contrasting with the purer metal in English MSS.; and the favour shown +to deep ultramarine appears to mark French work. But, besides actual +illuminated miniature painting, there is also a not inconsiderable +amount of freehand illustrative drawing in the MSS. In this particular +the English artist maintains the excellence of work which distinguished +his ancestors. Such series of delicate drawings, slightly tinted, as +those to be seen in the famous Queen Mary's Psalter (Royal MS. 2 B. +vii.), and in other MSS. of the 13th and 14th centuries in the British +Museum, are not surpassed by any similar drawings done at the same +period in any other country. In the 13th century also comes into vogue +the highly decorated diaper-work, generally of lozenges or chequered +patterns in brilliant colours and brightly burnished gold. These fill +the backgrounds of miniatures and initials, together with other forms of +decoration, such as sheets of gold stippled or surface-drawn in various +designs. Diapering continued to be practised in all three countries down +into the 15th century; and in particular it is applied with exquisite +effect in many of the highly-finished MSS. of the artists of Paris. + +To return to the growth of the borders: these continue to be generally +of one style in both England and France and in Flanders during the 13th +century; but, when with the opening of the 14th century the conventional +foliage begins to expand, a divergence ensues. In France and Flanders +the three-pointed leaf, or ivy leaf, appears, which soon becomes fixed +and flourishes as a typical detail of ornament in French illumination of +the 14th and 15th centuries. In England there is less convention, and +along with formal branches and leafage, natural growths, such as +daisy-buds, acorns, oak leaves, nuts, &c., are also represented. + + + German. + +Meanwhile German illumination, which in the large MSS. of the 12th +century had given high promise, in the following centuries falls away +and becomes detached from the western schools, and is, as a general +rule, of inferior quality, although in the 13th century fine examples +are still to be met with. Dark outlines and backgrounds of +highly-burnished gold are in favour. At present, however, there is not +sufficient published material to enable us to pass a definite judgment +on the value of German illumination in the later middle ages. But the +researches of scholars are beginning to localize particular styles in +certain centres. For example, in Bohemia there was a school of +illumination of a higher class, which seems later to have had an +influence on English art, as will be noticed presently. + + + Italian. + +We must now turn to Italy, which has been left on one side during our +examination of the art of the more western countries. In attempting to +bridge the gap which severs the later classical style of Rome from the +medieval art of Italy, much must be left to conjecture. That a debased +classical style of drawing was employed in the earlier centuries of the +middle ages we cannot doubt. Such a MS. as the Ashburnham Genesis of the +7th century, which contains pictures of a somewhat rude character but +based apparently upon a recollection of the classical drawing of earlier +times, and which appears to be of Italian origin, serves as a link, +however slight. Coming down to a later period, the primitive native art +of the Frankish empire, as we have seen, extended into northern Italy +under the name of Franco-Lombardic ornamentation; and we have also seen +how the art of the Byzantine school reacted on the art of the southern +portion of the country. Hence, in the middle ages, the ornamentation of +Italian MSS. appears to move on two leading lines. The first, which we +owe to the Byzantine influence, in which figure-drawing is the leading +idea, follows the old classical method and, showing a distinctly Greek +impress, leads to the style which we recognize as Italian _par +excellence_, and which is seen most effectively manifested in the works +of Cimabue and Giotto and of allied schools. In this style the colouring +is generally opaque: the flesh tints being laid over a foundation of +deep olive green, which imparts a swarthy complexion to the features--a +practice also common in Byzantine art. The other line is that of the +Lombardic style which, like the Celtic school of the British Isles, +was an art almost exclusively of pure ornament, of intricate +interlacings of arabesques and animal forms, with bright colouring and +ample use of gold. The Lombardic style was employed in certain centres, +as, for example, at Monte Cassino, where in the 11th, 12th and 13th +centuries brilliant examples were produced. But it was not destined to +stand before the other, stronger and inherently more artistic, style +which was to become national. Still, its scheme of brighter colouring +and of general ornament seems to have had an effect upon later +productions, if we are not mistaken in recognizing something of its +influence in such designs as the interlaced white vine-branch borders +which are so conspicuous in Italian MSS. of the period of the +Renaissance. + +[Illustration: PLATE IV. + + DURANDUS. DE DlVINIS OFFICIIS. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Italian School. + (British Museum. Add. MS. 31,032.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE V. + + VALERIUS MAXIMUS. ABOUT A.D. 1475. Executed for Philippe de Comines. + (British Museum. _Harley M.S._ 4374.)] + + + 14th Century. + +The progress of Italian illumination in the style influenced by the +Byzantine element is of particular interest in the general history of +art, on account of the rapidity with which it grew to maturity, and the +splendour to which it attained in the 15th century. Of the earlier +centuries the existing examples are not many. That Italian artists were +capable of great things as far back as the 12th century is evident from +their frescoes. We may notice the curious occurrence of two very +masterly paintings, the death of the Virgin and the Virgin enthroned, +drawn with remarkable breadth in the Italian style, in the _Winchester +Psalter_ (Cottonian MS. Nero C. iv.) of the middle of that century, as a +token of the possibilities of Italian illumination at that date; but +generally there is little to show. Even at the beginning of the 14th +century most of the specimens are of an ordinary character and betray a +want of skill in striking contrast with the highly artistic productions +of the Northern schools of England and France at the same period. But, +though inferior artistically, Italian book ornamentation had by this +time been so far influenced by the methods of those schools as to fall +into line with them in the general system of decoration. The miniature, +the initial, the miniature-initial and the border--all have their place +and are subject to the same laws of development as in the other schools. +But, once started, Italian illumination in the 14th century, especially +in Florence, expanded with extraordinary energy. We may cite the Royal +MS. 6, E. ix., containing an address to Robert of Anjou, king of Sicily, +1334-1342, and the Add. MS. 27,428 of legends of the saints, of about +the year 1370, as instances of very fine miniature-work of the +Florentine type. As the century advances, Italian illumination becomes +more prolific and is extended to all classes of MSS., the large volumes +of the Decretals and other law books, and still more the great folio +choral books, in particular affording ample space for the artist to +exercise his fancy. As was natural from the contiguity of the two +countries, as well as from political causes, France and Italy influenced +each other in the art. In many MSS. of the Florentine school the French +influence is very marked, and on the other hand, Italian influence is +exercised especially in MSS. of the southern provinces of France. +Italian art of this period also in some degree affected the illumination +of southern German MSS. + +We have also to note the occurrence in Italy in the 14th century of good +illustrative outline drawings, generally tinted in light colours, and +occasionally we meet with a wonderfully bright style of illumination of +a lighter cast of colouring than usually prevails in Italian art: such +as may be seen in a MS. of Durandus _De divinis oficiis_ (Brit. Mus., +Add. MS. 31,032) containing an exquisite series of initials and borders. + +Taking a general view of the character of European illumination in the +14th century it may be described as an art of great invention and +flexibility. The rigid exactness of the 13th century is replaced by +flowing lines, just as the stiff, formal strokes of the handwriting of +that century was exchanged for a more cursive and easy style. The art of +each individual country now developed a national type of its own, which +again branched off into the different styles of provincial schools. For +example, in the eastern counties of England a very fine school of +illumination, the East Anglian, was established in the first half of the +century and produced a series of beautiful MSS., such as the _Arundel +Psalter_ (No. 83) in the British Museum. + + + Distinctive Borders. + +By the end of the century the borders had developed on national lines so +fully as to become, more than any other detail in the general scheme, +the readiest means of identifying the country of origin. First as to the +English border: the favour shown to the introduction of natural growths +among the conventional foliage thrown out from the frame into which the +border had by this time expanded has already been noticed. But now a new +feature is introduced. The frame up to this time had consisted generally +of conventional branches with bosses at the corners. Now it is divided +more into compartments within which twining coils of ornament resembling +cut feather-work are common details; and feathery scrolls fill the +corner-bosses and are attached to other parts of the frame; while the +foliage thrown out into the margin takes the form of sprays of curious +lobe- or spoon-shaped and lozenge-shaped leaves or flowers, with others +resembling curled feathers, and with cup- and trumpet-shaped flowers. +This new style of border is contemporaneous with the appearance of a +remarkably brilliant style in the miniatures, good in drawing and rich +in colouring; and an explanation for the change has been sought in +foreign influence. It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that +this influence comes from the school of Prague, through the marriage of +Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia in 1382. However this may be, there +certainly is a decidedly German sentiment in the feathery scrolls just +described. + +Turning to the French border, we find towards the close of the 14th +century that the early ivy-leaf pendant has now invaded all the margins +and that the page is set in a conventional frame throwing off on every +side sprigs and waving scrolls of the conventional ivy foliage, often +also accompanied with very delicate compact tracery of minute +flower-work filling the background of the frame. Nothing can be more +charming than the effect of such borders, in which the general design is +under perfect control. The character, too, of the French miniature of +this period harmonizes thoroughly with the brilliant border, composed as +it is very largely of decorative elements, such as diapered patterns and +details of burnished gold. In the Low Countries, as was natural, the +influence of French art continued to have great weight, at least in the +western provinces where the style of illumination followed the French +lead. + +The Italian border in its ordinary form was of independent character, +although following the methods of the West. Thrown out from the initial, +it first took the form of pendants of a peculiarly heavy conventional +curling foliage, associated, as progress was made, with slender rods +jointed at intervals with bud-like ornaments and extending along the +margins; at length expanding into a frame. The employment of gilt spots +or pellets to fill spaces in the pendants and borders becomes very +marked as the century advances. They are at first in a simple form, but +they gradually throw out rays, and in the latter shape they become the +chief constituents of one kind of border of the 15th century. + + + 15th Century. + +Illumination in the 15th century enters on a new phase. The balance is +no longer evenly maintained between the relative values of the miniature +and the border as factors in the general scheme of decoration. The +influence of a new sentiment in art makes itself felt more and more; the +flat treatment of the miniature gradually gives place to true laws of +perspective and of figure-drawing, and to the depth and atmospheric +effects of modern painting. Miniature painting in the decoration of MSS. +now became more of a trade; what in old times had been done in the +cloister was now done in the shop; and the professional miniaturist, +working for his own fame, took the place of the nameless monk who worked +for the credit of his house. Henceforth the miniature occupies a more +important place than ever in the illuminated MS.; while the border, with +certain important exceptions, is apt to recede into an inferior position +and to become rather an ornamental adjunct to set off the miniature than +a work of art claiming equality with it. + +Continuing the survey of the several national styles, we shall have to +witness the final supersession of the older styles of England and +France by the later developments of Italy and Flanders. We left English +illumination at the close of the 14th century strengthened by a fresh +infusion of apparently a foreign, perhaps Bohemian, source. The style +thus evolved marks a brilliant but short-lived epoch in English art. It +is not confined to MSS., but appears also in the paintings of the time, +as, for example, in the portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey and +in that in the Wilton triptych belonging to the earl of Pembroke. +Delicate but brilliant colouring, gold worked in stippled patterns and a +careful modelling of the human features are its characteristics. In MSS. +also the decorative borders, of the new pattern already described, are +of exceptional richness. Brilliant examples of the style, probably +executed for Richard himself, may be seen in a magnificent Bible (Royal +MS. 1, E. ix.), and in a series of cuttings from a missal (Add. MS. +29,704-29,705) in the British Museum. But the promise of this new school +was not to be fulfilled. The same style of border decoration was carried +into the 15th century, and good examples are found down to the middle of +it, but a general deterioration soon sets in. Two MSS. must, however, be +specially mentioned as surviving instances of the fine type of work +which could still be turned out early in the century; and, curiously, +they are both the productions of one and the same illuminator, the +Dominican, John Siferwas. The first is a fragmentary Lectionary (Brit. +Mus., Harl. MS., 7026) executed for John, Lord Lovel of Tichmersh, who +died in 1408; the other is the famous Sherborne Missal, the property of +the duke of Northumberland, a large volume completed about the same time +for the Benedictine abbey of Sherborne in Dorsetshire. Certainly other +MSS. of equal excellence must have existed; but they have now perished. +After the middle of the 15th century English illumination may be said to +have ceased, for the native style disappears before foreign imported +art. This failure is sufficiently accounted for by the political state +of the country and the distractions of the War of the Roses. + +In France the 15th century opened more auspiciously for the art of +illumination. Brilliant colouring and the diapered background glittering +with gold, the legacy of the previous century, still continue in favour +for some time; the border, too, of ivy-leaf tracery still holds its own. +But in actual drawing there are signs, as time advances, of growing +carelessness, and the artist appears to think more of the effect of +colour than of draughtsmanship. This was only natural at a time when the +real landscape began to replace the background of diaper and +conventional rocks and trees. In the first quarter of the century the +school of Paris comes prominently to the front with such magnificent +volumes as the Book of Hours of the regent, John Plantagenet, duke of +Bedford, now in the British Museum; and the companion MS. known as the +Sobieski Hours, at Windsor. In these examples, as is always the case +with masterpieces, we see a great advance upon earlier methods. The +miniatures are generally exquisitely painted in brilliant colours and +the drawing is of a high standard; and in the borders now appear natural +flowers intermingled with the conventional tracery--a new idea which was +to be carried further as the century advanced. The Psalter executed at +Paris for the boy-king Henry VI. (Cotton MS. Domitian A. xviii.) is +another example of this school, rather of earlier type than the Bedford +MS., but beautifully painted. In all three MSS. the borders show no lack +of finish; they are of a high standard and are worthy of the miniatures. +But perhaps the very finest miniature-work to be found in any MS. of +French origin of this period is the breviary (Harl. MS. 2897) +illuminated for John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, who was +assassinated in 1419. It could hardly be surpassed in refinement and +minuteness of detail. + +Development towards the modern methods of painting moves on rapidly with +the century. First, the border in the middle period grows florid; the +simpler ivy-spray design, which had held its position so long, is +gradually pushed away by a growth of flowering scrolls, with flowers, +birds and animal and insect life introduced in more or less profusion. +But henceforward deterioration increases, and the border becomes +subsidiary. In the case of miniatures following the old patterns of the +devotional and liturgical books, a certain restraint still prevails; but +with those in other works, histories and romances and general +literature, where the paintings are devised by the fancy of the artist, +the advance is rapid. The recognition of the natural landscape, the +perception of atmospheric effects now guide the artist's brush, and the +modern French school of the second half of the 15th century is fairly +established. The most celebrated leaders of this school were Jean +Foucquet of Tours and his sons, many of whose works still bear witness +to their skill. In the MSS. of this school the influence of the Flemish +contemporary art is very obvious; and before the advance of that art +French illumination receded. A certain hardness of surface and want of +depth characterize the French work of this time, as well as the practice +of employing gilt hatching to obtain the high lights. This practice is +carried to excess in the latest examples of French illumination in the +early part of the 16th century, when the art became mechanical and +overloaded with ornament, and thus expired. + +It has been seen that the Flemish school of illumination in the 13th and +14th centuries followed the French model. In the 15th century, while the +old tradition continued in force for a while, the art developed on an +independent line; and in the second half of the century it exercised a +widespread influence on the neighbouring countries, on France, on +Holland and on Germany. This development was one of the results of the +industrial and artistic activity of the Low Countries at this period, +when the school of the Van Eycks and their followers, and of other +artists of the great and wealthy cities, such as Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, +were so prolific. The Flemish miniatures naturally followed on the lines +of painting. The new style was essentially modern, freeing itself from +the traditions of medieval illumination and copying nature. Under the +hand of the Flemish artist the landscape attained to great perfection, +softness and depth of colouring, the leading attribute of the school, +lending a particular charm and sense of reality to his out-door scenes. +His closer observation of nature is testified also in the purely +decorative part of his work. Flowers, insects, birds and other natural +objects now frequent the border, the origin of which is finally +forgotten. It ceases to be a connected growth wandering round the page; +it becomes a flat frame of dull gold or colour, over which isolated +objects, flowers, fruits, insects, butterflies, are strewn, painted with +naturalistic accuracy and often made, by means of strong shadows, to +stand out in relief against the background. This practice was soon +carried to florid excess, and all kinds of objects, including jewels and +personal ornaments, were pressed into the service of the border, in +addition to the details copied from nature. The soft beauty of the later +Flemish style proved very attractive to the taste of the day, with the +result that it maintained a high standard well on into the 16th century, +the only rivals being the MSS. of Italian art. The names of celebrated +miniaturists, such as Memlinc, Simon Bening of Ghent, Gerard of Bruges, +are associated with its productions; and many famous extant examples +bear witness to the excellence to which it attained. The Grimani +Breviary at Venice is one of the best known MSS. of the school; but +almost every national library has specimens to boast of. Among those in +the British Museum may be mentioned the breviary of Queen Isabella of +Spain (Add. MS. 18,851); the Book of Hours of Juana of Castille (Add. +MS. 18,852); a very beautiful Book of Hours executed at Bruges (Egerton +MS. 2125); another exquisite but fragmentary MS. of the same type (Add. +MS. 24,098) and cuttings from a calendar of the finest execution (Add. +MS. 18,855) ascribed to Bening of Ghent; a series of large sheets of +genealogies of the royal houses of Portugal and Spain (Add. MS. 12,531) +by the same master and others; and late additions to the Sforza Book of +Hours (Add. MS. 34,294). + +But, besides the brilliantly coloured style of Flemish illumination +which has been described, there was another which was practised with +great effect in the 15th century. This was the simpler style of drawing +in white delicately shaded to indicate the contour of figures and the +folds of drapery, &c., known as _grisaille_ or _camaïeu gris_. It was +not indeed confined to the Flemish schools, but was practised also to +some extent and to good effect in northern France, and also in Holland +and other countries; but the centre of its activity appears to have been +in the Low Countries. The excellence to which it attained may be seen in +the MSS. of the _Miracles de Nostre Dame_ now in Paris and the Bodleian +Library, which were executed for Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in +the middle of the 15th century. + +Of the Dutch school of illumination, which was connected with that of +Flanders, there is little to be said. Judging from existing examples, +the art was generally of a more rustic and coarser type. There are, +however, exceptions. A MS. in the British Museum (King's MS. 5) of the +beginning of the 15th century contains scenes from the life of Christ in +which the features are carefully modelled, very much after the style of +English work of the same time; and some of the specimens of Dutch work +in _camaïeu gris_ are excellent. + +German illumination in the 15th century appears to have largely copied +the Flemish style; but it lost the finer qualities of its pattern, and +in decoration it inclined to extravagance. Where the Flemish artist was +content with single flowers gracefully placed, the German filled his +borders with straggling plants and foliage and with large flourished +scrolls. + +Italian illumination, which had developed so rapidly in the 14th +century, now advanced with accelerated pace and expanded into a variety +of styles, more or less local, culminating in the exquisite productions +of the classical renaissance in the latter half of the 15th century. As +in the other national styles of France and Flanders, the Italian +miniaturist quickly abandoned the conventional for the natural +landscape; but with more character both in the figure-drawing and in the +actual representation of scenery. The colouring is brilliant, not of the +softness of the Flemish school, but of stronger and harder body; the +outlines are firm and crisp and details well delineated. The Florentine, +the Lombard, the Venetian, the Neapolitan and other schools flourished; +and, though they borrowed details from each other, each had something +distinctive in its scheme of colouring. The border developed on several +lines. The rayed gold spots or studs or pellets, which were noticed in +the 14th century, are now grouped in profusion along the margins and in +the interstices of delicate flowering and other designs. Another +favourite detail in the composition of both initials and borders was the +twining vine tendril, generally in white or gold upon a coloured ground, +apparently a revival of the interlacing Lombardic work of the 11th and +12th centuries. At first, restrained and not too complex, it fills the +body of initials and short borders; then it rapidly expands, and the +convolutions and interlacings become more and more elaborate. Lastly +came the completed solid frame into which are introduced arabesques, +vignettes, candelabras, trophies, vases, medallions, antique gems, +cupids, fawns, birds, &c., and all that the fancy led by the spirit of +classical renaissance could suggest. Among the principal Italian MSS. of +the 15th century in the British Museum there are: a copy of _Plutarch's +Lives_, with miniatures in a remarkable style (Add. MS. 22,318); +Aristotle's _Ethics_, translated into Spanish by Charles, prince of +Viana, probably executed in Sicily about 1458 (Add. MS. 21,120); a +breviary of Santa Croce at Florence, late in the century (Add. MS. +29,735); Livy's _History of the Macedonian War_, of the Neapolitan +school, late in the century (Harl. MS. 3694); and, above all, the +remarkable Book of Hours of Bona Sforza of Savoy of about the year 1490 +(Add. MS. 34,291); besides a fair number of MSS. exhibiting the rich +colouring of the Venetian school. + +Like that of the French and Flemish schools, Italian illumination +survived into the 16th century, and for a time showed vigour. Very +elaborate borders of the classical type and of good design were still +produced. But, as in other countries, it was then a dying art. The +attempt to graft illumination on to books produced by the printing +press, which were now displacing the hand-written volumes with which the +art had always been associated, proved, except in a few rare instances, +a failure. The experiment did not succeed; and the art was dead. + + + Spain. + +It remains to say a few words respecting the book ornamentation of the +Peninsula. In the earlier centuries of the middle ages there appears to +have been scarcely anything worthy of note. The Mozarabic liturgies and +biblical MSS. of the 9th to 12th centuries are adorned with initial +letters closely allied to the primitive specimens of the Merovingian and +Franco-Lombardic pattern, and coloured with the same crude tints; the +larger letters also being partly composed of interlaced designs. But the +style is barbaric. Such illustrative drawings as are to be found are +also of a most primitive character. Moorish influence is apparent in the +colours, particularly in the yellows, reds and blacks. In the later +middle ages no national school of illumination was developed, owing to +political conditions. When in the 15th century a demand arose for +illuminated MSS., recourse was had to foreign artists. Flemish art +naturally was imported, and French art on the one side and Italian art +on the other accompanied it. In the breviary executed for Queen Isabella +of Spain about the year 1497 (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 18,851) we find a +curious random association of miniatures and borders in both the French +and the Flemish styles, the national taste for black, however, asserting +itself in the borders where, in many instances, the usual coloured +designs are replaced by black-tinted foliage and scrolls. + +In other outlying countries of Europe the art of illumination can +scarcely be said to have existed. In Slavonic countries a recollection +of the Byzantine school lingered in book ornamentation, but chiefly in a +degraded and extravagant system of fantastic interlacings. In the 16th +century there was a revival in Russia of the Byzantine style, and the +head-pieces and other ornamental details of the 11th and 12th centuries +were successfully imitated. + +The consideration of oriental art does not come within the scope of this +article. It may, however, be noted that in Arabic and Persian MSS. of +the 13th to 16th centuries there are many examples of exquisitely drawn +title-pages and other ornament of intricate detail, resplendent with +colour and gold, which may be ranked with western illuminations. + + AUTHORITIES.--Medieval and later works dealing in part with the + technicalities of illumination are collected by Mrs Merrifield, + _Original Treatises dating from the 12th to 18th Centuries on the Art + of Painting_ (1849); see also Theophilus, _De diversis Artibus_, ed. + R. Hendrie (1847). Text-books and collections of facsimiles are Count + A. de Bastard, _Peintures et ornaments des manuscrits_, a magnificent + series of facsimiles, chiefly from Carolingian MSS. (1832-1869); Shaw + and Madden, _Illuminated Ornaments from MSS. and early Printed Books_ + (1833); Noel Humphreys and Jones, _The Illuminated Books of the Middle + Ages_ (1849); H. Shaw, _Handbook of Medieval Alphabets_ (1853), and + _The Art of Illumination_ (1870); Tymms and Digby Wyatt, _The Art of + Illumination_ (1860); Birch and Jenner, _Early Drawings and + Illuminations_, with a dictionary of subjects in MSS. in the British + Museum (1879); J. H. Middleton, _Illuminated MSS. in Classical and + Medieval Times_ (1892); G. F. Warner, _Illuminated MSS. in the British + Museum_ (official publication, 1903); H. Omont, _Facsimilés des + miniatures des plus anciens MSS. grecs de la Bibl. Nationale_ (1902); + V. de Boutovsky, _Histoire de l'ornement russe du X^e au XVI^e + siècle_, including facsimiles from Byzantine MSS. (1870); J. O. + Westwood, _Facsimiles of Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and + Irish MSS._ (1868); E. M. Thompson, _English Illuminated MSS._ (1895); + _Paleografia artistica di Montecassino_ (1876-1884); _Le Miniature nei + codici Cassinesi_ (1887); A. Haseloff, _Eine thüringisch-sächsische + Malereischule des 13. Jahrhunderts_ (1897); G. Schwarzenski, _Die + Regensburger Buchmalerei des 10. und 11. Jahrhunderts_ (1901); + Sauerland and Haseloff, _Der Psalter Erzbischof Egberts von Trier_ + (1901). + + Several of the most ancient illustrated or illuminated MSS. have been + issued wholly or partially in facsimile, viz. The _Ambrosian Homer_, + by A. Ceriani; the _Schedae Vaticanae_ and the _Codex Romanus_ of + Virgil, by the Vatican Library; the Vienna Dioscorides, in the Leiden + series of facsimiles; the Vienna Genesis, by Hartel and Wickhoff; the + Greek Gospels of Rossano, by A. Haseloff; the Ashburnham Pentateuch, + by B. von Gebhart; the Utrecht Psalter, by the Palaeographical + Society. + + Facsimiles from illuminated MSS. are also included in large + palaeographical works such as Silvestre, _Universal Palaeography_, ed. + Madden (1850); the _Facsimiles_ of the Palaeographical Society + (1873-1894) and of the New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and + the _Collezione paleografia Vaticana_, the issue of which was + commenced in 1905. Excellent photographic reproductions on a reduced + scale are being issued by the British Museum and by the Bibliothèque + Nationale in Paris. (E. M. T.) + + + + +ILLUMINATI (Lat. _illuminare_), a designation in use from the 15th +century, and applied to, or assumed by, enthusiasts of types distinct +from each other, according as the "light" claimed was viewed as directly +communicated from a higher source, or as due to a clarified and exalted +condition of the human intelligence. To the former class belong the +_alumbrados_ of Spain. Menendez Pelayo first finds the name about 1492 +(in the form _aluminados_, 1498), but traces them back to a Gnostic +origin, and thinks their views were promoted in Spain through influences +from Italy. One of their earliest leaders, born in Salamanca, a +labourer's daughter, known as La Beata de Piedrahita, came under the +notice of the Inquisition in 1511, as claiming to hold colloquies with +our Lord and the Virgin; having high patrons, no decision was taken +against her (_Los Heterodoxos Españoles_, 1881, lib. v.). Ignatius +Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527) was brought before an +ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the _alumbrados_, +but escaped with an admonition. Others were not so fortunate. In 1529 a +congregation of unlettered adherents at Toledo was visited with +scourging and imprisonment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a +century the _alumbrados_ afforded many victims to the Inquisition, +especially at Cordova. The movement (under the name of _Illuminés_) +seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623, and attained some +proportions in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre Guérin, curé of +Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as Guérinets, were +suppressed in 1635 (Hermant, _Hist. des hérésies_, 1717). Another and +obscure body of _Illuminés_ came to light in the south of France in +1722, and appears to have lingered till 1794, having affinities with +those known contemporaneously in this country as "French Prophets," an +offshoot of the Camisards. Of different class were the so-called +Illuminati, better known as Rosicrucians, who claimed to originate in +1422, but rose into notice in 1537; a secret society, combining with the +mysteries of alchemy the possession of esoteric principles of religion. +Their positions are embodied in three anonymous treatises of 1614 +(Richard et Giraud, _Dict. de la théol. cath._). A short-lived movement +of republican freethought, to whose adherents the name Illuminati was +given, was founded on May-day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt (d. 1830), +professor of Canon Law at Ingolstadt, an ex-Jesuit. The chosen title of +this Order or Society was Perfectibilists (_Perfektibilisten_). Its +members, pledged to obedience to their superiors, were divided into +three main classes; the first including "novices," "minervals" and +"lesser illuminati"; the second consisting of freemasons, "ordinary," +"Scottish" and "Scottish knights"; the third or "mystery" class +comprising two grades of "priest" and "regent" and of "magus" and +"king." Relations with masonic lodges were established at Munich and +Freising in 1780. The order had its branches in most countries of the +European continent, but its total numbers never seem to have exceeded +two thousand. The scheme had its attraction for literary men, such as +Goethe and Herder, and even for the reigning dukes of Gotha and Weimar. +Internal rupture preceded its downfall, which was effected by an edict +of the Bavarian government in 1785. Later, the title Illuminati was +given to the French Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis, +and to their imitators, the Russian Martinists, headed about 1790 by +Professor Schwartz of Moscow; both were Cabalists and allegorists, +imbibing ideas from Jakob Boehme and Emmanuel Swedenborg (Bergier, +_Dict. de théol._). + + See (especially for details of the movement of Weishaupt,) P. + Tschackert, in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1901). (A. Go.*) + + + + +ILLUMINATION, in optics, the intensity of the light falling upon a +surface. The measurement of the illumination is termed photometry +(q.v.). The fundamental law of illumination is that if the medium be +transparent the intensity of illumination which a luminous point can +produce on a surface directly exposed to it is inversely as the square +of the distance. The word transparent implies that no light is absorbed +or stopped. Whatever, therefore, leaves the source of light must in +succession pass through each of a series of spherical surfaces described +round the source as centre. The same _amount_ of light falls +perpendicularly on all these surfaces in succession. The amount received +in a given time by a unit of surface on each is therefore inversely as +the number of such units in each. But the surfaces of spheres are as the +squares of their radii,--whence the proposition. (We assume here that +the velocity of light is constant, and that the source gives out its +light uniformly.) When the rays fall otherwise than perpendicularly on +the surface, the illumination produced is proportional to the cosine of +the angle of obliquity; for the area seen under a given spherical angle +increases as the secant of the obliquity, the distance remaining the +same. + +As a corollary to this we have the further proposition that the apparent +brightness of a luminous surface (seen through a transparent homogeneous +medium) is the same at all distances. + +The word brightness is here taken as a measure of the amount of light +falling on the pupil per unit of spherical angle subtended by the +luminous surface. The spherical angle subtended by any small surface +whose plane is at right angles to the line of sight is inversely as the +square of the distance. So also is the light received from it. Hence the +brightness is the same at all distances. + +The word brightness is often used (even scientifically) in another sense +from that just defined. Thus we speak of a bright star, of the +question--When is Venus at its brightest? &c. Strictly, such expressions +are not defensible except for sources of light which (like a star) have +no apparent surface, so that we cannot tell from what amount of +spherical angle their light appears to come. In that case the spherical +angle is, for want of knowledge, assumed to be the same for all, and +therefore the brightness of each is now estimated in terms of the +_whole_ quantity of light we receive from it. + +The function of a telescope is to increase the "apparent magnitude" of +distant objects; it does not increase the "apparent brightness." If we +put out of account the loss of light by reflection at glass surfaces (or +by imperfect reflection at metallic surfaces) and by absorption, and +suppose that the magnifying power does not exceed the ratio of the +aperture of the object-glass to that of the pupil, under which condition +the pupil will be filled with light, we may say that the "apparent +brightness" is absolutely unchanged by the use of a telescope. In this +statement, however, two reservations must be admitted. If the object +under examination, like a fixed star, have no sensible apparent +magnitude, the conception of "apparent brightness" is altogether +inapplicable, and we are concerned only with the total quantity of light +reaching the eye. Again, it is found that the visibility of an object +seen against a black background depends not only upon the "apparent +brightness" but also upon the apparent magnitude. If two or three +crosses of different sizes be cut out of the same piece of white paper, +and be erected against a black background on the further side of a +nearly dark room, the smaller ones become invisible in a light still +sufficient to show the larger. Under these circumstances a suitable +telescope may of course bring also the smaller objects into view. The +explanation is probably to be sought in imperfect action of the lens of +the eye when the pupil is dilated to the utmost. Lord Rayleigh found +that in a nearly dark room he became distinctly short-sighted, a defect +of which there is no trace whatever in a moderate light. If this view be +correct, the brightness of the image on the retina is really less in the +case of a small than in the case of a large object, although the +so-called apparent brightnesses may be the same. However this may be, +the utility of a night-glass is beyond dispute. + +The general law that (apart from the accidental losses mentioned above) +the "apparent brightness" depends only upon the area of the pupil filled +with light, though often ill understood, has been established for a long +time, as the following quotation from Smith's _Optics_ (Cambridge, +1738), p. 113, will show:-- + + "Since the magnitude of the pupil is subject to be varied by various + degrees of light, let NO be its semi-diameter when the object PL is + viewed by the naked eye from the distance OP; and upon a plane that + touches the eye at O, let OK be the semi-diameter of the greatest + area, visible through all the glasses to another eye at P, to be found + as PL was; or, which is the same thing, let OK be the semi-diameter of + the greatest area inlightened by a pencil of rays flowing from P + through all the glasses; and when this area is not less than the area + of the pupil, the point P will appear just as bright through all the + glasses as it would do if they were removed; but if the inlightened + area be less than the area of the pupil, the point P will appear less + bright through the glasses than if they were removed in the same + proportion as the inlightened area is less than the pupil. And these + proportions of apparent brightness would be accurate if all the + incident rays were transmitted through the glasses to the eye, or if + only an insensible part of them were stopt." + +A very important fact connected with our present subject is: The +brightness of a self-luminous surface does not depend upon its +inclination to the line of sight. Thus a red-hot ball of iron, free from +scales of oxide, &c., appears flat in the dark; so, also, the sun, seen +through mist, appears as a flat disk. This fact, however, depends +ultimately upon the second law of thermodynamics (see RADIATION). It may +be stated, however, in another form, in which its connexion with what +precedes is more obvious--The amount of radiation, in any direction, +from a luminous surface is proportional to the cosine of the obliquity. + + The flow of light (if we may so call it) in straight lines from the + luminous point, with constant velocity, leads, as we have seen, to the + expression [mu]r^(-2) (where r is the distance from the luminous + point) for the quantity of light which passes through unit of surface + perpendicular to the ray in unit of time, [mu] being a quantity + indicating the rate at which light is emitted by the source. This + represents the illumination of the surface on which it falls. The flow + through unit of surface whose normal is inclined at an angle [theta] + to the ray is of course [mu]r^(-2) cos [theta], again representing the + illumination. These are precisely the expressions for the gravitation + force exerted by a particle of mass [mu] on a unit of matter at + distance r, and for its resolved part in a given direction. Hence we + may employ an expression V = [Sigma][mu]r^(-1), which is exactly + analogous to the gravitation or electric potential, for the purpose of + calculating the effect due to any number of separate sources of light. + + And the fundamental proposition in potentials, viz. that, if n be the + external normal at any point of a closed surface, the integral + [int][int](dV/dn)dS, taken over the whole surface, has the + value--4[pi][mu]0, where [mu]0 is the sum of the values of [mu] for + each source lying within the surface, follows almost intuitively from + the mere consideration of what it means as regards light. For every + source external to the closed surface sends in light which goes out + again. But the light from an internal source goes wholly out; and the + amount per second from each unit source is 4[pi], the total area of + the unit sphere surrounding the source. + + It is well to observe, however, that the analogy is not quite + complete. To make it so, all the sources must lie on the same side of + the surface whose illumination we are dealing with. This is due to the + fact that, in order that a surface may be illuminated at all, it must + be capable of scattering light, i.e. it must be to some extent opaque. + Hence the illumination depends mainly upon those sources which are on + the same side as that from which it is regarded. + + Though this process bears some resemblance to the heat analogy + employed by Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson) for investigations in + statical electricity and to Clerk Maxwell's device of an + incompressible fluid without mass, it is by no means identical with + them. Each method deals with a substance, real or imaginary, which + flows in conical streams from a source so that the same amount of it + passes per second through every section of the cone. But in the + present process the velocity is constant and the density variable, + while in the others the density is virtually constant and the velocity + variable. There is a curious reciprocity in formulae such as we have + just given. For instance, it is easily seen that the light received + from a uniformly illuminated surface is represented by + [int][int]r^(-2) cos [theta] dS. + + As we have seen that this integral vanishes for a closed surface which + has no source inside, its value is the same for all shells of equal + uniform brightness whose edges lie on the same cone. + + + + +ILLUSTRATION. In a general sense, illustration (or the art of +representing pictorially some idea which has been expressed in words) is +as old as Art itself. There has never been a time since civilization +began when artists were not prompted to pictorial themes from legendary, +historical or literary sources. But the art of illustration, as now +understood, is a comparatively modern product. The tendency of modern +culture has been to make the interests of the different arts overlap. +The theory of Wagner, as applied to opera, for making a combined appeal +to the artistic emotions, has been also the underlying principle in the +development of that great body of artistic production which in painting +gives us the picture containing "literary" elements, and, in actual +association with literature in its printed form, becomes what we call +"illustration." The illustrator's work is the complement of expression +in some other medium. A poem can hardly exist which does not awaken in +the mind at some moment a suggestion either of picture or music. The +sensitive temperament of the artist or the musician is able to realize +out of words some parallel idea which can only be conveyed, or can be +best conveyed, through his own medium of music or painting. Similarly, +music or painting may, and often does, suggest poetry. It is from this +inter-relation of the emotions governing the different arts that +illustration may be said to spring. The success of illustration lies, +then, in the instinctive transference of an idea from one medium to +another; the more spontaneous it be and the less laboured in +application, the better. + +Leaving on one side the illuminated manuscripts of the middle ages (see +ILLUMINATED MSS.) we start with the fact that illustration was +coincident with the invention of printing. Italian art produced many +fine examples, notably the outline illustrations to the _Poliphili +Hypneratomachia_, printed by Aldus at Venice in the last year of the +15th century. Other early works exist, the products of unnamed artists +of the French, German, Spanish and Italian schools; while of more +singular importance, though not then brought into book form, were the +illustrations to Dante's _Divine Comedy_ made by Botticelli at about the +same period. The sudden development of engraving on metal and wood drew +many painters of the Renaissance towards illustration as a further +opportunity for the exercise of their powers; and the line-work, either +original or engraved by others, of Pollajuolo, Mantegna, Michelangelo +and Titian has its place in the gradual enlargement of illustrative art. +The German school of the 16th century committed its energies even more +vigorously to illustration; and many of its artists are now known +chiefly through their engravings on wood or copper, a good proportion of +which were done to the accompaniment of printed matter. The names of +Dürer, Burgmair, Altdorfer and Holbein represent a school whose engraved +illustrations possess qualities which have never been rivalled, and +remain an invaluable aid to imitators of the present day. + + + Progress in England. + +Illustration has generally flourished in any particular age in +proportion to the health and vigour of the artistic productions in other +kinds. No evident revival in painting has come about, no great school +has existed during the last four centuries, which has not set its mark +upon the illustration of the period and quickened it into a medium for +true artistic expression. The etchers of the Low Countries during the +17th century, with Rembrandt at their head, were to a great extent +illustrators in their choice of subjects. In France the period of +Watteau and Fragonard gave rise to a school of delicately engraved +illustration, exquisite in detail and invention. In England Hogarth came +to be the founder of many new conditions, both in painting and +illustration, and was followed by men of genius so distinct as Reynolds +on the one side and Bewick on the other. With Reynolds one connects the +illustrators and engravers for whom now Bartolozzi supplies a surviving +name and an embodiment in his graceful but never quite English art. But +it is from Thomas Bewick that the wonderfully consistent development of +English illustration begins to date. Bewick marks an important period in +the technical history of wood-engraving as the practical inventor of the +"tint" and "white line" method of wood-cutting; but he also happened to +be an artist. His artistic device was to give local colour and texture +without shadow, securing thereby a precision of outline which allowed no +form to be lost. And though, in consequence, many of his best designs +have somewhat the air of a specimen plate, he succeeded in bringing into +black-and-white illustration an element of colour which had been wholly +absent from it in the work of the 15th and 16th century German and +Italian schools. Bewick's method started a new school; but the more racy +qualities of his woodcuts were entirely dependent on the designer being +his own cutter; and the same happy relationship gave distinct +characteristics to the nearly contemporary work of William Blake and of +Calvert. Blake's wonderful _Illustrations to the Book of Job_, while +magnificent in their conventional rendering of light and shade, still +retain the colourlessness of the old masters, as do also the more +broadly handled designs to his own books of prophecy and verse; but in +his woodcuts to Philips's _Pastorals_ the modern tendency towards local +colour makes itself strongly felt. So wonderfully, indeed, have colour +and tone been expressed in these rough wood-blocks, that more vivid +impressions of darkness and twilight falling across quiet landscape have +never been produced through the same materials. The pastoral designs +made by Edward Calvert on similar lines can hardly be over-praised. +Technically these engravings are far more able than those from which +they drew their inspiration. + +With the exception of the two artists named, and in a minor degree of +Thomas Stothard and John Flaxman, who also produced original +illustrations, the period from the end of the 18th century till about +the middle of the 19th was less notable for the work of the designer +than of the engraver. The delicate plates to Rogers's _Italy_ were done +from drawings which Turner had not produced for purposes of +illustration; and the admirable lithographs of Samuel Prout and Richard +Bonington were merely studies of architecture and landscape made in a +material that admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that +Géricault came over to England about the year 1820 to draw the English +race-horse and other studies of country life, which were published in +London in 1821, and that other fine work in lithography was done by +James Ward, G. Cattermole, and somewhat later by J. F. Lewis. But +illustration proper, subject-illustration applied to literature, was +mainly in the hands of the wood-engravers; and these, forming a really +fine school founded on the lines which Bewick had laid down, had for +about thirty years to content themselves with rendering the works of +ephemeral artists, among whom Benjamin R. Haydon and John Martin stand +out as the chief lights. It must not be forgotten, however, that while +the day of a serious English school of illustration had not yet come, +Great Britain possessed an indigenous tradition of gross and lively +caricature; a tradition of such robust force and vulgarity that, by the +side of some choicer specimens of James Gillray and Henry W. Bunbury, +the art of Rowlandson appears almost refined. This was the school in +which George Cruikshank, John Leech, and the Dickens illustrators had +their training, from which they drew more and more away; until, with the +help of _Punch_, just before the middle of the 19th century, English +caricaturists had learned the secret of how to be apposite and amusing +without scurrility and without libel. (See CARICATURE.) + + + Influence of Wood-engraving. + +Under NEWSPAPERS will be found some account of the rise of _illustrated +journalism_. It was in about the year 1832 that the illustrated weekly +paper started on its career in England, and almost by accident +determined under what form a great national art was to develop itself. +While in France the illustrators were making their triumphs by means of +lithography, English illustration was becoming more and more identified +with wood-engraving. The demand for a method of illustration, easy to +produce and easy to print, for books and magazines of large circulation +and moderate price, forced the artist before long into drawing upon the +wood itself; and so soon as the artist had asserted his preference for +facsimile over "tint," the school which came to be called "of the +'sixties" was in embryo, and waited only for artistic power to give it +distinction. The engraver's translation of the artist's painting or +wash-drawing into "tint" had largely exalted the individuality of the +engraver at the expense of the artist. But from the moment when the +designer began to put his own lines upon the wood, new conditions shaped +themselves; and though the artist at times might make demands which the +engraver could not follow, or the engraver inadequately fulfil the +expectation of the artist, the general tendency was to bring designer +and engraver into almost ideal relations--an ideal which nothing short +of the artist being his own engraver could have equalled. Out of an +alliance cemented by their common use and understanding of the material +on which they worked came the school of facsimile or partial-facsimile +engraving which flourished during the 'sixties, and lasted just so long +as its conditions were unimpaired--losing its flavour only at the moment +when "improved" mechanical appliances enabled the artist once more to +dissociate himself from the conditions which bound the engraver in his +craft. + + + Pre-Raphaelite movement. + + Influence of Millais. + +Before the fortunate circumstances which governed the work of the +'sixties became decisive, illustrations of a transitional character, but +tending to the same end, had been produced by John Tenniel, John +Gilbert, Birket Foster, Harrison Weir, T. Creswick, W. Mulready and +others; but their methods were too vague and diffuse to bear as yet the +mark of a school; no single influence gave a unity to their efforts. On +some of them Adolf von Menzel's illustrations to Kügler's _Frederick the +Great_, published in England in 1844, may have left a mark; Gilbert +certainly shows traces of the influence of Delacroix and Bonington in +the free, loose method of his draughtsmanship, independent of accurate +modelling, and with here and there a paint-like dab of black to relieve +a generally colourless effect; while Tenniel, with cold, precise lines +of wire-drawn hardness, remained the representative of the past academic +style, influencing others by the dignity of his fine technique, but with +his own feeling quite untouched by the Pre-Raphaelite and romantic +movement which was soon to occupy the world of illustration. In greater +or less degree it may be said of the work of all these artists that, as +it antedates, so to the end does it stand somewhat removed in character +from, the school with which for a time it became contemporary. The year +which decisively marked the beginning of new things in illustration was +1857, the year of the Moxon _Tennyson_ and of Wilmott's _Poets of the +Nineteenth Century_, with illustrations by Rossetti, Millais, Holman +Hunt and Ford Madox Brown. In these artists we get the germ of the +movement which afterwards came to have so wide a popularity. At the +beginning, Pre-Raphaelite in name, poetic and literary in its choice of +subjects, the school quickly expanded to an acceptance of those open-air +and everyday subjects which one connects with the names of Frederick +Walker, Arthur B. Houghton, G. F. Pinwell and M. North. The +illustrations of the Pre-Raphaelites were eminently thoughtful, full of +symbolism, and with a certain pressure of interest to which the epithet +of "intense" came to be applied. As an example of their method of +thought-transference from word to form, Madox Brown's drawing for the +Dalziel Bible of "Elijah and the Widow's Son" may be taken. The +restoration of life to a dead body, of a child to its mother, is there +conveyed with many illustrative touches and asides, which become clumsy +when stated in words. The hen bearing her chicken between her wings is a +perfectly direct and appropriate pictorial symbol, but a far more +imaginative stroke is the shadow on the wall of a swallow flying back to +the clay bottle where it has made its nest. Here is illustration full of +literary symbolism, yet wholly pictorial in its means; and in this it is +entirely characteristic of Pre-Raphaelite feeling, with its method of +suggesting, through externals, consideration as opposed to mere outlook. +Of this phase Rossetti must be accounted the leader, but it was Millais +who, by the sheer weight of his personality, carried English +illustration along with him from Pre-Raphaelitism to the freer +romanticism and naturalistic tendencies of the 'sixties. Rossetti, with +his poetic enthusiasm, his strong personal magnetism and dramatic power +of composition, may be said to have brought about the awakening; it was +Millais who, by his rapid development of style, his original and daring +technique, turned it into a movement. When he started, there were many +influences behind him and his fellow-workers--among older foreign +contemporaries, those of Menzel and Rethel; and behind these again +something of the old masters. But through a transitional period, +represented by his twelve drawings of "The Parables," which appeared +first in _Good Words_, Millais emerged in to the perfect independence of +his illustrations to Trollope's novels, _Framley Parsonage_, and _The_ +_Small House at Allington_, his own master and the master of a new +school. Depicting the ugly fashions of his day with grave dignity and +distinction, and with a broad power of rendering type in work which had +the aspect of genre, he drew the picture of his age in a summary so +embracing that his illustrations attain the rank almost of historical +art. For art of this sort the symbolism of the Pre-Raphaelites lost its +use: the realization in form of a character conveyed by an author's +words, the happy suggestion of a locality helping to fix the writer's +description, the verisimilitudes of ordinary life, even to trivial +detail, carried out with real pictorial conviction, were the things most +to be aimed at. Pictorial conviction was the great mark of the +illustrative school of the 'sixties. The work of its artists has +absorbed so completely the interest and reality of the letterpress that +the results are a model of what faithful yet imaginative illustration +should be. In the illustrated magazines of this period, _Once a Week_, +_Good Words_, _Cornhill_, _London Society_, _The Argosy_, _The Leisure +Hour_, _Sunday at Home_, _The Quiver_ and _The Churchman's Family +Magazine_, as well as others, is to be found the best work of this new +school of illustrators; and with the greater number of them it cannot be +mistaken that Millais is the prevailing force. + +By their side other men were working, more deeply influenced by the old +masters, and by the minuteness and hard, definite treatment of form +which the Pre-Raphaelite school had inculcated. Foremost of these was +Frederick Sandys. His illustrations, scattered through nearly all the +magazines which have been named, show always a decorative power of +design and are full of fine drawing and fine invention, but remain +resolutely cold in handling and lacking in imaginative ardour. The few +illustrations done by Burne-Jones at this period show a whole-hearted +following of Rossetti, but a somewhat struggling technique; and the same +qualities are to be found in the work of Arthur Hughes, whose +illustrations in _Good Words for the Young_ (1869) have a charm of +tender poetic invention showing through the faults and persistent +uncertainty of his draughtsmanship. The illustrations of Frederick +Shields to Defoe's _History of the Plague_ have a certain affinity to +the work of Sandys; but, with less power over form, they show a more +dramatic sense of light and shade, and at their best can claim real and +original beauty. The formality of feeling and composition, and the +strained, stiff quality of line in Lord Leighton's designs to _Romola_ +(1863), do a good deal to mar one's enjoyment of their admirable +draughtsmanship. Many fine drawings done at this period by Leighton, +Poynter, Henry Armstead and Burne-Jones did not appear until the year +1880 in the "Dalziel Bible Gallery," when the methods of which they were +the outcome had fallen almost out of use. + + + "The 'sixties." + +Deeply influenced by the broad later phases of Millais's black-and-white +work were those artists whose tendency lay in the direction of idyllic +naturalism and popular romance, the men to whom more particularly is +given the name of the period and school "the 'sixties," and whose more +immediate leader, as far as popular estimation goes, was Frederick +Walker. With his, one may roughly group the names of Pinwell, Houghton, +North, Charles Keene, Lawless, Matthew J. Mahoney, Morten and, with a +certain reservation, W. Small and G. du Maurier. In no very separate +category stand two other artists whose contributions to illustration +were but incidental, John Pettie and J. M'Neill Whistler. The broad +characteristics of this variously related group were a loose, easy line +suggestive of movement, a general fondness for white spaces and open-air +effects, and in the best of them a thorough sense of the serious beauty +of domestic and rural life. They treated the present with a feeling +rather idyllic than realistic; when they touched the past it was with a +courteous sort of realism, and a wonderful inventiveness of detail which +carried with it a charm of conviction. Walker's method shows a broad and +vivid use of black and white, with a fine sense of balance, but very +little preoccupation for decorative effect. Pinwell had a more delicate +fancy, but less freedom in his technique--less ease, but more +originality of composition. In Houghton's work one sees a swift, +masterful technique, full of audacity, noble in its economy of means, +sometimes rough and careless. His temperament was dramatic, passionate, +satiric and witty. Some of his best work, his "Scenes from American +Life," appeared in the pages of the _Graphic_ as late as the years +1873-1874. There are indications in the work of Lawless that he might +have come close to Millais in his power of infusing distinction into the +barest materials of everyday life, but he died too soon for his work to +reach its full accomplishment. North was essentially a landscape +illustrator. The delicate sense of beauty in du Maurier's early work +became lost in the formal but graceful conventions of his later _Punch_ +drawings. It was in the pages of _Punch_ that Keene secured his chief +triumphs. The two last-named artists outstayed the day which saw the +break-up of the school of which these are the leading names. It ran its +course through a period when illustrated magazines formed the staple of +popular consumption, before the illustrated newspapers, with their +hungry rush for the record of latest events, became a weekly feature. +Its waning influence may be plainly traced through the early years of +the _Graphic_, which started in 1869 with some really fine work, done +under transitional conditions before the engraver's rendering of +tone-drawings once more ousted facsimile from its high place in +illustration. + +In connexion with this transitional period, drawings for the _Graphic_ +by Houghton, Pinwell, Sir Hubert von Herkomer, E. J. Gregory, H. Woods, +Charles Green, H. Paterson (Mrs Allingham) and William Small deserve +honourable mention. Yet it was the last-named who was mainly +instrumental in bringing about the change from line-work to pigment, +which depressed the artistic value of illustration during the 'seventies +and the 'eighties to almost absolute mediocrity. Several artists of +great ability practised illustration during this period: in addition to +those _Graphic_ artists already mentioned there were Luke Fildes, Frank +Holl, S. P. Hall, Paul Renouard and a few others of smaller merit. But +the interest was for the time shifting from black-and-white work and +turning to colour. Kate Greenaway began to produce her charming idyllic +renderings of children in mob-caps and long skirts. Walter Crane on +somewhat similar lines designed his illustrated nursery rhymes; while +Randolph Caldecott took the field with his fresh and breezy scenes of +hunting life and carousal in the times most typical of the English +squirearchy. Working with a broad outline, suggestive of the brush by +its easy freedom, and adding washes of conventional colour for +embellishment, he was one of the first in England to show the beginnings +of Japanese influence. Even more dependent upon colour were his +illustrated books for children; while in black and white, in his +illustrations to _Bracebridge Hall_ (1876), for instance, pen and ink +began to replace the pencil, and to produce a new and more independent +style of draughtsmanship. This style was taken up and followed by many +artists of ability, by Harry Furniss, Hugh Thomson and others, till the +influence of E. A. Abbey's more mobile and more elaborate penmanship +came to produce a still further development in the direction of fineness +and illusion, and that of Phil May, with Linley Sambourne for his +teacher, to simplify and make broad for those who aimed rather at a +journalistic and shorthand method of illustration. (See also CARICATURE +and CARTOON.) + + Under the absolutely liberating conditions of "process reproduction" + (see PROCESS) the latest developments in illustration on its lighter + and more popular side are full of French influences, or ready to + follow the wind in any fresh direction, whether to America or Japan; + but on the graver side they show a strong leaning towards the older + traditions of the 'sixties and of Pre-Raphaelitism. The founding by + William Morris of the Kelmscott Press in 1891, through which were + produced a series of decorated and illustrated books, aimed frankly at + a revival of medieval taste. In Morris's books decorative effect and + sense of material claimed mastery over the whole scheme, and subdued + the illustrations to a sort of glorious captivity into which no breath + of modern spirit could be breathed. The illustrations of Burne-Jones + filled with a happy touch of archaism the decorative borders of + William Morris; and only a little less happy, apart from their + imaginative inferiority, were the serious efforts of Walter Crane and + one or two others. Directly under the Morris influence arose the + "Birmingham school," with an entire devotion to decorative methods and + still archaic effects which tended sometimes to rather inane + technical results. Among its leaders may be named Arthur Gaskin, C. M. + Gere and E. H. New; while work not dissimilar but more independent in + spirit had already been done by Selwyn Image and H. P. Horne in the + _Century Guild Hobby-Horse_. But far greater originality and force + belonged to the work of a group, known for a time as the + neo-Pre-Raphaelites, which joined to an earnest study of the past a + scrupulously open mind towards more modern influences. Its earliest + expression of existence was the publication of an occasional + periodical, the _Dial_ (1889-1897), but before long its influence + became felt outside its first narrow limits. The technical influence + of Abbey, but still more the emotional and intellectual teaching of + Rossetti and Millais, together with side-influences from the few great + French symbolists, were, apart from their own originality, the forces + which gave distinction to the work of C. S. Ricketts, C. H. Shannon, + R. Savage and their immediate following. Beauty of line, languorous + passion, symbolism full of literary allusions, and a fondness for the + life of any age but the present, are the characteristics of the + school. Their influence fell very much in the same quarters where + Morris found a welcome; but an affinity for the Italian rather than + the German masters (shown especially in the "Vale Press" + publications), and a studied note of world-weariness, kept them + somewhat apart from the sturdy medievalism of Morris, and linked them + intellectually with the decadent school initiated by the wayward + genius of Aubrey Beardsley. But though broadly men may be classed in + groups, no grouping will supply a formula for all the noteworthy work + produced when men are drawn this way and that by current influences. + Among artists resolutely independent of contemporary coteries may be + named W. Strang, whose grave, rugged work shows him a pupil, through + Legros, of Dürer and others of the old masters; T. Sturge Moore, an + original engraver of designs which have an equal affinity for Blake, + Calvert and Hokusai; W. Nicholson, whose style shows a dignified + return to the best part of the Rowlandson tradition; and E. J. + Sullivan. In the closing years of the 19th century Aubrey Beardsley + became the creator of an entirely novel style of decorative + illustration. Drawing inspiration from all sources of European and + Japanese art, he produced, by the force of a vivid personality and + extraordinary technical skill, a result which was highly original and + impressive. To a genuine liking for analysis of repulsive and vicious + types of humanity he added an exquisite sense of line, balance and + mass; and partly by _succès de scandale_, partly by genuine artistic + brilliance, he gathered round him a host of imitators, to whom, for + the most part, he was able to impart only his more mediocre qualities. + + + United States. + + In America, until a comparatively recent date, illustration bowed the + knee to the superior excellence of the engraver over the artist. Not + until the brilliant pen-drawing of E. A. Abbey carried the day with + the black-and-white artists of England did any work of real moment + emanate from the United States, unless that of Elihu Vedder be + regarded as an exception. Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of + Dürer; he has also the ability to adapt himself to draughtsmanship of + a more modern tendency. C. S. Reinhart was an artist of directness and + force, in a style based upon modern French and German examples; while + of greater originality as a whole, though derivative in detail, is the + fanciful penmanship of Alfred Brennan. Other artists who stand in the + front rank of American illustrators, and whose works appear chiefly in + the pages of _Scribner's_, _Harper's_ and the _Century Magazine_, are + W. T. Smedley, F. S. Church, R. Blum, Wenzell, A. B. Frost, and in + particular C. Dana Gibson, the last of whom gained a reputation in + England as an American du Maurier. + + + France. + + The record of modern French illustration goes back to the day when + political caricature and the Napoleonic legend divided between them + the triumphs of early lithography. The illustrators of France at that + period were also her greatest artists. Of the historical and romantic + school were D. Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, Géricault, Delacroix, J. + B. Isabey and Achille Devéria, many of whose works appeared in + _L'Artiste_, a paper founded in 1831 as the official organ of the + romanticists; while the realists were led in the direction of + caricature by two artists of such enormous force as Gavarni and Honoré + Daumier, whose works, appearing in _La Lithographie Mensuelle_, _Le + Charivari_ and _La Caricature_, ran the gauntlet of political + interference and suppression during a troubled period of French + politics--which was the very cause of their prosperity. Behind these + men lay the influence of the great Spanish realist Goya. Following + upon the harsh satire and venomous realism of this famous school of + pictorial invective, the influence of the Barbizon school came as a + milder force; but the power of its artists did not show in the + direction of original lithography, and far more value attaches to the + few woodcuts of J. F. Millet's studies of peasant life. In these we + see clearly the tendency of French illustrative art to keep as far as + possible the authentic and sketch-like touch of the artist; and it was + no doubt from this tendency that so many of the great French + illustrators retained lithography rather than commit themselves to the + middleman engraver. Nevertheless, from about the year 1830 many French + artists produced illustrations which were interpreted upon the wood + for the most part by English engravers. Cunier's editions of _Paul et + Virginie_ and _La Chaumière Indienne_, illustrated by Huet, Jacque, + Isabey, Johannot and Meissonier, were followed by Meissonier's more + famous illustrations to _Contes rémois_. After Meissonier came J. B. + E. Detaille and Alphonse M. de Neuville and, with a voluminous style + of his own, L. A. G. Doré. By the majority of these artists the + drawing for the engraver seems to have been done with the pen; and the + tendency to penmanship was still more accentuated when from Spain came + the influence of M. J. Fortuny's brilliant technique; while after him, + again, came Daniel Vierge, to make, as it were, the point of the pen + still more pointed. During the middle period of the 19th century the + best French illustration was serious in character; but among the later + men, when we have recognized the grave beauty of Grasset's _Les Quatre + Fils d'Aymon_ (in spite of his vicious treatment of the page by + flooding washes of colour through the type itself), and the delicate + grace of Boutet de Monvel's _Jeanne d'Arc_, also in colours, it is to + the illustrators of the comic papers that we have to go for the most + typical and most audacious specimens of French art. In the pages of + _Gil Blas_, _Le Pierrot_, _L'Écho de Paris_, _Le Figaro Illustré_, _Le + Courrier Français_, and similar publications, are to be found, + reproduced with a dexterity of process unsurpassed in England, the + designs of J. L. Forain, C. L. Léandre, L. A, Willette and T. A. + Steinlen, the leaders of a school enterprising in technique, and with + a mixture of subtlety and grossness in its humour. Caran d'Ache also + became celebrated as a draughtsman of comic drama in outline. + + + Germany. + + Among illustrators of Teutonic race the one artist who seems worthy of + comparison with the great Menzel is Hans Tegner, if, indeed, he be not + in some respects his technical superior; but apart from these two, the + illustrators respectively of Kügler's _Frederick the Great_ and + Holberg's _Comedies_, there is no German, Danish or Dutch illustrator + who can lay claim to first rank. Max Klinger, A. Böcklin, W. Trübner, + Franz Stück and Hans Thoma are all symbolists who combine in a + singular degree force with brutality; the imaginative quality in their + work is for the most part ruined by the hard, braggart way in which it + is driven home. The achievements and tendency of the later school of + illustration in Germany are best seen in the weekly illustrated + journal, _Jugend_, of Munich. Typical of an older German school is the + work of Adolf Oberländer, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist, + whose illustrations are at times so monumental that the humour in them + seems crushed out of life. Others who command high qualities of + technique are W. Dietz, L. von Nagel, Hermann Vogel, H. Lüders and + Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or less degree lies the + influence of Menzel's coldly balanced and dry-lighted realism; but + wherever the influence of Menzel ceases, the merit of German + illustration for the most part tends to disappear or become mediocre. + + AUTHORITIES.--W. J. Linton, _The Masters of Wood Engraving_ (London, + 1889); C. G. Harper, _English Pen Artists of To-day_ (London, 1892); + Joseph Pennell, _Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ (London, 1894), + _Modern Illustration_ (London, 1895); Walter Crane, _The Decorative + Illustration of Books_ (London, 1896); Gleeson White, _English + Illustration: "The 'Sixties": 1855-1870_ (Westminster, 1897); W. A. + Chatto, _A Treatise on Wood Engraving_ (London, n.d.); Bar-le-Duc, + _Les Illustrations du XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1882); T. Kutschmann, + _Geschichte der deutschen Illustration vom ersten Auftreten des + Formschnittes bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1899). (L. Ho.) + + +_Technical Developments._ + +The history of illustration, apart from the merits of individual +artists, during the period since the year 1875, is mainly that of the +development of what is called Process (q.v.), the term applied to +methods of reproducing a drawing or photograph which depend on the use +of some mechanical agency in the making of the block, as distinguished +from such products of manual skill as steel or wood-engraving, +lithography and the like. There is good reason to believe that the art +of stereotyping--the multiplication of an already existing block by +means of moulds and casts--is as old as the 15th century; and the early +processes were, in a measure, a refinement upon this: with the +difference that they aimed at the making of a metal block by means of a +cast of the lines of the drawing itself, the background of which had +been cut away so as to leave the design in a definite relief. +Experiments of this nature may be said to have assumed practical shape +from the time of the invention of Palmer's process called at first +_Glyphography_, about the year 1844; this was afterwards perfected and +used to a considerable extent under the name of _Dawson's Typographic +Etching_, and its results were in many cases quite admirable, and often +appear in books and periodicals of the first part of the period with +which we are now concerned. The _Graphic_, for instance, published its +first process block in 1876, and the _Illustrated London News_ also made +similar experiments at about the same time. + + From this time begins the gradual application of photography to the + uses of illustration, the first successful line blocks made by its + help being probably those of Gillot, at Paris, in the early 'eighties. + The next stage was to be the invention of some means of reproducing + wash drawings. To do this it was necessary for the surface of the + block to be so broken up that every tone of the drawing should be + represented thereon by a grain holding ink enough to reproduce it. + This was finally accomplished by the insertion of a screen, in the + camera, between the lens and the plate--the effect of which was to + break up the whole surface of the negative into dots, and so secure, + when printed on a zinc plate and etched, an approximation to the + desired result. Half-tone blocks (as they were called) of this nature + (see PROCESS) were used in the _Graphic_ from 1884 and the + _Illustrated London News_ from 1885 onwards, the methods at first in + favour being those of Meisenbach and Boussod Valadon and Co.'s + phototype. Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Göschl of Vienna, + and F. Ives of Philadelphia also perfected processes giving a similar + result, a block by the latter appearing in the _Century_ magazine as + early as 1882. Processes of this description had, however, been used + for some years before by Henry Blackburn in his _Academy Notes_. + + During the decade 1875-1885, however, the main body of illustration + was accomplished by wood-engraving, which a few years earlier had + achieved such splendid results. Its artistic qualities were now at a + rather low ebb, although good facsimile engravings of pen-drawings + were not infrequent. The two great illustrated periodicals already + referred to during that period relied more upon pictorial than + journalistic work. An increasing tendency towards the illustration of + the events of the day was certainly shown, but the whole purpose of + the journal was not, as at present, subordinated thereto. The chief + illustrated magazines of the time, _Harper's_, the _Century_, the + _English Illustrated_, were also content with the older methods, and + are filled with wood-engravings, in which, if the value of the simple + line forming the chief quality of the earlier work has disappeared, a + most astonishing delicacy and success were obtained in the + reproduction of tone. + + Perhaps the most notable and most characteristic production of the + time in England was colour-printing. The _Graphic_ and the + _Illustrated London News_ published full-page supplements of high + technical merit printed from wood-blocks in conjunction with metal + plates, the latter sometimes having a relief aquatint surface which + produced an effect of stipple upon the shading; metal was also used in + preference to wood for the printing of certain colours. The children's + books illustrated by Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane and Kate + Greenaway at this time are among the finest specimens of + colour-printing yet seen outside of Japan; in them the use of flat + masses of pleasant colour in connexion with a bold and simple outline + was carried to a very high pitch of excellence. These plates were + generally printed by Edmund Evans. In 1887 the use of process was + becoming still more general; but its future was by no means adequately + foreseen, and the blocks of this and the next few years are anything + but satisfactory. This, it soon appeared, was due to inefficient + printing on the one hand, and, on the other, to a want of recognition + by artists of the special qualities of drawing most suitable for + photographic reproduction. The publication of Quevedo's _Pablo de + Segovia_ with illustrations by Daniel Vierge in 1882, although hardly + noticed at the time, was to be a revelation of the possibilities of + the new development; and a serious study of pen-drawing from this + point of view was soon inaugurated by the issue of Joseph Pennell's + _Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ in 1889, followed in by C. G. + Harper's _English Pen Artists of To-day_ and in 1896 by Walter Crane's + _Decorative Illustration of Books_. At this time also the influence of + Aubrey Beardsley made itself strongly felt, not merely as a matter of + style, but, by the use of simple line or mass of solid black, as an + almost perfect type of the work most suitable to the needs of process. + Wider experience of printing requirements, and finer workmanship in + the actual making of the blocks, in Paris, Vienna, New York and + London, soon brought the half-tone process into great vogue. The + spread of education has enormously increased the demand for ephemeral + literature, more especially that which lends itself to pictorial + illustration; and the photograph or drawing in wash reproduced in + half-tone has of late to a great extent ousted line work from the + better class of both books and periodicals. + + Improvements in machinery have made it possible to print illustrations + at a very high speed; and the facility with which photographs can now + be taken of scenes such as the public delight to see reproduced in + pictures has brought about an almost complete change in pictorial + journalism. In addition, reference must be made to an extraordinary + increase in the numbers and circulation of cheap periodical + publications depending to a very large extent for popularity on their + illustrations. Several of these, printed on the coarsest paper, from + rotary machines, sell to the extent of hundreds of thousands of copies + per week. It was inevitable that this cheapening process should not be + permitted to develop without opposition, and the _Dial_ (1889-1897) + must be looked on as a protest by the band of artists who promoted it + against the unintelligent book-making now becoming prevalent. Much + more effective and far-reaching in the same direction was the + influence of William Morris, as shown in the publications of the + Kelmscott Press (dating from 1891). In these volumes the aim was to + produce illustrations and ornaments which were of their own nature + akin to, and thus able to harmonize with the type, and to do this by + pure handicraft work. As a result, a distinct improvement is to be + found in the mere book-making of Great Britain; and although the main + force of the movement soon spent itself in somewhat uninspired + imitations, there can be no doubt of the survival of a taste for + well-produced volumes, in which the relationship of type, paper, + illustration and binding has been a matter of careful and artistic + consideration. Under this influence, a notable feature has been the + re-issue, in an excellent form, of illustrated editions of the works + of most of the famous writers. + + In France the general movement has proceeded upon lines on the whole + very similar. Process--especially what was called "Gillotage"--was + adopted earlier, and used at first with greater liberality than in + England, although wood-engraving has persisted effectively even up to + our own time. In the various types of periodicals of which the _Revue + Illustrée_, _Figaro Illustré_ and _Gil Blas Illustré_ may be taken as + examples, the most noticeable feature is a use of colour-printing, + which is far in advance of anything generally attempted in Great + Britain. A favourite and effective process is that employed for the + reproduction of chalk drawings (as by Steinlen), which consists of the + application of a surface-tint of colour from a metal plate to a print + from an ordinary process block. + + In Germany, _Jugend_, _Simplicissimus_, and other publications devoted + to humour and caricature, employ colour-printing to a great extent + with success. The organ of the artists of the younger German schools, + Pan (1895), makes use of every means of illustration, and has + especially cultivated lithography and wood-cuts, using these arts + effectively but with some eccentricity. Holland has also employed + coloured lithography for a remarkable series of children's books + illustrated by van Hoytema and others. The Viennese _Kunst und + Kunsthandwerk_ is an art publication which is exceptionally well + produced and printed. + + Illustration in the United States has some few characteristics which + differentiate it from that of other countries. The later school of + fine wood-engraving is even yet in existence. American artists also + introduced an effective use of the process block, namely, the + engraving or working over of the whole or certain portions of it by + hand. This is generally done by an engraver, but in certain cases it + has been the work of the original draughtsman, and its possibilities + have been foreseen by him in making his drawing. The only other + variant of note is the use of half-tone blocks superimposed for + various colours. (E. F. S.) + + + + +ILLUSTRES, the Latin name given to the highest magistrates of the later +Roman Empire. The designation was at first informal, and not strictly +differentiated from other marks of honour. From the time of Valentinian +I. it became an official title of the consuls, the chief praefecti or +ministers, and of the commanders-in-chief of the army. Its usage was +eventually extended to lower grades of the imperial service, and to +pensionaries from the order of the _spectabiles_. The Illustres were +privileged to be tried in criminal cases by none but the emperor or his +deputy, and to delegate procuratores to represent them in the courts. + + See O. Hirschfeld in _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_ (1901), + p. 594 sqq.; and T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892), + i. 603-617. + + + + +ILLYRIA, a name applied to part of the Balkan Peninsula extending along +the eastern shore of the Adriatic from Fiume to Durazzo, and inland as +far as the Danube and the Servian Morava. This region comprises the +modern provinces or states of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and +Montenegro, with the southern half of Croatia-Slavonia, part of western +Servia, the sanjak of Novibazar, and the extreme north of Albania. As +the inhabitants of Illyria never attained complete political unity its +landward boundaries were never clearly defined. Indeed, the very name +seems originally to have been an ethnological rather than a geographical +term; the older Greek historians usually wrote of "the Illyrians" +([Greek: hoi Illyrioi]), while the names Illyris ([Greek: Illyris]) or +less commonly Illyria ([Greek: Illyria]) came subsequently to be used of +the indeterminate area inhabited by the Illyrian tribes, i.e. a region +extending eastward from the Adriatic between Liburnia on the N. and +Epirus on the S., and gradually shading off into the territories of +kindred peoples towards Thrace. The Latin name Illyricum was not, unless +at a very early period, synonymous with Illyria; it also may originally +have signified the land inhabited by the Illyrians, but it became a +political expression, and was applied to various divisions of the Roman +Empire, the boundaries of which were frequently changed and often +included an area far larger than Illyria properly so called. Vienna and +Athens at different times formed part of Illyricum, but no geographer +would ever have included these cities in Illyria. + +_Ethnology._--Little can be learned from written sources of the origin +and character of the Illyrians. The Greek legend that Cadmus and +Harmonia settled in Illyria and became the parents of Illyrius, the +eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people, has been interpreted as +an indication that the Greeks recognized some affinity between +themselves and the Illyrians; but this inference is based on +insufficient data. Herodotus and other Greek historians represent the +Illyrians as a barbarous people, who resembled the ruder tribes of +Thrace. Both are described as tattooing their persons and offering human +sacrifices to their gods. The women of Illyria seem to have occupied a +high position socially and even to have exercised political power. +Queens are mentioned among their rulers. Fuller and more trustworthy +information can be obtained from archaeological evidence. In Bosnia the +lake-dwellings at Butmir, the cemeteries of Jezerine and Glasinac and +other sites have yielded numerous stone and horn implements, iron and +bronze ornaments, weapons, &c., and objects of more recent date +fashioned in silver, tin, amber and even glass. These illustrate various +stages in the development of primitive Illyrian civilization, from the +neolithic age onward. The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially +well represented. (See W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901; R. +Munro, _Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, Edinburgh, 1900; and W. +Radimský, _Die neolithische Station von Butmir_, Vienna, 1895-1898.) +Similar discoveries have been made in Dalmatia, as among the tumuli on +the Sabbioncello promontory, and in Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert ("Über +den Volkstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p. 114) +sought to prove that the Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory +was supported by E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted. In Dalmatia +there appears to have been a large Celtic element, and Celtic +place-names are common. The ancient Illyrian languages fall into two +groups, the northern, closely connected with Venetic, and the southern, +perhaps allied to Messapian and now probably represented by Albanian. + + See K. Brugmann, _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der Indogermanischen + Sprachen_ (Strassburg, 1904); and his larger _Grundriss der + vergleichenden Grammatik_ (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1897), with the + authorities there quoted, especially P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die + Geschichte der Griechischen Sprachen_ (Göttingen, 1896): see also + ALBANIA. + +_History._--Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably began +late in the 7th century B.C. or early in the 6th century. The most +important settlements appear to have been at Epidamnus (Durazzo), +Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato), +Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and on the islands of Curzola, Lesina +and Lissa. There is a collection of Greek coins from Illyria in the +museum at Agram, and the researches of Professor F. Bulié and others at +Salona (see Spalato) have brought to light Greek inscriptions, Greek +pottery, &c. dating from 600 B.C. But Greek influence seems never to +have penetrated far into the interior, and even on the coast it was +rapidly superseded by Latin civilization after the 3rd century B.C. +Until then the Illyrian tribes appear to have lived in a state of +intermittent warfare with their neighbours and one another. They are +said by Herodotus (ix. 43) to have attacked the temple of Delphi. +Brasidas with his small army of Spartans was assaulted by them on his +march (424 B.C.) across Thessaly and Macedonia to attack the Athenian +colonies in Thrace. The earlier history of the Macedonian kings is one +constant struggle against the Illyrian tribes. The migrations of the +Celts at the beginning of the 4th century disturbed the country between +the Danube and the Adriatic. The Scordisci and other Celtic tribes +settled there, and forced the Illyrians towards the south. The +necessities of defence seem to have united the Illyrians under a chief +Bardylis (about 383 B.C.) and his son Clitus. Bardylis nearly succeeded +in destroying the rising kingdom of Macedonia; King Amyntas II was +defeated, and a few years later Perdiccas was defeated and slain (359). +But the great Philip crushed the Illyrians completely, and annexed part +of their country. During the next century we hear of them as pirates. +Issuing from the secluded harbours of the coast, they ravaged the shores +of Italy and Greece, and preyed on the commerce of the Adriatic. The +Greeks applied to Rome for help. Teuta, the Illyrian queen, rejected the +Roman demands for redress, and murdered the ambassadors; but the two +Illyrian Wars (229 and 219 B.C.) ended in the submission of the +Illyrians, a considerable part of their territory being annexed by the +conquerors. Illyria, however, remained a powerful kingdom with its +capital at Scodra (Scutari in Albania), until 180 B.C., when the +Dalmatians declared themselves independent of Gentius or Genthius, the +king of Illyria, and founded a republic with its capital at Delminium +(see DALMATIA: _History_, on the site of Delminium). In 168 Gentius came +into conflict with the Romans, who conquered and annexed his country. +Dalmatia was invaded by a Roman army under Gaius Marcius Figulus in 156, +but Figulus was driven back to the Roman frontier, and in Dalmatia the +Illyrians were not finally subdued until 165 years afterwards. Publius +Scipio Nasica, who succeeded Figulus, captured Delminium, and in 119 L. +Caecilius Metellus overran the country and received a triumph and the +surname _Dalmaticus_. But in 51 a Dalmatian raid on Liburnia led to a +renewal of hostilities; the Roman armies were often worsted, and +although in 39 Asinius Pollio gained some successes (see Horace, _Odes_ +ii. 1. 15) these appear to have been exaggerated, and it was not until +Octavian took the field in person that the Dalmatians submitted in 33. +(For an account of the war see Appian, _Illyrica_, 24-28; Dio Cassius +xlix. 38; Livy, _Epit._ 131, 132). They again revolted in 16 and 11, and +in A.D. 6-9 joined the rebel Pannonians. Suetonius (_Tiberius_, 16) +declares that they were the most formidable enemies with whom the Romans +had had to contend since the Punic Wars. In A.D. 9, however, Tiberius +entirely subjugated them, for which he was awarded a triumph in 12 (Dio +Cass. lv. 23-29, lvi. 11-17; Vell. Pat. ii. 110-115). Thenceforward +Dalmatia, Iapydia and Liburnia were united as the province of Illyricum. + +Latin civilization spread rapidly, the cultivation of the vine was +introduced, gold-mining was carried on in Bosnia, and flourishing +commercial cities arose along the coast. Illyria became one of the best +recruiting grounds for the Roman legions; and in troubled times many +Illyrian soldiers fought their way up from the ranks to the imperial +purple. Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and Maximian were all +sons of Illyrian peasants. It is probable, however, that most of the +highland tribes now represented by the Albanians remained almost +unaffected by Roman influence. The importance of Illyricum caused its +name to be extended to many neighbouring districts; in the 2nd century +A.D. the _Illyricus Limes_ included Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia and +Thrace. In the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian (285) the +diocese of Illyricum was created; it comprised Pannonia, Noricum and +Dalmatia, while Dacia and Macedonia, together called Eastern Illyricum, +were added later. Either Diocletian or after him Constantine made +Illyricum one of the four prefectures, each governed by a _praefectus +praetorio_, into which the empire was divided. This prefecture included +Pannonia, Noricum, Crete and the entire Balkan peninsula except Thrace, +which was attached by Constantine to the prefecture of the East. From +the partition of the empire in 285 until 379 Illyricum was included in +the Western Empire, but thenceforward Eastern Illyricum was annexed to +the Eastern Empire; its frontier was almost identical with the line of +demarcation between Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking peoples, and +roughly corresponded to the boundary which now severs Latin from Greek +Christianity in the Balkan peninsula. The whole peninsula except Thrace +was still known as Illyricum, but was subdivided into Illyris Barbara or +Romana and Illyris Graeca (Eastern Illyricum with Greece and Crete). The +Via Egnatia, the great line of road which connected Rome with +Constantinople and the East, led across Illyricum from Dyrrachium to +Thessalonica. + +In the 5th century began a series of invasions which profoundly modified +the ethnical character and the civilization of the Illyrians. In 441 and +447 their country was ravaged by the Huns. In 481 Dalmatia was added to +the Ostrogothic kingdom, which already included the more northerly parts +of Illyricum, i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. Dalmatia was partially +reconquered by Justinian in 536, but after 565 it was devastated by the +Avars, and throughout the century bands of Slavonic invaders had been +gradually establishing themselves in Illyria, where, unlike the earlier +barbarian conquerors, they formed permanent settlements. Between 600 and +650 the main body of the immigrants occupied Illyria (see SERVIA: +_History_; and SLAVS). It consisted of Croats and Serbs, two groups of +tribes who spoke a single language and were so closely related that the +origin of the distinction between them is obscure. The Croats settled in +the western half of Illyria, the Serbs in the eastern; thus the former +came gradually under the influence of Italy and Roman Catholicism, the +latter under the influence of Byzantium and the Greek Church. Hence the +distinction between them became a marked difference of civilization and +creed, which has always tended to keep the Illyrian Slavs politically +disunited. + +The Croats and Serbs rapidly absorbed most of the Latinized Illyrians. +But the wealthy and powerful city-states on the coast were strong enough +to maintain their independence and their distinctively Italian +character. Other Roman provincials took refuge in the mountains of the +interior; these Mavrovlachi, as they were called (see DALMATIA: +_Population_; and VLACHS), preserved their language and nationality for +many centuries. The Illyrian tribes which had withstood the attraction +of Roman civilization remained unconquered among the mountains of +Albania and were never Slavonized. With these exceptions Illyria became +entirely Serbo-Croatian in population, language and culture. + +The name of Illyria had by this time disappeared from history. In +literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare's comedy, +_Twelfth Night_, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name was revived in +1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given to Carniola, Dalmatia, +Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, with parts of Carinthia +and Croatia; these territories were ceded by Austria to Italy at the +peace of Schönnbrun (14th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were +occupied by French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the +republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about the end of +1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective and the provinces +reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria, which was constituted in +1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Görz and +Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until 1849 a kingdom of the Austrian +crown. For the political propaganda known as Illyrism, see +CROATIA-SLAVONIA: _History_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the authorities quoted above, see G. + Zippel, _Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus_ + (Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, _Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz + Illyrien_ (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, + i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, "The Illyrian Emperors and their + Land" (_Historical Essays_, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyklopädie_, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen, + _The Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909). + + + + +ILMENAU, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Saxe-Weimar, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, on the river +Ilm, 30 m. by rail south of Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 11,222. The town, which +stands picturesquely among wooded hills, is much frequented by visitors +in the summer. It was a favourite resort of Goethe, who wrote here his +_Iphigenie_, and often stayed at Gabelbach in the neighbourhood. It has +a grand-ducal palace, a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a +sanatorium for nervous disorders, and several educational +establishments. Its chief manufactures are glass and porcelain, toys, +gloves and chemicals, and the town has tanneries and saw-mills. Formerly +a part of the county of Henneberg, Ilmenau came in 1631 into the +possession of electoral Saxony, afterwards passing to Saxe-Weimar. + + See R. Springer, _Die klassischen Stätten von Jena und Ilmenau_ + (Berlin, 1869); Pasig, _Goethe und Ilmenau_ (2nd ed., Weimar, 1902); + and Fils, _Bad Ilmenau und seine Umgebung_ (Hildburghausen, 1886). + + + + +ILMENITE, a mineral known also as titanic iron, formerly regarded as an +iron and titanium sesquioxide (Fe, Ti)2O3 isomorphous with haematite +(Fe2O3), but now generally considered to be an iron titanate FeTiO3 +isomorphous with pyrophanite (MnTiO3) and geikielite (MgTiO3). It +crystallizes in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral +system, thus having the same degree of symmetry as phenacite and +pyrophanite, but differing from that of haematite. The angles between +the faces are very nearly the same as between the corresponding faces of +haematite; but it is to be noted that the rhombohedral angle (94° 29´) +of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of haematite (94° 0´) and +of the artificially prepared crystals of titanium sesquioxide (92° 40´), +which should be the case if the three substances were isomorphous. +Analyses show wide variations in chemical composition, and there is a +gradation from normal ilmenite FeTiO3 (with titanium dioxide 52.7, and +ferrous oxide 47.3%) to titaniferous haematite and titaniferous +magnetite. Frequently also, magnesia and manganous oxide are present in +small amounts, the former reaching 16%. The formula (Fe, Mg)TiO3 is then +analogous to those of geikielite and pyrophanite. Many analyses show the +presence of TiO2 and (Fe, Mg)O in this ratio of 1:1, yet there is often +an excess of ferric oxide to be accounted for; this may perhaps be +explained by the regular intergrowth on a minute scale of ilmenite with +haematite, like the intergrowth of such substances as calcite and sodium +nitrate, which are similar crystallographically but not chemically. + +[Illustration] + +In many of its external characters ilmenite is very similar to +haematite; the crystals often have the same tabular or lamellar habit; +the twin-laws are the same, giving rise to twin-lamellae and planes of +parting parallel to the basal plane and the primitive rhombohedron; the +colour is iron-black with a submetallic lustre; finally, the conchoidal +fracture is the same in both minerals. Ilmenite has a black streak; it +is opaque, but in very thin scales sometimes transparent with a +clove-brown colour. It is slightly magnetic, but without polarity. The +hardness is 5½, and the specific gravity varies with the chemical +composition from 4.3 to 5.0. + +Owing to the wide variations in composition, which even yet are not +properly understood, several varieties of the mineral have been +distinguished by special names. Crichtonite occurs as small and +brilliant crystals of acute rhombohedral habit on quartz at Le Bourg +d'Oisans in Dauphiné; it agrees closely in composition with the formula +FeTiO3 and has a specific gravity of 4.7. Manaccanite (or Menaccanite) +is a black sandy material, first found in 1791 in a stream at Manaccan +near Helston in Cornwall. Iserite, from Iserwiese in the Iser Mountains, +Bohemia, is a similar sand, but containing some octahedral crystals, +possibly of titaniferous magnetite. Washingtonite is found as large +tabular crystals at Washington, Connecticut. Uddevallite is from +Uddevalla in Sweden. Picrotitanite or picroilmenite (Gr. [Greek: pikros], +"bitter") is the name given to varieties containing a considerable +amount of magnesia. Other varieties are kibdelophane, hystatite, &c. The +name ilmenite, proposed by A. T. Kupffer in 1827, is after the Ilmen +Mountains in the southern Urals, whence come the best crystals of the +mineral. The largest crystals, sometimes as much as 16 lb. in weight, +are from Kragerö and Arendal in Norway. + +Ilmenite occurs, often in association with magnetite, in gneisses and +schists, sometimes forming beds of considerable extent, but of little or +no economic value. It is a common accessory constituent of igneous rocks +of all kinds, more especially basic rocks such as gabbro, diabase and +basalt. In these rocks it occurs as platy crystals, and is frequently +represented by a white, opaque alteration product known as leucoxene. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +ILOILO, a town, port of entry and the capital of the province of Iloilo, +Panay, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of Iloilo river, on the S.E. +coast. Pop. (1903) 19,054. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the +population of the town was more than doubled by the addition of the +municipalities of La Paz (pop. 5724), Mandurriao (pop. 4482), Molo (pop. +8551) and Jaro (pop. 10,681); in 1908 Jaro again became a separate town. +The town is built on low sandy ground, is irregularly laid out, and its +streets are not paved. It has a good government house and a fine church. +The harbour, suitable for ships of 15 ft. draught, is well protected by +the island of Guimaras, and ocean-going vessels can lie in the channel. +The surrounding country, which is traversed by gravel roads leading to +the principal towns of the province, is fertile and well cultivated, +producing sugar, tobacco and rice in abundance. In commercial importance +Iloilo ranks next to Manila among Philippine cities; it has manufactures +of piña, jusi, coconut oil, lime, vinegar and various articles made from +palm wood. Much of the town was burned by Filipino insurgents soon after +its capture by American troops in February 1899. + + + + +ILSENBURG, a village and health resort of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, +romantically situated under the north foot of the Harz Mountains, at the +entrance to the Ilsethal, 6 m. N.W. from Wernigerode by the railway to +Goslar. Pop. (1900) 3868. It has an Evangelical church, a modern château +of the princes of Stolberg, with pretty grounds, and a high grade +school, and manufactures metal wares, machines and iron screws and +bolts. + +Owing to its charming surroundings and its central position in the +range, Ilsenburg is one of the most frequented tourist resorts in the +Harz Mountains, being visited annually by some 6000 persons. The old +castle, Schloss Ilsenburg, lying on a high crag above the town, was +originally an imperial stronghold and was probably built by the German +king Henry I. The emperor Otto III. resided here in 995, Henry II. +bestowed it in 1003 upon the bishop of Halberstadt, who converted it +into a Benedictine monastery, and the school attached to it enjoyed a +great reputation towards the end of the 11th century. After the +Reformation the castle passed to the counts of Wernigerode, who restored +it and made it their residence until 1710. Higher still, on the edge of +the plateau rises the Ilsenstein, a granite peak standing about 500 ft. +above the valley, crowned by an iron cross erected by Count Anton von +Stolberg-Wernigerode in memory of his friends who fell in the wars of +1813-1815. Around this rock cluster numerous legends. + + See Jacobs, _Urkundenbuch des Klosters Ilsenburg_ (Halle, 1875); + Brandes, _Ilsenburg als Sommeraufenthalt_ (Wernigerode, 1885); and H. + Herre, _Ilsenburger Annalen_ (Leipzig, 1890). + + + + +IMAGE (Lat. _imago_, perhaps from the same root as _imitari_, copy, +imitate), in general, a copy, representation, exact counterpart of +something else. Thus the reflection of a person in a mirror is known as +his "image"; in popular usage one person is similarly described as "the +very image" of another; so in entomology the term is applied in its +Latin form _imago_ to an insect which, having passed through its larval +stages, has achieved its full typical development. The term is in fact +susceptible of two opposite connotations; on the one hand, it implies +that the thing to which it is applied is only a copy; on the other that +as a copy it is faithful and accurate. + +Psychology (q.v.) recognizes two uses of the term. The simplest is for +the impression made by an observed object on the retina, the eye; in +this connexion the term "after-image" (better "after-sensation") is used +for an image which remains when the eye is withdrawn from a brilliantly +lighted object; it is called positive when the colour remains the same, +negative when the complementary colours are seen. The strict +psychological use of the term "image" is by analogy from the +physiological for a purely mental idea which is taken as being observed +by the eye of the mind. These images are created or produced not by an +external stimulus, such as is necessary for a visual image (even the +after-image is due to the continued excitement of the same organ), but +by a mental act of reproduction. The simplest ideational image, which +has been described as the primary memory-image, is "the peculiarly vivid +and definite ideal representation of an object which we can maintain or +recall by a suitable effort of attention immediately after perceiving +it" (Stout). For this no external stimulus is required, and as compared +with the after-image it represents the objects in perspective just as +they might be seen in perception. This is characteristic of all mental +images. The essential requisite for this primary image is that the +attention should have been fixed upon the impressions. + +The relation between sense-impressions and mental images is a highly +complicated one. Difference in intensity is not a wholly satisfactory +ground of distinction; abnormal physical conditions apart, an image may +have an intensity far greater than that of a sense-given impression. On +the other hand, Hume is certainly right in holding that the distinctive +character of a percept as compared with an image is in all ordinary +cases the force and liveliness with which it strikes the mind--the +distinction, therefore, being one of quality, not of degree. A +distinction of some importance is found in the "superior steadiness" +(Ward) of impressions; while looking at any set of surroundings, images +of many different scenes may pass through the mind, each one of which is +immediately distinguished from the impression of the actual scene before +the eyes. This arises partly, no doubt, from the fact that the +perception has clear localization, which the image has not. In many +cases indeed an image even of a most familiar scene is exceedingly vague +and inaccurate. + +In Art the term is used for a representation or likeness of an animate +or inanimate object, particularly of the figure of a person in sculpture +or painting. The most general application of the word is to such a +representation when used as an object of religious worship or adoration, +or as a decorative or architectural ornament in places of religious +worship. The worship of images, or idolatry, from the point of view of +comparative religion, is treated in the article IMAGE-WORSHIP, and the +history of the attitude of the Christian church, outside the +post-Reformation church of England, towards the use of images as objects +of worship and religion in the article ICONOCLASTS. With regard to the +Pre-Reformation period in England, it is of interest to note that by the +constitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, 1305, it was the duty of the +parish to provide for the parish church, among other objects, the images +of Christ on the Cross, of the saint to whom the church was dedicated, +to be placed in the chancel, and of other saints. The injunctions of +Edward VI., 1547, ordered the destruction of all images that had been +the objects of superstitious use, and the act of 1549 (3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. +10) declared all such images illegal. This act, repealed in Mary's +reign, was revived in 1604 (1 James I. c. 25) and is still in force. The +present effect of this unrepealed act, as stated in _Boyd_ v. +_Philpotts_ (L.R. 6 P.C. 449), is that it only referred to the images +then subject to abuse, which had been ordered to be removed, and did not +refer to the subsequent use or abuse of other images. In Article XXII. +of the Articles of Religion it is laid down that "the Romish Doctrine +concerning ... Worshipping and Adoration as well of Images as of +Reliques ... is a fond thing mainly invented and grounded on no warranty +of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God." The law in +regard to images, which in this connexion include pictures and +stained-glass windows, but not sculptured effigies on monuments or +merely ornamental work, is contained in various judicial decisions, and +is not defined by statute. The effect of these decisions is thus +summarized in the report of the Royal Commission on Ecclesiastical +Discipline, 1906: "Such images are lawful as objects of decoration in a +church, but are unlawful if they are made, or are in danger of being +made, objects of superstitious reverence, contrary to Article XXII. +against the worshipping and adoration of images. In accordance with this +view, crosses, if not placed on the Holy Table, and also crucifixes, if +part only of a sculptured design or architectural decoration, have been +declared lawful. The question whether a crucifix or rood standing alone +or combined with figures of the Blessed Virgin and St John can, in any +circumstances, be regarded as merely decorative, has given rise to a +difference of judicial opinion and appears to be unsettled." Speaking +generally, articles of decoration and embellishment not used in the +services cannot lawfully be introduced into a church without the consent +of the ordinary given by a faculty, the granting of which is subject to +the judicial discretion of the chancellor or commissary, sitting as +judge of the bishop's court. By section 8 of the Public Worship +Regulation Act 1874, complainants may take proceedings if it is +considered that "any alteration in, or addition to, the fabric, +ornaments or furniture has been made without legal authority, or that +any decoration forbidden by law has been introduced into such church ... +provided that no proceedings shall be taken ... if such alteration or +addition has been completed five years before the commencement of such +proceedings." The following are the principal cases on the subject: in +_Boyd_ v. _Philpotts_, 1874 (L.R., 4 _Ad. & Ec._ 297; 6 P.C. 435), the +Exeter reredos case, the privy council, reversing the bishop's judgment, +allowed the structure, which contained sculptures in high relief of the +Ascension, Transfiguration and Descent of the Holy Ghost at Pentecost, +together with a cross and angels; in _R._ v. _the Bishop of London_, +1889 (23 _Q.B.D._ 414, 24 _Q.B.D._ 213), the St Paul's reredos case, the +bishop refused further proceedings against the legality of a structure +containing sculptured figures of Christ on the Cross and the Virgin and +Child. In _Clifton_ v. _Ridsdale_, 1876 (1 P. & D., 316), a metal +crucifix on the centre of the chancel screen was declared illegal as +being in danger of being used superstitiously, and in the same case +pictures or rather coloured reliefs representing the "Stations of the +Cross" were ordered to be removed on the ground that they had been +erected without a faculty, and were also considered unlawful by Lord +Penzance as connected with certain superstitious devotion authorized by +the Roman church. + + + + +IMAGE WORSHIP. It is obvious that two religious votaries kneeling +together before a statue may entertain widely different conceptions of +what the image is and signifies, although their outward attitude is the +same. The one may regard it as a mere image, picture or representation +of the higher being, void in itself of value or power. It is to him, +like the photograph hung on a wall of one we love, cherished as a +picture and no more. But the other may regard it, as a little girl +regards her doll, as an animated being, no mere picture, but as tenement +and vehicle of the god and fraught with divine influence. The former is +the attitude which the Latin Church officially inculcates towards sacred +pictures and statues; they are intended to convey to the eyes of the +faithful, especially to the illiterate among them, the history of Jesus, +of the Virgin and of the saints. The other attitude, however, is that +into which simple-minded Latin peasants actually lapse, as it is also +that which characterizes other religions ancient or modern which use +pictures or sculptures of gods, demons, men, brutes, or of particular +parts and organs of the same. With the latter attitude alone does the +present article deal, and it may conveniently be called idolatry or +image worship. For the history of the use of images in Christian worship +see ICONOCLASTS. + +The image or idol differs from the fetish, charm, talisman, phylactery +or miraculous relic, only in this, that either in the flat or the round +it _resembles_ the power adored; it has a prototype capable of being +brought before the eye and visualized. This is not necessarily the case +with the worshipper of _aniconic_ or unshaped gods. The Semite or savage +who sets up a sacred stone or Bethel believes indeed that a divine power +or influence enters the stone and dwells in it, and he treats the stone +as if it were the god, kisses it, anoints it with oil, feeds the god in +it by pouring out over it the blood of victims slain. But he is not an +idolater, for he has not "made unto himself any graven image, nor the +likeness of anything that is in heaven above or in the water beneath or +in the water under the earth." + +The question arises: must the stage of aniconic gods historically +precede and lead up to that of pictures and images? Are the latter a +development of the former? In the history of human religions can we +trace, as it were, a law of transition from sacred stock and stone up to +picture and image? Is it true to say that the latter is characteristic +of a later and higher stage of religious development? It was perhaps the +facility with which a pillar of stone or wood can be turned into an +image by painting or sculpturing on it eyes, ears, mouth, marks of sex +and so on, which led anthropologists of an earlier generation to +postulate such a law of development; but facts do not bear it out. In +the first place, what we are accustomed to call higher religions +deliberately attach greater sanctity to aniconic gods than to iconic +ones, and that from no artistic incapacity. The Jews were as well able +as their neighbours to fashion golden calves, snakes and the minor idols +called teraphim, when their legislator, in the words we have just cited, +forbade the ancillary use of all plastic and pictorial art for religious +purposes. And of our own Christianity, Robertson Smith remarks as +follows: "The host in the Mass is artistically as much inferior to the +Venus of Milo as a Semitic _Masseba_ was, but no one will say that +medieval Christianity is a lower form of religion than Aphrodite +worship." + +Here then in the most marked manner the aniconic sacrament has ousted +pictures and statues. It is the embodiment and home of divine +personality and power, and not they. Equally contradictory of any such +law of development is the circumstance that the Greeks of the 5th and +4th centuries B.C., although Pheidias and other artists were embodying +their gods and goddesses in the most perfect of images, nevertheless +continued to cherish the rude aniconic stocks and stones of their +ancestors. If any such law ever operated in human religious development, +how can we explain the following facts. In the shadowy age which +preceded the Stone age and hardly ended later than 10,000 B.C., the +cave-dwellers of the Dordogne could draw elks, bisons, elephants and +other animals at rest or in movement, with a freshness and realism which +to-day only a Landseer can rival. And yet in the European Stone age +which followed, the age in which the great menhirs and cromlechs were +erected, in which the domestication of animals began and the first corn +was sown, we find in the strata no image of man or beast, big or little. + +Whence this seeming blight and decay of art? Salomon Reinach, guided by +the analogy of similar practices among the aborigines of Australia, and +noticing that these primitive pictures represent none but animals that +formed the staple food of the age and place, and that they are usually +found in the deepest and darkest recesses of the caves where they could +only be drawn and seen by torchlight, has argued that they were not +intended for artistic gratification (a late motive in human art), but +were magical representations destined to influence and perhaps attract +the hunter's quarry. In a word this earliest art was ancillary to the +chase. It is a common practice in the magic of all ages and countries to +acquire control and influence over men and animals by making images of +them. The prototype is believed to suffer whatever is done to the image. +Reinach, therefore, supposes that in the Stone age which succeeded, +pictorial art was banned because it had got into the hands of magicians +and had come to be regarded as inevitably uncanny and malefic. This is +certainly the secret of the ordinary Mahommedan prohibition of pictures +and statues, which goes even to the length of denying to poor little +Arab girls the enjoyment of having dolls. It is felt that if you have +got a picture of any one, you have some power of harming him through it; +you can bind or loose him, just as you can a Djinn whose name you have +somehow learned. It is as dangerous for your enemy to have a picture of +you as for him to know your name. The old Hebrew prohibition of graven +images was surely based on a like superstition, so far as it was not +merely due to the physical impossibility for nomads of heavy statues +that do not admit of being carried from camp to camp and from pasture to +pasture. Possessing no images of Yahweh the Jews were also not exposed +to the same risk as were idolaters of having their gods stolen by their +foes and used against them. Lastly, the restriction to aniconic worship +saved them from much superstition, for there is nothing which so much +stimulates the growth of a mythology as the manufacture of idols. The +artist must indeed start with imaginative types, revealed to him in +visions or borrowed from current myths. But the tendency of his art is +to give rise to new tales of the gods. There is perpetual action and +reaction between picture and myth; and a legislator desiring to purify +and raise his countrymen's religion must devote no less attention to +their plastic art than to their hymnology. + +Motives drawn from homoeopathic magic may thus explain the occasional +disuse and prohibition of pictorial and plastic art in cult; they may +equally explain its genesis and rise in certain ages and countries. +Prayer is much more hopeful and efficacious for a worshipper who has +means of bringing near to himself, and even coercing the god he +worships. An image fashioned like a god, and which has this advantage +over a mere stock and stone that it declares itself and reveals at a +glance to what god it is sacred, must surely attract and influence the +god to choose it as his home and tenement. And having the god thus at +hand and imprisoned in matter, the simple-minded worshipper can punish +him if his prayers are left unanswered. Dr E. B. Tylor accordingly (in +his chapter on "Idolatry" in _Primitive Culture_, ii. 170), reminds us +of "the negro who feeds ancestral images and brings them a share of his +trade profits, but will beat an idol or fling it into the fire if it +cannot give him luck or preserve him from sickness." So Augustus Caesar, +having lost some ships in a storm, punished Neptune by forbidding his +image to be carried in procession at the Circensian games (Sueton. +_Aug._ 16). + +In certain cases the wish to carry elsewhere the cult of a favourite or +ancestral cult, may have dictated the manufacture of images that declare +themselves and reveal at a glance whose they are. Thus a Phoenician +colonist might desire to carry abroad the cult of a certain Baal or +Astarte who lived in a conical stone or pillar. Pilgrims visiting +Paphos, the original home and temple of Astarte, could of course be in +no doubt about which of the heavenly powers inhabited the cone of stone +in which she was there held to be immanent; nor was any Semite ever +ignorant as to which Baal he stood before. It was necessarily the Baal +or Lord of the region. But small portrait statues must surely have been +made to be carried about or used in private worship. Meanwhile the +shapeless cone remained the object of public adoration and pilgrimage. + +The Egyptian writer Hermes Trismegistus (c. 250), in a work called +_Asclepius_ (cited by Augustine, _De civit. Dei_, viii. 26), claims that +his ancestors discovered the art of making gods, and since they could +not create souls, they called up the souls of demons or angels and +introduced them into the holy images and divine mysteries, that through +these souls the idols might possess powers of doing good and harm. This +was the belief of the pagans, and the Christians for centuries shared it +with them. Not a few Christian martyrs sought and won the palm by +smashing the idols in order to dislodge the indwelling devil; +occasionally their zeal was further gratified by beholding it pass away +like smoke from its ruined home. + +Image worship then is a sort of animism. It is a continuance by adults +of their childish games with dolls. In the Roman religion, on a feast of +thanksgiving for a great victory, couches were spread in the temples for +the gods, whose images were taken down from their pedestals and laid on +the couches, and tables set before them loaded with delicate viands. +This was called a _Lectisternium_. So Marco Polo (i. chap. 53) relates +how the Tatars had each a figure of Natigay, the god of the earth, who +watched over their children, cattle and crops. The image was made of +felt and cloth, and similar images of his wife and children were set on +his left hand and in front of him. "And when they eat, they take the fat +of the meat and grease the god's mouth withal, as well as the mouths of +his wife and children." The old Greek statues moved of themselves, shook +their spears, kneeled down, spoke, walked, wept, laughed, winked, and +even bled and sweated,--a mighty portent. Images of Christ, of the +Virgin and saints have achieved many a similar miraculous portent. A +figure of Christ has been known even to give its shoes to a poor man, +and a Virgin to drop a ring off her finger to a suppliant. In Umbrian +villages on Easter Sunday the images of Jesus and His Mother are carried +in rival processions from their respective chapels, and are made to bow +when they meet face to face. The spectators applaud or hiss according as +they make their bow well or ill. In antiquity it was a common ceremony +to arrange a holy marriage between male and female images, and such +unions acted on the earth as a fertility charm. Much of a priest's time +was given up to the toilet of the god or goddess. Thus Isis was dressed +and coiffed every day by her special attendants according to Apuleius +(_Met._ xi. 9). Like the statue of St Agatha of Catania to-day, her +image was loaded with jewels, and an inscription of Cadiz (_C.I.L._ ii. +3386) contains an inventory of the jewels with which Isis had been +endowed by Spanish devotees. + +Idolatrous cults repose so largely on make-believe and credulity that +the priests who administered them, perhaps oftener than we know, fell +into the kind of imposture and trickery of which the legend of Bel and +the dragon represents a classical example. "Thinkest thou not," said +King Astyages, "that Bel is a living god? Or seest thou not how much he +eateth and drinketh every day? Then Daniel laughed, and said, O King, be +not deceived: for this is but clay within, and brass without, and did +never eat or drink anything." In the sequel Daniel proves to the king +that the priests with their wives and children came in through privy +doors and consumed the viands set before the god; and the king, angered +at their trickery, slew them all and gave Bel over to Daniel for +destruction. + +The invectives against idolatry of the early Jewish and Christian +apologists, of Philo, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Arnobius, Lactantius +and others, are very good reading and throw much light on the question +how an ancient pagan conceived of his idols. One capital argument of the +Christians was the absurdity of a man making an idol and then being +afraid of or adoring the work of his own hands. Lactantius preserves the +answer of the pagans so attacked (_De origine Erroris_, ii. 2): We do +not, they said, fear the images themselves, but those beings after whose +likeness they were fashioned and by whose names they were consecrated. +Few such rites of consecration remain, but they must have been similar +to those used in India to-day. There the Brahmin invites the god to +dwell within the image, specially made hollow to contain him, +"performing the ceremony of _adhivasa_ or inhabitation, after which he +puts in the eyes and the _prana_, i.e. breath, life or soul."[1] +Similarly Augustine (_De civ. Dei_, viii. 23) relates how, according to +Hermes, the spirits entered by invitation (_spiritus invitatos_), so +that the images became bodies of the gods (_corpora deorum_). Thus the +invisible spirits by a certain art are so joined unto the visible +objects of corporeal matter that the latter become as it were animated +bodies, images dedicated to those spirits and controlled by them (see +CONSECRATION). Such statues were animated with sense and full of spirit, +they foresaw the future, and foretold it by lot, through their priests, +in dreams and in other ways. + + See E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ed. 1903 (list of authorities + and sources vol., p. 171); L. R. Farnell, _The Evolution of Religion_ + (London, 1905); Jacob Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_, translation by J. + S. Stallybrass. (F. C. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Tylor, _Prim. Culture_, ii. 178. + + + + +IMAGINATION, in general, the power or process of producing mental +pictures or ideas. The term is technically used in psychology for the +process of reviving in the mind percepts of objects formerly given in +sense perception. Since this use of the term conflicts with that of +ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this +process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as +opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination (see IMAGE and +PSYCHOLOGY). The common use of the term is for the process of forming in +the mind new images which have not been previously experienced, or at +least only partially or in different combinations. Thus the image of a +centaur is the result of combining the common percepts of man and horse: +fairy tales and fiction generally are the result of this process of +combination. Imagination in this sense, not being limited to the +acquisition of exact knowledge by the requirements of practical +necessity, is up to a certain point free from objective restraints. In +various spheres, however, even imagination is in practice limited: thus +a man whose imaginations do violence to the elementary laws of thought, +or to the necessary principles of practical possibility, or to the +reasonable probabilities of a given case is regarded as insane. The same +limitations beset imagination in the field of scientific hypothesis. +Progress in scientific research is due largely to provisional +explanations which are constructed by imagination, but such hypotheses +must be framed in relation to previously ascertained facts and in +accordance with the principles of the particular science. In spite, +however, of these broad practical considerations, imagination differs +fundamentally from belief in that the latter involves "objective control +of subjective activity" (Stout). The play of imagination, apart from the +obvious limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), is +conditioned only by the general trend of the mind at a given moment. +Belief, on the other hand, is immediately related to practical activity: +it is perfectly possible to _imagine_ myself a millionaire, but unless I +_believe_ it I do not, therefore, act as such. Belief always endeavours +to conform to objective conditions; though it is from one point of view +subjective it is also objectively conditioned, whereas imagination as +such is specifically free. The dividing line between imagination and +belief varies widely in different stages of mental development. Thus a +savage who is ill frames an ideal reconstruction of the causes of his +illness, and attributes it to the hostile magic of an enemy. In +ignorance of pathology he is satisfied with this explanation, and +actually _believes_ in it, whereas such a hypothesis in the mind of +civilized man would be treated as a pure effort of imagination, or even +as a hallucination. It follows that the distinction between imagination +and belief depends in practice on knowledge, social environment, +training and the like. + +Although, however, the absence of objective restraint, i.e. a certain +unreality, is characteristic of imagination, none the less it has great +practical importance as a purely ideational activity. Its very freedom +from objective limitation makes it a source of pleasure and pain. A +person of vivid imagination suffers acutely from the imagination of +perils besetting a friend. In fact in some cases the ideal construction +is so "real" that specific physical manifestations occur, as though +imagination had passed into belief or the events imagined were actually +in progress. + + + + +IMAM, an Arabic word, meaning "leader" or "guide" in the sense of a +"pattern whose example is followed, whether for good or bad." Thus it is +applied to the Koran, to a builder's level and plumb-line, to a road, to +a school-boy's daily task, to a written record. It is used in several of +these, senses in the Koran, but specifically several times of leaders +and (ii. 118) of Abraham, "Lo, I make thee a pattern for mankind." +_Imam_ thus became the name of the head of the Moslem community, whose +leadership and patternhood, as in the case of Mahomet himself, is to be +regarded as of the widest description. His duty is to be the lieutenant, +the Caliph (q.v.) of the Prophet, to guard the faith and maintain the +government of the state. Round the origin and basis of his office all +controversies as to the Moslem state centre. The Sunnites hold that it +is for men to appoint and that the basis is obedience to the general +usage of the Moslem peoples from the earliest times. The necessity for +leaders has always been recognized, and a leader has always been +appointed. The basis is thus agreement in the technical sense (see +MAHOMMEDAN LAW), not Koran nor tradition from Mahomet nor analogy. The +Shi'ites in general hold that the appointment lies with God, through the +Prophet or otherwise, and that He always has appointed. The Kharijites +theoretically recognize no absolute need of an Imam; he is convenient +and allowable. The Motazilites held that reason, not agreement, dictated +the appointment. Another distinction between the Sunnites and the +Shi'ites is that the Sunnites regard the Imam as liable to err, and to +be obeyed even though he personally sins, provided he maintains the +ordinances of Islam. Effective leadership is the essential point. But +the Shi'ites believe that the divinely appointed Imam is also divinely +illumined and preserved (_ma'sum_) from sin. The above is called the +greater Imamate. The lesser Imamate is the leadership in the Friday +prayers. This was originally performed by the Imam in the first sense, +who not only led in prayers but delivered a sermon (_khutba_); but with +the growth of the Moslem empire and the retirement of the caliph from +public life, it was necessarily given over to a deputy--part of a +gradual process of putting the Imamate or caliphate into commission. +These deputy Imams are, in Turkey, ministers of the state, each in +charge of his own parish; they issue passports, &c., and perform the +rites of circumcision, marriage and burial. In Persia among Shi'ites +their position is more purely spiritual, and they are independent of the +state. A few of their leaders are called _Mujtahids_, i.e. capable of +giving an independent opinion on questions of religion and canon law. A +third use of the term Imam is as an honorary title. It is thus applied +to leading theologians, e.g. to Abu Hanifa, ash-Shafi'i, Malik ibn Anas, +Ahmad ibn Hanbal (these are called "the four Imams"), Ghazali. + + See McG. de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khaldun's _Prolégomènes_, i. 384 + seq., 402 seq., 426 seq., 445; iii. 35, 58 seq.; Ostrorog's transl. of + Mawardi's _Ahkam_ i. 89 seq.; Haarbrücker's transl. of Shahrastani by + index; Juynboll's _De Mohammedanische Wet_, 316 seq.; Sell's _Faith of + Islam_, 95 seq.; Macdonald's _Development of Muslim Theology_, 56 seq. + (D. B. Ma.) + + + + +IMBECILE (through the French from Lat. _imbecillus_ or _imbecillis_, +weak, feeble; of unknown origin), weak or feeble, particularly in mind. +The term "imbecility" is used conventionally of a condition of mental +degeneration less profound than "idiotcy" (see INSANITY). + + + + +IMBREX (Latin for "tile"), in architecture the term given to the +covering tile of the ancient roof: the plain tile is turned up on each +side and the imbrex covers the joint. In the simpler type of roof the +imbrex is semicircular, but in some of the Greek temples it has vertical +sides and an angular top. In the temple of Apollo at Bassae, where the +tiles were in Parian marble, the imbrex on one side of the tile and the +tile were worked in one piece out of the solid marble. + + + + +IMBROS, a Turkish island in the Aegean, at the southern end of the +Thracian Chersonese peninsula. It forms with Samothrace, about 17 m. +distant, a caza (or canton) in the sanjak of Lemnos and province of the +Archipelago Isles. Herodotus (v. 26) mentions it as an abode of the +historic Pelasgians (q.v.). It was, like Samothrace, a seat of the +worship of the Cabeiri (q.v.). The island is now the seat of a Greek +bishopric. There is communication with the mainland by occasional +vessels. The island is of great fertility--wheat, oats, barley, olives, +sesame and valonia being the principal products, in addition to a +variety of fruits. Pop. about 92,000, nearly all Turks. + + + + +IMERETIA, or IMERITIA a district in Russian Transcaucasia, extends from +the left bank of the river Tskheniz-Tskhali to the Suram range, which +separates it from Georgia on the east, and is bounded on the south by +Akhaltsikh, and thus corresponds roughly to the eastern part of the +modern government of Kutais. Anciently a part of Colchis, and included +in Lazia during the Roman empire, Imeretia was nominally under the +dominion of the Greek emperors. In the early part of the 6th century it +became the theatre of wars between the Byzantine emperor Justinian and +Chosroes, or Khosrau, king of Persia. Between 750 and 985 it was ruled +by a dynasty (Apkhaz) of native princes, but was devastated by hostile +incursions, reviving only after it became united to Georgia. It +flourished until the reign of Queen Thamar, but after her death (1212) +the country became impoverished through strife and internal dissensions. +It was reunited with Georgia from 1318 to 1346, and again in 1424. But +the union only lasted forty-five years; from 1469 until 1810 it was +governed by a Bagratid dynasty, closely akin to that which ruled over +Georgia. In 1621 it made the earliest appeal to Russia for aid; in 1650 +it acknowledged Russian suzerainty and in 1769 a Russian force expelled +the Turks. In 1803 the monarch declared himself a vassal of Russia, and +in 1810 the little kingdom was definitively annexed to that empire. (See +GEORGIA.) + + + + +IMIDAZOLES, or GLYOXALINES, organic chemical compounds containing the +ring system + + / CH = CH + HN / | . + \ CH = N + +Imidazole itself was first prepared by H. Debus (_Ann._ 1858, 107, p. +254) by the action of ammonia on glyoxal, 2C2H2O2 + 2NH3 = C3H4N2 + +H2CO2 + 2H2O. The compounds of this series may be prepared by the +condensation of ortho-diketones with ammonia and aldehydes + + R·C - N \\ + R·CO·CO·R + 2NH3 + R´·CHO = 3H2O + || \\ C·R´; + R·C - NH / + +from thioimidazolones by oxidation with dilute nitric acid (W. +Marckwald, _Ber._, 1892, 25, p. 2361); by distillation of hydrobenzamide +and similarly constituted bodies; and by the action of phosphorus +pentachloride on symmetrical dimethyloxamide, a methylchlorglyoxaline +being formed (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1877, 184, p. 500). + +The glyoxalines are basic in character, and the imide hydrogen is +replaceable by metals and alkyl groups. They are stable towards reducing +agents, and acidyl groups are only introduced with difficulty. + + _Imidazole_ (glyoxaline), C3H4N2, crystallizes in thick prisms which + melt at 88-89° C. and boil at 253° C., and are readily soluble in + alcohol and in water. It is unaffected by chromic acid, but potassium + permanganate oxidizes it to formic acid. It forms salts with acids. + + _Lophine_ (triphenylglyoxaline), + + C6H5·C-N \\ + || \\ C·C6H5, + C6H5·C-NH / + + is formed by the dry distillation of hydrobenzamide, or by saturating + an alcoholic solution of benzil and benzaldehyde (at a temperature of + 40° C.) with ammonia. It crystallizes in needles which melt at 275° C. + It is a weak base. When heated to 300° C. with hydriodic acid and + hydrochloric acid, in the presence of some red phosphorus, it yields + benzoic acid. + + The keto-glyoxalines are known as imidazolones and are prepared by the + action of acids on acetalyl thioureas (W. Marckwald, Ber., 1892, 25, + p. 2357). _Benzimidazole_, + + / N \\ + C6H4 / \\ CH, + \ NH / + + is the simplest representative of the benzoglyoxalines and is prepared + by the condensation of formic acid with ortho-phenylene diamine. It + forms rhombic crystals which melt at 170° C. It is basic in character, + and on oxidation with potassium permanganate yields a small amount of + glyoxaline dicarboxylic acid, + + HOOC·C - N \\ + || \\ CH. + HOOC·C - NH / + + (E. Bamberger, _Ann._, 1893, 273, p. 338). + + + + +IMITATION (Lat. _imitatio_, from _imitari_, to imitate), the +reproduction or repetition of an action or thought as observed in +another person or in oneself, or the construction of one object in the +likeness of another. By some writers (e.g. Preyer and Lloyd Morgan) the +term "imitation" is limited to cases in which one person copies the +action or thought of another; others have preferred a wider use of the +term (i.e. including "self-imitation"), and have attempted to classify +imitative action into various groupings, e.g. as cases of "conscious +imitation," "imitative suggestion," "plastic imitation" (as when the +members of a crowd subconsciously reproduce one another's modes of +thought and action), and the like. The main distinction is that which +takes into account the question of attention (q.v.). In _conscious_ +imitation, the attention is fixed on the act and its reproduction: in +_unconscious_ imitation the reproduction is entirely mechanical and the +agent does not "attend" to the action or thought which he is copying: in +_subconscious_ imitation the action is not deliberate, though the +necessary train of thought would immediately follow if the attention +were turned upon it under normal conditions. Imitation plays an +extremely important part in human and animal development, and a clear +understanding of its character is important both for the study of +primitive peoples, and also in the theories of education, art and +sociology. The child's early development is in large measure imitative: +thus the first articulate sounds and the first movements are mainly +reproductions of the words and actions of parents, and even in the later +stages that teacher is likely to achieve the best results who himself +gives examples of how a word should be pronounced or an action done. The +impulse to imitate is, however, not confined to children: there is among +the majority of adults a tendency to assimilate themselves either to +their society or to those whom they especially admire or respect: this +tendency to shun the eccentric is rooted deeply in human psychology. +Moreover, even among highly developed persons the imitative impulse +frequently overrides the reason, as when an audience, a crowd, or even +practically a whole community is carried away by a panic for which no +adequate ground has been given, or when a cough or a yawn is imitated by +a company of people. Such cases may be compared with those of persons +in mesmeric trances who mechanically copy a series of movements made by +the mesmerist. The universality of the imitative impulse has led many +psychologists to regard it as an instinct (so William James, _Principles +of Psychology_, ii. 408; cf. INSTINCT), and in that large class of +imitative actions which have no obvious ulterior purpose the impulse +certainly appears to be instinctive in character. On the other hand +where the imitator recognizes the particular effect of a process and +imitates with the deliberate intention of producing the same effect, his +action can scarcely be classed as instinctive. A considerable number of +psychologists have distinguished imitative from instinctive actions +(e.g. Baldwin, and Sully). According to Darwin the imitative impulse +begins in infants at the age of four months. It is to be noted, however, +that the child imitates, not every action indiscriminately, but +especially those towards which it has a congenital tendency. The same is +true of animals: though different kinds of animals may live in close +proximity, the young of each kind imitate primarily the actions of their +own parents. + +Among primitive man imitation plays a very important part. The savage +believes that he can bring about events by imitating them. He makes, for +instance, an image of his enemy and pierces it with darts or burns it, +believing that by so doing he will cause his enemy's death: similarly +sailors would whistle, or farmers would pour water on the ground, in the +hope of producing wind or rain. This form of imitation is known as +sympathetic magic (see MAGIC). The sociological importance of imitation +is elaborately investigated by Gabriel Tarde (_Les Lois de l'imitation_, +2nd ed., 1895), who bases all social evolution on the imitative impulse. +He distinguishes "custom imitations," i.e. imitations of ancient or even +forgotten actions, and "mode imitations," i.e. imitations of current +fashions. New discoveries are, in his scheme, the product of the +conflict of imitations. This theory, though of great value, seems to +neglect original natural similarities which, by the law of causation, +produce similar consequences, where imitation is geographically or +chronologically impossible. + +The term "imitation" has also the following special uses:-- + +1. _In Art-theory._--According to Plato all artistic production is a +form of imitation ([Greek: mimêsis]). That which really exists is the +idea or type created by God; of this type all concrete objects are +representations, while the painter, the tragedian, the musician are +merely imitators, thrice removed from the truth (_Rep._ x. 596 seq.). +Such persons are represented by Plato as a menace to the moral fibre of +the community (_Rep._ iii.), as performing no useful function, drawing +men away from reality and pandering to the irrational side of the soul. +All art should aim at moral improvement. Plato clearly intends by +"imitation" more than is connotated by the modern word: though in +general he associates with it all that is bad and second-rate, he in +some passages admits the value of the imitation of that which is good, +and thus assigns to it a certain symbolic significance. Aristotle, +likewise regarding art as imitation, emphasizes its purely artistic +value as purging the emotions ([Greek: katharsis]), and producing +beautiful things as such (see AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS). + +2. _In Biology_, the term is sometimes applied to the assimilation by +one species of certain external characteristics (especially colour) +which enable them to escape the notice of other species which would +otherwise prey upon them. It is a form of protective resemblance and is +generally known as mimicry (q.v.; see also COLOURS OF ANIMALS). + +3. _In Music_, the term "imitation" is applied in contrapuntal +composition to the repetition of a passage in one or more of the other +voices or parts of a composition. When the repetition is note for note +with all the intervals the same, the imitation is called "strict" and +becomes a canon (q.v.); if not it is called "free," the latter being +much the more common. There are many varieties of imitation, known as +imitation "by inversion," "by inversion and reversion," "by +augmentation," "by diminution" (see _Grove's Dictionary of Music, s. +v._, and textbooks of musical theory). + + + + +IMITATION OF CHRIST, THE (_Imitatio Christi_), the title of a famous +medieval Christian devotional work, much used still by both Catholics +and Protestants and usually ascribed to Thomas à Kempis. The +"Contestation" over the author of the _Imitation of Christ_ is probably +the most considerable and famous controversy that has ever been carried +on concerning a purely literary question. It has been going on almost +without flagging for three centuries, and nearly 200 combatants have +entered the lists. In the present article nothing is said on the history +of the controversy, but an attempt is made to summarize the results that +may be looked on as definitely acquired. + +Until quite recently there were three candidates in the field--Thomas à +Kempis (1380-1471), a canon regular of Mount St Agnes in Zwolle, in the +diocese of Utrecht, of the Windesheim Congregation of Augustinian +Canons; John Gerson (1363-1429), chancellor of the University of Paris; +and an abbot, John Gersen, said to have been abbot of a Benedictine +monastery at Vercelli in the 12th century. Towards the end of the 15th +century the _Imitation_ circulated under the names of the first two; but +Gerson is an impossible author, and his claims have never found +defenders except in France, where they are no longer urged. The +Benedictine abbot Gersen is an absolutely mythical personage, a mere +"double" of the chancellor. Consequently at the present day the question +is narrowed to the issue: Thomas à Kempis, or an unknown author. + +The following is a statement of the facts that may be received as +certain:-- + +1. The earliest-known dated MS. of the _Imitation_ is of 1424--it +contains only Bk. I.; the earliest MSS. of the whole work of certain +date are of 1427. Probably some of the undated MSS. are older; but it is +the verdict of the most competent modern expert opinion that there is no +palaeographical reason for suspecting that any known MS. is earlier than +the first quarter of the 15th century. + +2. A Latin letter of a Dutch canon regular, named Johann van +Schoonhoven, exhibits such a close connexion with Bk. I. that plagiarism +on the one side or the other is the only possible explanation. It is +capable of demonstration that the author of the _Imitation_ was the +borrower, and that the opposite hypothesis is inadmissible. Now, this +letter can be shown to have been written after 1382. Therefore Bk. I. +was beyond controversy written between the years 1382 and 1424. + +3. It is not here assumed that the four treatises formed a single work, +or even that they are all by the same author; and the date of the other +three books cannot be fixed with the same certainty. But, on the one +hand, before the beginning of the 15th century there is no trace +whatever of their existence--a strong argument that they did not yet +exist; and on the other hand, after 1424 nearly each year produces its +quota of MSS. and other signs of the existence of these books become +frequent. Moreover, as a matter of fact, the four treatises did commonly +circulate together. The presumption is strong that Bks. II., III., IV., +like Bk. I., were composed shortly before they were put into +circulation. + +It may then be taken as proved that the _Imitation_ was composed between +1380 and 1425, and probably towards the end rather than the beginning of +that period. Having ascertained the date, we must consider the +birthplace. + +4. A number of idioms and turns of expression throughout the book show +that its author belonged to some branch of the Teutonic race. Further +than this the argument does not lead; for when the dialects of the early +15th century are considered it cannot be said that the expressions in +question are Netherlandic rather than German--as a matter of fact, they +have all been paralleled out of High German dialects. + +5. Of the 400 MSS. of the _Imitation_ 340 come from the Teutonic +countries--another argument in favour of its Teutonic origin. Again, 100 +of them, including the earliest, come from the Netherlands. This number +is quite disproportionate to the relative size of the Netherlands, and +so points to Holland as the country in which the _Imitation_ was first +most widely circulated and presumably composed. + +6. There is a considerable body of early evidence, traceable before +1450, that the author was a canon regular. + +7. Several of the MSS. were written in houses belonging to the +Windesheim Congregation of canons regular, or, in close touch with it. +Moreover there is a specially intimate literary and spiritual +relationship between the _Imitation_ and writings that emanated from +what has been called the "Windesheim Circle." + +To sum up: the indirect evidence points clearly to the conclusion that +the _Imitation_ was written by a Teutonic canon regular, probably a +Dutch canon regular of the Windesheim Congregation, in the first quarter +of the 15th century. These data are satisfied by Thomas à Kempis. + +We pass to the direct evidence, neglecting that of witnesses who had no +special sources of information. + +8. There can be no question that in the Windesheim Congregation itself +there was already, during Thomas à Kempis's lifetime, a fixed tradition +that he was the author of the _Imitation_. The most important witness to +this tradition is Johann Busch. It is true that the crucial words are +missing in one copy of his "Chronicle"; but it is clear there were two +redactions of the work, and there are no grounds whatever for doubting +that the second with its various enlargements came from the hands of +Busch himself--a copy of it containing the passage exists written in +1464, while both Busch and Thomas à Kempis were still alive. Busch +passed a great part of his life in Windesheim, only a few miles from +Mount St Agnes where Thomas lived. It would be hard to find a more +authentic witness. Another witness is Hermann Rhyd, a German member of +the Windesheim Congregation, who also had personally known Thomas. +Besides, two or three MSS. originating in the Windesheim Congregation +state or imply the same tradition. + +9. More than this: the tradition existed in Thomas à Kempis's own +monastery shortly after his death. For John Mauburne became a canon in +Mount St Agnes within a few years of Thomas's death, and he states more +than once that Thomas wrote the _Imitation_. + +10. The earliest biographer of Thomas à Kempis was an anonymous +contemporary: the _Life_ was printed in 1494, but it exists in a MS. of +1488. The biographer says he got his information from the brethren at +Mount St Agnes, and he states in passing that Bk. III. was written by +Thomas. Moreover, he appends a list of Thomas's writings, 38 in number, +and 5-8 are the four books of the _Imitation_. + +It is needless to point out that such a list must be of vastly greater +authority than those given by St Jerome or Gennadius in their _De Viris +Illustribus_, and its rejection must, in consistency, involve methods of +criticism that would work havoc in the history of early literature of +what king soever. The domestic tradition in the Windesheim Congregation, +and in Mount St Agnes itself, has a weight that cannot be legitimately +avoided or evaded. Indeed the external authority for Thomas's authorship +is stronger than that for the authorship of most really anonymous +books--such, that is, as neither themselves claim to be by a given +author, nor have been claimed by any one as his own. A large proportion +of ancient writings, both ecclesiastical and secular, are +unquestioningly assigned to writers on far less evidence than that for +Thomas's authorship of the _Imitation_. + +Internal arguments have been urged against Thomas's authorship. It has +been said that his certainly authentic writings are so inferior that the +_Imitation_ could not have been written by the same author. But only if +they were of the most certain and peremptory nature could such internal +arguments be allowed to weigh against the clear array of facts that make +up the external argument in favour of à Kempis. And it cannot be said +that the internal difficulties are such as this. Let it be granted that +Thomas was a prolific writer and that his writings vary very much in +quality; let it be granted also that the _Imitation_ surpasses all the +rest, and that some are on a level very far below it; still, when at +their best, some of the other works are not unworthy of the author of +the _Imitation_. + +In conclusion, it is the belief of the present writer that the +"Contestation" is over, and that Thomas à Kempis's claims to the +authorship of the _Imitation_ have been solidly established. + + The best account in English of the Controversy is that given by F. R. + Cruise in his _Thomas à Kempis_ (1887). Works produced before 1880 are + in general, with the exception of those of Eusebius Amort, + superannuated, and deal in large measure with points no longer of any + living interest. A pamphlet by Cruise, _Who was the Author of the + Imitation?_ (1898) contains sufficient information on the subject for + all ordinary needs; it has been translated into French and German, and + may be regarded as the standard handbook. + + It has been said that the _Imitation of Christ_ has had a wider + religious influence than any book except the Bible, and if the + statement be limited to Christendom, it is probably true. The + _Imitation_ has been translated into over fifty languages, and is said + to have run through more than 6000 editions. The other statement, + often made, that it sums up all that is best of earlier Western + mysticism--that in it "was gathered and concentered all that was + elevating, passionate, profoundly pious in all the older mystics" + (Milman) is an exaggeration that is but partially true, for it + depreciates unduly the elder mystics and fails to do justice to the + originality of the _Imitation_. For its spiritual teaching is + something quite different from the mysticism of Augustine in the + _Confessions_, or of Bernard in the _Sermons on the Song of Songs_; it + is different from the scholastic mysticism of the St Victors or + Bonaventure; above all, it is different from the obscure mysticism, + saturated with the pseudo-Dionysian Neoplatonism of the German school + of Eckhart, Suso, Tauler and Ruysbroek. Again, it is quite different + from the later school of St Teresa and St John of the Cross, and from + the introspective methods of what may be called the modern school of + spirituality. The _Imitation_ stands apart, unique, as the principal + and most representative utterance of a special phase of religious + thought--non-scholastic, non-platonic, positive and merely religious + in its scope--herein reflecting faithfully the spirit of the movement + initiated by Gerhard Groot (q.v.), and carried forward by the circles + in which Thomas à Kempis lived. In contrast with more mystical + writings it is of limpid clearness, every sentence being easily + understandable by all whose spiritual sense is in any degree awakened. + No doubt it owes its universal power to this simplicity, to its + freedom from intellectualism and its direct appeal to the religious + sense and to the extraordinary religious genius of its author. + Professor Harnack in his book _What is Christianity?_ counts the + _Imitation_ as one of the chief spiritual forces in Catholicism: it + "kindles independent religious life, and a fire which burns with a + flame of its own" (p. 266). + + The best Latin edition of the _Imitation_ is that of Hirsche (1874), + which follows closely the autograph of 1441 and reproduces the + rhythmical character of the book. Of English translations the most + interesting is that by John Wesley, under the title _The Christian's + Pattern_ (1735). (E. C. B.) + + + + +IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, THE. This dogma of the Roman Catholic Church was +defined, as "of faith" by Pope Pius IX. on the 8th of December 1854 in +the following terms: "The doctrine which holds that the Blessed Virgin +Mary, from the first instant of her conception, was, by a most singular +grace and privilege of Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus +Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, preserved from all stain of +Original Sin, is a doctrine revealed, by God, and therefore to be firmly +and steadfastly believed by all the faithful."[1] These words presuppose +the distinction between original, or racial, and actual, or personally +incurred sin. There is no dispute that the Church has always held the +Blessed Virgin to be sinless, in the sense of actual or personal sin. +The question of the Immaculate Conception regards original or racial sin +only. It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX. was not +explicitly mooted before the 12th century. But it is claimed that it is +implicitly contained in the teaching of the Fathers. Their expressions +on the subject of the sinlessness of Mary are, it is pointed out, so +ample and so absolute that they must be taken to include original sin as +well as actual. Thus we have in the first five centuries such epithets +applied to her as "in every respect holy," "in all things unstained," +"super-innocent" and "singularly holy"; she is compared to Eve before +the fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is "the earth before +it was accursed."[2] The well-known words of St Augustine (d. 430) may +be cited: "As regards the mother of God," he says, "I will not allow any +question whatever of sin."[3] It is true that he is here speaking +directly of actual or personal sin. But his argument is that all men are +sinners; that they are so through original depravity; that this original +depravity may be overcome by the grace of God, and he adds that he does +not know but that Mary may have had sufficient grace to overcome sin "of +every sort" (_omni ex parte_). + +It seems to have been St Bernard who, in the 12th century, explicitly +raised the question of the Immaculate Conception. A feast of the +Conception of the Blessed Virgin had already begun to be celebrated in +some churches of the West. St Bernard blames the canons of the +metropolitan church of Lyons for instituting such a festival without the +permission of the Holy See. In doing so, he takes occasion to repudiate +altogether the view that the Conception of Mary was sinless. It is +doubtful, however, whether he was using the term "Conception" in the +same sense in which it is used in the definition of Pius IX. In speaking +of conception one of three things may be meant: (1) the mother's +co-operation; (2) the formation of the body, or (3) the completion of +the human being by the infusion of the rational or spiritual soul. In +early times conception was very commonly used in the first +sense--"active" conception as it was called. But it is in the second, or +rather the third, sense that the word is employed in modern usage, and +in the definition of Pope Pius IX. But St Bernard would seem to have +been speaking of conception in the first sense, for in his argument he +says, "How can there be absence of sin where there is concupiscence +(_libido_)?" and stronger expressions follow, showing that he is +speaking of the mother and not of the child.[4] + +St Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the medieval scholastics, refused to +admit the Immaculate Conception, on the ground that, unless the Blessed +Virgin had at one time or other been one of the sinful, she could not +justly be said to have been redeemed by Christ.[5] St Bonaventura (d. +1274), second only to St Thomas in his influence on the Christian +schools of his age, hesitated to accept it for a similar reason.[6] The +celebrated John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), a Franciscan like St Bonaventura, +argued, on the contrary, that from a rational point of view it was +certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that +Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that she +first contracted it and then was delivered.[7] His arguments, combined +with a better acquaintance with the language of the early Fathers, +gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In 1387 the +university of Paris strongly condemned the opposite view. In 1483 Pope +Sixtus IV., who had already (1476) emphatically approved of the feast of +the Conception, condemned those who ventured to assert that the doctrine +of the Immaculate Conception was heretical, and forbade either side to +claim a decisive victory until further action on the part of the Holy +See. The council of Trent, after declaring that in its decrees on the +subject of original sin it did not include "the blessed and immaculate +Virgin Mary, Mother of God," renewed this prohibition.[8] Pope Paul V. +(d. 1651) ordered that no one, under severe penalties, should dare to +assent in public "acts" or disputations that the Blessed Virgin was +conceived in original sin. Pope Gregory XV., shortly afterwards, +extended this prohibition to private discussions, allowing, however, the +Dominicans to argue on the subjects among themselves. Clement XI., in +1708, extended the feast of the Conception to the whole Church as a holy +day of obligation. Long before the middle of the 19th century the +doctrine was universally taught in the Roman Catholic Church. During the +reign of Gregory XVI. the bishops in various countries began to press +for a definition. Pius IX., at the beginning of his pontificate, and +again after 1851, appointed commissions to investigate the whole +subject, and he was advised that the doctrine was one which could be +defined and that the time for a definition was opportune. On the 8th of +December 1854 in a great assembly of bishops, in the basilica of St +Peter's at Rome, he promulgated the Bull _Ineffabilis Deus_, in which +the history of the doctrine is summarily traced, and which contains the +definition as given above. + +The festival of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin, as distinct from +her Nativity, was certainly celebrated in the Greek Church in the 7th +century, as we learn from one of the canons of St Andrew of Crete (or of +Jerusalem) who died about A.D. 700.[9] There is some evidence that it +was kept in Spain in the time of St Ildefonsus of Toledo (d. 667) and in +southern Italy before A.D. 1000. In England it was known in the 12th +century; a council of the province of Canterbury, in 1328, ascribes its +introduction to St Anselm. It spread to France and Germany in the same +century. It was extended to the whole church, as stated above, in 1708. +It is kept, in the Western Church, on the 8th of December; the Greeks +have always kept it one day later. + + The chief répertoire of Patristic passages, both on the doctrine and + on the festival, is Father Charles Passaglia's great collection, + entitled _De immaculato Deiparae semper Virginis conceptu Caroli + Passaglia sac. S.J. commentarius_ (3 vols., Romae, 1854-1855). + + A useful statement of the doctrine with numerous references to the + Fathers and scholastics is found in Hürter's _Theologia Dogmatica_ + (5th ed.), tom. i. tract. vii. cap. 6, p. 438. + + The state of Catholic belief in the middle of the 19th century is well + brought out in _La Croyance générale el constante de l'Église touchant + l'immaculée conception de la bienheureuse Vierge Marie_, published in + 1855 by Thomas M. J. Gousset (1792-1866), professor of moral theology + at the grand seminary of Besançon, and successively archbishop of + Besançon and cardinal archbishop of Reims. + + For English readers the doctrine, and the history of its definition, + is clearly stated by Archbishop Ullathorne in _The Immaculate + Conception of the Mother of God_ (2nd ed., London, 1904). Dr F. G. + Lee, in _The Sinless Conception of the Mother of God; a Theological + Essay_ (London, 1891) argued that the doctrine of the Immaculate + Conception is a legitimate development of early church teaching. + (+J. C. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] From the Bull _Ineffabilis Deus._ + + [2] See Passaglia's work, referred to below. + + [3] _De natura et gratia_, cap. xxxvi. + + [4] S. Bernardi Epist. clxxiv. 7. + + [5] _Summa theologia_, part iii., quaest. 27, art. 3. + + [6] _In librum III. sententiarum distinct._ 3 quaest. i. art. 2. + + [7] _In librum III. sententiarum dist._ 3 quaest. i. n. 4; _Cfr. + Distinct_. 18 n. 15. Also the _Summa theologia_ of Scotus (compiled + by a disciple), part iii., quaest. 27, art. 2. + + [8] Sess. v. _De peccato originale_. + + [9] _P. G._, tom. cxvii. p. 1305. + + + + +IMMANENCE (from Lat. _in-manere_ to dwell in, remain), in philosophy and +theology a term applied in contradistinction to "transcendence," to the +fact or condition of being entirely within something. Its most important +use is for the theological conception of God as existing in and +throughout the created world, as opposed, for example, to Deism (q.v.), +which conceives Him as separate from and above the universe. This +conception has been expressed in a great variety of forms (see THEISM, +PANTHEISM). It should be observed that the immanence doctrine need not +preclude the belief in the transcendence of God: thus God may be +regarded as above the world (transcendent) and at the same time as +present in and pervading it (immanent). The immanence doctrine has +arisen from two main causes, the one metaphysical, the other religious. +Metaphysical speculation on the relation of matter and mind has +naturally led to a conviction of an underlying unity of all existence, +and so to a metaphysical identification of God and the universe: when +this identification proceeds to the length of expressing the universe as +merely a mode or form of deity the result is pantheism (cf. the +Eleatics): when it regards the deity as simply the sum of the forces of +nature (cf. John Toland) the result is naturalism. In either case, but +especially in the former, it frequently becomes pure mysticism (q.v.). +Religious thinkers are faced by the problem of the Creator and the +created, and the necessity for formulating a close relationship between +God and man, the Infinite and Perfect with the finite and imperfect. The +conception of God as wholly external to man, a purely mechanical theory +of the creation, is throughout Christendom regarded as false to the +teaching of the New Testament as also to Christian experience. The +contrary view has gained ground in some quarters (cf. the so-called "New +Theology" of Rev. R. J. Campbell) so far as to postulate a divine +element in human beings, so definitely bridging over the gap between +finite and infinite which was to some extent admitted by the bulk of +early Christian teachers. In support of such a view are adduced not only +the metaphysical difficulty of postulating any relationship between the +infinite and the purely finite, but also the ethical problems of the +nature of human goodness--i.e. how a merely human being could appreciate +the nature of or display divine goodness--and the epistemological +problem of explaining how finite mind can cognize the infinite. The +development of the immanence theory of God has coincided with the deeper +recognition of the essentially spiritual nature of deity as contrasted +with the older semi-pagan conception found very largely in the Old +Testament of God as primarily a mighty ruler, obedience to whom is +comparable with that of a subject to an absolute monarch: the idea of +the dignity of man in virtue of his immediate relation with God may be +traced in great measure to the humanist movement of the 14th and 15th +centuries (cf. the Inner Light doctrine of Johann Tauler). In later +times the conception of conscience as an inward monitor is symptomatic +of the same movement of thought. In pure metaphysics the term +"immanence-philosophy" is given to a doctrine held largely by German +philosophers (Rehmke, Leclair, Schuppe and others) according to which +all reality is reduced to elements immanent in consciousness. This +doctrine is derived from Berkeley and Hume on the one hand and from +Kantianism on the other, and embodies the principle that nothing can +exist for the mind save itself. The natural consequence of this theory +is that the individual consciousness alone exists (solipsism): this +position is, however, open to the obvious criticism that in some cases +individual consciousnesses agree in their content. Schuppe, therefore, +postulates a general consciousness (_Bewusstsein überhaupt_). + + + + +IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON (c. 1265-c. 1330), Hebrew poet, was born in Rome. +He was a contemporary and friend of Dante, and his verse shows the +influence of the "divine poet." Immanuel's early studies included +science, mathematics and philosophy; and his commentaries on Proverbs, +Psalms, Job and other Biblical books are good examples of the current +symbolical methods which Dante so supremely used. Immanuel's fame +chiefly rests on his poems, especially the collection (in the manner of +Harizi, q.v.) entitled _Mehabberoth_, a series of 27 good-natured +satires on Jewish life. Religious and secular topics are +indiscriminately interwoven, and severe pietists were offended by +Immanuel's erotic style. Most popular is an additional section numbered +28 (often printed by itself) called _Hell and Paradise_ (_ha-Tophet +veha-Eden_). The poet is conducted by a certain Daniel (doubtfully +identified with Dante) through the realms of torture and bliss, and +Immanuel's pictures and comments are at once vivid and witty. + + See J. Chotzner, _Hebrew Humour_ (Lond., 1905), pp. 82-102. (I. A.) + + + + +IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT (1796-1840), German dramatist and novelist, +was born on the 24th of April 1796 at Magdeburg, the son of a government +official. In 1813 he went to study law at Halle, where he remained, +after the suppression of the university by Napoleon in the same year, +until King Frederick William's "Summons to my people" on March 17th. He +responded with alacrity, but was prevented by illness from taking part +in the earlier campaign; he fought, however, in 1815 at Ligny and +Waterloo, and marched into Paris with Blücher. At the conclusion of the +war he resumed his studies at Halle, and after being _Referendar_ in +Magdeburg, was appointed in 1819 _Assessor_ at Münster in Westphalia. +Here he made the acquaintance of Elise von Lützow, Countess von +Ahlefeldt, wife of the leader of the famous "free corps" (see Lützow). +This lady first inspired his pen, and their relationship is reflected in +several dramas written about this time. In 1823 Immermann was appointed +judge at Magdeburg, and in 1827 was transferred to Düsseldorf as +_Landgerichtsrat_ or district judge. Thither the countess, whose +marriage had in the meantime been dissolved, followed him, and, though +refusing his hand, shared his home until his marriage in 1839 with a +grand-daughter of August Hermann Niemeyer (1754-1828), chancellor and +_rector perpetuus_ of Halle university. In 1834 Immermann undertook the +management of the Düsseldorf theatre, and, although his resources were +small, succeeded for two years in raising it to a high level of +excellence. The theatre, however, was insufficiently endowed to allow of +him carrying on the work, and in 1836 he returned to his official +duties and literary pursuits. He died at Düsseldorf on the 25th of +August 1840. + +Immermann had considerable aptitude for the drama, but it was long +before he found a congenial field for his talents. His early plays are +imitations, partly of Kotzebue's, partly of the Romantic dramas of Tieck +and Müllner, and are now forgotten. In 1826, however, appeared _Cardenio +und Celinde_, a love tragedy of more promise; this, as well as the +earlier productions, awakened the ill-will of Platen, who made Immermann +the subject of his wittiest satire, _Der romantische Oedipus_. Between +1827 and 1832 Immermann redeemed his good name by a series of historical +tragedies, _Das Trauerspiel in Tirol_ (1827), _Kaiser Friedrich II._ +(1828) and a trilogy from Russian history, Alexis (1832). His +masterpiece is the poetic mystery, _Merlin_ (1831), a noble poem, which, +like its model, _Faust_, deals with the deeper problems of modern +spiritual life. Immermann's important dramaturgic experiments in +Düsseldorf are described in detail in _Düsseldörfer Anfänge_ (1840). +More significant is his position as a novelist. Here he clearly stands +on the boundary line between Romanticism and modern literature; his +_Epigonen_ (1836) might be described as one of the last Romantic +imitations of Goethe's _Wilhelm Meister_, while the satire and realism +of his second novel, _Münchhausen_ (1838), form a complete break with +the older literature. As a prose-writer Immermann is perhaps best +remembered to-day by the admirable story of village life, _Der Oberhof_, +which is embedded in the formless mass of _Münchhausen_. His last work +was an unfinished epic, _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840). + + Immermann's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published in 14 vols. in + 1835-1843; a new edition, with biography and introduction by R. + Boxberger, in 20 vols. (Berlin, 1883); selected works, edited by M. + Koch (4 vols., 1887-1888) and F. Muncker (6 vols., 1897). See G. zu + Putlitz, _Karl Immermann, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (2 vols., 1870); + F. Freiligrath, _Karl Immermann, Blätter der Erinnerung an ihn_ + (1842); W. Müller, _K. Immermann und sein Kreis_ (1860); R. Fellner, + _Geschichte einer deutschen Musterbühne_ (1888); _K. Immermann: eine + Gedächtnisschrift_ (1896). + + + + +IMMERSION (Lat. _immersio_, dipping), the act of being plunged into a +fluid, or being overwhelmed by anything; in astronomy, the disappearance +of a heavenly body in the shadow of another, especially of a satellite +in the shadow of its primary. + + + + +IMMIGRATION (from Lat. _in_, into, and _migrare_, to depart), the +movement of population, other than that of casual visitors or +travellers, _into_ one country _from_ another (see MIGRATION). + + + + +IMMORTALITY (Lat. _in_-, not, _mortalis_, mortal, from _mors_, death), +the condition or quality of being exempt from death or annihilation. +This condition has been predicated of man, both body and soul, in many +senses; and the term is used by analogy of those whose deeds or writings +have made a lasting impression on the memory of man. The belief in human +immortality in some form is almost universal; even in early animistic +cults the germ of the idea is present, and in all the higher religions +it is an important feature. This article is confined to summarizing the +philosophical or scientific arguments for, and objections to, the +doctrine of the persistence of the human soul after death. For the +Christian doctrine, see ESCHATOLOGY; and for other religions see the +separate articles. + +In the Orphic mysteries "the soul was regarded as a part of the divine, +a _particula aurae divinae_, for which the body in its limited and +perishable condition was no fit organ, but a grave or prison ([Greek: to +sôma sêma]). The existence of the soul in the body was its punishment +for sins in a previous condition; and the doom of its sins in the body +was its descent into other bodies, and the postponement of its +deliverance" (Salmond's _Christian Doctrine of Immortality_, p. 109). +This deliverance was what the mysteries promised. A remarkable passage +in Pindar (_Thren._ 2) is thus rendered by J. W. Donaldson (_Pindar's +Epinician or Triumphal Odes_, p. 372). "By a happy lot, all persons +travel to an end free of toil. And the body, indeed, is subject to the +powerful influence of death; but a shadow of vitality is still left +alive, and this alone is of divine origin; while our limbs are in +activity it sleeps; but, when we sleep, it discloses to the mind in many +dreams the future judgment with regard to happiness and misery." + +The belief of Socrates is uncertain. In the _Apology_ he is represented +as sure that "no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after +death," but as not knowing whether "death be a state of nothingness and +utter unconsciousness, or a change or migration of the soul from this +world to the next" (i. 40, 41). In the _Phaedo_ a confident expectation +is ascribed to him. He is not the body to be buried; he will not remain +with his friends after he has drunk the poison, but he will go away to +the happiness of the blessed. The silence of the _Memorabilia_ of +Xenophon must be admitted as an argument to the contrary; but the +probability seems to be that Plato did not in the _Phaedo_ altogether +misrepresent the Master. In Plato's thought the belief held a prominent +position. "It is noteworthy," says Professor D. G. Ritchie, "that, in +the various dialogues in which Plato speaks of immortality, the +arguments seem to be of different kinds, and most of them quite +unconnected with one another." In the _Phaedrus_ (245 c) the argument +is, that the soul is self-moving, and, therefore, immortal; and this +argument is repeated in the _Laws_ (x. 894, 895). It is an argument that +Plato probably inherited from Alcmaeon, the physician of Croton (Arist. +_De An._ i. 2, § 17 405 A 29), whose views were closely connected with +those of the Pythagoreans. In the _Phaedo_ the main argument up to which +all the others lead is that the soul participates in the idea of life. +Recollection (_anamnesis_) alone would prove pre-existence, but not +existence after death. In the tenth book of the _Republic_ we find the +curious argument that the soul does not perish like the body, because +its characteristic evil, sin or wickedness does not kill it as the +diseases of the body wear out the bodily life. In the _Timaeus_ (41 A) +the immortality even of the gods is made dependent on the will of the +Supreme Creator; souls are not in their own nature indestructible, but +persist because of His goodness. In the _Laws_ (xii. 959 A) the notion +of a future life seems to be treated as a salutary doctrine which is to +be believed because the legislator enacts it (Plato, p. 146). The +estimate to be formed of this reasoning has been well stated by Dr A. M. +Fairbairn, "Plato's arguments for immortality, isolated, modernized, may +be feeble, even valueless, but allowed to stand where and as he himself +puts them, they have an altogether different worth. The ratiocinative +parts of the _Phaedo_ thrown into syllogisms may be easily demolished by +a hostile logician; but in the dialogue as a whole there is a subtle +spirit and cumulative force which logic can neither seize nor answer" +(_Studies in the Philosophy of Religion_, p. 226, 1876). + +Aristotle held that the [Greek: nous] or active intelligence alone is +immortal. The Stoics were not agreed upon the question. Cleanthes is +said to have held that all survive to the great conflagration which +closes the cycle, Chrysippus that only the wise will. Marcus Aurelius +teaches that even if the spirit survive for a time it is at last +"absorbed in the generative principle of the universe." Epicureanism +thought that "the wise man fears not death, before which most men +tremble; for, if we are, it is not; if it is, we are not." Death is +extinction. Augustine adopts a Platonic thought when he teaches that the +immortality of the soul follows from its participation in the eternal +truths. The Apologists themselves welcomed, and commended to others, the +Christian revelation as affording a certainty of immortality such as +reason could not give. The Aristotelian school in Islam did not speak +with one voice upon the question; Avicenna declared the soul immortal, +but Averroes assumes only the eternity of the universal intellect. +Albertus Magnus argued that the soul is immortal, as _ex se ipsa causa_, +and as independent of the body; Pietro Pomponazzi maintained that the +soul's immortality could be neither proved nor disproved by any natural +reasons. Spinoza, while consistently with his pantheism denying personal +immortality, affirms that "the human mind cannot be absolutely destroyed +with the body, but there remains of it something which is eternal" +(_Eth._ v. prop, xxiii.). The reason he gives is that, as this something +"appertains to the essence of the mind," it is "conceived by a certain +eternal necessity through the very essence of God." + +Leibnitz, in accord with the distinctive principle of his philosophy, +affirmed the absolute independence of mind and body as distinct monads, +the parallelism of their functions in life being due to the +pre-established harmony. For the soul, by its nature as a single monad +indestructible and, therefore, immortal, death meant only the loss of +the monads constituting the body and its return to the pre-existent +state. The argument of Ernst Platner (_Philos. Aphor._ i. 1174, 1178) is +similar. "If the human soul is a force in the narrower sense, a +substance, and not a combination of substances, then, as in the nature +of things there is no transition from existence to non-existence, we +cannot naturally conceive the end of its existence, any more than we can +anticipate a gradual annihilation of its existence." He adds a reason +that recalls one of Plato's, "As manifestly as the human soul is by +means of the senses linked to the present life, so manifestly it +attaches itself by reason, and the conceptions, conclusions, +anticipations and efforts to which reason leads it, to God and +eternity." + +Against the first kind of argument, as formulated by Moses Mendelssohn, +Kant advances the objection that, although we may deny the soul +extensive quantity, division into parts, yet we cannot refuse to it +intensive quantity, degrees of reality; and consequently its existence +may be terminated not by decomposition, but by gradual diminution of its +powers (or to use the term he coined for the purpose, by +_elanguescence_). This denial of any reasonable ground for belief in +immortality in the _Critique of Pure Reason_ (_Transcendental +Dialectic_, bk. ii. ch. i.) is, however, not his last word on the +subject. In the _Critique of the Practical Reason_ (_Dialectic_, ch. i. +sec. iv) the immortality of the soul is shown to be a postulate. +_Holiness_, "the perfect accordance of the will with the moral law," +demands an _endless progress_; and "this endless progress is only +possible on the supposition of an _endless_ duration of the _existence_ +and _personality_ of the same rational being (which is called the +immortality of the soul)." Not demonstrable as a theoretical +proposition, the immortality of the soul "is an inseparable result of an +unconditional a priori practical law." The moral interest, which is so +decisive on this question in the case of Kant, dominates Bishop Butler +also. A future life for him is important, because our happiness in it +may depend on our present conduct; and therefore our action here should +take into account the reward or punishment that it may bring on us +hereafter. As he maintains that probability may and ought to be our +guide in life, he is content with proving in the first chapter of the +_Analogy_ that "a future life is probable from similar changes (as +death) already undergone in ourselves and in others, and from our +present powers, which are likely to _continue_ unless death destroy +them." While we may fear this, "there is no proof that it will, either +from the nature of death," of the effect of which on our powers we are +altogether ignorant, "or from the analogy of nature, which shows only +that the _sensible proof_ of our powers (not the powers themselves) may +be destroyed." The imagination that death will destroy these powers is +unfounded, because (1) "this supposes we are compounded, and so +discerptible, but the contrary is probable" on _metaphysical_ grounds +(the indivisibility of the subject in which consciousness as indivisible +inheres, and its distinction from the body) and also _experimental_ (the +persistence of the living being in spite of changes in the body or even +losses of parts of the body); (2) this also assumes that "our present +living powers of reflection" must be affected in the same way by death +"as those of sensation," but this is disproved by their relative +independence even in this life; (3) "even the suspension of our present +powers of reflection" is not involved in "the idea of death, which is +simply dissolution of the body," and which may even "be like birth, a +continuation and perfecting of our powers." "Even if suspension were +involved, we cannot infer destruction from it" (analysis of chapter i. +in Angus's edition). He recognizes that "reason did, as it well might, +conclude that it should finally, and upon the whole, be well with the +righteous and ill with the wicked," but only "revelation teaches us that +the next state of things after the present is appointed for the +execution of this justice" (ch. ii. note 10). He does not use this +general anticipation of future judgment, as he might have done, as a +positive argument for immortality. + +Adam Ferguson (_Institutes of Moral Philosophy_, p. 119, new ed., 1800) +argues that "the desire for immortality is an instinct, and can +reasonably be regarded as an indication of that which the author of this +desire wills to do." From the standpoint of modern science John Fiske +confirms the validity of such an argument; for what he affirms in regard +to belief in the divine is equally applicable to this belief in a future +life. "If the relation thus established in the morning twilight of man's +existence between the human soul and a world invisible and immaterial is +a relation of which only the subjective term is real and the objective +term is non-existent; then I say it is something utterly without +precedent in the whole history of creation" (_Through Nature to God_, +1899, p. 188, 189). Whatever may have been Hegel's own belief in regard +to personal immortality, the logical issue of his absolute idealism has +been well stated by W. Windelband (_History of Philosophy_, p. 633). "It +became clear that in the system of perpetual Becoming and of the +dialectical passing over of all forms into one another, the finite +personality could scarcely raise a plausible claim to the character of a +substance and to immortality in the religious sense." F. D. +Schleiermacher applies the phrase "the immortality of religion" to the +religious emotion of oneness, amid finitude, with the infinite and, amid +time, with the eternal; denies any necessary connexion between the +belief in the continuance of personal existence and the consciousness of +God; and rests his faith on immortality altogether on Christ's promise +of living fellowship with His followers, as presupposing their as well +as His personal immortality. A. Schopenhauer assigns immortality to the +universal will to live; and Feuerbach declares spirit, consciousness +eternal, but not any individual subject. R. H. Lotze for the decision of +the question lays down the broad principle, "All that has once come to +be will eternally continue so soon as for the organic unity of the world +it has an unchangeable value, but it will obviously again cease to be, +when that is not the case" (_Gr. der Psy._ p. 74). + +Objections to the belief in immortality have been advanced from the +standpoints of materialism, naturalism, pessimism and pantheism. +_Materialism_ argues that, as life depends on a material organism, +thought is a function of the brain, and the soul is but the sum of +mental states, to which, according to the theory of psychophysical +parallelism, physical changes always correspond; therefore, the +dissolution of the body carries with it necessarily the cessation of +consciousness. That, as now constituted, mind does depend on brain, life +on body, must be conceded, but that this dependence is so absolute that +the function must cease with the organ has not been scientifically +demonstrated; the connexion of the soul with the body is as yet too +obscure to justify any such dogmatism. But against this inference the +following considerations may be advanced: (1) Man does distinguish +himself from his body; (2) he is conscious of his personal identity, +through all the changes of his body; (3) in the exercise of his will he +knows himself not controlled by but controlling his body; (4) his +consciousness warrants his denying the absolute identification of +himself and his body. It may further be added that materialism can be +shown to be an inadequate philosophy in its attempts to account even for +the physical universe, for this is inexplicable without the assumption +of mind distinct from, and directive of, matter. The theory of +psychophysical parallelism has been subjected to a rigorous examination +in James Ward's _Naturalism and Agnosticism_, part iii., in which the +argument that mind cannot be derived from matter is convincingly +presented. Sir Oliver Lodge in his reply to E. Haeckel's _Riddle of the +Universe_ maintains that "life may be something not only +ultra-terrestrial, but even immaterial, something outside our present +categories of matter and energy; as real as they are, but different, and +utilizing them for its own purpose" (_Life and Matter_, 1906, p. 198). +He rejects the attempt to explain human personality as "generated by +the material molecular aggregate of its own unaided latent power," and +affirms that the "universe where the human spirit is more at home than +it is among these temporary collocations of matter" is "a universe +capable of infinite development, of noble contemplation, and of lofty +joy, long after this planet--nay the whole solar system--shall have +fulfilled its present spire of destiny, and retired cold and lifeless +upon its endless way" (pp. 199-200). + +In his lecture on _Human Immortality_ (3rd ed., 1906), Professor William +James deals with "two supposed objections to the doctrine." The first is +"the law that thought is a function of the brain." Accepting the law he +distinguishes _productive_ from _permissive_ or _transmissive_ function +(p. 32), and, rejecting the view that brain produces thought, he +recognizes that in our present condition brain transmits thought, +thought needs brain for its organ of expression; but this does not +exclude the possibility of a condition in which thought will be no +longer so dependent on brain. He quotes (p. 57) with approval Kant's +words, "The death of the body may indeed be the end of the sensational +use of our mind, but only the beginning of the intellectual use. The +body would thus be not the cause of our thinking, but merely a condition +restrictive thereof, and, although essential to our sensuous and animal +consciousness, it may be regarded as an impeder of our pure spiritual +life" (_Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, 2nd ed., p. 809). + +Further arguments in the same direction are derived from the modern +school of psychical research (see especially F. W. H. Myers' _Human +Personality_, 1903). + +Another objection is advanced from the standpoint of _naturalism_, +which, whether it issues in materialism or not, seeks to explain man as +but a product of the process of nature. The universe is so immeasurably +vast in extension and duration, and man is so small, his home but a +speck in space, and his history a span in time that it seems an arrogant +assumption for him to claim exemption from the universal law of +evolution and dissolution. This view ignores that man has ideals of +absolute value, truth, beauty, goodness, that he consciously communes +with the God who is in all, and through all, and over all, that it is +his mind which recognizes the vastness of the universe and thinks its +universal law, and that the mind which perceives and conceives cannot be +less, but must be greater than the object of its knowledge and thought. + +_Pessimism_ suggests a third objection. The present life is so little +worth living that its continuance is not to be desired. James Thomson +("B.V.") speaks "of the restful rapture of the inviolate grave," and +sings the praises of _death_ and of _oblivion_. We cannot admit that the +history of mankind justifies his conclusion; for the great majority of +men life is a good, and its continuance an object of hope. + +For pantheism personal immortality appears a lesser good than +reabsorption in the universal life; but against this objection we may +confidently maintain that worthier of God and more blessed for man is +the hope of a conscious communion in an eternal life of the Father of +all with His whole family. + +Lastly positivism teaches a corporate instead of an individual +immortality; man should desire to live on as a beneficent influence in +the race. This conception is expressed in George Eliot's lines: + + "O, may I join the choir invisible + Of those immortal dead who live again + In minds made better by their presence: live + In pulses stirred to generosity, + In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn + For miserable aims that end with self, + In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars, + And with their mild persistence urge man's search + To vaster issues." + +But these possibilities are not mutually exclusive alternatives. A man +may live on in the world by his teaching and example as a power for +good, a factor of human progress, and he may also be continuing and +completing his course under conditions still more favourable to all most +worthy in him. Consciously to participate as a person in the progress of +the race is surely a worthier hope than unconsciously to contribute to +it as an influence; ultimately to share the triumph as well as the +struggle is a more inspiring anticipation. + +In stating constructively the doctrine of immortality we must assign +altogether secondary importance to the metaphysical arguments from the +nature of the soul. It is sufficient to show, as has already been done, +that the soul is not so absolutely dependent on the body, that the +dissolution of the one must necessarily involve the cessation of the +other. Such arguments as the indivisibility of the soul and its +persistence can at most indicate the _possibility_ of immortality. + +The _juridical argument_ has some force; the present life does not show +that harmony of condition and character which our sense of justice leads +us to expect; the wicked prosper and the righteous suffer; there is +ground for the expectation that in the future life the anomalies of this +life will be corrected. Although this argument has the support of such +great names as Butler and Kant, yet it will repel many minds as an +appeal to the motive of self-interest. + +The _ethical argument_ has greater value. Man's life here is incomplete, +and the more lofty his aims, the more worthy his labours, the more +incomplete will it appear to be. The man who lives for fame, wealth, +power, may be satisfied in this life; but he who lives for the ideals of +truth, beauty, goodness, lives not for time but for eternity, for his +ideals cannot be realized, and so his life fulfilled on this side of the +grave. Unless these ideals are mocking visions, man has a right to +expect the continuance of his life for its completion. This is the line +of argument developed by Professor Hugo Münsterberg in his lecture on +_The Eternal Life_ (1905), although he states it in the terms peculiar +to his psychology, in which personality is conceived as primarily will. +"No endless duration is our goal, but complete repose in the perfect +satisfaction which the will finds when it has reached the significance, +the influence, and the value at which it is aiming" (p. 83). + +More general in its appeal still is the argument from the _affections_, +which has been beautifully developed in Tennyson's _In Memoriam_. The +heart protests against the severance of death, and claims the +continuance of love's communion after death; and as man feels that love +is what is most godlike in his nature, love's claim has supreme +authority. + +There is a _religious argument_ for immortality. The saints of the +Hebrew nation were sure that as God had entered into fellowship with +them, death could not sever them from his presence. This is the argument +in Psalms xvi. and xvii., if, as is probable, the closing verses do +express the hope of a glorious and blessed immortality. This too is the +proof Jesus himself offers when he declares God to be the God of the +living and not of the dead (Matt. xxii. 32). God's companions cannot +become death's victims. + +Josiah Royce in his lecture on _The Conception of Immortality_ (1900) +combines this argument of the soul's union with God with the argument of +the incompleteness of man's life here:-- + + "Just because God is One, all our lives have various and unique places + in the harmony of the divine life. And just because God attains and + wins and finds this uniqueness, all our lives win in our union with + Him the individuality which is essential to their true meaning. And + just because individuals whose lives have uniqueness of meaning are + here only objects of pursuit, the attainment of this very + individuality, since it is indeed real, occurs not in our present form + of consciousness, but in a life that now we see not, yet in a life + whose genuine meaning is continuous with our own human life, however + far from our present flickering form of disappointed human + consciousness that life of the final individuality may be. Of this our + true individual life, our present life is a glimpse, a fragment, a + hint, and in its best moments a visible beginning. That this + individual life of all of us is not something limited in its temporal + expression to the life that now we experience, follows from the very + fact that here nothing final or individual is found expressed" (pp. + 144-146). + +R. W. Emerson declares that "the impulse to seek proof of immortality is +itself the strongest proof of all." We expect immortality not merely +because we desire it; but because the desire itself arises from all that +is best and truest and worthiest in ourselves. The desire is reasonable, +moral, social, religious; it has the same worth as the loftiest ideals, +and worthiest aspirations of the soul of man. The loss of the belief +casts a dark shadow over the present life. "No sooner do we try to get +rid of the idea of Immortality--than Pessimism raises its head.... Human +griefs seem little worth assuaging; human happiness too paltry (at the +best) to be worth increasing. The whole moral world is reduced to a +point. Good and evil, right and wrong, become infinitesimal, ephemeral +matters. The affections die away--die of their own conscious feebleness +and uselessness. A moral paralysis creeps over us" (_Natural Religion_, +Postscript). The belief exercises a potent moral influence. "The day," +says Ernest Renan, "in which the belief in an after-life shall vanish +from the earth will witness a terrific moral and spiritual decadence. +Some of us perhaps might do without it, provided only that others held +it fast. But there is no lever capable of raising an entire people if +once they have lost their faith in the immortality of the soul" (quoted +by A. W. Momerie, _Immortality_, p. 9). To this belief, many and good as +are the arguments which can be advanced for it, a confident certainty is +given by Christian faith in the Risen Lord, and the life and immortality +which he has brought to light in his Gospel. + + In addition to the works referred to above, see R. K. Gaye, _The + Platonic Conception of Immortality and its Connexion with the Theory + of Ideas_ (1904); R. H. Charles, _A Critical History of the Doctrine + of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism and in Christianity_ (1899); E. + Pétavel, _The Problem of Immortality_ (Eng. trans. by F. A. Freer, + 1892); J. Fiske, _The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his + Origin_ (1884); G. A. Gordon, _Immortality and the New Theodicy_ + (1897); Henry Buckle, _The After Life_ (1907). (A. E. G.*) + + + + +IMMUNITY (from Lat. _immunis_, not subject to a _munus_ or public +service), a general term for exemption from liability, principally used +in the legal sense discussed below, but also in recent times in +pathology (for which see BACTERIOLOGY). In international law the term +("not serving," "not subject") implies exemption from the jurisdiction +of the state which otherwise exercises jurisdiction where the immunity +arises. It is thus applied to the exceptional position granted to +sovereigns and chiefs of states generally, and their direct +representatives in the states to which they are accredited. + +Under EXTERRITORIALITY is treated the inviolability of embassies and +legations and the application of the material side of the doctrine of +immunity. As a right appertaining to the persons of those who enjoy it, +the doctrine has grown out of the necessity for sovereigns of respecting +each other's persons in their common interest. To be able to negotiate +without danger of arrest or interference of any kind with their persons +was the only condition upon which sovereigns would have been able to +meet and discuss their joint interests. With the development of states +as independent entities and of intercourse between them and their +"nationals," the work of diplomatic missions increased to such an extent +that instead of having merely occasional ambassadors as at the +beginning, states found it expedient to have resident representatives +with a permanent residence. Hence the sovereign's inviolability becomes +vested in the person of the sovereign's delegate, and with it as a +necessary corollary the exterritoriality of his residence. Out of the +further expansion of the work of diplomatic missions came duplication of +the _personnel_ and classes of diplomatic secretaries, who as forming +part of the embassy or legation also had to be covered by the diplomatic +immunity. + +In no branch of international intercourse have states shown so laudable +a respect for tradition as in the case of this immunity, and this in +spite of the hardship which frequently arises for private citizens +through unavoidable dealings with members of embassies and legations. +The Institute of International Law (see PEACE) at their Cambridge +session in 1895 drew up the following rules,[1] which may be taken to be +the only precise statement of theory on the subject, for the guidance of +foreign offices in dealing with it:-- + + ART. 1.--Public ministers are inviolable. They also enjoy + "exterritoriality," in the sense and to the extent hereinafter + mentioned and a certain number of immunities. + + ART. 2.--The privilege of inviolability extends: (1) To all classes + of public ministers who regularly represent their sovereign or their + country; (2) To all persons forming part of the official staff of a + diplomatic mission; (3) To all persons forming part of its + non-official staff, under reserve, that if they belong to the country + where the mission resides they only enjoy it within the official + residence. + + ART. 3.--The government to which the minister is accredited must + abstain from all offence, insult or violence against the persons + entitled to the privilege, must set an example in the respect which is + due to them and protect them by specially rigorous penalties from all + offence, insult or violence on the part of the inhabitants of the + country, so that they may devote themselves to their duties in perfect + freedom. + + ART. 4.--Immunity applies to everything necessary for the fulfilment + by ministers of their duties, especially to personal effects, papers, + archives and correspondence. + + ART. 5.--It lasts during the whole time which the minister or + diplomatic official spends, in his official capacity, in the country + to which he has been sent. + + It continues even in time of war between the two powers during the + period necessary to enable the minister to leave the country with his + staff and effects. + + ART. 6.--Inviolability cannot be claimed: (1) In case of legitimate + defence on the part of private persons against acts committed by the + persons who enjoy the privilege; (2) In case of risks incurred by any + of the persons in question voluntarily or needlessly; (3) In case of + improper acts committed by them, provoking on the part of the state to + which the minister is accredited measures of defence or precaution; + but, except in a case of extreme urgency, this state should confine + itself to reporting the facts to the minister's government, requesting + the punishment or the recall of the guilty agent and, if necessary, to + surrounding the official residence to prevent unlawful communications + or manifestations. + + _Immunity with Respect to Taxes._ + + ART. 11.--A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries + officially attached to his mission and the members of their families + residing with them, are exempt from paying: (1) Personal direct taxes + and sumptuary taxes; (2) General taxes on property, whether on capital + or income; (3) War contributions; (4) Customs duties in respect of + articles for their personal use. + + Each government shall indicate the grounds (_justifications_) to which + these exemptions from taxation shall be subordinated. + + _Immunity from Jurisdiction._ + + ART. 12.--A public minister in a foreign country, functionaries + officially attached to his mission and the members of their families + residing with them, are exempt from all jurisdiction, civil or + criminal, of the state to which they are accredited; in principle, + they are only subject to the civil and criminal jurisdiction of their + own country. A claimant may apply to the courts of the capital of the + country of the minister, subject to the right of the minister to prove + that he has a different domicile in his country. + + ART. 13.--With respect to crimes, persons indicated in the preceding + article remain subject to the penal laws of their own country, as if + they had committed the acts in their own country. + + ART. 14.--The immunity attaches to the function in respect of acts + connected with the function. As regards acts done not in connexion + with the function, immunity can only be claimed so long as the + function lasts. + + ART. 15.--Persons of the nationality of the country to the government + of which they are accredited cannot claim the privilege of immunity. + + ART. 16.--Immunity from jurisdiction cannot be invoked: (1) In case of + proceedings taken by reason of engagements entered into by the exempt + person, not in his official or private capacity, but in the exercise + of a profession carried on by him in the country concurrently with his + diplomatic functions; (2) In respect of real actions, including + possessory actions, relating to anything movable or immovable in the + country. + + It exists even in case of a breach of the law which may endanger + public order or safety, or of crime against the safety of the state, + without prejudice to such steps as the territorial government may take + for its own protection. + + ART. 17.--Persons entitled to immunity from jurisdiction may refuse to + appear as witnesses before a territorial court on condition that, if + required by diplomatic intervention, they shall give their testimony + in the official residence to a magistrate of the country appointed for + the purpose. + +Further questions connected with Immunity and Exterritoriality (q.v.) +arise out of the different industrial enterprises undertaken by states, +such as posts, telegraphs, telephones, railways, steamships, &c., which +require regulation to prevent conflicts of interest between the state +owners and the private interests involved in these enterprises. + (T. Ba.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The rules were drawn up in French. The author of this article is + responsible for the translation of them. + + + + +IMOLA (anc. _Forum Cornelii_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, +Italy, in the province of Bologna, from which it is 21 m. S.E. by rail, +140 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,058 (town); 33,144 (commune). +The cathedral of S. Cassiano has been modernized; it possesses +interesting reliquaries, and contains the tomb of Petrus Chrysologus, +archbishop of Ravenna (d. 451), a native of Imola. S. Domenico has a +fine Gothic portal and S. Maria in Regola an old campanile. The town +also contains some fine palaces. The communal library has some MSS., +including a psalter with miniatures, that once belonged to Sir Thomas +More. The citadel is square with round towers at the angles; it dates +from 1304, and is now used as a prison. Imola has a large lunatic asylum +with over 1200 inmates. Innocenzo Francucci (Innocenzo da Imola), a +painter of the Bolognese school (1494-1549), was a native of Imola, and +two of his works are preserved in the Palazzo del Comune. The Madonna +del Piratello, 2 m. outside the town to the N.W., is in the early +Renaissance style (1488); the campanile was probably built from +Bramante's plans in 1506. + +The ancient Forum Cornelii, a station on the Via Aemilia, is said by +Prudentius, writing in the 5th century A.D., to have been founded by +Sulla; but the fact that it belonged to the _Tribus Pollia_ shows that +it already possessed Roman citizenship before the Social war. In later +times we hear little of it; Martial published his third book of epigrams +while he was there. In the Lombard period the name Imolas begins to +appear. In 1480, after a chequered history, the town came into the +possession of Girolamo Riario, lord of Forli, as the dowry of his wife +Caterina Sforza, and was incorporated with the States of the Church by +Caesar Borgia in 1500. + + + + +IMP (O. Eng. _impa_, a graft, shoot; the verb _impian_ is cognate with +Ger. _impfen_, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. _enter_; the ultimate +origin is probably the Gr. [Greek: emphyein], to implant, cf. [Greek: +emphytos], engrafted), originally a slip or shoot of a plant or tree +used for grafting. This use is seen in Chaucer (_Prologue to the Monk's +Tale_, 68) "Of fieble trees ther comen wrecched ympes." The verb "to +imp" in the sense of "to graft" was especially used of the grafting of +feathers on to the wing of a falcon or hawk to replace broken or damaged +plumage, and is frequently used metaphorically. Like "scion," "imp" was +till the 17th century used of a member of a family, especially of high +rank, hence often used as equivalent to "child." The _New English +Dictionary_ quotes an epitaph (1584) in the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick, +"Heere resteth the body of the noble Impe Robert of Dudley ... sonne of +Robert Erle of Leycester." The current use of the word for a small devil +or mischievous sprite is due to the expressions "imp of Satan, or of the +devil or of hell," in the sense of "child of evil." It was thus +particularly applied to the demons supposed to be the "familiar" spirits +of witches. + + + + +IMPATIENS, in botany, a genus of annual or biennial herbs, sometimes +becoming shrubby, chiefly natives of the mountains of tropical Asia and +Africa, but also found widely distributed in the north temperate zone +and in South Africa. The flowers, which are purple, yellow, pink or +white and often showy, are spurred and irregular in form and borne in +the leaf-axils. The name is derived from the fact that the seed-pod when +ripe discharges the seeds by the elastic separation and coiling of the +valves. _Impatiens Noli-me-tangere,_ touch-me-not, an annual succulent +herb with yellow flowers, is probably wild in moist mountainous +districts in north Wales, Lancashire and Westmorland. _I. Roylei,_ a +tall hardy succulent annual with rose-purple flowers, a Himalayan +species, is common in England as a self-sown garden plant or garden +escape. _I. Balsamina,_ the common balsam of gardens, a well-known +annual, is a native of India; it is one of the showiest of summer and +autumn flowers and of comparatively easy cultivation. _I. Sultani,_ a +handsome plant, with scarlet flowers, a native of Zanzibar, is easily +grown in a greenhouse throughout the summer, but requires warmth in +winter. + + + + +IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. _empechement, empeschement,_ from _empecher_ or +_empescher,_ to hinder, Late Lat. _impedicare,_ to entangle, _pedica,_ +fetter, _pes_, foot), the English form of judicial parliamentary +procedure against criminals, in which the House of Commons are the +prosecutors and the House of Lords the judges. It differs from bills of +attainder (q.v.) in being strictly judicial. When the House of Commons +has accepted a motion for impeachment, the mover is ordered to proceed +to the bar of the House of Lords, and there impeach the accused "in the +name of the House of Commons, and of all the Commons of the United +Kingdom." The charges are formulated in articles, to each of which the +accused may deliver a written answer. The prosecution must confine +itself to the charges contained in the articles, though further articles +may be adhibited from time to time. The Commons appoint managers to +conduct the prosecution, but the whole House in committee attends the +trial. The defendant may appear by counsel. The president of the House +of Lords is the lord high steward, in the case of peers impeached for +high treason; in other cases the lord chancellor. The hearing takes +place as in an ordinary trial, the defence being allowed to call +witnesses if necessary, and the prosecution having a right of reply. At +the end of the case the president "puts to each peer, beginning with the +junior baron, the questions upon the first article, whether the accused +be guilty of the crimes charged therein. Each peer in succession rises +in his place when the question is put, and standing uncovered, and +laying his right hand upon his breast, answers, 'Guilty' or 'Not +guilty,' as the case may be, 'upon my honour.' Each article is proceeded +with separately in the same manner, the lord high steward giving his own +opinion the last" (May's _Parliamentary Practice,_ c. xxiii.). Should +the accused be found guilty, judgment follows if the Commons move for +it, but not otherwise. The Commons thus retain the power of pardon in +their own hands, and this right they have in several cases expressly +claimed by resolution, declaring that it is not parliamentary for their +lordships to give judgment "until the same be first demanded by this +House." Spiritual peers occupy an anomalous position in the trial of +peers, as not being themselves ennobled in blood; on the impeachment of +Danby it was declared by the Lords that Spiritual peers have the right +to stay and sit during proceedings for impeachment, but it is customary +for them to withdraw before judgment is given, entering a protest +"saving to themselves and their successors all such rights in judicature +as they have by law, and by right ought to have." An impeachment, unlike +other parliamentary proceedings, is not interrupted by prorogation, nor +even by dissolution. Proceedings in the House of Commons preliminary to +an impeachment are subject to the ordinary rules, and in the Warren +Hastings case an act was passed to prevent the preliminary proceedings +from discontinuance by prorogation and dissolution. A royal pardon +cannot be pleaded in bar of an impeachment, though it is within the +royal prerogative to pardon after the lords have pronounced judgment. +The point was raised in the case of the earl of Danby in 1679, and the +rule was finally settled by the Act of Settlement. Persons found guilty +on impeachment may be reprieved or pardoned like other convicts. +Impeachment will lie against all kinds of crimes and misdemeanours, and +against offenders of all ranks. In the case of Simon de Beresford, tried +before the House of Lords in 1330, the House declared "that the judgment +be not drawn into example or consequence in time to come, whereby the +said peers may be charged hereafter to judge others than their peers," +from which Blackstone and others have inferred that "a commoner cannot +be impeached before the Lords for any capital offence, but only for high +misdemeanours." In the case of Edward Fitzharris in 1681, the House of +Commons in answer to a resolution of the Lords suspending the +impeachment, declared it to be their undoubted right "to impeach any +peer or commoner for treason or any other crime or misdemeanour." And +the House of Lords has in practice recognized the right of the Commons +to impeach whomsoever they will. The procedure has, however, been +reserved for great political offenders whom the ordinary powers of the +law might fail to reach. It has now fallen into desuetude. The last +impeachments were those of Warren Hastings (1788-1795) and Lord Melville +(1806), but an unsuccessful attempt was made by Thomas C. Anstey to +impeach Lord Palmerston in 1848. The earliest recorded instances of +impeachment are those of Lord Latimer in 1376 and of Pole, earl of +Suffolk, in 1386. From the time of Edward IV. to Elizabeth it fell into +disuse, "partly," says Hallam, "from the loss of that control which the +Commons had obtained under Richard II. and the Lancastrian kings, and +partly from the preference the Tudor princes had given to bills of +attainder or pains and penalties when they wished to turn the arm of +parliament against an obnoxious subject." Revived in the reign of James +I., it became an instrument of parliamentary resistance to the crown, +and it was not unfrequently resorted to in the first three reigns after +the Revolution. + +In the United States the procedure of impeachment both in the national +and in almost all of the state governments is very similar to that +described above. The national constitution prescribes that the House of +Representatives "shall have the sole power of impeachment" and that "the +Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments." The House +appoints managers to conduct the prosecution at the bar of the Senate, +and the vote of the Senate is taken by putting the question separately +to each member, who, during the trial, must be on oath or affirmation. +In ordinary cases the president or president _pro tempore_ of the Senate +presides, but when the president of the United States is on trial the +presiding officer must be the chief justice of the United States Supreme +Court. A two-thirds vote is necessary for conviction. The president, +vice-president or any civil officer of the United States may be +impeached for "treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanours," +and if convicted, is removed from office and may be disqualified for +holding any office under the government in future. The officer after +removal is also "liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and +punishment, according to law." The term "civil officers of the United +States" has been construed as being inapplicable to members of the +Senate and the House of Representatives. The president's pardoning power +does not extend to officers convicted, on impeachment, of offences +against the United States. Since the organization of the Federal +government there have been only eight impeachment trials before the +United States Senate, and of these only two--the trials of Judge John +Pickering, a Federal District judge for the District of New Hampshire, +in 1803, on a charge of making decisions contrary to law and of +drunkenness and profanity on the bench, and of Judge W. H. Humphreys, +Judge of the Federal District Court of Tennessee, in 1863, on a charge +of making a secession speech and of accepting a judicial position under +the Confederate Government--resulted in convictions. The two most famous +cases are those of Justice Samuel Chase of the United States Supreme +Court in 1805, and of President Andrew Johnson, the only chief of the +executive who has been impeached, in 1868. There is a conflict of +opinion with regard to the power of the House to impeach a Federal +officer who has resigned his office, and also with regard to the kind of +offences for which an officer can be impeached, some authorities +maintaining that only indictable offences warrant impeachment, and +others that impeachment is warranted by any act highly prejudicial to +the public welfare or subversive of any essential principle of +government. The latter view was adopted by the House of Representatives +when it impeached President Johnson. + + + + +IMPERIAL CHAMBER (_Reichskammergericht_), the supreme judicial court of +the Holy Roman Empire, during the period between 1495 and the +dissolution of the Empire in 1806. From the early middle ages there had +been a supreme court of justice for the Empire--the _Hofgericht_ (or +_curia imperatoris_, as it were), in which the emperor himself presided. +By his side sat a body of assessors (_Urtheilsfinder_), who must be at +least seven in number, and who might, in solemn cases, be far more +numerous,[1] the assessors who acted varying from time to time and from +case to case. The Hofgericht was connected with the person of the +emperor; it ceased to act when he was abroad; it died with his death. +Upon him it depended for its efficiency; and when, in the 15th century, +the emperor ceased to command respect, his court lost the confidence of +his subjects. The dreary reign of Frederick III. administered its +deathblow and after 1450 it ceased to sit. Its place was taken by the +_Kammergericht_, which appeared side by side with the Hofgericht from +1415, and after 1450 replaced it altogether. The king (or his deputy) +still presided in the Kammergericht and it was still his personal court; +but the members of the court were now officials--the _consiliarii_ of +the imperial _aula_ (or _Kammer_, whence the name of the court). It was +generally the legal members of the council who sat in the Kammergericht +(see under AULIC COUNCIL); and as they were generally doctors of civil +law, the court which they composed tended to act according to that law, +and thus contributed to the "Reception" of Roman law into Germany +towards the end of the 15th century. The old Hofgericht had been filled, +as it were, by amateurs (provided they knew some law, and were peers of +the person under trial), and it had acted by old customary law; the +Kammergericht, on the contrary, was composed of lawyers, and it acted by +the written law of Rome. Even the Kammergericht, however, fell into +disuse in the later years of the reign of Frederick III.; and the +creation of a new and efficient court became a matter of pressing +necessity, and was one of the most urgent of the reforms which were +mooted in the reign of Maximilian I. + +This new court was eventually created in 1495; and it bore the name of +_Reichskammergericht_, or Imperial Chamber. It was distinguished from +the old Kammergericht by the essential fact that it was not the personal +court of the emperor, but the official court of the Empire (or +_Reich_--whence its name). This change was a natural result of the +peculiar character of the movement of reform which was at this time +attempted by the electors, under the guidance of Bertold, elector of +Mainz. Their aim was to substitute for the old and personal council and +court appointed and controlled by the emperor a new and official +council, and a new and official court, appointed and controlled by the +diet (or rather, in the ultimate resort, by the electors). The members +of the Imperial Chamber, which was created by the diet in 1495 in order +to serve as such a court,[2] were therefore the agents of the Empire, +and not of the emperor. The emperor appointed the president; the Empire +nominated the assessors, or judges.[3] There were originally sixteen +assessors (afterwards, as a rule, eighteen): half of these were to be +doctors of Roman law, while half were to be knights; but after 1555 it +became necessary that the latter should be learned in Roman law, even if +they had not actually taken their doctorate. + +Thus the Empire at last was possessed of a court, a court resting on the +enactment of the diet, and not on the emperor's will; a court paid by +the Empire, and not by the emperor; a court resident in a fixed place +(until 1693, Spires, and afterwards, from 1693 to 1806, Wetzlar), and +not attached to the emperor's person. The original intention of the +court was that it should repress private war (_Fehde_), and maintain the +public peace (_Landfriede_). The great result which in the issue it +served to achieve was the final "Reception" of Roman law as the common +law of Germany. That the Imperial Chamber should itself administer Roman +law was an inevitable result of its composition; and it was equally +inevitable that the composition and procedure of the supreme imperial +court should be imitated in the various states which composed the +Empire, and that Roman law should thus become the local, as it was +already the central, law of the land. + +The province of the Imperial Chamber, as it came to be gradually defined +by statute and use, extended to breaches of the public peace, cases of +arbitrary distraint or imprisonment, pleas which concerned the treasury, +violations of the emperor's decrees or the laws passed by the diet, +disputes about property between immediate tenants of the Empire or the +subjects of different rulers, and finally suits against immediate +tenants of the Empire (with the exception of criminal charges and +matters relating to imperial fiefs, which went to the Aulic Council). It +had also cognizance in cases of refusal to do justice; and it acted as +a court of appeal from territorial courts in civil and, to a small +extent, in criminal cases, though it lost its competence as a court of +appeal in all territories which enjoyed a _privilegium de non +appellando_ (such as, e.g. the territories of the electors). The +business of the court was, however, badly done; the delay was +interminable, thanks, in large measure, to the want of funds, which +prevented the maintenance of the proper number of judges. In all its +business it suffered from the competition of the Aulic Council (q.v.); +for that body, having lost all executive competence after the 16th +century, had also devoted itself exclusively to judicial work. Composed +of the personal advisers of the emperor, the Aulic Council did justice +on his behalf (the erection of a court to do justice for the Empire +having left the emperor still possessed of the right to do justice for +himself through his _consiliarii_); and it may thus be said to be the +descendant of the old Kammergericht. The competition between the Aulic +Council and the Imperial Chamber was finally regulated by the treaty of +Westphalia, which laid it down that the court which first dealt with a +case should alone have competence to pursue it. + + See R. Schröder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, + 1904); J. N. Harpprecht, _Staatsarchiv des Reichskammergerichts_ + (1757-1785); and G. Stobbe, _Reichshofgericht und Reichskammergericht_ + (Leipzig, 1878). (E. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For instance, all the members of the diet might serve as + Urtheilsfinder in a case like the condemnation of Henry the Lion, + duke of Saxony, in the 12th century. + + [2] The attempt to create a new and official council ultimately + failed. + + [3] More exactly, the emperor nominates, according to the regular + usage of later times, a certain number of members, partly as emperor, + and partly as the sovereign of his hereditary estates; while the + rest, who form the majority, are nominated partly by the electors and + partly by the six ancient circles. + + + + +IMPERIAL CITIES OR TOWNS, the usual English translation of +_Reichsstädte_, an expression of frequent occurrence in German history. +These were cities and towns subject to no authority except that of the +emperor, or German king, in other words they were immediate; the +earliest of them stood on the demesne land of their sovereign, and they +often grew up around his palaces. A distinction was thus made between a +_Reichsstadt_ and a _Landstadt_, the latter being dependent upon some +prince, not upon the emperor direct. The term _Freie Reichsstadt_, which +is sometimes used in the same sense as _Reichsstadt_, is rightly only +applicable to seven cities, Basel, Strassburg, Spires, Worms, Mainz, +Cologne and Regensburg. Having freed themselves from the domination of +their ecclesiastical lords these called themselves _Freistädte_ and in +practice their position was indistinguishable from that of the +_Reichsstädte_. + +In the middle ages many other places won the coveted position of a +_Reichsstadt_. Some gained it by gift and others by purchase; some won +it by force of arms, others usurped it during times of anarchy, while a +number secured it through the extinction of dominant families, like the +Hohenstaufen. There were many more free towns in southern than in +northern Germany, but their number was continually fluctuating, for +their liberties were lost much more quickly than they were gained. Mainz +was conquered and subjected to the archbishop in 1462. Some free towns +fell into the hands of various princes of the Empire and others placed +themselves voluntarily under such protection. Some, like Donauwörth in +1607, were deprived of their privileges by the emperor on account of +real, or supposed, offences, while others were separated from the Empire +by conquest. In 1648 Besançon passed into the possession of Spain, Basel +had already thrown in its lot with the Swiss confederation, while +Strassburg, Colmar, Hagenau and others were seized by Louis XIV. + +Meanwhile the free towns had been winning valuable privileges in +addition to those which they already possessed, and the wealthier among +them, like Lübeck and Augsburg, were practically _imperia in imperio_, +waging war and making peace, and ruling their people without any outside +interference. But they had also learned that union is strength. They +formed alliances among themselves, both for offence and for defence, and +these _Städtebünde_ had an important influence on the course of German +history in the 14th and 15th centuries. These leagues were frequently at +war with the ecclesiastical and secular potentates of their district and +in general they were quite able to hold their own in these quarrels. The +right of the free towns to be represented in the imperial diet was +formally recognized in 1489, and about the same time they divided +themselves into two groups, or benches, the Rhenish and the Swabian. By +the peace of Westphalia in 1648 they were formally constituted as the +third college of the diet. A list drawn up in 1422 mentions 75 free +cities, another drawn up in 1521 mentions 84, but at the time of the +French Revolution the number had decreased to 51. At this time the +Rhenish free cities were: Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Lübeck, Worms, +Spires, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Goslar, Bremen, Hamburg, Mühlhausen, +Nordhausen, Dortmund, Friedberg and Wetzlar. The Swabian free cities +were: Regensburg, Augsburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, +Nördlingen, Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, Schwäbisch-Hall, Rottweil, +Ueberlingen, Heilbronn, Memmingen, Gmünd, Dinkelsbühl, Lindau, Biberach, +Ravensburg, Schweinfurt, Kempten, Windsheim, Kaufbeuern, Weil, Wangen, +Isny, Pfullendorf, Offenburg, Leutkirch, Wimpfen, Weissenburg, Giengen, +Gengenbach, Zell, Buchorn, Aalen, Buchau and Bopfingen. But a large +proportion of them had as little claim to their exceptional positions as +the pocket boroughs of Great Britain and Ireland had before the passing +of the Reform Bill of 1832. + +By the peace of Lunéville in 1801 Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Worms and +Spires were taken by France, and by the decision of the imperial +deputation of 1803 six cities only: Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, +Frankfort-on-Main and Nuremberg, were allowed to keep their +_Reichsfreiheit_, or in other words to hold directly of the Empire. This +number was soon further reduced. On the dissolution of the Empire in +1806 Augsburg and Nuremburg passed under the sovereignty of Bavaria, and +Frankfort was made the seat of a duchy for Karl Theodor von Dalberg, +elector and archbishop of Mainz, who was appointed prince primate of the +Confederation of the Rhine. When the German Confederation was +established in 1815 Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen and Frankfort were +recognized as free cities, and the first three hold that position in the +modern German empire; but Frankfort, in consequence of the part it took +in the war of 1866, lost its independence and was annexed by Prussia. + +In the earlier years of their existence the free cities were under the +jurisdiction of an imperial officer, who was called the _Reichsvogt_ or +imperial advocate, or sometimes the _Reichsschultheiss_ or imperial +procurator. As time went on many of the cities purchased the right of +filling these offices with their own nominees; and in several instances +the imperial authority fell practically into desuetude except when it +was stirred into action by peculiar circumstances. The internal +constitution of the free cities was organized after no common model, +although several of them had a constitution drawn up in imitation of +that of Cologne, which was one of the first to assert its independence. + + For the history of the free cities, see J. J. Moser, + _Reichsstädtisches Handbuch_ (Tübingen, 1732); D. Hänlein, + _Anmerkungen über die Geschichte der Reichsstädte_ (Ulm, 1775); A. + Wendt, _Beschreibung der kaiserlichen freien Reichsstädte_ (Leipzig, + 1804); G. W. Hugo, _Die Mediatisirung der deutschen Reichsstädte_ + (Carlsruhe, 1838); G. Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Kiel, + 1844 fol.); G. L. von Maurer, _Geschichte der Städteverfassung in + Deutschland_ (Erlangen, 1869-1871); W. Arnold, _Verfassungsgeschichte + der deutschen Freistädte_ (Gotha, 1854); P. Brülcke, _Die Entwickelung + der Reichsstandschaft der Städte_ (Hamburg, 1881); A. M. Ehrentraut, + _Untersuchungen über die Frage der Frei- und Reichsstädte_ (Leipzig, + 1902); and S. Rietschel, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der deutschen + Stadtverfassung_ (Leipzig, 1905). See also the article COMMUNE. + (A. W. H.*) + + + + +IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH (1732-1809), chief justice of Bengal, was born on the +13th of June 1732, and educated at Westminster with Warren Hastings, who +was his intimate friend throughout life. In 1773 he was appointed the +first chief justice of the new supreme court at Calcutta, and in 1775 +presided at the trial of Nuncomar (q.v.) for forgery, with which his +name has been chiefly connected in history. His impeachment was +unsuccessfully attempted in the House of Commons in 1787, and he is +accused by Macaulay of conspiring with Hastings to commit a judicial +murder; but the whole question of the trial of Nuncomar has been +examined in detail by Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, who states that "no +man ever had, or could have, a fairer trial than Nuncomar, and Impey in +particular behaved with absolute fairness and as much indulgence as was +compatible with his duty." + + See E. B. Impey, _Sir Elijah Impey_ (1846); and Sir James Stephen, + _The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir Elijah Impey_ + (1885). + + + + +IMPHAL, the capital of the state of Manipur (q.v.) in eastern Bengal and +Assam, on the north-east frontier of India, situated at the confluence +of three rivers. Pop. (1901) 67,903. It is really only a collection of +villages buried amid trees, with a clearing containing the palace of the +raja, the cantonments, and the houses of the few European residents. + + + + +IMPLEMENT (Lat. _implementum_, a filling up, from _implere_, to fill), +in ordinary usage, a tool, especially in the plural for the set of tools +necessary for a particular trade or for completing a particular piece of +work (see TOOLS). It is also the most general term applied to the +weapons and tools that remain of those used by primitive man. The Late +Lat. _implementum_, more usually in the plural, _implementa_, was used +for all the objects necessary to stock or "fill up" a house, farm, &c.; +it was thus applied to furniture of a house, the vestments and sacred +vessels of a church, and to articles of clothing, &c. The transition to +the necessary outfit of a trade, &c., is easy. In its original Latin +sense of "filling up," the term survives in Scots law, meaning full +performance or "fulfilment" of a contract, agreement, &c.; "to +implement" is thus also used in Scots law for to carry out, perform. + + + + +IMPLUVIUM, the Latin term for the sunk part of the floor in the atrium +of a Greek or Roman house, which was contrived to receive the water +passing through the compluvium (q.v.) of the roof. The impluvium was +generally in marble and sunk about a foot below the floor of the atrium. + + + + +IMPOSITION (from Lat. _imponere_, to place or lay upon), in +ecclesiastical usage, the "laying on" of hands by a bishop at the +services of confirmation and ordination as a sign that some special +spiritual gift is conferred, or that the recipient is set apart for some +special service or work. The word is also used of the levying of a +burdensome or unfair tax or duty, and of a penalty, and hence is applied +to a punishment task given to a schoolboy. From "impose" in the sense of +"to pass off" on some one, imposition means also a trick or deception. +In the printing trade the term is used of the arrangement of pages of +type in the "forme," being one of the stages between composing and +printing. + + + + +IMPOST (through the O. Fr. from Lat. _impositum_, a thing laid upon +another; the modern French is _impôt_), a tax or tribute, and +particularly a duty levied on imported or exported merchandise (see +TAXATION, CUSTOMS DUTIES, EXCISE, &c.). In architecture, "impost" (in +German _Kaempfer_) is a term applied in Italian to the doorpost, but in +English restricted to the upper member of the same, from which the arch +springs. This may either be in the same plane as the arch mould or +projecting and forming a plain band or elaborately moulded, in which +case the mouldings are known as impost mouldings. Sometimes the complete +entablature of a smaller order is employed, as in the case of the +Venetian or Palladian window, where the central opening has an arch +resting on the entablature of the pilasters which flank the smaller +window on each side. In Romanesque and Gothic work the capitals with +their abaci take the place of the impost mouldings. + + + + +IMPOTENCE (Lat. _impotentia_, want of power), the term used in law for +the inability of a husband or wife to have marital intercourse. In +English matrimonial law if impotence exists in either of the parties to +a marriage at the time of its solemnization the marriage is voidable _ab +initio_. A suit for nullity on the ground of impotence can only be +brought by the party who suffers the injury. Third persons--however +great their interest--cannot sue for a decree on this ground, nor can a +marriage be impeached after the death of one of the parties. The old +rule of the ecclesiastical courts was to require a triennial +cohabitation between the parties prior to the institution of the suit, +but this has been practically abrogated (_G._ v. _G._, 1871, L.R. 2 +P.C.D. 287). In suits for nullity on the ground of impotence, medical +evidence as to the condition of the parties is necessary and a +commission of two medical inspectors is usually appointed by the +registrar of the court for the purpose of examining the parties; such +cases are heard _in camera_. In the United States impotence is a ground +for nullity in most states. In Germany it is recognized as a ground for +annulment, but not so in France. + + + + +IMPRESSIONISM. The word "Impressionist" has come to have a more general +application in England than in France, where it took currency as the +nickname of a definite group of painters exhibiting together, and was +adopted by themselves during the conflict of opinion which the novelty +of their art excited. The word therefore belongs to the class of +nicknames or battle-names, like "Romanticist," "Naturalist," "Realist," +which preceded it, words into which the acuteness of controversy infuses +more of theoretical purport than the work of the artists denoted +suggests to later times. The painters included in such a "school" differ +so much among themselves, and so little from their predecessors compared +with the points of likeness, that we may well see in these recurring +effervescences of official and popular distaste rather the shock of +individual force in the artist measured against contemporary mediocrity +than the disturbance of a new doctrine. The "Olympia" of Manet, hooted +at the Salon of 1865 as subversive of all tradition, decency and beauty, +strikes the visitor to the Luxembourg rather as the reversion to a theme +of Titian by an artist of ruder vision than as the demonstration of a +revolutionary in painting. Later developments of the school do appear to +us revolutionary. With this warning in a matter still too near us for +final judgment, we may give some account of the Impressionists proper, +and then turn to the wider significance sometimes given to the name. + +The words _Impressioniste_, _Impressionisme_, are said to have arisen +from a phrase in the preface to Manet's catalogue of his pictures +exhibited in 1867 during the Exposition Universelle, from which he was +excluded. "It is the effect," he wrote, "of sincerity to give to a +painter's works a character that makes them resemble a protest, whereas +the painter has only thought of rendering his impression." An +alternative origin is a catalogue in which Claude Monet entitled a +picture of sunrise at sea "Une Impression." The word was probably much +used in the discussions of the group, and was caught up by the critics +as characteristic.[1] At the earlier date the only meaning of the word +was a claim for individual liberty of subject and treatment. So far as +subject went, most, though not all of Manet's pictures were modern and +actual of his Paris, for his power lay in the representation of the +thing before his eye, and not in fanciful invention. His simplicity in +this respect brought him into collision with popular prejudice when, in +the "Déjeuner sur l'herbe" (1863), he painted a modern _fête champêtre_. +The actual characters of his painting at this period, so fancifully +reproached and praised, may be grouped under two heads. (1) The +expression of the object by a few carefully chosen values in flattish +patches. Those patches are placed side by side with little attenuation +of their sharp collision. This simplification of colour and tone recalls +by its broad effects of light and silhouette on the one hand Velasquez, +on the other the extreme simplification made by the Japanese for the +purposes of colour-printing. Manet, like the other painters of his +group, was influenced by these newly-discovered works of art. The image, +thus treated, has remarkable hardiness and vigour, and also great +decorative breadth. Its vivacity and intensity of aspect is gained by +the sacrifice of many minor gradations, and by the judgment with which +the leading values have been determined. This matching of values +produces, technically, a "solid" painting, without glazing or elaborate +transparency in shadows. (2) During this period Manet makes constant +progress towards a fair, clear colour. In his early work the patches of +blond colour are relieved against black shadows; later these shadows +clear up, and in place of an indeterminate brown sauce we find shadows +that are colours. A typical picture of this period is the "Musique aux +Tuileries," refused by the Salon of 1863. In this we have an actual +out-of-doors scene rendered with a frankness and sharp taste of +contemporary life surprising to contemporaries, with an elision of +detail in the treatment of a crowd and a seizing on the chief colour +note and patch that characterize each figure equally surprising, an +effort finally to render the total high-pitched gaiety of the spectacle +as a banquet of sunlight and colour rather than a collection of separate +dramatic groups. + + For life of Édouard Manet (1832-1883) see Edmond Bazire, _Manet_ + (Paris, 1884). An idea of the state of popular feeling may be gained + by reading Zola's eloquent defence in _Mon Salon_, which appeared in + _L'Événement_ (1866) and _Édouard Manet_ (1867), both reprinted in + _Mes Haines_ (Paris, 1880). The same author has embodied many of the + impressionist ideals in Claude Lantier, the fictitious hero of + _L'Oeuvre_. Other writers belonging to Manet's group are Théodore + Duret, author of _Les Peintres français en 1867_ and _Critique + d'avant-garde_, articles and catalogue-prefaces reprinted 1885. See + also, for Manet and others, J. K. Huysman's _L'Art moderne_ (1883) and + _Certains_. Summaries of the literature of the whole period will be + found in R. Muther, _The History of Modern Painting_ (tr. London, + 1896), not always trustworthy in detail, and Miss R. G. Kingsley, _A + History of French Art_ (1899). For an interesting critical account see + W. C. Brownell, _French Art_ (1892). + +The second period, to which the name is sometimes limited, is +complicated by the emergence of new figures, and it is difficult as yet, +and perhaps will always remain difficult, to say how much of originality +belongs to each artist in the group. The main features are an intenser +study of illumination, a greater variety of illuminations, and a +revolution in _facture_ with a view to pressing closer to a high pitch +of light. Manet plays his part in this development, but we shall not be +wrong probably in giving to Claude Monet (b. 1840) the chief rôle as the +instinctive artist of the period, and to Camille Pissarro (b. 1830) a +very large part as a painter, curious in theory and experiment. Monet at +the early date of 1866 had painted a picture as daring in its naïve +brutality of out-of-door illumination as the "Déjeuner sur l'herbe." But +this picture has the breadth of patch, solidity and suavity of paste of +Manet's practice. During the siege of Paris (1870-71) Monet and Pissarro +were in London, and there the study of Turner's pictures enlarged their +ideas of the pitch in lighting and range of effect possible in painting, +and also suggested a new handling of colour, by small broken touches in +place of the large flowing touches characteristic of Manet. This method +of painting occupied much of the discussion of the group that centred +round Manet at the Café Guerbois, in the Batignolles quarter (hence +called _L'École de Balignolles_). The ideas were: (1) Abolition of +conventional brown tonality. But all browns, in the fervour of this +revolt, went the way of conventional brown, and all ready-made mixtures +like the umbers, ochres, siennas were banished from the palette. Black +itself was condemned. (2) The idea of the spectrum, as exhibiting the +series of "primary" or "pure" colours, directed the reformed palette. +Six colours, besides white, were admitted to represent the chief hues of +the spectrum. (3) These colours were laid on the canvas with as little +previous mixture on the palette as possible to maintain a maximum of +luminosity, and were fused by touch on the canvas as little as possible, +for the same reason. Hence the "broken" character of the touch in this +painting, and the subordination of delicacies of form and suave +continuity of texture to the one aim of glittering light-and-colour +notation. Justification of these procedures was sought in occasional +features of the practice of E. Delacroix, of Watteau, of J. B. Chardin, +in the hatchings of pastel, the stipple of water-colour. With the +ferment of theory went a _parti pris_ for translating all effects into +the upper registers of tone (cf. Ruskin's chapter on Turner's practice +in _Modern Painters_), and for emphasizing the colour of shadows at the +expense of their tone. The characteristic work of this period is +landscape, as the subject of illumination strictly observed and followed +through the round of the day and of the seasons. Other pictorial motives +were subordinated to this research of effect, and Monet, with a +haystack, group of poplars, or church front, has demonstrated the +variety of lighting that the day and the season bring to a single scene. +Besides Pissarro, Alfred Sisley (1840-1899) is a member of the group, +and Manet continues his progress, influenced by the new ideas in +pictures like "Le Linge" and "Chez le Père Lathuille." + +Edmond Degas (b. 1834), a severe and learned draughtsman, is associated +with this landscape group by his curiosity in the expression of +momentary action and the effects of artificial illumination, and by his +experiments in broken colour, more particularly in pastel. The novelty +of his matter, taken from unexplored corners of modern life, still more +the daring and irony of his observation and points of view, and the +strangeness of his composition, strongly influenced by Japanese art, +enriched the associations now gathering about the word "impressionist." +Another name, that of Auguste Renoir (b. 1841), completes the leading +figures of the group. Any "school" programme would be strained to +breaking-point to admit this painter, unless on the very general grounds +of love of bright colour, sunlit places and independence of vision. He +has no science of drawing or of tone, but wins a precarious charm of +colour and expression. + + The landscape, out-of-doors line, which unites in this period with + Manet's line, may be represented by these names: J. B. Corot, J. B. + Jongkind, Boudin, Monet. Monet's real teacher was Eugène Boudin + (1824-1898), (See Gustave Cahen's _Eugène Boudin_, Paris, 1900). They, + and others of the group, worked together in a painters' colony at + Saint Simeon, near Honfleur. It is usual to date the origin of + _plein-air_ painting, i.e. painting out-of-doors, in an out-of-doors + key of tone, from a picture Manet painted in the garden of de Nittis, + just before the outbreak of war in 1870. This dates only Manet's + change to the lighter key and looser handling. It was Monet who + carried the practice to a logical extreme, working on his canvas only + during the effect and in its presence. The method of Degas is + altogether different, viz., a combination in the studio from + innumerable notes and observations. It will be evident from what has + been said above that impressionistic painting is an artistic ferment, + corresponding to the scientific research into the principles of light + and colour, just as earlier movements in painting coincided with the + scientific study of perspective and anatomy. Chevreul's famous book, + already referred to, _De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs_ + (1838), established certain laws of interaction for colours adjacent + to one another. He still, however, referred the sensations of colour + to the three impossible "primaries" of Brewster--red, blue and yellow. + The Young-Helmholtz theory affected the palette of the Impressionists, + and the work of Ogden Rood, _Colour_ (Internat. Scientific Series, + 1879-1881), published in English, French and German, furnished the + theorists with formulae measuring the degradation of pitch suffered by + pigments in mixture. + + The Impressionist group (with the exception of Manet, who still fought + for his place in the Salon) exhibited together for the first time as + L'Exposition des Impressionistes at Nadar's, Boulevard des Capucines, + in 1874. They were then taken up by the dealer Durand-Ruel, and the + succeeding exhibitions in 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882 and 1886 + were held by him in various galleries. The full history of these + exhibitions, with the names of the painters, will be found in two + works: Félix-Fénéon, _Les Impressionistes en 1886_ (Paris, 1886), and + G. Geffroy, _La Vie artistique_ ("Histoire de l'impressionisme," in + vol. for 1894). See also G. Lecomte, _L'Art impressionists d'après la + collection privée de M. Durand-Ruel_ (Paris, 1892); Duranty, _La + Peinture nouvelle_ (1876). Besides the names already cited, some + others may be added: Madame Berthe Morisot, sister-in-law of Manet; + Paul Cézanne, belonging to the Manet-Pissarro group; and, later, + Gauguin. J. F. Raffaëlli applied a "characteristic" drawing, to use + his word, to scenes in the dismal suburbs of Paris; Forain, the + satiric draughtsman, was a disciple of Degas, as also Zandomeneghi. + Miss Mary Cassatt was his pupil. Caillebotte, who bequeathed the + collection of Impressionist paintings now in the Luxembourg, was also + an exhibitor; and Boudin, who linked the movement to the earlier + schools. + + The first exhibitions of the Impressionists in London were in 1882 and + 1883, but their fortunes there cannot be pursued in the present + article, nor the history of the movement beyond its originators. This + excludes notable figures, of which M. Besnard may be chosen as a type. + +In Manet's painting, even in the final steps he took towards "la +peinture claire," there is nothing of the "decomposition of tones" that +logically followed from the theories of his followers. He recognized the +existence in certain illuminations of the violet shadow, and he adopted +in open-air work a looser and more broken touch. The nature of his +subjects encouraged such a handling, for the painter who attempts to +note from nature the colour values of an elusive effect must treat form +in a summary fashion, still more so when the material is in constant +movement like water. Moreover, in the river-side subjects near Paris +there was a great deal that was only pictorially tolerable when its tone +was subtracted from the details of its form. Monet's painting carries +the shorthand of form and broken colour to extremity; the flowing touch +of Manet is chopped up into harsher, smaller notes of tone, and the +pitch pushed up till all values approach the iridescent end of the +register. It was in 1886 that the _doctrinaire_ ferment came to a head, +and what was supposed to be a scientific method of colour was +formulated. This was _pointillisme_, the resolution of the colours of +nature back into six bands of the rainbow or spectrum, and their +representation on the canvas by _dots_ of unmixed pigment. These dots, +at a sufficient distance, combine their hues in the eye with the effect +of a mixture of coloured _lights_, not of pigments, so that the result +is an increase instead of a loss of luminosity. There are several +fallacies, however, theoretical and practical, in this "spectral +palette" and pointillist method. If we depart from the three primaries +of the Helmholtz hypothesis, there is no reason why we should stop at +six hues instead of six hundred. But pigments follow the spectrum series +so imperfectly that the three primaries, even if we could exactly locate +them, limit the palette considerably in its upper range. The sacrifice +of black is quite illogical, and the lower ranges suffer accordingly. +Moreover, it is doubtful whether many painters have followed the laws of +mixture of lights in their dotting, e.g. dotting green and red together +to produce yellow. It may be added that dotting with oil pigment is in +practice too coarse and inaccurate a method. This innovation of +_pointillisme_ is generally ascribed to George Seurat (d. 1890), whose +picture, "La Grande Jatte," was exhibited at the Rue Laffitte in 1886. +Pissarro experimented in the new method, but abandoned it, and other +names among the _Pointillistes_ are Paul Signac, Vincent van Gogh, and +van Rysselberghe. The theory opened the way for endless casuistries, and +its extravagances died out in the later exhibition of the _Indépendants_ +or were domesticated in the Salon by painters like M. Henri Martin. + + The first modern painter to concern himself scientifically with the + reactions of complementary colours appears to have been Delacroix (J. + Leonardo, it should be remembered, left some notes on the subject). It + is claimed for Delacroix that as early as 1825 he observed and made + use of these reactions, anticipating the complete exposition of + Chevreul. He certainly studied the treatise, and his biographers + describe a dial-face he constructed for reference. He had quantities + of little wafers of each colour, with which he tried colour effects, a + curious anticipation of pointillist technique. The pointillists claim + him as their grandfather. See Paul Signac, "D'Eugène Delacroix au + Néo-Impressionnisme" (_Revue Blanche_, 1898). For a fuller discussion + of the spectral palette see the _Saturday Review_, 2nd, 9th and 23rd + February and 23rd March 1901. + +In England the ideas connected with the word Impressionism have been +refracted through the circumstances of the British schools. The +questions of pitch of light and iridescent colour had already arisen +over the work of Turner, of the Pre-Raphaelites, and also of G. F. +Watts, but less isolated and narrowed, because the art of none of these +limited itself to the pursuit of light. _Pointillisme_, after a fashion, +existed in British water-colour practice. But the Pre-Raphaelite school +had accustomed the English eye to extreme definition in painting and to +elaboration of detail, and it happened that the painting of James +M'Neill Whistler (Grosvenor Gallery, 1878) brought the battle-name +Impressionism into England and gave it a different colour. Whistler's +method of painting was in no way revolutionary, and he preferred to +transpose values into a lower key rather than compete with natural +pitch, but his vision, like that of Manet under the same influences, +Spanish and Japanese, simplified tone and subordinated detail. These +characteristics raised the whole question of _the science and art of +aspect in modern painting_, and the field of controversy was extended +backwards to Velasquez as the chief master of the moderns. +"Impressionism" at first had meant individualism of vision, later the +notation of fugitive aspects of light and of movement; now it came to +mean breadth in pictorial vision, all the simplifications that arise +from the modern analysis of aspect, and especially the effect produced +upon the parts of a picture-field by attending to _the impression of the +whole_. Ancient painting analyses aspect into three separate acts as +form, tone and colour. All forms are made out with equal clearness by a +conventional outline; over this system of outlines a second system of +light and shade is passed, and over this again a system of colours. Tone +is conceived as a difference of black or white added to the tints, and +the colours are the definite local tints of the objects (a blue, a red, +a yellow, and so forth). In fully developed modern painting, instead of +an object analysed into sharp outlines covered with a uniform colour +darkened or lightened in places, we find an object analysed into a +number of surfaces or planes set at different angles. On each of these +facets the character of the object and of the illumination, with +accidents of reflection, produces a patch called by modern painters a +"value," because it is colour of a particular value or tone. (With each +difference of tone, "value" implies a difference of hue also, so that +when we speak of a different tone of the same colour we are using the +word "same" in a loose or approximate sense.) These planes or facets +define themselves one against another with greater or less sharpness. +Modern technique follows this modern analysis of vision, and in one act +instead of three renders by a "touch" of paint the shape and value of +these facets, and instead of imposing a uniform ideal outline at all +their junctions, allows these patches to define themselves against one +another with variable sharpness. + +Blurred definition, then, as it exists in our natural view of things, is +admitted into painting; a blurring that may arise from distance, from +vapour or smoke, from brilliant light, from obscurity, or simply from +the nearness in value of adjacent objects. Similarly, much detail that +in primitive art is elaborated is absorbed by rendering the aspect +instead of the facts known to make up that aspect. Thus hair and fur, +the texture of stuffs, the blades of grass at a little distance, become +patches of tone showing only their larger constructive markings. But the +blurring of definitions and the elimination of detail that we find in +modern pictorial art are not all of this ready-made character. We have +so far only the scientific analysis of a field of view. If the painter +were a scientific reporter he would have to pursue the systems of +planes, with their shapes and values, to infinity. Impressionism is the +art that surveys the field and determines which of the shapes and tones +are of chief importance to the _interested_ eye, enforces these, and +sacrifices the rest. Construction, the logic of the object rendered, +determines partly this action of the eye, and also decoration, the +effects of rhythm in line and harmony in fields of colour. These motives +belong to all art, but the specially impressionist motive is the act of +_attention_ as it affects the aspect of the field. We are familiar, in +the ordinary use of the eye, with two features of its structure that +limit clearness of vision. There is, first, the spot of clear vision on +the retina, outside of which all falls away into blur; there is, +secondly, the action of _focus_. As the former limits clear definition +to one spot in the field extended vertically and laterally, so focus +limits clear definition to one plane in the third dimension, viz. depth. +If three objects, A, B and C, stand at different depths before the eye, +we can at will fix A, whereupon B and C must fall out of focus, or B, +whereupon A and C must be blurred, or C, sacrificing the clearness of A +and B. All this apparatus makes it impossible to see everything at once +with equal clearness, enables us, and forces us for the uses of real +life, to frame and limit our picture, according to the immediate +interest of the eye, whatever it may be. The painter instinctively uses +these means to arrive at the emphasis and neglect that his choice +requires. If he is engaged on a face he will now screw his attention to +a part and now relax it, distributing the attention over the whole so as +to restore the bigger relations of aspect. Sir Joshua Reynolds describes +this process as seeing the whole "with the dilated eye"; the commoner +precept of the studios is "to look with the eyes half closed"; a third +way is to throw the whole voluntarily out of focus. In any case the +result is that minor planes are swamped in bigger, that smaller patches +of colour are swept up into broader, that markings are blurred. The +final result of these tentative reviews records, in what is blurred and +what is clear, the attention that has been distributed to different +parts, and to parts measured against the whole. The Impressionist +painter does not allot so much detail to a face in a full-length +portrait as to a head alone, nor to twenty figures on a canvas as to +one. Again, he indicates by his treatment of planes and definitions +whether the main subject of his picture is in the foreground or the +distance. He persuades the eye to slip over hosts of near objects so +that, as in life, it may hit a distant target, or concentrate its attack +on what is near, while the distance falls away into a dim curtain. All +those devices by which attention is directed and distributed, and the +importance in space of an object established, affect impressionistic +composition. + +It is an inevitable misunderstanding of painting which plays the game of +art so closely up to the real aspects of nature that its aim is that of +mere exact copying. Painting like Manet's, accused of being realistic in +this sense, sufficiently disproves the accusation when examined. Never +did painting show a _parti pris_ more pronounced, even more violent. The +elisions and assertions by which Manet selects what he finds significant +and beautiful in the complete natural image are startling to the stupid +realist, and the Impressionist may best be described as the painter who +out of the completed contents of vision constructs an image moulded upon +his own interest in the thing seen and not on that of any imaginary +schoolmaster. Accepting the most complex terms of nature with their +special emotions, he uses the same freedom of sacrifice as the man who +at the other end of the scale expresses his interest in things by a few +scratches of outline. The perpetual enemy of both is the eclectic, who +works for possible interests not his own. + + Some of the points touched on above will be found amplified in + articles by the writer in _The Albemarle_ (September 1892), the + _Fortnightly Review_ (June 1894), and _The Artist_ (March-July 1896). + An admirable exposition of Impressionism in this sense is R. A. M. + Stevenson's _The Art of Velasquez_ (1895). Mr Stevenson was trained in + the school of Carolus Duran, where impressionist painting was reduced + to a system. Mr Sargent's painting is a brilliant example of the + system. (D. S. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Mr H. P. Hain Friswell has pointed out that the word "impression" + occurs frequently in Chevreul's book on colour; but it is also + current among the critics. See Ruskin's chapter on Turner's + composition--"impression on the mind." + + + + +IMPRESSMENT, the name given in English to the exercise of the authority +of the state to "press"[1] or compel the service of the subject for the +defence of the realm. Every sovereign state must claim and at times +exercise this power. The "drafting" of men for service in the American +Civil War was a form of impressment. All the monarchical, or republican, +governments of Europe have employed the press at one time or another. +All forms of conscription, including the English ballot for the militia, +are but regulations of this sovereign right. In England impressment may +be looked upon as an erratic, and often oppressive, way of enforcing the +common obligation to serve in "the host" or in the _posse comitatus_ +(power of the county). In Scotland, where the feudal organization was +very complete in the Lowlands, and the tribal organization no less +complete in the Highlands, and where the state was weak, impressment was +originally little known. After the union of the two parliaments in 1707, +no distinction was made between the two divisions of Great Britain. In +England the kings of the Plantagenet dynasty caused Welshmen to be +pressed by the Lords Marchers, and Irish kerns to be pressed by the +Lords Deputy, for their wars in France. Complaints were made by +parliament of the oppressive use of this power as early as the reign of +Edward III., but it continued to be exercised. Readers of Shakespeare +will remember Sir John Falstaff's commission to press soldiers, and the +manner, justified no doubt by many and familiar examples of the way in +which the duty was performed. A small sum called imprest-money, or coat +and conduct money, was given to the men when pressed to enable them to +reach the appointed rendezvous. Soldiers were secured in this way by +Queen Elizabeth, by King Charles I., and by the parliament itself in the +Civil War. The famous New Model Army of Cromwell was largely raised by +impressment. Parliament ordered the county committees to select recruits +of "years meet for their employment and well clothed." After the +Revolution of 1688 parliament occasionally made use of this resource. In +1779 a general press of all rogues and vagabonds in London to be drafted +into the regiments was ordered. It is said that all who were not too +lame to run away or too destitute to bribe the parish constable were +swept into the net. As they were encouraged to desert by the undisguised +connivance of the officers and men who were disgusted with their +company, no further attempt to use the press for the army was made. + +A distinction between the liability of sailors and of other men dates +from the 16th century. From an act of Philip and Mary (1556) it appears +that the watermen of the Thames claimed exemption from the press as a +privileged body. They were declared liable, and the liability was +clearly meant to extend to service as a soldier on shore. In the fifth +year of Queen Elizabeth (1563) an act was passed to define the liability +of the sailors. It is known as "an Act touching politick considerations +for the maintenance of the Navy." By its term all fishermen and mariners +were protected from being compelled "to serve as any soldiers upon the +Land or upon the Sea, otherwise than as a mariner, except it shall be to +serve under any Captain of some ship or vessel, for landing to do some +special exploit which mariners have been used to do." The operation of +the act was limited to ten years, but it was renewed repeatedly, and was +at last indefinitely prolonged in the sixteenth year of the reign of +Charles I. (1631). By the Vagrancy Act of the close of Queen Elizabeth's +reign (1597), disorderly serving-men and other disreputable characters, +of whom a formidable list is given, were declared to be liable to be +impressed for service in the fleet. The "Takers," as they were called in +early times, the Press Gang of later days, were ordered to present their +commission to two justices of the peace, who were bound to pick out +"such sufficient number of able men, as in the said commission shall be +contained, to serve Her Majesty as aforesaid." The justices of the peace +in the coast districts, who were often themselves concerned in the +shipping trade, were not always zealous in enforcing the press. The +pressed sailors often deserted with the "imprest money" given them. Loud +complaints were made by the naval officers of the bad quality of the men +sent up to serve in the king's ships. On the other hand, the Press Gangs +were accused of extorting money, and of making illegal arrests. In the +reign of Queen Anne (1703) an act was passed "for the increase of Seamen +and the better encouragement of navigation, and the protection of the +Coal Trade." The act which gave parish authorities power to apprentice +boys to the sea exempted the apprentices from the press for three years, +and until the age of eighteen. It especially reaffirmed the part of the +Vagrancy Act of Elizabeth's reign which left rogues and vagabonds +subject to be pressed for the sea service. By the act for the "Increase +of Mariners and Seamen to navigate Merchant Ships and other trading +ships or vessels," passed in the reign of George II. (1740), all men +over fifty-five were exempted from the press together with lads under +eighteen, foreigners serving in British ships (always numerous in war +time), and landsmen who had gone to sea during their first two years. +The act for "the better supplying of the cities of London and +Westminster with fish" gave exemption to all masters of fishing-boats, +to four apprentices and one mariner to each boat, and all landsmen for +two years, except in case of actual invasion. By the act for the +encouragement of insurance passed in 1774, the fire insurance companies +in London were entitled to secure exemption for thirty watermen each in +their employment. Masters and mates of merchant vessels, and a +proportion of men per ship in the colliers trading from the north to +London, were also exempt. + +Subject to such limitations as these, all seafaring men, and watermen +on rivers, were liable to be pressed between the ages of eighteen and +fifty-five, and might be pressed repeatedly for so long as their +liability lasted. The rogue and vagabond element were at the mercy of +the justices of the peace. The frightful epidemics of fever which +desolated the navy till late in the 18th century were largely due to the +infection brought by the prisoners drafted from the ill-kept jails of +the time. As service in the fleet was most unpopular with the sailors, +the press could often only be enforced by making a parade of strength +and employing troops. The men had many friends who were always willing +to conceal them, and they themselves became expert in avoiding capture. +There was, however, one way of procuring them which gave them no chance +of evasion. The merchant ships were stopped at sea and the sailors taken +out. This was done to a great extent, more especially in the case of +homeward-bound vessels. On one occasion, in 1802, an East Indiaman on +her way home was deprived of so many of her crew by a man of war in the +Bay of Biscay that she was unable to resist a small French privateer, +and was carried off as a prize with a valuable cargo. The press and the +jails failed to supply the number of men required. In 1795 it was found +necessary to impose on the counties the obligation to provide "a quota" +of men, at their own expense. The local authorities provided the +recruits by offering high bounties, often to debtors confined in the +prisons. These desperate men were a very bad element in the navy. In +1797 they combined with the United Irishmen, of whom large numbers had +been drafted into the fleet as vagabonds, to give a very dangerous +political character to the mutinies at the Nore and on the south of +Ireland. After the conclusion of the great Napoleonic wars in 1815 the +power of the press was not again exercised. In 1835 an act was passed +during Sir James Graham's tenure of office as first lord of the +admiralty, by which men who had once been pressed and had served for a +period of five years were to be exempt from impressment in future. Sir +James, however, emphatically reaffirmed the right of the crown to +enforce the service of the subject, and therefore to impress the seamen. +The introduction of engagements for a term of five years in 1853, and +then of long service, has produced so large a body of voluntary +recruits, and service in the navy is so popular, that the question has +no longer any interest save an historical one. If compulsory service in +the fleet should again become necessary it will not be in the form of +the old system of impressment, which left the sailor subject to +compulsory service from the age of eighteen to fifty-five, and flooded +the navy with the scum of the jails and the workhouse. + + AUTHORITIES.--Grose's _Military Antiquities_, for the general subject + of impressment, vol. ii. p. 73 et seq. S. R. Gardiner gives many + details in his history of James I. and Charles I., and in _The Civil + War_. The acts relating to the navy are quoted in _A Collection of the + Statutes relating to the Admiralty_, &c., published in 1810. Some + curious information is in the papers relating to the Brest Blockade + edited by John Leyland for the Navy Record Society. Sir James Graham's + speech is in Hansard for 1835. (D. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It is now accepted generally that "to press" is a corruption of + "prest," as "impress" is of "imprest," but the word was quite early + connected with "press," to squeeze, crush, hence to compel or force. + The "prest" was a sum of money advanced (O. Fr. _prester_, modern + _prêter_, to lend, Lat. _praestare_, to stand before, provide, become + surety for, &c.) to a person to enable him to perform some + undertaking, hence used of earnest money given to soldiers on + enlistment, or as the "coat and conduct" money alluded to in this + article. The methods of compulsion used to get men for military + service naturally connected the word with "to press" (Lat. + _pressare_, frequentative of _premere_) to force, and all reference + to the money advanced was lost (see _Skeat, Etym. Dict._, 1898, and + the quotation from H. Wedgwood, _Dict. of Eng. Etym._). + + + + +IMPROMPTU (from _in promptu_, on the spur of the moment), a short +literary composition which has not been, or is not supposed to have +been, prepared beforehand, but owes its merit to the ready skill which +produces it without premeditation. The word seems to have been +introduced from the French language in the middle of the 17th century. +Without question, the poets have, from earliest ages, made impromptus, +and the very art of poetry, in its lyric form, is of the nature of a +modified improvisation. It is supposed that many of the epigrams of the +Greeks, and still more probably those of the Roman satirists, +particularly Martial, were delivered on the moment, and gained a great +part, at least, of their success from the evidence which they gave of +rapidity of invention. But it must have been difficult then, as it has +been since, to be convinced of the value of that evidence. Who is to be +sure that, like Mascarille in _Les Précieuses ridicules_, the +impromptu-writer has not employed his leisure in sharpening his arrows? +James Smith received the highest praise for his compliment to Miss Tree, +the cantatrice:-- + + On this tree when a nightingale settles and sings, + The Tree will return him as good as he brings. + + +This was extremely neat, but who is to say that James Smith had not +polished it as he dressed for dinner? One writer owed all his fame, and +a seat among the Forty Immortals of the French Academy, to the +reputation of his impromptus. This was the Marquis François Joseph de St +Aulaire (1643-1742). The piece which threw open the doors of the Academy +to him in 1706 was composed at Sceaux, where he was staying with the +duchess of Maine, who was guessing secrets, and who called him Apollo. +St Aulaire instantly responded:-- + + La divinité qui s'amuse + A me demander mon secret, + Si j'étais Apollon, ne serait pas ma muse, + Elle serait Thétis--et le jour finirait. + +This is undoubtedly as neat as it is impertinent, and if the duchess had +given him no ground for preparation, this is typical of the impromptu at +its best. Voltaire was celebrated for the savage wit of his impromptus, +and was himself the subject of a famous one by Young. Less well known +but more certainly extemporaneous is the couplet by the last-mentioned +poet, who being asked to put something amusing in an album, and being +obliged to borrow from Lord Chesterfield a pencil for the purpose, +wrote:-- + + Accept a miracle instead of wit,-- + See two dull lines with Stanhope's pencil writ. + +The word "impromptu" is sometimes used to designate a short dramatic +sketch, the type of which is Molière's famous _Impromptu du Versailles_ +(1663), a miniature comedy in prose. + + + + +IMPROVISATORE, a word used to describe a poet who recites verses which +he composes on the spur of the moment, without previous preparation. The +term is purely Italian, although in that language it would be more +correctly spelt _improvvisatore_. It became recognized as an English +word in the middle of the eighteenth century, and is so used by Smollett +in his _Travels_ (1766); he defines an improvisatore as "an individual +who has the surprising talent of reciting verses extempore, on any +subject you propose." In speaking of a woman, the female form +_improvisatrice_ is sometimes used in English. + +Improvisation is a gift which properly belongs to those languages in +which a great variety of grammatical inflections, wedded to simplicity +of rhythm and abundance of rhyme, enable a poet to slur over +difficulties in such a way as to satisfy the ear of his audience. In +ancient times the greater part of the popular poetry with which the +leisure of listeners was beguiled was of this rhapsodical nature. But in +modern Europe it was the troubadours, owing to the extreme flexibility +of the languages of Provence, who distinguished themselves above all +others as improvisatores. It is difficult to believe, however, that the +elaborate compositions of these poets, which have come down to us, in +which every exquisite artifice of versification is taken advantage of, +can have been poured forth without premeditation. These poets, we must +rather suppose, took a pride in the ostentation of a prodigious memory, +most carefully trained, and poured forth in public what they had +laboriously learned by heart in private. The Italians, however, in the +16th century, cultivated what seems to have been a genuine +improvisation, in which the bards rhapsodized, not as they themselves +pleased, but on subjects which were unexpected by them, and which were +chosen on the spot by their patrons. Of these, the most extraordinary is +said to have been Silvio Antoniano (1540-1603), who from the age of ten +was able to pour out melodious verse on any subject which was suggested +to him. He was brought to Rome, where successive popes so delighted in +his talent that in 1598 he was made a cardinal. In the 17th century the +celebrated Metastasio first attracted attention by his skill as an +improvisatore. But he was excelled by Bernardino Perfetti (1681-1747), +who was perhaps the most extraordinary genius of this class who has ever +lived. He was seized, in his moments of composition, with a transport +which transfigured his whole person, and under this excitement he poured +forth verses in a miraculous flow. It was his custom to be attended by a +guitarist, who played a recitative accompaniment. In this way Perfetti +made a triumphal procession through the cities of Italy, ending up with +the Capitol of Rome, where Pope Benedict XIII. crowned him with laurel, +and created him a Roman citizen. One of the most remarkable +improvisatores of modern times appeared in Sweden, in the person of Karl +Mikael Bellman (1740-1795), who used to take up a position in the public +gardens and parks of Stockholm, accompanying himself on a guitar, and +treating metre and rhythm with a virtuosity and originality which place +him among the leading poets of Swedish literature. In England, somewhat +later, Theodore Hook (1788-1841) developed a surprising talent for this +kind, but his verses were rarely of the serious or sentimental character +of which we have hitherto spoken. Hook's animal spirits were +unfortunately mingled with vulgarity, and his clever _jeux d'esprit_ had +little but their smartness to recommend them. A similar talent, +exercised in a somewhat more literary direction, made Joseph Méry +(1798-1865) a delightful companion in the Parisian society of his day. +It is rare indeed that the productions of the improvisatore, taken down +in shorthand, and read in the cold light of criticism, are found to +justify the impression which the author produced on his original +audience. Imperfections of every kind become patent when we read these +transcripts, and the reader cannot avoid perceiving weaknesses of style +and grammar. The eye and voice of the improvisatore so hypnotize his +auditors as to make them incapable of forming a sober judgment on +matters of mere literature. + + + + +IN-ANTIS, the architectural term given to those temples the entrance +part of which consisted of two columns placed between the antae or +pilasters (see TEMPLE). + + + + +INAUDI, JACQUES (1867- ), Italian calculating prodigy, was born at +Onorato, Piedmont, on the 15th of October 1867. When between seven and +eight years old, at which time he was employed in herding sheep, he +already exhibited an extraordinary aptitude for mental calculation. His +powers attracted the notice of various showmen, and he commenced to give +exhibitions. He was carefully examined by leading French scientists, +including Charcot, from the physiological, psychological and +mathematical point of view. The secret of his arithmetical powers +appeared to reside in his extraordinary memory, improved by continuous +practice. It appeared to depend upon hearing rather than sight, more +remarkable results being achieved when figures were read out than when +they were written. + + + + +INCANTATION, the use of words, spoken, sung or chanted, usually as a set +formula, for the purpose of obtaining a result by their supposed magical +power. The word is derived from the Latin _incantare_, to chant a +magical formula; cf. the use of _carmen_, for such a formula of words. +The Latin use is very early; thus it appears in a fragment of the XII. +Tables quoted in Pliny (_N.H._ xxviii. 2, 4, 17), "Qui malum carmen +incantasset." From the O. Fr. derivative of _incantare_, _enchanter_, +comes "enchant," "enchantment," &c., properly of the exercise of magical +powers, hence to charm, to fascinate, words which also by origin are of +magical significance. The early magi of Assyria and Babylonia were +adepts at this art, as is evident from the examples of Akkadian spells +that have been discovered. Daniel (v. 11) is spoken of as "master of the +enchanters" of Babylon. In Egypt and in India many formulas of religious +magic were in use, witness especially the Vedic _mantras_, which are +closely akin to the Maori _karakias_ and the North American _matamanik_. +Among the holy men presented by the king of Korea to the mikado of Japan +in A.D. 577 was a reciter of _mantras_, who would find himself at home +with the _majinahi_ or incantation practised by the ancient Japanese for +dissipating evil influences. One of the most common, widespread and +persistent uses of incantation was in healing wounds, instances of which +are found in the _Odyssey_ and the _Kalevala_, and in the traditional +folk-lore of almost every European country. Similar songs were sung to +win back a faithless lover (cf. the second _Idyll_ of Theocritus). + + See further MAGIC. + + + + +INCE, WILLIAM, English 18th century furniture designer and cabinetmaker. +He was one of the most successful imitators of Chippendale, although his +work was in many respects lighter. He helped, indeed, to build the +bridge between the massive and often florid style of Chippendale and +the more boudoir-like forms of Hepplewhite. Although many of his designs +were poor and extravagant, his best work was very good indeed. His +chairs are sometimes mistaken for those of Chippendale, to which, +however, they are much inferior. He greatly affected the Chinese and +Gothic tastes of the second half of the 18th century. He was for many +years in partnership in Broad Street, Golden Square, London, with Thomas +Mayhew (q.v.), in collaboration with whom he published a folio volume of +ninety-five plates, with letterpress in English and French under the +title of _The Universal System of Household Furniture_ (undated, but +probably about 1762). + + + + +INCE-IN-MAKERFIELD, an urban district in the Ince parliamentary division +of Lancashire, England, adjoining the borough of Wigan. Pop. (1901) +21,262. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal intersects the township. There are +large collieries, ironworks, forges, railway wagon works, and cotton +mills. There is preserved here the Old Hall, a beautiful example of +half-timbered architecture. + + + + +INCENDIARISM (Lat. _incendere_, to set on fire, burn), in law, the +wilful or malicious burning of the house or property of another, and +punishable as arson (q.v.). It may be noted that in North Carolina it is +provided in case of fires that there is to be a preliminary +investigation by local authorities: all towns and cities have to make an +annual inspection of buildings and a quarterly inspection within fire +limits and report to the state insurance commissioner; all expenses so +incurred are met by a tax of 1/5% on the gross receipts of the insurance +companies (L. 1903, ch. 719). + + + + +INCENSE,[1] the perfume (fumigation) arising from certain resins and +gum-resins, barks, woods, dried flowers, fruits and seeds, when burnt, +and also the substances so burnt. In its literal meaning the word +"incense" is one with the word "perfume," the aroma given off with the +smoke (_per fumum_[2]) of any odoriferous substance when burnt. But, in +use, while the meaning of the word "perfume" has been extended so as to +include everything sweet in smell, from smoking incense to the invisible +fresh fragrance of fruits and exquisite scent of flowers, that of the +word "incense," in all the languages of modern Europe in which it +occurs, has, by an opposite process of limitation, been gradually +restricted almost exclusively to frankincense (see FRANKINCENSE). +Frankincense has always been obtainable in Europe in greater quantity +than any other of the aromatics imported from the East; it has therefore +gradually come to be the only incense used in the religious rites and +domestic fumigations of many countries of the West, and at last to be +properly regarded as the only "true" or "genuine" (i.e. "franc") incense +(see Littré's _Fr. Dict._ and Skeat's _Etym. Dict. of Engl. Lang._).[3] + + The following is probably an exhaustive list of the substances + available for incense or perfume mentioned in the Hebrew + Scriptures:--Algum or almug wood (almug in 1 Kings x. 11, 12; algum + in 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11), generally identified with + sandalwood (_Santalum album_), a native of Malabar and Malaya; aloes, + or lign aloes (Heb. _ahalim_, _ahaloth_), produced by the _Aloexylon + Agallochum_ (Loureiro), a native of Cochin-China, and _Aquilaria + Agallocha_ (Roxburgh), a native of India beyond the Ganges; balm (Heb. + _tsori_), the oleo-resin of _Balsamodendron opobalsamum_ and _B. + gileadense_; bdellium (Heb. _bdolah_), the resin produced by + _Balsamodendron roxburghii_, _B. Mukul_ and _B. pubescens_, all + natives of Upper India (Lassen, however, identifies _bdolah_ with + musk); calamus (Heb. _kaneh_; sweet calamus, _keneh bosem_, Ex. xxx. + 23; Ezek. xxvii. 19; sweet cane, _kaneh hattob_, Jer. vi. 20; Isa. + xliii. 24), identified by Royle with the _Andropogon Calamus + aromaticus_ or roosa grass of India; cassia (Heb. _kiddah_) the + _Cinnamomum Cassia_ of China; cinnamon (Heb. _kinnamon_), the + _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ of the Somali country, but cultivated largely + in Ceylon, where also it runs wild, and in Java; costus (Heb. + _ketzioth_), the root of the _Aucklandia Costus_ (Falconer), native of + Kashmir; frankincense (Heb. _lebonah_), the gum-resin of _Bosiwellia + Frereana_ and _B. Bhau-Dajiana_ of the Somali country, and of _B. + Carterii_ of the Somali country and the opposite coast of Arabia (see + "The Genus Boswellia" by Sir George Birdwood, _Transactions of the + Linnean Society_, xxi. 1871); galbanum (Heb. _helbenah_), yielded by + _Opoidia galbanifera_ (Royle) of Khorassan, and _Galbanum officinale_ + (Don) of Syria and other _Ferulas_; ladanum (Heb. _lot_, translated + "myrrh" in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11), the resinous exudation of + _Cistus creticus_, _C. ladaniferus_ and other species of "rock rose" + or "rose of Sharon"; myrrh (Heb. _mor_), the gum-resin of the + _Balsamodendron Myrrha_ of the Somali country and opposite shore of + Arabia; onycha (Heb. _sheheleth_), the celebrated odoriferous shell of + the ancients, the operculum or "nail" of a species of _Strombus_ or + "wing shell," formerly well known in Europe under the name of _Blatta + byzantina_; it is still imported into Bombay to burn with frankincense + and other incense to bring out their odours more strongly; saffron + (Heb. _karkom_), the stigmata of _Crocus sativus_, a native originally + of Kashmir; spikenard (Heb. _nerd_), the root of the _Nardostachys + Jatamansi_ of Nepal and Bhutan; stacte (Heb. _nataf_), generally + referred to the _Styrax officinalis_ of the Levant, but Hanbury has + shown that no stacte or storax is now derived from _S. officinalis_, + and that all that is found in modern commerce is the product of the + _Liquidambar orientalis_ of Cyprus and Anatolia. + + Besides these aromatic substances named in the Bible, the following + must also be enumerated on account of their common use as incense in + the East; benzoin or gum benjamin, first mentioned among Western + writers by Ibn Batuta (1325-1349) under the name of _lubân d' Javi_ + (i.e. olibanum of Java), corrupted in the parlance of Europe into + benjamin and benzoin; camphor, produced by _Cinnamomum Camphora_, the + "camphor laurel" of China and Japan, and by _Dryobalanops aromatica_, + a native of the Indian Archipelago, and widely used as incense + throughout the East, particularly in China; elemi, the resin of an + unknown tree of the Philippine Islands, the elemi of old writers being + the resin of _Boswellia Frereana_; gum-dragon or dragon's blood, + obtained from _Calamus Draco_, one of the ratan palms of the Indian + Archipelago, _Dracaena Draco_, a liliaceous plant of the Canary + Island, and _Pterocarpus Draco_, a leguminous tree of the island of + Socotra; rose-malloes, a corruption of the Javanese _rasamala_, or + liquid storax, the resinous exudation of _Liquidambar Altingia_, a + native of the Indian Archipelago (an American _Liquidambar_ also + produces a rose-malloes-like exudation); star anise, the starlike + fruit of the _Illicum anisatum_ of Yunan and south-western China, + burnt as incense in the temples of Japan; sweet flag, the root of + _Acorus Calamus_, the bach of the Hindus, much used for incense in + India. An aromatic earth, found on the coast of Cutch, is used as + incense in the temples of western India. The animal excreta, musk and + civet, also enter into the composition of modern European pastils and + _clous fumants_. Balsam of Tolu, produced by _Myroxylon toluiferum_, a + native of Venezuela and New Granada; balsam of Peru, derived from + _Myroxylon Pereirae_, a native of San Salvador in Central America; + Mexican and Brazilian elemi, produced by various species of _Icica_ or + "incense trees," and the liquid exudation of an American species of + _Liquidambar_, are all used as incense in America. Hanbury quotes a + faculty granted by Pope Pius V. (August 2, 1571) to the bishops of the + West Indies permitting the substitution of balsam of Peru for the + balsam of the East in the preparation of the chrism to be used by the + Catholic Church in America. The _Sangre del drago_ of the Mexicans is + a resin resembling dragon's blood obtained from a euphorbiaceous tree, + _Croton Draco_. + +Probably nowhere can the actual historical progress from the primitive +use of animal sacrifices to the later refinement of burning incense be +more clearly traced than in the pages of the Old Testament, where no +mention of the latter rite occurs before the period of the Mosaic +legislation; but in the monuments of ancient Egypt the authentic traces +of the use of incense that still exist carry us back to a much earlier +date. From Meroe to Memphis the commonest subject carved or painted in +the interiors of the temples is that of some contemporary Phrah or +Pharaoh worshipping the presiding deity with oblations of gold and +silver vessels, rich vestments, gems, the firstlings of the flock and +herd, cakes, fruits, flowers, wine, anointing oil and incense. Generally +he holds in one hand the censer, and with the other casts the pastils or +osselets of incense into it: sometimes he offers incense in one hand and +makes the libation of wine with the other. One of the best known of +these representations is that carved on the memorial stone placed by +Tethmosis (Thothmes) IV. (1533 B.C.) on the breast of the Sphinx at +Gizeh.[4] The tablet represents Tethmosis before his guardian deity, the +sun-god Rê, pouring a libation of wine on one side and offering incense +on the other. The ancient Egyptians used various substances as incense. +They worshipped Rê at sunrise with resin, at mid-day with myrrh and at +sunset with an elaborate confection called _kuphi_, compounded of no +fewer than sixteen ingredients, among which were honey, wine, raisins, +resin, myrrh and sweet calamus. While it was being mixed, holy writings +were read to those engaged in the operation. According to Plutarch, +apart from its mystic virtues arising from the magical combination of 4 +× 4, its sweet odour had a benign physiological effect on those who +offered it.[5] The censer used was a hemispherical cup or bowl of +bronze, supported by a long handle, fashioned at one end like an open +hand, in which the bowl was, as it were, held, while the other end +within which the pastils of incense were kept was shaped into the hawk's +head crowned with a disk, as the symbol of Rê.[6] In embalming their +dead the Egyptians filled the cavity of the belly with every sort of +spicery except frankincense (Herod, ii. 86), for it was regarded as +specially consecrated to the worship of the gods. In the burnt-offerings +of male kine to Isis, the carcase of the steer, after evisceration, was +filled with fine bread, honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh and +other aromatics, and thus stuffed was roasted, being basted all the +while by pouring over it large quantities of sweet oil, and then eaten +with great festivity. + +How important the consumption of frankincense in the worship of the gods +became in Egypt is shown by two of its monuments, both of the greatest +interest and value for the light they throw on the early history of the +commerce of the Indian Ocean. One is an inscription in the rocky valley +of Hammamat, through which the desert road from the Red Sea to the +valley of Egypt opens on the green fields and palm groves of the river +Nile near Coptos. It was cut on the rocks by an Egyptian nobleman named +Hannu, who states that he was sent by Pharaoh Sankhkere, Menthotp IV., +with a force gathered out of the Thebaid, from Coptos to the Red Sea, +there to take command of a naval expedition to the Holy Land of Punt +(Puoni), "to bring back odoriferous gums." Punt is identified with the +Somali country, now known to be the native country of the trees that +yield the bulk of the frankincense of commerce. The other bears the +record of a second expedition to the same land of Punt, undertaken by +command of Queen Hatshepsut, 1600 B.C. It is preserved in the vividly +chiselled and richly coloured decorations portraying the history of the +reign of this famous Pharaoh on the walls of the "Stage Temple" at +Thebes. The temple is now in ruins, but the entire series of gorgeous +pictures recording the expedition to "the balsam land of Punt," from its +leaving to its returning to Thebes, still remains intact and +undefaced.[7] These are the only authenticated instances of the export +of incense trees from the Somali country until Colonel Playfair, then +political agent at Aden, in 1862-1864, collected and sent to Bombay the +specimens from which Sir George Birdwood prepared his descriptions of +them for the Linnean Society in 1868. King Antigonus is said to have had +a branch of the true frankincense tree sent to him. + +Homer tells us that the Egyptians of his time were emphatically a nation +of druggists (_Od._ iv. 229, 230). This characteristic, in which, as in +many others, they so remarkably resemble the Hindus, the Egyptians have +maintained to the present day; and, although they have changed their +religion, the use of incense among them continues to be as familiar and +formal as ever. The _kohl_ or black powder with which the modern, like +the ancient, Egyptian ladies paint their languishing eyelids, is nothing +but the smeeth of charred frankincense, or other odoriferous resin +brought with frankincense, and phials of water, from the well of +Zem-zem, by the pilgrims returning from Mecca. They also melt +frankincense as a depilatory, and smear their hands with a paste into +the composition of which frankincense enters, for the purpose of +communicating to them an attractive perfume. Herodotus (iv. 75) +describes a similar artifice as practised by the women of Scythia +(compare also Judith x. 3, 4). In cold weather the Egyptians warm their +rooms by placing in them a brazier, "chafing-dish," or "standing-dish," +filled with charcoal, whereon incense is burnt; and in hot weather they +refresh them by occasionally swinging a hand censer by a chain through +them--frankincense, benzoin and aloe wood being chiefly used for the +purpose.[8] + +In the authorized version of the Bible, the word "incense" translates +two wholly distinct Hebrew words. In various passages in the latter +portion of Isaiah (xl.-lxvi.), in Jeremiah and in Chronicles, it +represents the Hebrew _lebonah_, more usually rendered "frankincense"; +elsewhere the original word is _ketoreth_ (Ex. xxx. 8, 9; Lev. x. 1; +Num. vii. 14, &c.), a derivative of the verb _kitter_ (Pi.) or _hiktir_ +(Hiph.), which verb is used, not only in Ex. xxx. 7, but also in Lev. i. +9, iii. 11, ix. 13, and many other passages, to denote the process by +which the "savour of satisfaction" in any burnt-offering, whether of +flesh or of incense, is produced. Sometimes in the authorized version +(as in 1 Kings iii. 3; 1 Sam. ii. 28) it is made to mean explicitly the +burning of incense with only doubtful propriety. The expression "incense +(_ketoreth_) of rains" in Ps. lxvi. 15 and the allusion in Ps. cxli. 2 +ought both to be understood, most probably, of ordinary +burnt-offerings.[9] The "incense" (_ketoreth_), or "incense of sweet +scents" (_ketoreth sammim_), called, in Ex. xxx. 35, "a confection after +the art of the apothecary," or rather "a perfume after the art of the +perfumer," which was to be regarded as most holy, and the imitation of +which was prohibited under the severest penalties, was compounded of +four "sweet scents" (_sammim_),[10] namely stacte (_nataph_), onycha +(_sheheleth_), galbanum (_helbenah_) and "pure" or "fine" frankincense +(_lebonah zaccah_), pounded together in equal proportions, with +(perhaps) an admixture of salt (_memullah_).[11] It was then to be "put +before the testimony" in the "tent of meeting." It was burnt on the +altar of incense by the priest every morning when the lamps were trimmed +in the Holy Place, and every evening when they were lighted or "set up" +(Ex. xxx. 7, 8). A handful of it was also burnt once a year in the Holy +of Holies by the high priest on a pan of burning coals taken from the +altar of burnt-offering (Lev. xvi. 12, 13). Pure frankincense +(_lebonah_) formed part of the meat-offering (Lev. ii. 16, vi. 15), and +was also presented along with the shew bread (Lev. xxiv. 7) every +Sabbath day (probably on two golden saucers; see Jos. _Ant._ iii. 10, +7). The religious significance of the use of incense, or at least of its +use in the Holy of Holies, is distinctly set forth in Lev. xvi. 12, 13. + +The Jews were also in the habit of using odoriferous substances in +connexion with the funeral obsequies of distinguished persons (see 2 +Chron. xvi. 14, xxi. 19; Jer. xxxiv. 5). In Amos vi. 10 "he that burneth +him" probably means "he that burns perfumes in his honour." References +to the domestic use of incense occur in Cant. iii. 6; Prov. xxvii. 9; +cf. vii. 17. + +The "marbles" of Nineveh furnish frequent examples of the offering of +incense to the sun-god and his consort (2 Kings xxiii. 5). The kings of +Assyria united in themselves the royal and priestly offices, and on the +monuments they erected they are generally represented as offering +incense and pouring out wine to the Tree of Life. They probably carried +the incense in the sacred bag so frequently seen in their hands and in +those also of the common priests. According to Herodotus (i. 183), +frankincense to the amount of 1000 talents' weight was offered every +year, during the feast of Bel, on the great altar of his temple in +Babylon. + +The monuments of Persepolis and the coins of the Sassanians show that +the religious use of incense was as common in ancient Persia as in +Babylonia and Assyria. Five times a day the priests of the Persians +(Zoroastrians) burnt incense on their sacred fire altars. In the Avesta +(_Vendidad_, Fargard xix. 24, 40), the incense they used is named _vohu +gaono_. It has been identified with benzoin, but was probably +frankincense. Herodotus (iii. 97) states that the Arabs brought every +year to Darius as tribute 1000 talents of frankincense. The Parsees +still preserve in western India the pure tradition of the ritual of +incense as followed by their race from probably the most ancient times. + +The _Ramayana_ and _Mahabharata_ afford evidence of the employment of +incense by the Hindus, in the worship of the gods and the burning of the +dead, from the remotest antiquity. Its use was obviously continued by +the Buddhists during the prevalence of their religion in India, for it +is still used by them in Nepal, Tibet, Ceylon, Burma, China and Japan. +These countries all received Buddhism from India, and a large proportion +of the porcelain and earthenware articles imported from China and Japan +into Europe consists of innumerable forms of censers. The Jains all over +India burn sticks of incense before their Jina. The commonest incense in +ancient India was probably frankincense. The Indian frankincense tree, +_Boswellia thurifera_, Colebrooke (which certainly includes _B. glabra_, +Roxburgh), is a doubtful native of India. It is found chiefly where the +Buddhist religion prevailed in ancient times, in Bihar and along the +foot of the Himalayas and in western India, where it particularly +flourishes in the neighbourhood of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta. It is +quite possible therefore that, in the course of their widely extended +commerce during the one thousand years of their ascendancy, the +Buddhists imported the true frankincense trees from Africa and Arabia +into India, and that the accepted Indian species are merely varieties of +them. Now, however, the incense in commonest use in India is benzoin. +But the consumption of all manner of odoriferous resins, gum resins, +roots, woods, dried leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds in India, in +social as well as religious observances, is enormous. The grateful +perfumed powder _abir_ or _randa_ is composed either of rice, flour, +mango bark or deodar wood, camphor and aniseed, or of sandalwood or wood +aloes, and zerumbet, zedoary, rose flowers, camphor and civet. The +incense sticks and pastils known all over India under the names of +_ud-buti_ ("benzoin-light") or _aggar-ki-buti_ ("wood aloes light") are +composed of benzoin, wood aloes, sandalwood, rock lichen, patchouli, +rose-malloes, _talispat_ (the leaf of _Flacourtia Cataphracta_ of +Roxburgh), mastic and sugar-candy or gum. The _abir_ and _aggir butis_ +made at the Mahommedan city of Bijapur in the Mahratta country are +celebrated all over western India. The Indian Mussulmans indeed were +rapidly degenerating into a mere sect of Hindus before the Wahabi +revival, and the more recent political propaganda in support of the +false caliphate of the sultans of Turkey; and we therefore find the +religious use of incense among them more general than among the +Mahommedans of any other country. They use it at the ceremonies of +circumcision, _bismillah_ (teaching the child "the name of God"), +virginity and marriage. At marriage they burn benzoin with _nim_ seeds +(_Melia Azadirachta_, Roxburgh) to keep off evil spirits, and prepare +the bride-cakes by putting a quantity of benzoin between layers of +wheaten dough, closed all round, and frying them in clarified butter. +For days the bride is fed on little else. In their funeral ceremonies, +the moment the spirit has fled incense is burnt before the corpse until +it is carried out to be buried. The begging fakirs also go about with a +lighted stick of incense in one hand, and holding out with the other an +incense-holder (literally, "incense chariot"), into which the coins of +the pious are thrown. Large "incense trees" resembling our Christmas +trees, formed of incense-sticks and pastils and osselets, and alight all +over, are borne by the Shiah Mussulmans in the solennial procession of +the Mohurrum, in commemoration of the martyrdom of the sons of Ali. The +worship of the _tulsi_ plant, or holy basil (_Ocymum sanctum_, Don), by +the Hindus is popularly explained by its consecration to Vishnu and +Krishna. It grows on the four-horned altar before the house, or in a pot +placed in one of the front windows, and is worshipped every morning by +all the female members of every Hindu household. It is possible that its +adoration has survived from the times when the Hindus buried their dead +in their houses, beneath the family hearth. When they came into a hot +climate the fire of the sacrifices and domestic cookery was removed out +of the house; but the dead were probably still for a while buried in or +near it, and the _tulsi_ was planted over their graves, at once for the +salubrious fragrance it diffuses and to represent the burning of incense +on the altar of the family Lar. The rich land round about the holy city +of Pandharpur, sacred to Vithoba the national Mahratta form of +(Krishna)-Vishnu, is wholly restricted to the cultivation of the tulsi +plant. + +As to the [Greek: thyea] mentioned in Homer (_Il._ ix. 499, and +elsewhere) and in Hesiod (_Works and Days_, 338), there is some +uncertainty whether they were incense offerings at all, and if so, +whether they were ever offered alone, and not always in conjunction with +animal sacrifices. That the domestic use, however, of the fragrant wood +[Greek: thyon] (the _Arbor vitae_ or _Cailitris quadrivalvis_ of +botanists, the source of the resin sandarach) was known in the Homeric +age, is shown by the case of Calypso (_Od._ v. 60), and the very +similarity of the word [Greek: thyon] to [Greek: thyos] may be taken as +almost conclusively proving that by that time the same wood was also +employed for religious purposes. It is not probable that the +sweet-smelling gums and resins of the countries of the Indian Ocean +began to be introduced into Greece before the 8th or 7th century B.C., +and doubtless [Greek: libanos] or [Greek: libanôtos] first became an +article of extensive commerce only after the Mediterranean trade with +the East had been opened up by the Egyptian king Psammetichus (c. +664-610 B.C.). The new Oriental word is frequently employed by +Herodotus; and there are abundant references to the use of the thing +among the writers of the golden age of Attic literature (see, for +example, Aristophanes, _Plut._ 1114; _Frogs_, 871, 888; _Clouds_, 426; +_Wasps_, 96, 861). Frankincense, however, though the most common, never +became the only kind of incense offered to the gods among the Greeks. +Thus the Orphic hymns are careful to specify, in connexion with the +several deities celebrated, a great variety of substances appropriate to +the service of each; in the case of many of these the selection seems to +have been determined not at all by their fragrance but by some occult +considerations which it is now difficult to divine. + +Among the Romans the use of religious fumigations long preceded the +introduction of foreign substances for the purpose (see, for example, +Ovid, _Fast._ i. 337 seq., "Et non exiguo laurus adusta sono"). Latterly +the use of frankincense ("mascula thura," Virg. _Ecl._ viii. 65) became +very prevalent, not only in religious ceremonials, but also on various +state occasions, such as in triumphs (Ovid, _Trist_, iv. 2, 4), and also +in connexion with certain occurrences of domestic life. In private it +was daily offered by the devout to the _Lar familiaris_ (Plaut. _Aulul._ +prol. 23); and in public sacrifices it was not only sprinkled on the +head of the victim by the pontifex before its slaughter, and afterwards +mingled with its blood, but was also thrown upon the flames over which +it was roasted. + +No perfectly satisfactory traces can be found of the use of incense in +the ritual of the Christian Church during the first four centuries.[12] +It obviously was not contemplated by the author of the epistle to the +Hebrews; its use was foreign to the synagogue services on which, and not +on those of the temple, the worship of the primitive Christians is well +known to have been originally modelled; and its associations with +heathen solemnities, and with the evil repute of those who were known as +"thurificati," would still further militate against its employment. +Various authors of the ante-Nicene period have expressed themselves as +distinctly unfavourable to its religious, though not of course to its +domestic, use. Thus Tertullian, while (_De Cor. Mil._ 10) ready to +acknowledge its utility in counteracting unpleasant smells ("si me odor +alicujus loci offenderit, Arabiae aliquid incendo"), is careful to say +that he scorns to offer it as an accompaniment to his heartfelt prayers +(_Apol._ 30; cf. 42). Athenagoras also (_Legat._ 13) gives distinct +expression to his sense of the needlessness of any such ritual ("the +Creator and Father of the universe does not require blood, nor smoke, +nor even the sweet smell of flowers and incense"); and Arnobius (_Adv. +Gent._ vii. 26) seeks to justify the Christian neglect of it by the +fact, for which he vouches, that among the Romans themselves incense was +unknown in the time of Numa, while the Etruscans had always continued to +be strangers to it. Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine and the Apostolic +Constitutions make no reference to any such feature either in the public +or private worship of the Christians of that time. The earliest mention, +it would seem, occurs in the Apostolic Canons (can. 3), where the +[Greek: thymiama] is spoken of as one of the requisites of the +eucharistic service. It is easy to perceive how it should inevitably +have come in along with the whole circle of ideas involved in such words +as "temple," "altar," "priest," which about this time came to be so +generally applied in ecclesiastical connexions. Evagrius (vi. 21) +mentions the gift of a [Greek: thymiatêrion] by the contemporary +Chosroes of Persia to the church of Jerusalem; and all the Oriental +liturgies of this period provide special prayers for the thurification +of the eucharistic elements. The oldest _Ordo Romanus_, which perhaps +takes us back to within a century of Gregory the Great, enjoins that in +pontifical masses a sub-deacon, with a golden censer, shall go before +the bishop as he leaves the secretarium for the choir, and two, with +censers, before the deacon gospeller as he proceeds with the gospel to +the ambo. And less than two centuries afterwards we read an order in one +of the capitularies of Hincmar of Reims, to the effect that every priest +ought to be provided with a censer and incense. That in this portion of +their ritual, however, the Christians of that period were not +universally conscious of its direct descent from Mosaic institutions may +be inferred perhaps from the "benediction of the incense" used in the +days of Charlemagne, which runs as follows: "May the Lord bless this +incense to the extinction of every noxious smell, and kindle it to the +odour of its sweetness." Even Thomas Aquinas (p. iii. qu. 83, art. 5) +gives prominence to this idea. + +The character and order of these historical notices of incense would +certainly, were there nothing else to be considered, justify the +conclusion hitherto generally adopted, that its use was wholly unknown +in the worship of the Christian Church before the 5th century. On the +other hand, we know that in the first Christian services held in the +catacombs under the city of Rome, incense was burnt as a sanitary +fumigation at least. Tertullian also distinctly alludes to the use of +aromatics in Christian burial: "the Sabaeans will testify that more of +their merchandise, and that more costly, is lavished on the burial of +Christians, than in burning incense to the gods." And the whole argument +from analogy is in favour of the presumption of the ceremonial use of +incense by the Christians from the first. It is natural that little +should be said of so obvious a practice until the fuller development of +ritual in a later age. The slighting references to it by the Christian +fathers are no more an argument against its existence in the primitive +church than the similar denunciations by the Jewish prophets of +burnt-offerings and sacrifices are any proof that there were no such +rites as the offering of incense, and of the blood of bulls and fat of +rams, in the worship of the temple at Jerusalem. There could be no real +offence to Christians in the burning of incense. Malachi (i. 11) had +already foretold the time when among the Gentiles, in every place, +incense should be offered to God. Gold, with myrrh and frankincense were +offered by the Persian Magi to the infant Jesus at his birth; and in +Revelation viii. 3, 4, the image of the offering of incense with the +prayers of the saints, before the throne of God, is not without its +significance. If also the passage in Ambrose of Milan (on Luke i. 11), +where he speaks of "us" as "adolentes altaria" is to be translated +"incensing the altars," and taken literally, it is a testimony to the +use of incense by the Christian Church in, at least, the 4th century. +But the earliest express mention of the censing of the altar by +Christian priests is in "the works," first quoted in the 6th century, +attributed to "Dionysius the Areopagite," the contemporary of St Paul +(Acts xvii. 34). + +The Missal of the Roman Church now enjoins incensation before the +introit, at the gospel and again at the offertory, and at the elevation, +in every high mass; the use of incense also occurs at the exposition of +the sacrament, at consecrations of churches and the like, in +processions, in the office for the burial of the dead and at the +exhibition of relics. On high festivals the altar is censed at vespers +and lauds. + +In the Church of England the use of incense was gradually abandoned +after the reign of Edward VI., until the ritualistic revival of the +present day. Its use, however, has never been abolished by law. A "Form +for the Consecration of a Censer" occurs in Sancroft's _Form of +Dedication and Consecration of a Church or Chapel_ (1685). In various +works of reference (as, for example, in _Notes and Queries_, 3rd ser. +vol. viii. p. 11) numerous sporadic cases are mentioned in which incense +appears to have been burnt in churches; the evidence, however, does not +go so far as to show that it was used during divine service, least of +all that it was used during the communion office. At the coronation of +George III., one of the king's grooms appeared "in a scarlet dress, +holding a perfuming pan, burning perfumes, as at previous coronations." + +In 1899, on the appeal of the Rev. H. Westall, St Cuthbert's, London, +and the Rev. E. Ram, St John's, Norwich, against the use of incense in +the Church of England, the archbishops of Canterbury (Dr Temple) and +York (Dr Maclagan) supported the appeal. Their decision was reviewed by +Chancellor L. T. Dibdin in the 10th edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_, and the exposition given by Sir Lewis Dibdin of the whole +question of the use of incense in the Church of England may here be +interpolated. (G. B.) + +_Incense in the Church of England._--Mr Scudamore (_Notitia +Eucharistica_, 2nd ed. pp. 141-142) thus describes the method and extent +of the employment of incense at the mass prior to the Reformation:-- + + "According to the use of Sarum (and Bangor) the priest, after being + himself censed by the deacon, censed the altar before the Introit + began. The York rubric directed him to do it immediately alter the + first saying of the Introit, which in England was thrice said. The + Hereford missal gives no direction for censing the altar at that time. + The middle of the altar was censed, according to Sarum, Bangor and + Hereford, before the reading of the Gospel. According to Sarum and + Bangor, the thurible, as well as the lights, attended the Gospel to + the lectern. Perhaps the York rubric implies that this was done when + it orders (which the others do not) the thurible to be carried round + the choir with the Gospel while the Creed was being sung. In the Sarum + and Bangor, the priest censed the oblations after offering them; then + the space between himself and the altar. He was then, at Sarum, censed + by the deacon, and an acolyte censed the choir; at Bangor the + _Sinistrum Cornu_ of the altar and the relics were censed instead. + York and Hereford ordered no censing at the offertory. There is reason + to think that, notwithstanding the order for the use of incense at + every celebration, it was in practice burnt only on high festivals, + and then only in rich churches, down to the period of the Reformation. + In most parishes its costliness alone would preclude its daily use, + while the want of an assistant minister would be a very common reason + for omitting the rite almost everywhere. Incense was not burnt in + private masses, so that the clergy were accustomed to celebrations + without it, and would naturally forego it on any plausible ground." + +The ritual of the mass remained unchanged until the death of Henry VIII. +(Jan. 28, 1547). In March 1548 the _Order of the Communion_ was +published and commanded to be used by royal proclamation in the name of +Edward VI. It was the precursor of the Prayer Book, and supplemented the +accustomed Latin service by additions in English to provide for the +communion of the people in both kinds. But it was expressly stated in a +rubric that the old service of the mass was to proceed without variation +of any rite or ceremony until after the priest had received the +sacrament, that is, until long after the last of the three occasions for +the use of incense explained above. But on Whitsunday 1549 the first +Prayer Book of Edward VI. came into use under an Act of Parliament (2 +and 3 Ed. VI. ch. 1, the first Act of Uniformity) which required its +exclusive use in public worship so as to supersede all other forms of +service. Another Act, 3 and 4 Ed. VI. ch. 10, required the old service +books to be delivered up to be destroyed. The first Prayer Book does not +contain any direction to use or any mention of incense. It has been and +still is a keenly controverted question whether incense did or did not +continue to be in ceremonial use under the first Prayer Book or during +the rest of Edward VI.'s reign. No evidence has hitherto been discovered +which justifies us in answering this question in the affirmative. The +second Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1552), published under the authority +of the second Act of Uniformity (5 and 6 Ed. VI. ch. 1), contains no +reference to incense. Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553. Queen Mary +by statute (1 Mary, sess. 2, ch. 2) abolished the Prayer Book, repealed +the Acts of Uniformity and restored "divine service and administration +of sacraments as were most commonly used in England in the last year of +Henry VIII." The ceremonial use of incense thus became again an +undoubted part of the communion service in the Church of England. A +proclamation issued (December 6, 1553) directed the churchwardens to +obtain the proper ornaments for the churches; and the bishops (at any +rate Bishop Bonner, see _Visitation Articles 1554_, Cardwell's _Doc. +Ann._ i. 149-153) in their visitations inquired whether censers had been +furnished for use. Mary died on the 17th of November 1558. On the 24th +of June 1559 the second Prayer Book of Edward VI. (with a few +alterations having no reference to incense) was again established, under +the authority of the third Act of Uniformity (1 Eliz. ch. 2), as the +exclusive service book for public service. There is no evidence of the +ceremonial use of incense under Elizabeth's Prayer Book, or under the +present Prayer Book of 1662 (established by the fourth Act of +Uniformity, 13 and 14 Charles II. ch. 4) until the middle of the 19th +century; and there is no doubt that as a ceremony of divine worship, +whether at the Holy Communion or at other services, it was entirely +disused. There are, however, a good many instances recorded of what has +been called a fumigatory use of frankincense in churches, by which it +was sought to purify the air, in times of public sickness, or to dispel +the foulness caused by large congregations, or poisonous gases arising +from ill-constructed vaults under the church floor. It seems also to +have been used for the purpose of creating an agreeable perfume on great +occasions, e.g. the great ecclesiastical feasts. But this use of incense +must be carefully distinguished from its ceremonial use. It was +utilitarian and not symbolical, and from the nature of the purpose in +view must have taken place before, rather than during, service. Of the +same character is the use of incense carried in a perfuming pan before +the sovereign at his coronation in the procession from Westminster Hall +to the Abbey. This observance was maintained from James II.'s coronation +to that of George III. In the general revival of church ceremonial which +accompanied and followed the Oxford Movement incense was not forgotten, +and its ceremonial use in the pre-Reformation method has been adopted in +a few extreme churches since 1850. Its use has been condemned as an +illegal ceremony by the ecclesiastical courts. In 1868 Sir Robert +Phillimore (Dean of the Arches) pronounced the ceremonial use of incense +to be illegal in the suit of _Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_ (2 A. and E.L.R. +116). The case was carried to the Privy Council on appeal, but there was +no appeal on the question of incense. Again, in 1870, the ceremonial use +of incense was condemned by Sir Robert Phillimore in the suit of +_Sumner_ v. _Wix_ (3 A. and E.L.R. 58). + +Notwithstanding these decisions, it was insisted by those who defended +the revival of the ceremonial use of incense that it was a legal custom +of the Church of England. The question was once more elaborately argued +in May 1899 before an informal tribunal consisting of the archbishop of +Canterbury (Dr. Temple) and the archbishop of York (Dr. Maclagan), at +Lambeth Palace. On the 31st of July 1899 the archbishops decided that +the liturgical use of incense was illegal. The Lambeth "opinion," as it +was called, failed to convince the clergy against whom it was directed +any better than the judgments of the ecclesiastical courts, but at first +a considerable degree of obedience to the archbishops' view was shown. +Various expedients were adopted, as, e.g., the use of incense just +before the beginning of service, by which it was sought to retain +incense without infringing the law as laid down by the archbishops. +There remained, nevertheless, a tendency on the part of the clergy who +used incense, or desired to do so, to revert to the position they +occupied before the Lambeth hearing--that is, to insist on the +ceremonial use of incense as a part of the Catholic practice of the +Church of England which it is the duty of the clergy to maintain, +notwithstanding the decisions of ecclesiastical judges or the opinions +or archbishops to the contrary. (L. T. D.) + +_Manufacture._--For the manufacture of the incense now used in the +Christian churches of Europe there is no fixed rule. The books of ritual +are agreed that Ex. xxx. 34 should be taken as a guide as much as +possible. It is recommended that frankincense should enter as largely as +possible into its composition, and that if inferior materials be +employed at all they should not be allowed to preponderate. In Rome +olibanum alone is employed; in other places benzoin, storax, lign, +aloes, cascarilla bark, cinnamon, cloves and musk are all said to be +occasionally used. In the Russian Church, benzoin is chiefly employed. +The Armenian liturgy, in its benediction of the incense, speaks of "this +perfume prepared from myrrh and cinnamon." + +The preparation of pastils of incense has probably come down in a +continuous tradition from ancient Egypt, Babylonia and Phoenicia. Cyprus +was for centuries famous for their manufacture, and they were still +known in the middle ages by the names of pastils or osselets of Cyprus. + +Maimonides, in his _More Nevochim_, states that the use of incense in +the worship of the Jews originated as a corrective of the disagreeable +odours arising from the slaughter and burning of the animals offered in +sacrifice. There can be no doubt that its use throughout the East is +based on sanitary considerations; and in Europe even, in the time when +the dead were buried in the churches, it was recognized that the burning +of incense served essentially to preserve their salubrity. But evidently +the idea that the odour of a burnt-offering (cf. the [Greek: knisês +hêdys autmê] of _Odyss._ xii. 369) is grateful to the deity, being +indeed the most essential part of the sacrifice, or at least the vehicle +by which alone it can successfully be conveyed to its destination, is +also a very early one, if not absolutely primitive; and survivals of it +are possibly to be met with even among the most highly cultured peoples +where the purely symbolical nature of all religious ritual is most +clearly understood and maintained. Some such idea plainly underlies the +familiar phrase "a sweet savour," more literally "a savour of +satisfaction," whereby an acceptable offering by fire is so often +denoted in the Bible (Gen. viii. 21; Lev. i. 9, _et passim_; cf. Eph. v. +2). It is easy to imagine how, as men grew in sensuous appreciation of +pleasant perfumes, and in empirical knowledge of the sources from which +these could be derived, this advance would naturally express itself, not +only in their domestic habits, but also in the details of their +religious ceremonial, so that the custom of adding some kind of incense +to their animal sacrifices, and at length that of offering it pure and +simple, would inevitably arise. Ultimately, with the development of the +spiritual discernment of men, the "offering of incense" became a mere +symbolical phrase for prayer (see Rev. v. 8, viii. 3, 4). Clement of +Alexandria expresses this in his well-known words: "The true altar of +incense is the just soul, and the perfume from it is holy prayer." (So +also Origen, _Cont. Cels._ viii. 17, 20.) The ancients were familiar +with the sanitary efficacy of fumigations. The energy with which +Ulysses, after the slaughter of the suitors, calls to Euryclea for "fire +and sulphur" to purge (literally "fumigate") the dining-hall from the +pollution of their blood (_Od._ xxii. 481, 482) would startle those who +imagine that sanitation is a peculiarly modern science. There is not the +slightest doubt that the censing of things and persons was first +practised as an act of purification, and thus became symbolical of +consecration, and finally of the sanctification of the soul. The +Egyptians understood the use of incense as symbolical of the +purification of the soul by prayer. Catholic writers generally treat it +as typifying contrition, the preaching of the Gospel, the prayers of the +faithful and the virtues of the saints. (G. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Incensum_ (or _incensum thuris_) from _incendere_; Ital. and + Port. _incenso_; Span. _incienso_; Fr. _encens_. The substantive + occurs in an inscription of the Arvalian brotherhood (Marini, _Gli + Atti e Monumenti de' fratelli Arvali_, p. 639), but is frequent only + in ecclesiastical Latin. Compare the classical _suffimentum_ and + _suffitus_ from _suffio_. For "incense" Ulfila (Luke i. 10, 11) has + retained the Greek [Greek: thymiama] (thymiama); all the Teutonic + names (Ger. _Weihrauch_; Old Saxon _Wîrôc_; Icel. _Reykelsi_; Dan. + _Rögelse_) seem to belong to the Christian period (Grimm, _Deutsche + Mythologie_, i. 50). + + [2] The etymological affinities of [Greek: thyô, thyos], _thus_, + _fuffio_, _funus_, and the Sans. _dhuma_ are well known. See Max + Müller, _Chips_, i. 99. + + [3] Classical Latin has but one word (_thus_ or _tus_) for all sorts + of incense. _Libanus_, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate. + Even the "ground frankincense" or "ground pine" (_Ajuga chamaepitys_) + was known to the Romans as _Tus terrae_ (Pliny), although they called + some plant, from its smelling like frankincense, _Libanotis_, and a + kind of Thasian wine, also from its fragrance, _Libanios_. The + Latino-barbaric word _Olibanum_ (quasi _Oleum Libani_), the common + name for frankincense in modern commerce, is used in a bull of Pope + Benedict IX. (1033). It may here be remarked that the name "European + frankincense" is applied to _Pinus Taeda_, and to the resinous + exudation ("Burgundy pitch") of the Norwegian spruce firs (_Abies + excelsa_). The "incense tree" of America is the _Icica guianensis_, + and the "incense wood" of the same continent _I. heptaphylla_. + + [4] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 77-81, 414-419. + + [5] Plutarch, _De Iside et Osiride_, c. 52. In Parthey's edition + (Berlin, 1850) other recipes for the manufacture of _kuphi_, by Galen + and Dioscorides, are given; also some results of the editor's own + experiments. + + [6] Wilkinson, _Ancient Egyptians_, i. 493; ii. 49, 398-400, 414-416. + + [7] Brugsch, _Egypt under the Pharaohs_, i. 303-312. + + [8] See Lane, _Mod. Egyptians_, pp. 34, 41, 139, 187, 438 (ed. 1860). + + [9] See Wellhausen, _Gesch. Israels_, i. 70 sqq., who from + philological and other data infers the late date of the introduction + of incense into the Jewish ritual. + + [10] According to Philo (_Opera_, i. 504, ed. Mangey), they + symbolized respectively water, earth, air and fire. + + [11] Other accounts of its composition, drawn from Rabbinical + sources, will be found in various works on Jewish antiquities; see, + for example, Reland, _Antiq. Sacr. vet. Hebr._ pp. 39-41 (1712). + + [12] This guarded statement still holds good. Compare Duchesne, + _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., 1904), ch. ii., "The Mass in the + East," v. "The Books of the Latin Rite," and xii. "The Dedication of + Churches." + + + + +INCEST (Lat. _incestus_, unchaste), sexual intercourse between persons +so related by kindred or affinity that legal marriage cannot take place +between them (see MARRIAGE, especially the section _Canon Law_). In +England incest formerly was not generally treated as a crime, although, +along with other offences against morals, it was made punishable by +death in 1650. Since the Restoration it had, to use Blackstone's phrase, +been left to the "feeble coercion of the spiritual courts," but bills to +make it a criminal offence have at various times been unsuccessfully +introduced in Parliament. In 1908 however, an act (The Punishment of +Incest Act 1908) was passed, under which sexual intercourse of a male +with his grand-daughter, daughter, sister or mother is made punishable +with penal servitude for not less than 3 or more than 7 years, or with +imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour. It +is immaterial that the sexual intercourse was had with the consent of +the female; indeed, by s. 2 a female who consents is on conviction +liable to the same punishment as the male. The act also makes an attempt +to commit the offence of incest a misdemeanour, punishable by +imprisonment for not more than two years with or without hard labour. +The terms "brother" and "sister" include half-brother and half-sister, +whether the relationship is or is not traced through lawful wedlock. All +proceedings under the act are held _in camera_ (s. 5). The act does not +apply to Scotland, incest being punishable in Scots law. Under the +Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, s. 27, incestuous adultery is _per se_ +sufficient ground to entitle a wife to divorce her husband. The Deceased +Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907, s. 3, retained wives' sisters in the +class of persons with whom adultery is incestuous. In the law of +Scotland, it was, until the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887, a +crime nominally punishable with death, but the penalty usually inflicted +was penal servitude for life. This sentence was actually pronounced on a +man in 1855. In the United States incest is not an indictable offence at +common law, but, generally speaking, it has been made punishable by fine +and imprisonment by state legislation. It is also a punishable offence +in some European countries, notably Germany, Austria and Italy. + + + + +INCH (O. Eng. _ynce_ from Lat. _uncia_, a twelfth part; cf. "ounce," and +see As), the twelfth part of a linear foot. As a measure of rainfall an +"inch of rain" is equivalent to a fall of a gallon of water spread over +a surface of about 2 sq. ft., or 100 tons to an acre. + + + + +INCHBALD, MRS ELIZABETH (1753-1821), English novelist, playwright and +actress, was born on the 15th of October 1753 at Standingfield, Suffolk, +the daughter of John Simpson, a farmer. Her father died when she was +eight years old. She and her sisters never enjoyed the advantages of +school or of any regular supervision in their studies, but they seem to +have acquired refined and literary tastes at an early age. Ambitious to +become an actress, a career for which an impediment in her speech hardly +seemed to qualify her, she applied in vain for an engagement; and +finally, in 1772, she abruptly left home to seek her fortune in London. +Here she married Joseph Inchbald (d. 1779), an actor, and on the 4th of +September made her début in Bristol as Cordelia, to his Lear. For +several years she continued to act with him in the provinces. Her rôles +included Anne Boleyn, Jane Shore, Calista, Calpurnia, Lady Anne in +_Richard III._, Lady Percy, Lady Elizabeth Grey, Fanny in _The +Clandestine Marriage_, Desdemona, Aspasia in _Tamerlane_, Juliet and +Imogen; but notwithstanding her great beauty and her natural aptitude +for acting, her inability to acquire rapid and easy utterance prevented +her from attaining to more than very moderate success. After the death +of her husband she continued for some time on the stage; making her +first London appearance at Covent Garden as Bellario in _Philaster_ on +the 3rd of October 1780. Her success, however, as an author led her to +retire in 1789. She died at Kensington House on the 1st of August 1821. + +Mrs. Inchbald wrote or adapted nineteen plays, and some of them, +especially _Wives as They Were and Maids as They Are_ (1797), were for a +time very successful. Among the others may be mentioned _I'll tell you +What_ (translated into German, Leipzig, 1798); _Such Things Are_ (1788); +_The Married Man_; _The Wedding Day_; _The Midnight Hour_; _Everyone has +his Fault_; and _Lover's Vows_. She also edited a collection of the +_British Theatre_, with biographical and critical remarks (25 vols., +1806-1809); a _Collection of Farces_ (7 vols., 1809); and _The Modern +Theatre_ (10 vols., 1809). Her fame, however, rests chiefly on her two +novels: _A Simple Story_ (1791), and _Nature and Art_ (1796). These +works possess many minor faults and inaccuracies, but on the whole their +style is easy, natural and graceful; and if they are tainted in some +degree by a morbid and exaggerated sentiment, and display none of that +faculty of creation possessed by the best writers of fiction, the +pathetic situations, and the deep and pure feeling pervading them, +secured for them a wide popularity. + + Mrs Inchbald destroyed an autobiography for which she had been offered + £1000 by Phillips the publisher; but her _Memoirs_, compiled by J. + Boaden, chiefly from her private journal, appeared in 1833 in two + volumes. An interesting account of Mrs Inchbald is contained in + _Records of a Girlhood_, by Frances Ann Kemble (1878). Her portrait + was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. + + + + +INCHIQUIN, MURROUGH O'BRIEN, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1614-1674), Irish soldier +and statesman, was the son of Dermod O'Brien, 5th Baron Inchiquin (d. +1624). He belonged to a great family which traced its descent to Brian +Boroimhe, king of Ireland, and members of which were always to the +forefront in Irish public life. The first baron of Inchiquin was another +Murrough O'Brien (d. 1551) who, after having made his submission to +Henry VIII., was created baron of Inchiquin and earl of Thomond in 1543. +When Murrough died in November 1551 by a curious arrangement his earldom +passed to his nephew Donogh, son of Conor O'Brien (d. 1539), the last +independent prince of Thomond (see Thomond, Earls of), leaving only his +barony to be inherited by his son Dermod (d. 1557), the ancestor of the +later barons of Inchiquin. + +Murrough O'Brien, who became 6th baron of Inchiquin in 1624, gained some +military experience in Italy, and then in 1640 was appointed +vice-president of Munster. He took an active and leading part in +suppressing the great Irish rebellion which broke out in the following +year, and during the Civil War the English parliament made him president +of Munster. Early in 1648, however, he declared, for his former master +Charles I., and for about two years he sought to uphold the royalist +cause in Ireland. In 1654 Charles II. made him an earl. His later years +were partly spent in France and in Spain, but he had returned to Ireland +when he died on the 9th of September 1674. + +His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1638-1692), served under his father in +France and Spain, and for six years was governor of Tangier. He was a +partisan of William III. in Ireland, and in 1690 he became governor of +Jamaica where he died in January 1692. In 1800 his descendant Murrough, +the 5th earl (d. 1808), was created marquess of Thomond, but on the +death of James, the 3rd marquess, in July 1855 both the marquessate and +the earldom became extinct. The barony of Inchiquin, however, passed to +a kinsman, Sir Lucius O'Brien, Bart. (1800-1872), a descendant of the +first baron and a brother of William Smith O'Brien (q.v.). + + + + +INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN (1763-1826), English singer, son of a doctor +in Cornwall, began as a choir-boy at Exeter, but then went into the +navy. His fine tenor voice, however, attracted general attention, and +in 1783 he determined to seek his fortune on the stage. After various +provincial appearances he made a great success in 1790 at Covent Garden, +and thenceforth was the principal English tenor of his day. He sang both +in opera and in oratorio, but his chief popularity lay in his delivery +of ballads, such as "Sally in our Alley," "Black-eyed Susan," "The +Arethusa," and anything of a bold and manly type. He toured in America +in 1817; and on retiring in 1822 from the operatic stage, he travelled +through the provinces with an entertainment called "The Wandering +Melodist." He died of paralysis at Worcester on the 11th of February +1826. + + + + +INCLINOMETER (DIP CIRCLE). Two distinct classes of instruments are used +for measuring the dip (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL) or inclination of the +earth's magnetic field to the horizontal, namely (1) dip circles, and +(2) induction inclinometers or earth inductors. + +[Illustration] + +_Dip Circles._--In the case of the dip circle the direction of the +earth's magnetic field is obtained by observing the position of the axis +of a magnetized needle so supported as to be free to turn about a +horizontal axis passing through its centre of gravity. The needles now +used consist of flat lozenge-shaped pieces of steel about 9 cm. long and +0.1 cm. thick, and weigh about 4.1 grams. The axle, which is made of +hard steel, projects on either side of the needle and has a diameter of +about 0.05 cm. Needles considerably larger than the above have been +used, but experience showed that the values for the dip observed with +needles 23 cm. long, was about 1' less than with the 9 cm. needles, and +A. Schuster (_Phil. Mag._, 1891 [5], 31, p. 275) has shown that the +difference is due to the appreciable bending of the longer needles owing +to their weight. + +When in use the dip needle is supported on two agate knife-edges, so +that its axle is on the axis of a vertical divided circle, on which the +positions of the ends of the needle are either directly observed by +means of two reading lenses, in which case the circle is generally +divided into thirds of a degree so that it can by estimation be read to +about two minutes, or a cross arm carries two small microscopes and two +verniers, the cross wires of each microscope being adjusted so as to +bisect the image of the corresponding end of the needle. Two V-shaped +lifters actuated by a handle serve to raise the needle from the agates, +and when lowered assure the axle being at the centre of the vertical +circle. The supports for the needle, and a box to protect the needle +from draughts, as well as the vertical circle, can be rotated about a +vertical axis, and their azimuth read off on a horizontal divided +circle. There are also two adjustable stops which can be set in any +position, and allow the upper part of the instrument to be rotated +through exactly 180° without the necessity of reading the horizontal +circle. + +When making a determination of the dip with the dip circle, a number of +separate readings have to be made in order to eliminate various +instrumental defects. Thus, that side of the needle on which the number +is engraved being called the face of the needle, and that side of the +protecting box next the vertical circle the face of the instrument, both +ends of the needle are observed in the following relative positions, the +instrument being in every case so adjusted in azimuth that the axle of +the needle points magnetic east and west:-- + + i. Face of instrument east and face of needle next to face of + instrument; + ii. Face of instrument west and face of needle next to face of + instrument; + iii. Face of instrument west and face of needle away from face of + instrument; + iv. Face of instrument east and face of needle away from face of + instrument. + +Next the direction of magnetization of the needle is reversed by +stroking it a number of times with two strong permanent magnets, when +the other end of the needle dips and the above four sets of readings are +repeated. The object in reading both ends of the needle is to avoid +error if the prolongation of the axle of the needle does not pass +through the centre of the vertical circle, as also to avoid error due to +the eccentricity of the arm which carries the reading microscopes and +verniers. The reversal of the instrument between (i.) and (ii.) and +between (iii.) and (iv.) is to eliminate errors due to (a) the line +joining the zeros of the vertical circle not being exactly horizontal, +and (b) the agate knife-edges which support the needle not being exactly +horizontal. The reversal of the needle between (ii.) and (iii.) is to +eliminate errors due to (a) the magnetic axis of the needle not +coinciding with the line joining the two points of the needle, and (b) +to the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the centre +of the axle in a direction at right angles to the length of the needle. +The reversal of the poles of the needle is to counteract any error +produced by the centre of gravity of the needle being displaced from the +centre of the axle in a direction parallel to the length of the needle. + +For use at sea the dip circle was modified, by Robert Were Fox (_Annals +of Electricity_, 1839, 3, p. 288), who used a needle having pointed +axles, the points resting in jewelled holes carried by two uprights, so +that the movement of the ship does not cause the axle of the needle to +change its position with reference to the vertical divided circle. To +counteract the tendency of the axle to stick in the bearings, the +instrument is fitted with a knob on the top of the box protecting the +needle, and when a reading is being taken this knob is rubbed with an +ivory or horn disk, the surface of which is corrugated. In this way a +tremor is caused which is found to assist the needle in overcoming the +effects of friction, so that it takes up its true position. In the Creak +modification of the Fox dip circle, the upper halves of the jewels which +form the bearings are cut away so that the needle can be easily removed, +and thus the reversals necessary when making a complete observation can +be performed (see also MAGNETO-METER). + +_Induction Inclinometers._--The principle on which induction +inclinometers depend is that if a coil of insulated wire is spun about a +diameter there will be an alternating current induced in the coil, +unless the axis about which it turns is parallel to the lines of force +of the earth's field. Hence if the axis about which such a coil spins is +adjusted till a sensitive galvanometer connected to the coil through a +commutator, by which the alternating current is converted into a direct +current, is undeflected, then the axis must be parallel to the lines of +force of the earth's field, and hence the inclination of the axis to the +horizontal is the dip. The introduction and perfection of this type of +inclinometer is almost entirely due to H. Wild. His form of instrument +for field observations[1] consists of a coil 10 cm. in diameter, +containing about 1000 turns of silk-covered copper wire, the resistance +being about 40 ohms, which is pivoted inside a metal ring. This ring can +itself rotate about a horizontal axle in its own plane, this axle being +at right angles to that about which the coil can rotate. Attached to the +axle of the ring is a divided circle, by means of which and two reading +microscopes the inclination of the axis of rotation of the coil to the +horizontal can be read. The bearings which support the horizontal axle +of the ring are mounted on a horizontal annulus which can be rotated in +a groove attached to the base of the instrument, as so to allow the +azimuth of the axle of the ring, and hence also that of the plane in +which the axis of the coil can move, to be adjusted. The coil is rotated +by means of a flexible shaft worked by a small cranked handle and a +train of gear wheels. The terminals of the coil are taken to a two-part +commutator of the ordinary pattern on which rest two copper brushes +which are connected by flexible leads to a sensitive galvanometer. The +inclination of the axis of the coil can be roughly adjusted by hand by +rotating the supporting ring. The final adjustment is made by means of a +micrometer screw attached to an arm which is clamped on the axle of the +ring. + +When making a measurement the azimuth circle is first set horizontal, a +striding level placed on the trunnions which carry the ring being used +to indicate when the adjustment is complete. The striding level is then +placed on the axle which carries the coil, and when the bubble is at the +centre of the scale the microscopes are adjusted to the zeros of the +vertical circle. A box containing a long compass needle and having two +feet with inverted V's is placed to rest on the axle of the coil, and +the instrument is turned in azimuth till the compass needle points to a +lubber line on the box. By this means the axis of the coil is brought +into the magnetic meridian. The commutator being connected to a +sensitive galvanometer, the coil is rotated, and the ring adjusted till +the galvanometer is undeflected. The reading on the vertical circle then +gives the dip. By a system of reversals slight faults in the adjustment +of the instrument can be eliminated as in the case of the dip circle. +With such an instrument it is claimed that readings of dip can be made +accurate to ±0.1 minutes of arc. + +The form of Wild inductor for use in a fixed observatory differs from +the above in that the coil consists of a drum-wound armature, but +without iron, of which the length is about three times the diameter. +This armature has its axle mounted in a frame attached to the sloping +side of a stone pillar, so that the axis of rotation is approximately +parallel to the lines of force of the earth's field. By means of two +micrometer screws the inclination of the axis to the magnetic meridian +and to the horizontal can be adjusted. The armature is fitted with a +commutator and a system of gear wheels by means of which it can be +rapidly rotated. The upper end of the axle carries a plane mirror, the +normal to which is adjusted parallel to the axis of rotation of the +armature. A theodolite is placed on the top of the pillar and the +telescope is turned so that the image of the cross-wires, seen by +reflection in the mirror, coincides with the wires themselves. In this +way the axis of the theodolite telescope is placed parallel to the axis +of the armature, and hence the dip can be read off on the altitude +circle of the theodolite. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references already given the + following papers may be consulted: (1) _Admiralty Manual of Scientific + Inquiry_, which contains directions for making observations with a dip + circle; (2) Stewart and Gee, _Elementary Practical Physics_, which + contains a full description of the dip circle and instructions for + making a set of observations; (3) L. A. Bauer, _Terrestrial Magnetism_ + (1901), 6, p. 31, a memoir which contains the results of a comparison + of the values for the dip obtained with a number of different circles; + (4) E. Leyst, _Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der + Wiss._ (St Petersburg, 1887), 10, No. 5, containing a discussion of + the errors of dip circles; (5) H. Wild, _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. des + Sci. de St Pétersbourg_ (March 1895), a paper which considers the + accuracy obtainable with the earth inductor. (W. Wn.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Repertorium für Meteorologie der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch._ + (St Petersburg, 1892), 16, No. 2, or _Meteorolog. Zeits._ (1895), 12, + p. 41. + + + + +INCLOSURE, or ENCLOSURE, in law, the fencing in of waste or common lands +by the lord of the manor for the purpose of cultivation. For the history +of the inclosure of such lands, and the legislation, dating from 1235, +which deals with it, see COMMONS. + + + + +IN COENA DOMINI, a papal bull, so called from its opening words, +formerly issued annually on Holy Thursday (in Holy Week), or later on +Easter Monday. Its first publication was in 1363. It was a statement of +ecclesiastical censure against heresies, schisms, sacrilege, +infringement of papal and ecclesiastical privileges, attacks on person +and property, piracy, forgery and other crimes. For two or three hundred +years it was varied from time to time, receiving its final form from +Pope Urban VIII. in 1627. Owing to the opposition of the sovereigns of +Europe both Protestant and Catholic, who regarded the bull as an +infringement of their rights, its publication was discontinued by Pope +Clement XIV. in 1770. + + + + +INCOME TAX, in the United Kingdom a general tax on income derived from +every source. Although a graduated tax on income from certain fixed +sources was levied in 1435 and again in 1450, it may be said that the +income tax in its present form dates in England from its introduction by +W. Pitt in 1798 "granting to His Majesty an aid and contribution for the +prosecution of the war." This act of 1798 merely increased the duties of +certain assessed taxes, which were regulated by the amount of income of +the person assessed, provided his income amounted to £60 or upwards. +These duties were repealed by an act of 1799 (39 Geo. III. c. 13), which +imposed a duty of 10% on all incomes from whatever sources derived, +incomes under £60 a year being exempt, and reduced rates charged on +incomes between that amount and £200 a year. The produce of this tax was +£6,046,624 for the first year, as compared with £1,855,996, the produce +of the earlier tax. This income tax was repealed after the peace of +Amiens, but the renewal of the war in 1803 caused its revival. At the +same time was introduced the principle of "collection at the source" +(i.e. collection before the income reaches the person to whom it +belongs), which is still retained in the English Revenue system, and +which, it has been said, is mainly responsible for the present +development of income tax and the ease with which it is collected. The +act of 1803 (43 Geo. III. c. 122) distributed the various descriptions +of income under different schedules, known as A, B, C, D and E. A rate +of 5% was imposed on all incomes of £150 a year and over, with +graduation on incomes between £60 and £150. This income tax of 5% +collected at the source yielded almost as much as the previous tax of +10% collected direct from each taxpayer. The tax was continued from year +to year with the principle unchanged but with variations in the rate +until the close of the war in 1815, when it was repealed. It was, during +its first imposition, regarded as essentially a war tax, and in later +days, when it was reimposed, it was always considered as an emergency +tax, to be levied only to relieve considerable financial strain, but it +has now taken its place as a permanent source of national income, and is +the most productive single tax in the British financial system. The +income tax was revived in 1842 by Sir R. Peel, not as a war tax, but to +enable him to effect important financial reforms (see TAXATION). +Variations both in the rate levied and the amount of income exempted +have taken place from time to time, the most important, probably, being +found in the Finance Acts of 1894, 1897, 1898, 1907 and 1909-1910. + + It will be useful to review the income tax as it existed before the + important changes introduced in 1909. It was, speaking broadly, a tax + levied on all incomes derived from sources within the United Kingdom, + or received by residents in the United Kingdom from other sources. + Incomes under £160 were exempt; an abatement allowed of £160 on those + between £160 and £400; of £150 on those between £400 and £500; of £120 + on those between £500 and £600, and of £70 on those between £600 and + £700. An abatement was also allowed on account of any premiums paid + for life insurance, provided they did not exceed one-sixth of the + total income. The limit of total exemption was fixed in 1894, when it + was raised from £150; and the scale of abatements was revised in 1898 + by admitting incomes between £500 and £700; the Finance Act 1907 + distinguished between "earned" and "unearned" income, granting relief + to the former over the latter by 3d. in the pound, where the income + from all sources did not exceed £2000. The tax was assessed as + mentioned above, under five different schedules, known as A, B, C, D + and E. Under schedule A was charged the income derived from landed + property, including houses, the annual value or rent being the basis + of the assessment. The owner is the person taxed, whether he is or is + not in occupation. In England the tax under this schedule is obtained + from the occupier, who, if he is not the owner, recovers from the + latter by deducting the tax from the rent. In Scotland this tax is + usually paid by the owner as a matter of convenience, but in Ireland + it is by law chargeable to him. All real property is subject to the + tax, with certain exceptions:--(a) crown property, such as public + offices, prisons, &c.; (b) certain properties belonging to charitable + and educational bodies, as hospitals, public schools, colleges, + almshouses, &c.; (c) public parks or recreation grounds; (d) certain + realities of companies such as mines, quarries, canals, &c., from + which no profit is derived beyond the general profit of the concern to + which they belong. Under schedule B were charged the profits arising + from the occupation of land, the amount of such profits being assumed + to be one-third of the annual value of the land as fixed for the + purposes of schedule A. This applies principally to farmers who might, + if they chose, be assessed on schedule D on their actual profits. + Schedule C included income derived from interest, &c., payable out of + the public funds of the United Kingdom or any other country. Schedule + D, the most important branch of the income tax and the most difficult + to assess, included profits arising from trade, from professional or + other employment, and from foreign property, the assessment in most + cases being made on an average of the receipts for three years. + Schedule E covered the salaries and pensions of persons in the + employment of the state or of public bodies, and of the officials of + public companies, &c. The method of assessment and collection of the + tax is uniformly the same. Under schedules A, B and D it is in the + hands of local authorities known as the General or District + Commissioners of Taxes. They are appointed by the Land Tax + Commissioners out of their own body, and, as regards assessment, are + not in any way controlled by the executive government. They appoint a + clerk, who is their principal officer and legal adviser, assessors for + each parish and collectors. There is an appeal from their decisions to + the High Court of Justice on points of law, but not on questions of + fact. Assessments under schedules A and B are usually made every five + years, and under schedule D every year. The interests of the revenue + are looked after by officers of the Board of Inland Revenue, styled + surveyors of taxes, who are stationed in different parts of the + country. They are in constant communication with the Board, and with + the public on all matters relating to the assessment and collection of + the tax; they attend the meetings of the local commissioners, examine + the assessments and the taxpayers' returns, and watch the progress of + the collection. There are also certain officers, known as special + commissioners, who are appointed by the crown, and receive fixed + salaries from public funds. For the purpose of schedule D, any + taxpayer may elect to be assessed by them instead of by the local + commissioners; and those who object to their affairs being disclosed + to persons in their own neighbourhood may thus have their assessments + made without any risk of publicity. The special commissioners also + assess the profits of railway companies under schedule D, and profits + arising from foreign or colonial sources under schedules C and D. The + greater part of the incomes under schedule E is assessed by the + commissioners for public offices, appointed by the several departments + of the government. + +Previously to 1909 the rate of income tax has been as high as 16d. (in +1855-1857), and as low as 2d. (in 1874-1876). Each penny of the tax was +estimated to produce in 1906-1907 a revenue of £2,666,867.[1] + +It had long been felt that there were certain inequalities in the income +tax which could be adjusted without any considerable difficulty, and +from time to time committees have met and reported upon the subject. +Select committees reported in 1851-1852 and in 1861, and a Departmental +Committee in 1905. In 1906 a select committee was appointed to inquire +into and report upon the practicability of graduating the income tax, +and of differentiating, for the purpose of the tax, between permanent +and precarious incomes. The summary of the conclusions contained in +their _Report_ (365 of 1906) was:-- + + 1. Graduation of the income tax by an extension of the existing system + of abatements is practicable. But it could not be applied to all + incomes from the highest to the lowest, with satisfactory results. The + limits of prudent extension would be reached when a large increase in + the rate of tax to be collected at the source was necessitated, and + the total amount which was collected in excess of what was ultimately + retained became so large as to cause serious inconvenience to trade + and commerce and to individual taxpayers. Those limits would not be + exceeded by raising the amount of income on which an abatement would + be allowed to £1000 or even more. + + 2. Graduation by a super-tax is practicable. If it be desired to levy + a much higher rate of tax upon large incomes (say of £5000 and + upwards) than has hitherto been charged, a super-tax based on personal + declaration would be a practicable method. + + 3. Abandonment of the system of "collection at the source" and + adoption of the principle of direct personal assessment of the whole + of each person's income would be inexpedient. + + 4. Differentiation between earned and unearned incomes is practicable, + especially if it be limited to earned incomes not exceeding £3000 a + year, and effect be given to it by charging a lower rate of tax upon + them. + + 5. A compulsory personal declaration from each individual of total net + income in respect of which tax is payable is expedient, and would do + much to prevent the evasion and avoidance of income tax which at + present prevail. + +Acting upon the report of this committee the Finance Bill of 1909 was +framed to give effect to the principles of graduation and +differentiation. The rate upon the earned portion of incomes of persons +whose total income did not exceed £3000 was left unchanged, viz. 9d. in +the pound up to £2000, and 1s. in the pound between £2000 and £3000. But +the rate of 1s. in the pound on all unearned incomes and on the earned +portion of incomes over £2000 from all sources was raised to 1s. 2d. In +addition to the ordinary tax of 1s. 2d. in the pound, a super-tax of 6d. +in the pound was levied on all incomes exceeding £5000 a year, the +super-tax being paid upon the amount by which the incomes exceed £3000 a +year. A special abatement of £10 a child for every child under the age +of sixteen was allowed upon all incomes under £500 a year. No abatements +or exemptions were allowed to persons not resident in the United +Kingdom, except in the case of crown servants and persons residing +abroad on account of their health. Certain abatements for improvements +were also allowed to the owners of land or houses. + + The estimated increased yield of the income tax for 1909-1910 on these + lines was £2,500,000, which excluded the abatements allowed for + improvements. The super-tax was estimated to yield a sum of £500,000, + which would be increased ultimately to £2,500,000, when all returns + and assessments were made. + +The following accounts show the operation of the same system of taxation +in other countries:--[2] + + _Austria._--The income tax dates from 1849, but the existing tax, + which is arranged on a progressive system, came into force on the 1st + of January 1898. The tax is levied on net income, deductions from the + gross income being allowed for upkeep of business, houses and lands, + for premiums paid for insurance against injuries, for interest on + business and private debts, and for payment of taxes other than income + tax. Incomes under £50 a year are exempt, the rate of taxation at the + first stage (£52) being 0.6 of the income; at the twelfth stage (£100) + the rate is 1%, at the twenty-seventh stage (£300) it rises to 2%, at + the forty-third stage (£1000) it is 3%, and at the fifty-sixth (£2500) + it is 3½%; an income of £4000 pays 4%; from £4000 up to £8333 per + annum progression rises at £166 a step, and for every step £8, 6s. 8d. + taxation is assessed. Incomes between £8333 and £8750 pay £387, 10s.; + incomes over £8750 are taxed £20, 6s. 8d. at each successive stage of + £417, 10s. Certain persons are exempt from the tax, viz.:--(a) the + emperor; (b) members of the imperial family, as far as regards such + sums as they receive as allowances; (c) the diplomatic corps, the + consular corps who are not Austrian citizens, and the official staffs + and foreign servants of the embassies, legations and consulates; (d) + such people as are exempted by treaty or by the law of nations; (e) + people in possession of pensions from the Order of Maria Theresa, and + those who receive pensions on account of wounds or the pension + attached to the medal for bravery, are exempted as far as the pensions + are concerned; (f) officers, chaplains and men of the army and navy + have no tax levied on their pay; (g) all other military persons, and + such people as are included in the scheme of mobilization are exempted + from any tax on their pay. Special allowances are made for incomes + derived from labour, either physical or mental, as well as for a + family with several children. There are also special exemptions in + certain cases where the annual income does not exceed £4167, 10s., + viz.--(a) special charges for educating children who may be blind, + deaf, dumb or crippled; (b) expense in maintaining poor relations; (c) + perpetual illness; (d) debts; (e) special misfortunes caused by fire + or floods; (f) being called out for military service. The tax is + assessed usually on a direct return from the individual taxpayer, + except in the cases of fixed salaries and wages, on which the tax is + collected from the employer, who either deducts it from the salary of + the employee or pays it out of his own pocket. The tax, which is + assessed on the income of the previous year, is paid direct to the + collector's office in two instalments--one on the 1st of June and the + other on the 1st of December. + + _Belgium._--No income tax proper exists in Belgium, but there is a + state tax of 2% on the dividends of joint stock companies. + + _Denmark._--Income tax is levied under a law of the 15th of May 1903. + Incomes under 2000 kroner pay a tax of 1.3%; under 3000 kroner, 1.4%; + under 4000 kroner, 1.5%; under 6000 kroner, 1.6%; under 8000 kroner, + 1.7%; under 10,000 kroner, 1.8%; under 15,000 kroner, 1.9%; under + 20,000 kroner, 2.0% and for every additional 10,000 kroner up to + 100,000 kroner 1%, incomes of 100,000 kroner and upwards paying 2.5%. + Exempt from the duty are--the king, members of the royal family and + the civil list; the legations, staffs and consular officers of foreign + powers (not being Danish subjects); foreigners temporarily resident in + the country; mortgage societies, credit institutions, savings and loan + banks. The increase in capital resulting from an increase in value of + properties is not deemed income--on the other hand no deduction in + income is made if such properties decrease in value--nor are daily + payments and travelling expenses received for the transaction of + business on public service, if the person has thereby been obliged to + reside outside his own parish. Certain deductions can be made in + calculating income--such as working expenses, office expenses, + pensions and other burthens, amounts paid for direct taxation, dues to + commune and church, tithe, tenant and farming charges, heirs' + allowances and similar burthens; interest on mortgages and other + debts, and what has been spent for necessary maintenance or insurance + of the property of the taxpayer. There are also certain exemptions + with respect to companies not having an establishment in the country. + + _France._--There is no income tax in France corresponding exactly to + that levied in the United Kingdom. There are certain direct taxes, + such as the taxes on buildings, _personnelle mobilière_, and doors and + windows (_impôts de répartition_)--the tax levied on income from land + and from all trades and professions (_impôts de quotité_) which bear a + certain resemblance to portions of the British income tax (see FRANCE: + _Finance_). From time to time a graduated income tax has been under + discussion in the French Chambers, the proposal being to substitute + such a tax for the existing (_personnelle mobilière_) and doors and + windows taxes, but no agreement on the matter has been reached. + + _German Empire._--In Prussia the income tax is levied under a law of + the 24th of June 1891. All persons with incomes of over £150 per annum + are required to send in an annual declaration of their full income, + divided according to four main sources--(a) capital; (b) landed + property; (c) trade and industry; (d) employment bringing gain, this + latter including the salary or wages of workmen, servants and + industrial assistants, military persons and officials; also the + receipts of authors, artists, scientists, teachers and tutors. + Liability for income tax, however, begins with an income of £45, and + rises by a regular system of progression, the rate being about 3% of + the income. Thus an income of more than £45, but under £52, 10s. pays + a tax of 6s. and so on up to £475, an income over that sum but under + £525 paying a tax of 15s. Incomes over £525 rise by steps of £50 up to + £1525, for every step £1, 10s. being paid. Incomes between £1526 and + £1600 rise by steps of £75, £3 being paid for every step. Between + £1601 and £3900, the steps are £100, and the tax £4 a step; from £3901 + to £5000 the steps are the same (£100), but the tax is £5 a step. + There is also a supplementary tax on property of about 1/20th% of the + assessed value. This supplementary tax is not levied on those whose + taxable property does not exceed a total value of £300, nor on those + whose annual income does not exceed £45, if the total value of their + taxable property does not exceed £1000, nor on women who have members + of their own family under age to maintain, nor on orphans under age, + nor on persons incapable of earning incomes if their taxable property + does not exceed £1000 nor their income £60. There are a number of + exemptions from the income tax, some of the more important being--(a) + the military incomes of non-commissioned officers and privates, also + of all persons on the active list of the army or navy as long as they + belong to a unit in war formation; (b) extraordinary receipts from + inheritances, presents, insurances, from the sale of real estate not + undertaken for purposes of industry or speculation, and similar + profits (all of which are reckoned as increases of capital); (c) + expenses incurred for the purpose of acquiring, assuring and + maintaining income; (d) interest on debts; (e) the regular annual + depreciation arising from wear of buildings, machines, tools, &c., in + so far as they are not included under working expenses; (f) the + contributions which taxpayers are compelled by law or agreement to pay + to invalid, accident, old age insurance, widow, orphan and pension + funds; (g) insurance premiums. Moreover, persons liable to taxation + with an income of not more than £150 may deduct from that income £2, + 10s. for every member of their family under fourteen years of age, and + abatement is also allowed to persons with incomes up to £475 whose + solvency has been unfavourably affected by adverse economic + circumstances. The income tax is both levied at the source (as in the + case of companies) and assessed on a direct return by the taxpayer of + his income from all sources. Salaries are not taxed before payment. + Fixed receipts are assessed according to their amount for the taxation + year in which the assessment is made, and variable incomes on an + average of the three years immediately preceding the assessment. The + income tax and the supplementary tax are collected in the first half + of the second month of each quarter by the communities (_Gemeinden_) + who bear the whole cost. + + In Saxony a graduated tax is in force on all incomes of £20 per annum + and upwards. All corporate bodies and individuals who derive their + income or any portion of it from Saxony are liable to the extent of + that income, except those serving religious, charitable or public + purposes. Incomes between £20 and £5000 are divided into 118 classes, + in which the rate rises progressively. From £500 to £5000 the classes + rise by £50, and above £5000 by £100. The rate of income tax begins at + ¼%, i.e. 1s. on an income of £20. An abatement is allowed to those + whose incomes do not exceed £155 of £2, 10s. for each child between + the ages of six and fourteen years, provided such abatements do not + reduce the income by more than one class. In the case of persons with + incomes not exceeding £290 abatement (not exceeding three classes) is + allowed--(a) when the support of children or indigent relations + involves a burden of such a nature as to affect the general standard + of living; (b) on account of long-continued illness, involving heavy + expense; and, on restoration to health, temporary decrease of + wage-earning power; (c) in the case of accidents which have had the + same effect. + + In Bavaria the existing system of income tax came into force on the + 1st of January 1900. The rate on earned income varies according to a + scale laid down in article 5 of the law, beginning at .1% for incomes + up to £37, 10s. (1s.), being .66% (£2, 5s.) for incomes between £230 + and £250; 1.03% (£4) for incomes between £350 and £375; 1.30% (£6, + 16s.) for incomes between £475 and £500 and 1.38% (£10) for incomes + between £650 and £700. Incomes exceeding £700 and not exceeding £1100 + pay £1 on every £50; those between £1100 and £1700, £1, 10s., on every + £50, between £1700 and £2050, £2 on every £50; between £2050 and + £2500, £2, 10s. on every £50 and beyond £2500, 3% on every £50. + Exemptions from earned income tax are similar to those already + mentioned in the case of Prussia. Special abatement in the case of + incomes not exceeding £250 from all sources is given in consideration + of education of children, protracted illness, maintenance of poor + relations, serious accidents, &c. The tax on unearned income is at the + rate of 1½% on incomes from £3, 10s. to £5; from £6 to £20, 2%; from + £21 to £35, 2½%; from £36 to £59, 3%; from £51 to £150, 3½%; from £151 + to £5000, 3¾%, and over £5000, 4%. There is a differentiation in + assessment on fluctuating and fixed incomes. Fluctuating incomes (e.g. + those derived from literary, scientific or artistic work) are assessed + at the average receipts of the two past years. Fixed income is + returned at the actual amount at the time of assessment, and the + assessment for earned income, both fixed and fluctuating, takes place + every four years. Income tax is not levied at the source, but on a + direct return by the taxpayer. In the case of unearned income, where a + person's yearly unearned income does not exceed £100 and he has no + other or only an insignificant additional income, he is required to + pay only half the assessed tax. Also in the case where a total income, + earned and unearned, does not exceed £250 it may, by claiming + abatement on such grounds as the education of children, maintenance of + indigent relations, &c., be assessed at the lowest rate but one, or be + entirely exempt. + + In Württemberg the General Income Tax Act came into force on the 1st + of April 1905. Article 18 provides a graduated scale of rates on + incomes from £25 upwards. Abatements are allowed for the education and + support of children, support of indigent relatives, active service in + the army and navy, protracted illness and severe accidents or + reverses. There is a supplementary tax of 2% on unearned income from + certain kinds of property, such as interest or other income derived + from invested capital, dividends, &c., from joint-stock companies and + annuities of all kinds. The income tax is not levied at the source, + but on a direct return by the ratepayers; assessments are made on the + current year, except in the case of fluctuating incomes, when they are + made on the income of the preceding year. + + _Hungary._--There is no income tax in Hungary at all corresponding to + that of the United Kingdom, although proposals for such a tax have + from time to time been made. + + _Italy._--Graduated income tax in Italy dates from 1864. Incomes are + classified according to their characters, and the rate of the tax + varies accordingly. In class A¹ are placed incomes derived from + interests on capital, and perpetual revenues owned by the state, + interests and premiums on communal and provincial loans, dividends of + shares issued by companies guaranteed or subsidized by the state + lottery prizes. These incomes are assessed at their integral value and + pay the full tax of 20%. In class A² are placed incomes derived from + capital alone and all perpetual revenues. The assessments on these are + reduced to 30/40ths of the actual income and taxed at a rate of 15%. + In class B are incomes derived from the co-operation of labour and + capital, i.e. those produced by industries and commerce. The + assessments of these are reduced to 20/40ths and taxed at 10%. In + class C are placed incomes derived from labour alone (private + employment) and those represented by temporary revenues or life + annuities. Assessments on these are reduced to 18/40ths and taxed at a + rate of 9%. In class D are placed incomes from salaries, pensions and + all personal allowances made by the state, the provinces and communes. + Assessments on these are reduced to 15/40ths and taxed at 7½%. + Certain abatements are allowed on small incomes in classes B, C and D. + Incomes are assessed (1) on the average of the two preceding years in + the case of private industries, professions or companies in which + liability is unlimited; (b) on the income of the current year in the + case of incomes from dividends, salaries, pensions and fixed + allowances, as well as in the case of incomes of communes, provinces + and corporations; (c) on the basis of the account closed before the + previous July of the current year in the case of incomes of limited + liability companies, banks and savings banks. + + _Netherlands._--In the Netherlands there is a property tax imposed + upon income derived from capital, as well as a tax on income earned by + labour. + + _Norway._--In Norway under the state income tax incomes under 1000 + kroner are exempt, those between 1000 and 4000 kroner pay 2% on that + part liable to taxation; those between 4000 and 7000 kroner pay 3%; + those between 7000 and 10,000 kroner pay 4%, and those above 10,000 + kroner 5%. Persons liable to taxation are divided into (a) those who + have no one to support, as companies and the like; (b) those who have + from one to three persons to support; (c) those who have from four to + six persons to support; (d) those who have seven or more persons to + support. Those who are counted as dependent upon the taxpayer are his + children, own or adopted, his parents, brothers and sisters, and other + relations and connexions by marriage who might have a reasonable claim + to his support. A certain part of the income liable to taxation is + abated by a graduated scale according to the class into which the + ratepayer falls. + + _Spain._--In Spain the income tax is divided into (a) that derived + from personal exertion and (b) that derived from property. Directors, + managers and representatives of banks, companies and societies pay + 10%; those employed in banks, &c., commercial houses, and those in + private employment, as well as actors, bullfighters, professional + pelota-players, acrobats, conjurers, &c., pay 5%. Those employed by + the day or those whose salary is under £45 are exempt, as are also + masters in primary schools. Income derived from property is taxed + according to the source from which the income is derived, e.g. income + from shares in public works is rated at 20%, income from shares in + ordinary companies, railways, tramways or canals at 3%, from dividends + on bank shares at 5%, from mining shares at only 2%. There is also an + industry tax, i.e. on the exercise of industrial, commercial and + professional enterprises, which tax is divided into five different + tariffs, of which I. applies to commerce (vendors), II. also to + commerce (middlemen), III. to industry (machinery), IV. to professions + and V. to licences (retail and itinerant vendors). Tariff I. is + differentiated according to the importance of the business and of the + locality in which it is carried on, the rate being fixed by a + consideration of the two combined. Tariff II. is differentiated + according to the character of the enterprise, its importance and the + importance of the locality. Tariff III. is differentiated according to + either motive power, output, method, product or locality; Tariff IV. + according to the character of the profession and the importance of the + locality; Tariff V. is also differentiated according to the locality + and the importance of the business. + + _Switzerland._--The system of income tax varies in the different + cantons. Broadly speaking, these may be divided into four different + kinds: (1) a graduated property tax, in which the rate applicable to + each class of fortune is definitely fixed; (2) a proportional tax, + under which property and income are chargeable, each at a fixed rate, + while the total amount of the tax is liable to a proportionate + increase according to scale if it exceeds certain specified amounts; + (3) a system by which property and income are divided into three + classes, the rate of the tax being increased by a graduated rise, + according to the class to which the property or income belongs, and + (4) a uniform rate of tax, with progression in the amount of income + liable to taxation. + + _United States._--One of the means adopted by the Federal Government + for meeting its expenses during the Civil War was the levying of an + income tax. By the Act of Congress of the 5th of August 1861 a tax of + 3% was imposed on all incomes, with an exemption of $800, and was made + payable on or before the 30th of June 1862. No tax, however, was + assessed under the law. In March 1862 a new income tax bill was + introduced into the House of Representatives. This act, which was + signed on the 1st of July 1862, imposed a tax of 3% on all incomes not + over $10,000, and 5% on all incomes above that sum, with an exemption + of $600. It was also provided that dividends of banks, insurance + companies and railways should be assessed directly; but the + bond-holder was allowed to deduct the dividend so assessed from his + taxable income. In the case of government salaries, the tax was + deducted before the salaries were paid. The income tax was first + levied in 1863. The rate was changed by act of Congress in 1865, 1867 + and 1870, and a joint resolution in 1864 imposed a special additional + tax of 5% for that year. The tax was finally abolished in 1872. The + total amount produced by the tax from the beginning was $376,150,209. + The constitutionality of the act was subsequently brought into + question, but was upheld by a unanimous decision of the Supreme Court + in 1880, which held that the tax was not a direct tax but an excise + tax, and that Congress had a right to impose it so long as it was made + uniform throughout the United States. On the 27th of August 1894 an + income tax act was passed as part of the Wilson Bill. By this act it + was provided that a tax of 2% on all incomes should be levied from + the 1st of January 1895 to the 1st of January 1900, with an exemption + of $4000. The legality of the tax was assailed, chiefly on the ground + that it was a direct tax, and not apportioned among the several states + in proportion to their population. On the 20th of May 1895 the Supreme + Court, by a vote of five to four, declared the tax to be + unconstitutional. Accordingly, before any federal income tax could be + imposed, there was needed an amendment of the constitution, and a + movement in this direction gradually began. In the first year of the + presidency of Mr W. H. Taft both Houses of Congress passed by the + necessary two-thirds majority a resolution to submit the proposal to + the 46 states, the wording of the amendment being "That Congress shall + have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source + derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without + regard to any census enumeration." + + _Cape Colony._--Cape Colony was the only South African colony which, + prior to the Union in 1910, had a system of income tax, which was + first imposed by an act of the 31st of May 1904. Incomes not exceeding + £1000 per annum were exempt from taxation; incomes exceeding £1000 but + not exceeding £2000 were taxed 6d. in the pound on the excess beyond + £1000; those between £2000 and £5000 were exempt for the first £1000, + paid 6d. in the pound on the next £1000 and 9d. in the pound on the + remainder; those exceeding £5000 paid 6d. in the pound on the second + £1000, 9d. in the pound on the next £3000 and 1s. in the pound on the + remainder. + + _New South Wales._--Income tax in New South Wales first came into + operation on the 1st of January 1896. It is complementary with a land + tax, assessed on the unimproved value of freehold lands (with certain + exemptions and deductions). Incomes of £200 per annum and under are + exempt, and all other incomes (except those of companies) are entitled + to a reduction of £200 in their assessments. The rate of tax is 6d. in + the pound. There are certain incomes, revenues and funds which are + exempt from taxation, such as those of municipal corporations or other + local authorities, of mutual life insurance societies and of other + companies or societies not carrying on business for purposes of profit + or gain, and of educational, ecclesiastical and charitable + institutions of a public character, &c. + + _New Zealand._--In New Zealand the income tax is also complementary + with a land tax. Incomes up to £300 per annum are exempt; incomes up + to £1000 per annum are taxed 6d. in the pound, with an exemption of + £300 and life insurance premiums up to £50; incomes over £1300 pay 1s. + in the pound, which is also the tax on the income of trading + companies, to whom no exemption is allowed. The income of friendly + societies, savings banks, co-operative dairy companies, public + societies not carrying on business for profit, &c., are exempt from + income tax. + + _Queensland._--In Queensland income tax is levied on (a) income + derived from property such as rents, interest, income from companies, + royalties, &c., and (b) on income derived from personal exertion. On + income derived from property all incomes not exceeding £100 are + exempt; incomes between £100 and £120 pay £1 tax; those over £120 but + under £300 have £100 exempt and pay 1s. in each and every pound over + £100, while incomes over £300 pay 1s. in each and every pound. Incomes + from personal exertion pay 10s. between £100 and £125; £1 between £126 + and £150; between £151 and £300 have £100 exempt and pay 6d. in each + and every pound over £100: between £301 and £500 6d. in every pound; + between £501 and £1000 6d. in every pound of the first £500 and 7d. in + every pound over £500, between £1001 and £1500 7d. in every pound of + the first £1000, and 8d. in every pound over £1000; incomes over £1500 + pay 8d. in every pound; 1s. in every pound is charged on the incomes + of all companies and of all absentees. + + _South Australia._--The income tax dates from 1884 and is levied on + all incomes arising, accruing in or derived from South Australia, + except municipal corporations, district councils, societies, &c., not + carrying on business for the purpose ot gain, and all friendly + societies. Where the income is derived from personal exertion the rate + of tax is 4½d. in the pound up to £800, and 7d. in the pound over + £800. For income derived from property the rate is 9d. in the pound up + to £800, and 1s. 1½d. in the pound over £800. There is an exemption of + £150 on incomes up to £400, but no exemption over that limit. + + _Tasmania._--In Tasmania there is (a) an income tax proper, and (b) a + non-inquisitorial ability tax, one complementary to the other. The + income tax proper is levied on all income of any company, at the rate + of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount; on all income of any + person, at the rate of 1s. for every pound of the taxable amount + derived from property, and on every dividend at the same rate. + Personal incomes of £400 and over are assessed at the full amount, but + an abatement of £10 for every £50 of income is allowed on incomes + below £400 down to incomes of £150, which thus have £50 deducted; + incomes between £120 and £150 have £60 deducted; incomes between £110 + and £120, £70, and incomes between £100 and £110, £80. The ability tax + is paid by (a) occupiers and sub-occupiers of property and (b) by + lodgers. The amount of tax paid by occupiers or sub-occupiers is + calculated upon the assessed annual value of the property occupied, + and that of lodgers from the assessed annual value of their board and + lodging. A detailed account of both taxes will be found in House of + Commons Papers, No. 282 of 1905. + + _Victoria._--In Victoria the rate of income tax is fixed annually by + act. The rate charged on income derived from property is exactly + double that charged on income derived from personal exertion, the + rate for which for 1905 was: on the first £500 or fractional part + thereof, 3d. in the pound; on the second £500 or fractional part + thereof, 4d. in the pound; on the third £500 or fractional part + thereof, 5d. in the pound; on all incomes in excess of £1500, 6d. in + the pound. All companies, except life insurance companies, were + charged 7d. in the pound on their incomes; life insurance companies + were charged 8d. in the pound. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Annual Reports of the Commissioners of Inland + Revenue, the Reports of Committees and other references mentioned in + the article, as well as Dowell's _History of Taxation in England_ + (1884); Dowell's _Acts relating to the Income Tax_ (6th ed., 1908), + and Robinson's _Law relating to Income Tax_ (2nd ed., 1908). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Full statistics of the yield of income tax and other information + pertaining thereto will be found in the _Reports of the Commissioners + of His Majesty's Inland Revenue_ (published annually); those issued + in 1870 and in 1885 are especially interesting. + + [2] In Appendix No. 4 to the _Report from the Select Committee on + Income Tax_ (1906), will be found a valuable list (prepared in the + Library of the London School of Economics) of references to the + graduation of the income tax and the distribution of incomes both in + the United Kingdom and in other countries. + + + + +INCORPORATION (from Lat. _incorporare_, to form into a body), in law, +the embodying or formation of a legal corporation, brought about either +by a general rule contained in such laws, e.g. as the Companies acts, +and applicable wherever its conditions are satisfied; or by a special +act of sovereign power, e.g. an incorporating statute or charter. The +word is used also in the sense of uniting, e.g. a will may incorporate +by reference other papers, which may be then taken as part of the will, +as much as if they were set out at length in it. + + + + +INCUBATION and INCUBATORS. The subject of "incubation" (Lat. _incubare_, +to brood; _in-cumbere_, to lie on), a term which, while strictly +signifying the action of a hen in sitting on her eggs to hatch them, is +also used in pathology for the development within the body of the germs +of disease, is especially associated with the artificial means, or +"incubators," devised for hatching eggs, or for analogous purposes of an +artificial foster-mother nature, or for use in bacteriological +laboratories. + +Life is dependent, alike for its awakening and its maintenance, upon the +influence of certain physical and chemical factors, among which heat and +moisture may be regarded as the chief. It is therefore obvious that any +method of incubation must provide for a due degree of temperature and +moisture. And this degree must be one within limits, for while all +organisms are plastic and can attune themselves to a greater or less +range of variation in their physical environment, there is a given +degree at which the processes of life in each species proceed most +favourably. It is this particular degree, which differs for different +species, which must be attained, if artificial incubation is to be +successfully conducted. In other words, the degree of temperature and +moisture within the incubation drawer must remain uniform throughout the +period of incubation if the best results are to be reached. It is not +easy to attain these conditions, for there are many disturbing factors. +We may therefore next consider the more important of them. + +The chief causes which operate to make the temperature within the +incubator drawer variable are the changes of the temperature of the +outer air, fluctuations in the pressure of the gas when that is used as +the source of heat, or the gradual diminution of the oxidizing power of +the flame and wick when an oil lamp is substituted for gas. Also, the +necessary opening of the incubator drawer, either for airing or for +sprinkling the eggs with water when that is necessary, tends to reduce +the temperature. But there is another equally important though less +obvious source of disturbance, and this resides within the organism +undergoing incubation. In the case of the chick, at about the ninth or +tenth days of incubation important changes are occurring. Between this +period and the fourteenth day the chick becomes relatively large and +bulky, and the temporary respiratory organ, the allantois, together with +its veins, increases greatly in size and extent. As a consequence, the +respiratory processes are enabled to proceed with greater activity, and +the chemical processes of oxidation thus enhanced necessarily largely +increase the amount of heat which the chick itself produces. Thus an +incubator, to be successful, must be capable of automatically adjusting +itself to this heightened temperature. + +The drawer of an incubator is a confined space and is usually packed as +closely as possible with the contained eggs. The eggs are living +structures and consequently need air. This necessitates some method of +direct ventilation, and this in its turn necessarily increases the +evaporation of water vapour from the surface of the egg. Unless, +therefore, this evaporation is checked, the eggs will be too dry at the +period--from the tenth day onwards--when moisture is more than ever an +important factor. There is, according to some poultry authorities, +reason to believe that the sitting hen secretes some oily substance +which, becoming diffused over the surface of the egg, prevents or +retards evaporation from within; presumably, this oil is permeable to +oxygen. In nature, with the sitting hen, and in the "Mamal" artificial +incubating establishments of the Egyptians, direct air currents do not +exist, owing to the large size of the chambers, and consequently +incubation can be successfully achieved without any special provision +for the supply of moisture. + +Artificial incubation has been known to the Egyptians and the Chinese +from almost time immemorial. In Egypt, at Berme on the Delta, the trade +of artificial hatching is traditionally transmitted from father to son, +and is consequently confined to particular families. The secrets of the +process are guarded with a religious zeal, and the individuals who +practise it are held under plighted word not to divulge them. It is +highly probable that the process of artificial incubation as practised +by the Egyptians is not so simple as it is believed to be. But as far as +the structures and processes involved have been ascertained by +travellers, it appears that the "Mamal" is a brick building, consisting +of four large ovens, each of such a size that several men could be +contained within it. These ovens are in pairs, in each pair one oven +being above the other, on each side of a long passage, into which they +open by a circular aperture, just large enough for a man to obtain +access to each. The eggs are placed in the middle of the floor of the +oven, and in the gutters round the sides the fire is lighted. The +material for this latter, according to one account, consists of camels' +dung and chopped hay, and according to another of horses' dung. The +attainment of the right degree of heat is apparently reached wholly by +the skill of the persons employed. When this has been attained, they +plug the entrance hole with coarse tow. On the tenth to twelfth days +they cease to light the fires. + +Each "Mamal" may contain from 40,000 to 80,000 eggs. There are 386 +"Mamals" in the country, which are only worked for six months of the +year, and produce in that time eight broods. Many more than two-thirds +of the eggs put in are successfully hatched. It is estimated that +90,000,000 eggs are annually hatched by the Bermeans. + +A method of incubating that appears to have been altogether overlooked +in England--or at least never to have been practised--is that carried on +by the _Couveurs_ or professional hatchers in France. They make use of +hen-turkeys for the purpose, and each bird can be made to sit +continuously for from three to six months. The _modus operandi_ is as +follows: a dark room which is kept at a constant temperature throughout +the year contains a number of boxes, just large enough to accommodate a +turkey. The bottom of the box is filled with some vegetable material, +bracken, hay, heather, straw or cocoa-fibres. Each box is covered in +with lattice-work wire, so arranged that the freedom of the sitting bird +is limited and its escape prevented. Dummy eggs, made by emptying addled +ones and filling with plaster of Paris, are then placed in the nest and +a bird put in. At first it endeavours to escape, but after an interval +of a few days it becomes quiet, and the dummy eggs being then removed, +fresh ones are inserted. As soon as the chickens are hatched, they are +withdrawn and fresh eggs substituted. The hen turkeys are also used +successfully as foster-mothers. Each bird can adequately cover about two +dozen eggs. + +Incubation as an industry in Europe and America is of recent +development. The growing scarcity of game birds of all kinds, coincident +with the increase of population, and the introduction of the +breech-loading gun, together with the marked revival of interest in +fancy poultry about the year 1870, led, however, to the production of a +great variety of appliances designed to render artificial incubation +successful. + +Previously to this, several interesting attempts had been made. As long +ago as 1824, Walthew constructed an incubator designed to be used by +farmers' wives with the aid of no more than ordinary household +conditions. It consisted of a double-walled metal box, with several +pipes opening into the walled space round the sides, bottom and top of +the incubator. These pipes were connected with an ordinary kitchen +boiler. Walthew, however, constructed a fire grate, with a special +boiler adapted to the requirements of the incubator. Into the walled +space of the incubator, steam from the kitchen boiler passed; the excess +steam escaped from an aperture in the roof, and the condensed steam +through one in the floor. Ventilating holes and also plugs, into which +thermometers were placed, pierced the door of the incubator. + +In 1827, J. H. Barlow successfully reared hens and other birds by means +of steam at Drayton Green, Ealing. He constructed very large rooms and +rearing houses, expending many thousands of pounds upon the work. He +reared some 64,000 game birds annually. The celebrated physician Harvey, +and the famous anatomist Hunter were much interested in his results. + +To John Champion, Berwick-on-Tweed, in 1870, belongs, however, the +credit of instituting a system which, when extended, may become the +system of the future, and will rival the ancient "Mamals" in the success +of the incubation and in the largeness of the numbers of eggs incubated. +He used a large room through which passed two heated flues, the eggs +being placed upon a table in the centre. The flues opened out into an +adjoining space. The temperature of the room was adjusted by personal +supervision of the fire. This system, more elaborated and refined, is +now in use in some parts of America. + + +_Bird Incubators._ + +Owing to the great variety in the details of construction, it is +difficult to arrange a classification of incubators which shall include +them all. They may, however, be classified in one of two ways. We may +either consider the method by which they are heated or the method by +which their temperature is regulated. + +In the former case we may divide them into "hot-air" incubators and into +"hot-water" or "tank" incubators. In the latter ease we may classify +them according as their thermostat or temperature-regulator is actuated +by a liquid expanding with rising temperature, or by solids, usually +metals. + +In America incubators of the hot-air type with solid and metallic +thermostats are most used, while in Europe the "tank" type, with a +thermostat of expansible liquid, prevails. + +For the purpose of more adequately considering the various forms which +have been in use, or are still used, we shall here divide them into the +"hot-air" and "hot-water" (or "tank") classes. + +In the hot-air types the incubator chamber is heated by columns of hot +air, while in the tank system this chamber is heated by a tank of warmed +water. + + (a) _Hot-Water Incubators._--In 1866 Colonel Stuart Wortley described + in _The Field_ an incubator constructed upon a novel principle, but + which appears never to have been adopted by breeders. The descriptive + article is illustrated with a sketch. Essentially the incubator + consists of four pipes which extend across the egg chamber some little + distance above the eggs. The pipes pass through holes in the side of + the incubator, which are furnished with pads, so as to render their + passage air-tight. Externally they are connected with a boiler. This + is provided with a dome through which steam escapes, and also with a + glass gauge to show the height of the water within the boiler. The + water in the boiler is kept at the boiling point, and the temperature + of the incubator is regulated by adjustment of the length of the + hot-water pipes within the egg chamber. To raise the temperature, a + greater length of the pipes is pushed into the chamber, and to reduce + it, more of their length is pulled outwards. It is claimed for this + instrument that since the temperature of boiling water at any + particular locality remains practically constant, the disadvantages + due to fluctuations in the activity of a lamp flame or the size of a + gas flame are obviated. But it has the serious disadvantage that there + is no automatic adjustment to compensate for fluctuations of + atmospheric temperature. And experiments by C. Hearson have shown that + even if the temperature of the tank or source of heat be constant, + that of the incubator drawer will nevertheless vary with fluctuations + of external temperature. Probably if the mechanical difficulties of + providing a self-regulator were overcome, it would prove an efficient + and reliable incubator. The difficulties do not seem to be + insuperable, and it appears possible that a thermostatic bar could be + so arranged as to automatically increase or decrease the length of + hot-water pipes within the incubator, and therefore the incubator + temperature. + + Another early form of incubator is Brindley's, which was first in use + about 1845, and in his hands it appeared occasionally to act + successfully, but it never became generally used. The egg chamber was + lined with felt, and was placed beneath a heated air chamber, the + floor and roof of which were composed of glass. The air chamber was + heated by a number of hot-water pipes which were connected with a + copper boiler. This latter was heated by means of a lamp so + constructed as to burn steadily. The temperature of the air chamber + was regulated within certain limits by means of a balanced valve, + which could be so adjusted that it would open at any desired + temperature. + + In Colonel Stuart Wortley's incubator the hot-water tubes passed + directly into the egg chamber, and in Brindley's into a chamber above + it. But in other forms of incubators in which the principle of an + external boiler connected with water tubes is adopted, the latter pass + not into the egg chamber nor into an air chamber, but open into and + from a tank of water. The floor of this tank forms the roof of the egg + chamber, so that the eggs are heated from above. This device of + warming the eggs from above was adopted in imitation of the processes + that presumably occur with the sitting hen; for it is generally + assumed that the surface of the eggs in contact with the hen is warmer + than that in contact with the damp soil or with the material of the + nest. + + One of the earliest of this form of incubator is that invented by F. + Schröder, manager of the now extinct British National Poultry Company. + In this incubator the form is circular, and there are four egg + drawers, so that each one occupied the quadrant of a circle, and the + inner corner of each drawer meets in the middle of the incubator. From + the centre of the incubator a vertical chimney passes upwards and + opens out from the inner corners of the four egg drawers. This chimney + acts as a ventilator to the incubating chambers. These latter are open + above, but their floors are made of perforated zinc, and when in use + they are partially filled with chaff or similar material. Under them + is a tank containing cold water and common to all four drawers; the + slight vapour rising from the surface of the water diffuses through + the egg drawers and thus insures a sufficient degree of humidity to + the air within. Above the egg drawers is a circular tank containing + warm water. The floor of this tank constitutes the roof of the egg + drawers, while the roof forms the floor of a circular chamber above + it, the side wall of which is composed of perforated zinc. This upper + chamber is used to dry the chicks when they are just hatched and to + rear them until they are strong enough for removal. It is partially + filled with sand, which serves the double purpose of retaining the + heat in the warm-water tank beneath and of forming a bed for the + chicks. The water in the warm-water tank is heated by means of a + boiler which is external to the incubator, and in communication with + the tank by means of an inlet and an outlet pipe. There is no valve to + regulate the temperature, and the latter is measured by means of a + thermometer, the bulb of which is situated not in the incubator + drawers, but in the warm-water tank. This is a wrong position for the + thermometer, since it is now known that the temperature of the water + tank may be different by several degrees to that of the egg drawer; + for with a fall of external temperature that of the latter necessarily + tends to fall more rapidly than the former. But, none the less, in + skilful hands this incubator gave good results. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Christy's Improved Incubator.] + + T. Christy's incubator, which we shall describe next, has passed + through several forms. We shall consider the most recent one (1894). + The incubator (fig. 1) is double walled, and the space between the two + walls is packed with a non-conducting material. In the upper part of + the incubator there is a water tank (T) divided by a horizontal + partition into two chambers, communicating with each other at the + left-hand side. Below the tank is the incubation drawer (E), which + contains the eggs and also a temperature regulator or thermostat (R). + The tank is traversed by a ventilating shaft (V), and inserted into + this is a smaller sliding tube passing up to it from a hole in the + bottom of the incubator drawer. The floor of the incubator drawer is + perforated, and beneath it is an enclosed air space which opens into + the sliding air shaft just described. Fresh air is let into the + incubator drawer from a few apertures (I) at its top. The ventilating + shaft (V) is closed externally by a cap (C), which can be raised from + or lowered down upon its orifice by the horizontal arm (H) working + upon pivot joints at (P). This arm is operated by the thermostat (R), + through the agency of a vertical rod. The water in the tank is heated + by an external boiler (B) through two pipes, one of which (T) serves + as an inlet, and the other (L) as an outlet channel from the tank. + These two pipes do not open directly into the tank, but into an outer + vessel (O) communicating with it. Communication between this vessel + and the tank may be made or broken by means of a sliding valve (S), + which is pierced by an aperture that corresponds in position with the + upper of the two in the wall of the tank when the valve is up. When + this valve is in its upper position, the tank (T) communicates with + the outer vessel (O) by two apertures (A and A´), the top one being + the inlet and the lower one the outlet. These coincide in position + with the tubes from the boiler. This latter (B) is a conical vessel + containing two spaces. The heated water is contained in the outer of + these spaces, while the central space is an air shaft heated by a lamp + flame. This particular form of the boiler results in the water at its + top part being more heated than that in its lower. As a consequence of + this, a continual circulation of water through the tank ensues. The + more heated water, being specifically lighter, passes into the outer + vessel, where it remains among the higher strata, and therefore enters + the tank through the upper aperture. In passing along the upper + division of the tank it becomes slightly cooled and sinks therefore + into the lower compartment, passes along it, and out through the + aperture A´. Hence it passes into the lower portion of the boiler, + where it becomes warmed and specifically lighter; in consequence it + becomes pushed upwards in the boiler by the cooler and heavier water + coming in behind and below it. + + Should the temperature in the incubator drawer rise, the bimetallic + thermostat (R) opens out its coil and pulls down the vertical rod. + This simultaneously effects two things: it raises the cap (C) over the + ventilating shaft and allows of a more rapid flow of fresh air through + the incubator drawer, and it also lowers the slide-valve (S) so that + the tank becomes cut off from communication with the outer vessel (O) + and therefore with the boiler. The temperature thereupon begins to + fall and the thermostat, coiling closer, raises the vertical rod, + closes the ventilating shaft, and once more places the tank in + communication with the boiler. + + The structure of the thermostat is given below. + + The Chantry Incubator (Sheffield) is also an incubator with a + hot-water tank, the circulation of which is maintained by an outside + boiler. Its temperature is regulated by a metal regulator. + + In Schröder's and Christy's incubators the hot-water pipes from the + boiler simply entered the warm-water tank but did not traverse it. In + the two incubators to be next described the hot-water pipes are made + to pass through the water in the tank, and are so arranged as to + minimize the possibility that the outside of the tank may become + colder than the centre. Both of them are also fitted with an ingenious + though slightly complex valve for maintaining an approximately + constant temperature. + + Halsted's incubator was the earliest of this type. Since his original + form was constructed he has designed an improved one, and it is this + latter which will be described. + + [Illustration: FIG 2.--Halsted's Incubator.] + + The egg drawer (E, fig. 2) lies beneath the warm-water tank (T), and + above this is a nursery (N). The egg drawer is ventilated by two + tubular shafts (V), of which only one is represented in the + illustration; the tubes are about 2½ in. in diameter, and each one is + fitted at its upper end, where it opens into the nursery, with a + swing-valve (V´) which turns upon a horizontal axis (A), in its turn + connected, by means of cranks (C) and shafts (S), with the heat + regulating apparatus (R). A space of about 2 in. between the top of + the incubating drawer and the warm-water tank is necessary for the + insertion of this apparatus. The water in the tank (T) is heated by + means of the boiler (B); the tank and boiler are connected by the two + pipes (I) and (O), of which one is the inlet and the other the outlet + channel. The boiler consists of an inner (I´) and an outer (O) + division in communication with each other below. The latter is + cylindrical in form, while the outer wall of the former is cylindrical + and its inner wall conical. The conical wall of the inner boiler is + the surface which is heated by the lamp (L). The arrangement of the + inlet and outlet tubes is important. In the illustration, for the sake + of clearness, they are represented as one above the other. In reality + they lie in the same plane, and the fork (F) of the inlet pipe + similarly lies in the horizontal plane and not vertically as + represented. The inlet pipe not only differs from the outlet pipe in + the possession of a forked end, but it is carried to the farther end + (not shown in the diagram) of the water tank, while the outlet pipe + opens from about the middle of the tank. The inlet pipe is connected + with the inner portion of the boiler and the outlet one with the outer + portion. The result of this adjustment of the parts is that the warmer + water of the inner boiler, being specifically lighter than the cooler + water of the outer boiler, rises up and passes through the inlet pipe + (I) and is discharged into the tank through the two divergent orifices + of the fork (F). Here the water strikes the side wall of the farther + end of the tank and is reflected back along the back and front walls + towards the nearer side. Hence it is again reflected, but in the + opposite direction, and now forms a central current, which is directed + towards the centrally situated orifice of the outlet tube (O). Through + this it passes to the outer boiler, and sinking towards the bottom, + reaches the base of the inner boiler. Here it becomes heated and + lighter and consequently rises to the top, and once more passes + through the inlet pipe to the water tank. The warm water thus travels + round the outer walls of the tank and the cooled water is conducted + away along the middle portion. A more equable distribution of + temperature over the roof of the incubating chamber is thus ensured + than would be the case if the heated water were discharged either into + the centre or at any other single point only of the tank. + + To a very large extent, the efficiency of this apparatus depends upon + the approximately perfect performance of the lamp. A good, steadily + burning one should be employed, and only the best oil used; for, + should the wick become fouled the flame cannot freely burn. For this + reason it is better to use gas, whenever obtainable. + + The maintenance of an approximately uniform temperature is obtained by + allowing the heated air of the egg-drawer to escape through the two + ventilating shafts (V). The swing-valves of these are opened or closed + by means of the regulator (R). This latter consists of a glass bowl + prolonged into a tube, about 8 in. long and three-eighths of an inch + in diameter. The glass tube swings upon an axis (A) which is situated + as near as possible to the bowl of the regulator. The axis is + connected with a crank (C´) which is disposed so as to act as a lever + upon the vertical shaft (S), which in its turn is connected with the + upper crank (C); this works the axis (A´) of the swing-valves, and so + can open or close the apertures of the ventilating pipes. The bowl of + the regulator is filled with mercury to such an extent that at the + temperature of 100° F., and when the tube is slightly inclined upwards + from the horizontal it just flows slightly into the tube from the + bowl. On the lever-crank (C´) a weight is slung by a sliding + adjustment, and is so placed that when the temperature of the + egg-drawer is 103° it just balances the tube of the regulator when it + is slightly inclined upwards. Should the temperature of the drawer now + rise higher the mercury flows towards the distant end of the tube and, + causing it to fall down, brings about a rotation of the regulator axis + and as a consequence the opening of the ventilating valves. A + transverse stay prevents the limb of the regulator from quite reaching + the horizontal when it falls. As the temperature cools down the + mercury contracts and retraces to the nearer end of the tube and to + the bowl, and consequently results in the upward inclination of the + limb; the valves are thus closed again. + + The egg-drawer (E) is specially constructed so as to imitate as nearly + as possible the natural conditions that exist under a sitting hen. The + drawer is of wood and contains a zinc tray (Z) into which cold water + is placed. Fitting into the zinc tray is another zinc compartment, the + floor of which is made of a number of zinc strips (X) transversely + arranged and placed in relation to each other like the limbs of an + inverted V. The limbs are so disposed that those of one series do not + touch the adjacent ones, and in fact a space is left between them. + Thus a number of parallel troughs are formed, each of which opens + below into the moist air chamber of the cold water tray beneath. In + practice these troughs are covered with flannel which is allowed to + dip into the water of the tray. Thus the eggs lie in a series of damp + troughs and their lower surfaces are therefore damper and colder than + their upper ones. This incubator, if carefully worked and the + necessary practical details observed, has the reputation of being an + efficient machine. + + Somewhat similar to the Halsted incubator, but differing from it in + the nature of the boiler and in the temperature regulator, is the + Graves incubator, made in Boston, U.S.A. The incubator itself (fig. 3) + consists of an incubating or egg-drawer (E) heated from above by a + warm-water tank (T). Below the egg-drawer is a tank containing cold + water, the vapour of which passes through the perforated floor of the + former and keeps the air of the egg-chamber slightly humid. Above the + warm-water tank is an air chamber (AC) to serve as a non-conducting + medium and to prevent therefore undue loss of heat. Above this is a + nursery or drying chamber (N), closed in, with a movable lid. + + The warm-water tank is heated by means of a simple boiler (B) from + which an inlet tube (I) carries heated water to the tank; the tube + traverses the length of the tank and discharges at its farther end + (not shown in the diagram). From the nearer end of the tank an outlet + tube (O) passes out and opens into the boiler at a slightly higher + level than the inlet one. The boiler is heated by an evenly burning + lamp below, of special construction. The rectangular tube through + which the wick passes is bevelled at its outer end, and upon this + bevelled edge a metal flap (F) is allowed to rest more or less + closely, according as the flame is to be smaller or larger + respectively. The wick is, of course, bevelled to correspond to the + form of its tube. The metal flap is raised or depressed by means of + levers connected with the heat-regulator. When it is depressed upon + the wick the flame is lessened; and it becomes proportionately bigger + as the flap is raised more and more. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Graves's Incubator.] + + The heat-regulator consists of a glass tube (T) which runs the whole + width of the incubation chamber and lies in contact with the floor of + the warm-water tank; it is filled with alcohol. Externally to the + incubator this tube is connected with a U-shaped one containing + mercury. The free limb of the U-tube contains a piston (P) which rests + upon the surface of the mercury in that limb. From the piston a piston + rod (PR) passes vertically upwards and is connected with a lever (L) + which operates, through the agency of a second lever (L´) the + movements of the ventilating valve (V) inserted over the orifice of + the ventilating shaft (A) which opens from the roof of the incubator + drawer. The lever (L) is further connected with a spiral spring (S) + which works the metal flap of the lamp already described. The height + of the piston in the U tube can be so adjusted, by varying the + quantity of mercury in the tube, that when the temperature of the + incubation drawer is 103° F., the ventilating valves are closed and + the wick is burning to its full extent. Should the temperature rise, + the alcohol in the glass tube (T) expands and causes the mercury in + the free limb of the U tube to rise. This carries with it the piston, + and this movement brings about the opening of the ventilating valves, + and at the same time, through the agency of the lever (L) and the + spiral spring (S) the metal flap is brought down upon the wick, + cutting off more or less of the flame. Should the temperature then + fall to 103° or lower, the contraction of the alcohol reverses these + movements, the valve closes, and the wick once more burns to its full + extent. + + In practice, the boiler and the temperature regulator are duplicated, + there being a set on both sides of the incubator. Any slight + irregularity on the one side may be thus compensated for by the other + side. + + Graves's incubator has the reputation of being a good machine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Hearson's Incubator.] + + Among the most recent type of incubators made in England is that of + Charles Hearson. This differs from any of those described in the + simplicity and ingenuity of the heat regulator, and in that the tubes + which traverse the water tank are hot-air flues, carrying the air + heated by the flame and not warm water. Consequently a further + simplification is introduced inasmuch as no boiler is required. + + The essential features of this incubator are shown in fig. 4. The + internal parts of the incubator are insulated by a double wall, the + interspace being packed by a non-conducting material, which is not + shown in the figure. The incubation or egg-drawer (E) is heated by the + warm-water tank (T). Beneath the egg-drawer is a zinc tray (Z), so + constructed that in the central part the floor is raised up into a + short cylinder. Around the raised cylinder is a wide trough containing + water and into this dips a canvas cloth which is stretched out over a + perforated zinc support (F). By this means an extended moistened + surface is produced which allows of a rapid evaporation. The floor of + the incubator, which is raised by short feet from the table on which + it stands, is perforated in the central portion by a number of holes, + and which are so situated that they lie beneath the raised cylinder of + the cold-water tray (Z). The incubation-drawer is thus supplied + continuously by a slow current of moistened air because the air in the + upper part of the drawer, i.e. in contact with the floor of the + warm-water tank, is the warmest and lightest. It therefore tends to + diffuse or pass through the narrow slits between the drawer and the + walls of the incubator, and also through the aperture in the front + wall of the egg-drawer, through which a thermometer is laced. To + replace the air thus lost, fresh air passes in through the holes in + the bottom of the incubator, and on its way must pass through the + pores of the damp canvas which dips into the water in the zinc tray + (Z). + + The warm-water tank is heated by an inlet (I) and outlet (O) flue + which are, however, continuous. The inlet flue opens out from a + vertical chimney (C), the air in which is heated either by a gas flame + or that of an oil lamp. The outlet or return flue passes back through + the width of the tank and opens independently to the exterior. The + vertical chimney (C) is capped by a lid (L) capable of being raised or + lowered upon its orifice by the lever (L´). When the cap is resting + upon the chimney all the heated air from within the latter passes + through the flues and heats the water in the tank. If the cap is + widely raised, practically all the heated air passes directly upwards + through the chimney and none goes through the flues. If the cap be but + slightly raised, part of the heated air goes through the flues and + part directly escapes through the aperture of the chimney. The + movement of the lever (L´) which raises the cap (L) is determined by + the thermostatic capsule (S), situated within the egg-drawer. + + The principle upon which this capsule is designed is that the boiling + point of a liquid depends not only upon temperature but also upon + pressure. A given liquid at ordinary atmospheric pressure will boil at + a certain degree of temperature, which varies for different + substances. But if the pressure be increased the boiling point of the + liquid is raised to a higher degree of temperature. A liquid when it + boils passes into a gaseous condition and in this state will occupy a + very much larger volume--some two or three hundred times--than in the + liquid condition. If, therefore, a hermetically sealed capsule with + flexible sides be filled with some liquid which boils at a given + temperature, the sides of the capsule will distend when the + temperature of the air round the capsule has been raised to the + boiling point of the liquid within it. The distension of this capsule + can be used to raise the lever (L´). The thermostatic capsule is + placed on a fixed cradle (F) and is filled with a mixture of ether and + alcohol, the proportions being such that the boiling point of the + mixed liquid is 100° F. Between the capsule and the lever (L´) is a + vertical rod (V), articulating with the lever as close as possible to + its fulcrum (M). The articulation with the lever is by means of a + screw, so that the necessary nice adjustment between the height of the + rod (V), the thickness of the capsule and the position of rest of the + damper (L) upon the chimney, can be accurately made. The temperature + at which it is desired that the liquid in the capsule shall boil can + be determined by sliding the weight (W) nearer or farther to the + fulcrum of the lever (L´). The farther it is moved outwards, the + greater is the pressure upon the thermostatic capsule and consequently + the higher will be the boiling point of its contained liquid. By means + of the milled-head screw (A), the height of the lever at its outer end + can be so adjusted that when the liquid of the capsule is not boiling + the damper (L) closes the chimney, but that when it does boil the + damper will be raised sufficiently high from it. If the weight is + pushed as far as it will go towards the fulcrum end of the lever, the + temperature of the egg-drawer will never rise more than 100° F. + because at this temperature and under the pressure to which it is then + subjected, the liquid in the capsule boils, and consequently brings + about the raising of the damper. It matters not, therefore, how high + the flame of the gas or lamp be turned, the temperature of the + egg-drawer will not increase, because the extra heat of the enlarged + flame is passing directly outwards through the chimney, and is not + going through the flues in the tank. In order to raise the temperature + within the incubation chamber to 102° or 103°, or any other desired + degree, the weight (W) must be moved outwards along the lever (L´), + about 1 in. for every degree of temperature increase desired. This + thermostatic capsule works admirably, and the incubator will work for + months at a time and requires no adjustment, however much, within the + limits of our climate, the external temperature may vary. The capsule, + like all other thermostats in which the expansible substance is a + liquid, is, however, dependent upon external pressure for the point at + which its contained liquid boils and therefore, for the degree of + temperature prevailing within the incubator drawer. It is therefore + responsive to variations in atmospheric pressure, and as the barometer + may fall 1 or 2 in., this may possibly make a difference of two or + three degrees in the fluctuation of temperature within the egg-drawer. + It is not, of course, often that such large oscillations of the + barometer occur, and as a matter of practical experience, under + ordinary conditions, this incubator will work for months together + without attention with only half a degree variation round the point at + which it was set. + + Greenwood's incubator (fig. 5), named the Bedford, resembles Pearson's + in that hot-air flues (F and F´) and not hot-water pipes, traverse the + water tank (T). And the method of regulation of the temperature is + much the same, i.e. a thermostat (V) operating upon a lever which + raises a cap (C) from off the aperture of the main flue (F) and thus + allows all the heat of the flame to pass directly outwards, without + passing through the series of flues (F) which horizontally traverse + the water-tank. Fresh air enters through a wide circular aperture (A) + which surrounds the main flue, and it thus becomes partially warmed + before entering the egg-chamber. The eggs are placed upon a perforated + floor (E) lying over water baths (B). The water tank (T) lies in the + centre of the incubation chamber and is traversed through its central + axis by the main hot-air flue (F). From this, four horizontal flues + pass outwards through the water and open into small vertical flues, + which in their turn communicate with the exterior. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Bedford (Greenwood's) Incubator.] + + The thermostat (V) consists of a glass tube of peculiar form. This is + closed at the end of its short limb and open at its other extremity on + the long limb. The bent portion of the tube is filled with mercury and + between the mercury column and the closed end is a small quantity of + ether. The thermostat is lodged in a box (G), which forms part of the + lever (L). At one end this lever is pivoted to a fixed arm, and at the + other to the vertical rod which operates the ventilating cap (C). If + the temperature should rise, the ether in the thermostat expands and + pushes the mercury column up along the inclined long limb. This + disturbs the equilibrium of the lever (L), and it descends downwards, + pulling with it the vertical rod, and thus raising the cap over the + main flue. If the temperature falls the reverse series of changes + occur. The temperature at which the cap will be raised can be adjusted + within limits by the position of the weight (W) and by the adjustment + of the degree of inclination of the thermostat. + + The Proctor incubator, made at Otley, is apparently, in its main + features, similar to the Greenwood. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Winchcombe Incubator.] + + Somewhat similar, in certain features, to the Greenwood is the + Winchcombe. Its improved form, in which metal replaces the wood + casing, is named the Gladstone. In it there is a combination of the + hot-air and the water-tank systems of warming the incubation chamber. + The wall of the incubator is double, and the space between the outer + and inner wall is packed with a non-conducting material. The + incubation chamber is heated above by a water-tank (fig. 6 T) which is + traversed by a main vertical flue (F) and four subsidiary horizontal + ones which discharge externally. The main flue, however, in passing up + to enter the water tank traverses the egg-chamber, and therefore + serves to warm it, as in the hot-air type of incubator, by the heat of + the flue itself. Around the lower half of the flue is a water vessel + consisting of two concentric containers (C), holding water. In the + space between these concentric containers, fresh air passes in through + the aperture (A), and before it reaches the egg-chamber it passes + through coarse canvas which dips into the water in the containers, and + is therefore kept permanently moist. The containers are filled from a + water tank (S) outside the incubator. Air passes out from the + egg-chamber through the aperture (O). The temperature is regulated by + a bimetallic thermostat (see below), which operates two levers, that + by their arrangement can raise or depress the cap (D) over the main + flue (F). The temperature at which this occurs will be determined, + within limits, by the position of the adjustable weight (W). + + Tomlinson's incubator, designed in 1880, is novel in principle. It + possesses a very large water tank, holding 15 gallons for every + hundred eggs. Through this tank there pass two hot-air horizontal + flues, lying in the same plane. The novelty of the construction lies + in the great volume of water used and in the disposition of the flues + towards the top of the tank. It is said that very little circulation + of water takes place beneath the flues, because warmed water rises + instead of falling. The great body of water below the flues will + therefore only take up heat relatively slowly, and will, on account of + its bulk and its physical properties, but slowly lose it. Should the + flame fall in power, or even go out for ten or twelve hours, it is + claimed that no serious loss of efficiency of the apparatus will + result. + + Regulation of the temperature is by means of an air tube, the air in + which expanding bulges out an india-rubber diaphragm and this moves a + lever. The lever operates a valve which allows more or less of the + heated air to escape from the egg-drawer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hillier's Incubator.] + + (b) _Hot-air Incubators._--W. H. Hillier's Incubator (fig. 7) is + circular in form and is constructed of a double-walled metal case. The + space between the two walls is packed with a non-conducting material. + The incubation or egg-chamber (C) is warmed by a circular heating box + (H), and the air in this is heated by a lamp. The roof of this box + forms part of the floor of the incubation chamber and from it a main + flue (F) and four smaller ones (F´) pass upwards through the roof of + the incubator and discharge to the exterior. Fresh air passes in to + the incubator through two tubular channels (A and A´) on either side + of the heating box and escapes through a hole in the roof, which + serves at the same time as a passage for one of the rods (D) in + connexion with the temperature regulating apparatus. + + This apparatus (T) consists of a glass tube of ½ in. bore, and which + is bent into the form of a circle of 5 in. diameter. The tube is + fastened to a wooden disk, which rotates upon a pivot and in so doing + operates a vertical rod (D), which in its turn works the cap (V) which + covers the orifice of the main flue. The tube is partly filled with + mercury and is closed at one end. At this end there is contained some + spirit. As the temperature rises, this expands and pushes the mercury + column farther along the tube. The equilibrium of the position of rest + is thus disturbed, and the wooden disk consequently rotates, carrying + with it the vertical arm, the downward movement of which raises the + cap (V) of the flue. The temperature at which it is desired that this + valve shall uncover the flue, can be adjusted within the necessary + limits by sliding the weight (W) along the horizontal arm and by the + amount of mercury present in the bent tube. The air of the incubation + chamber is rendered sufficiently moist by the evaporation of water in + the vessel (G). + + In the Cornell incubator (New York) more personal attention is + required than in other forms, since the ventilation of the egg-chamber + is not wholly automatic but is regulated according to the results of + observation. The great difficulty in ventilation is the proper + combination of fresh air and moisture. The Cornell Incubator Company + has endeavoured to obviate this difficulty by carrying out a series of + observations on the rate at which evaporation occurs in incubating + eggs under natural conditions. The rate of evaporation is measured by + the size of the air-space within the egg-shell at successive days. + This they have ascertained, and with their incubators they furnish a + book of instructions in which diagrams showing the size of the air + space on the 1st, 5th, 10th, 14th and 18th days are given. Examination + of the eggs should therefore be made every two or three days, and the + result compared with the diagrams. The incubator is provided with an + adjustable ventilator and this should be so arranged that evaporation + is neither too great nor too little. The ventilator should never be + wholly closed, and if when closed to its minimum evaporation is still + too great, then water should be placed in the moisture pans. In all + cases lukewarm water should be placed in these on the 18th day and the + ventilating slide opened wide. + + It will thus be seen that in this machine there is an attempt to do + away with the addition of water to the incubator drawer during the + greater part of the period of incubation, and to rely upon the aqueous + vapour naturally present in the atmosphere. This attempt is based upon + the fact that water vapour is lighter than air, and will therefore + rise to the top in any enclosed volume of air. If the direction of the + ventilating current is downwards in the incubation chamber, and if it + is slow enough, it is thought that the water vapour will be sifted out + and tend to accumulate to a sufficient extent in the chamber. In the + Cornell incubator consequently the ventilating current passes first + upward through an external heater in order to warm it, whence it is + then deflected downwards into the egg-chamber and diffuses through its + perforated bottom. Then it passes along a space beneath the chamber + into a space in the left-hand wall of the incubator and out to the + exterior through an adjustable and graduated ventilating slide. + + These incubators are hot-air machines, and the hot-air chamber is + situated above the egg-drawer and is traversed by several flues + opening out from a main one. The temperature regulating apparatus + appears to be similar to that of Hearson's machine and operates by a + thermostat, which through the agency of levers opens or closes a valve + over the main flue. + + The Westmeria incubators (Leighton Buzzard) are of two patterns. One + type is built on the hot-air principle and the other on the hot-water + system. In both forms the heated air from the heating surfaces is + deflected down on the eggs and escapes through the perforated bottom + of the egg-drawer. The inlet air is first warmed by contact with the + main flue. The thermostat is similar to that in the Hillier machine + (fig. 7) and consists of a coil mounted on an axis, round which it can + rotate. The coil is filled with mercury and is closed at one end. + Between this end and the mercury column is a short column of air. By + expansion of the air under a rising temperature, the mercury column is + displaced and brings about a rotation of the disk to which the coiled + tube containing it is attached. This rotation raises the cap over the + main flue. + + All the incubators so far described have been constructed with the + idea of obtaining as nearly as possible a uniform temperature. But in + E. S. Renwick's incubator (America) no attempt is made to obtain + uniformity in temperature. On the other hand, it is designed to give a + periodical oscillation from one extreme to the other of a limited + range, about 3°, of temperature. This is accomplished by means of a + thermostatic bar made of plates of brass and vulcanite fastened + together. This is connected with a clockwork and detent arrangement, + which simultaneously opens a valve and actuates the lamp flame. The + temperature falls to the lower limit of its range before the + thermostatic bar is sufficiently bent to set the clockwork arrangement + operating in the reverse direction, by which the valve is closed and + the lamp flame increased. The temperature then rises to the higher + limit, when the bending of the thermostatic bar again releases the + detent and the clockwork opens the valve and reduces the flame. + + The incubator is said to succeed well. It also possesses a mechanical + arrangement by which all the eggs can be periodically turned on + rollers at once. + + _Size._--The incubators which have been described are of relatively + small size, and the numbers of eggs which they can incubate are + strictly limited. For commercial purposes, however, operations of a + much larger magnitude are desirable and necessary. And there can be no + doubt that for these purposes the incubators of the future will be of + great size and will contain from 15,000 to 30,000 eggs or more at a + time. Already, at Aratoma Farm, Stamford, New York State, there is + established a large incubation room, containing several thousands of + eggs, and in which the heat regulation is controlled in part by the + personal efforts of attendants. It constitutes almost a complete + return, with added accessories, to the methods of the Egyptians, and + to those of John Champion. + + +_Bacteriological Incubators._ + +These differ from bird Incubators in that the heating surface of the +incubation chamber generally surrounds all sides of it and there is, as +a rule, no special arrangement for bringing about a more or less humid +condition of the contained air. In some forms there is an arrangement to +ensure a continuous supply of fresh and moist air, but in the majority +the incubation chamber obtains its supply of fresh air vicariously. In +some forms the chamber of the incubator is heated by a warm water tank +of a simple kind, which extends round all its sides. But in other forms +a series of tubes or flues passes through the water in this tank and +thus simulates in principle the tube boiler. This latter form utilizes +the heat of the flame to a greater degree than the former kind. In yet +other forms the incubation chamber is heated by warm air chambers which +surround it or flues which traverse it. Most bacteriological incubators +are square or rectangular in form, but some bacteriologists prefer +cylindrical forms, presumably on account of the ratio of volume to +surface in connexion with the water tank. + + One of the best known and most generally used of the cylindrical and + water-tank kind is that of Dr d'Arsonval. It consists of two copper + cylinders (fig. 8 C and C´), each terminating in a cone below. Between + the cylinders is a wide interspace, in order that a large volume of + water may be contained. This interspace therefore constitutes the + water-tank of the incubator. The upper orifice of the inner cylinder + is closed by a movable double lid, which contains an interspace filled + with water. The outer cylinder has an oblique form at its upper end + and is permanently closed. The result attained by this slope of the + lid of the outer cylinder is that the water tank, which is fed from + the highest point, becomes completely filled. The aperture at the + highest point of the outer cylinder is plugged with a caoutchouc plug + and through a perforation in this a glass tube (T) is placed. In the + side of the outer cylinder below this, there is a wide and rimmed + aperture, to which a gas regulator of special construction is fixed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--D'Arsonval Incubator.] + + This regulator was designed by Théophile Schloesing, and consists of a + brass box, supplied with a rim (L) which fits on to the corresponding + rim (L´) on the aperture of the incubator. Stretching across the + orifice thus connecting the brass box of the regulator with the + water-tank of the incubator is a thin india-rubber diaphragm (D). At + its outer end a perforated cap (R) screws on to the brass box. Through + the perforation the inlet gas tube passes (I); the outlet gas tube (O) + leaves the brass box below and passes direct to the gas burners. The + inlet gas tube is fitted at its inner end with a sliding flanged + collar (F), which is kept pressed against the rubber diaphragm by a + spiral spring. Just behind the collar the inlet tube is perforated by + a small hole, so that the gas supply is never wholly cut off, even + though the rubber diaphragm completely occludes the inner aperture of + the pipe. + + The mode of working of the regulator is as follows: when the water + tank of the incubator is filled with distilled or rain water at the + temperature required, it presses upon the india-rubber diaphragm with + a certain degree of pressure. By screwing the inlet pipe in or out, as + required, it can be so adjusted that the diaphragm does not occlude + its inner aperture, and consequently the full volume of gas can pass + through to the burners below. The temperature of the water in the + water-tank therefore begins to rise, and in consequence the volume of + the water to increase. This results in the water rising up into the + tube (T), and therefore the dynamical pressure which is exercised by + the water upon every part of the two cylinders of the incubator and + consequently also upon the india-rubber diaphragm of the regulator is + increased. As this pressure increases, the diaphragm becomes bulged + outwardly and reduces the volume of gas passing through the aperture + of the inlet pipe. At a certain point, of course, the diaphragm + completely occludes the aperture, and the gas supply is wholly cut + off, except for the very small hole, forming a by-pass, in the pipe, + behind the collar. This hole is just sufficiently big to allow the + minimum amount of gas requisite to keep the flames burning to pass + through. The temperature will, therefore, begin to fall, the volume of + water to decrease with its resulting descent from the glass tube (T) + and consequent decrease in the dynamical pressure of the water upon + the diaphragm. The latter therefore retracts away from the aperture of + the inlet tube, and more gas consequently passes through; the flames + again increase in size and the temperature rises once more. And as + soon as the volume of water, owing to the rising temperature, has + increased to the extent correlated with the temperature at which the + apparatus has been set to work, it will have risen once more in the + tube (T), and the gas will be again cut off. The three burners are + placed upon a support that can be moved vertically up or down along + one of the legs of the incubator. The flames are protected from + draughts by mica chimneys. Ventilation is provided by an adjustable + valve (V´) in the cylindrical termination of the incubator at its + lower end, and by tubular orifices, also fitted with valves (V) in the + lid above. + + The incubator is very reliable and may be worked within very narrow + limits of variation, provided that the gas-supply be regulated by a + gas-pressure regulator, that the height of the water in the tube (T) + is maintained by daily additions of a few drops of distilled water, + and that the incubator itself be protected from draughts. + + Another form of d'Arsonval incubator has a glass door in the side of + it and a slightly modified form of the heat regulator. + + Other cylindrical forms of incubators are made by Lequeux of Paris. In + one of these the heat regulator is a bimetallic thermostat, the + movements of which are enlarged by a simple series of levers, so that + a valve can be automatically adjusted to allow more or less heat from + the flame to pass through the heating flue. + + In another form there is a movable interior, and an arrangement for + keeping the air in the incubation chamber saturated. It is governed by + a bimetallic thermostat of the Roux type. + + In Dr Hüppe's improved form of his incubator, which is approximately + square in form, the double-walled water tank is completely surrounded + externally by an air chamber, which is heated by the passage through + it of the products of combustion of the two flames. The heated gases + escape through an adjustable aperture at the top. In the earlier form + the water tank was traversed by a number of hot-air flues, and there + was consequently no external hot-air chamber. There is an arrangement + of tubes for ventilation, which allow fresh air to enter the lower + part of the incubation chamber and to leave it at the top. The + incoming air is warmed before it enters. The walls are made of + lead-coated steel, and externally the incubator is covered with + linoleum. In the more expensive forms the inner chamber is of copper. + The temperature may be controlled by any of the simpler mercury + thermostats described below. + + Dr Babes' incubator is somewhat similar, but the water tank is not + surrounded by a hot-air chamber. Instead it is traversed by a number + of vertical flues through which the heated gases from the flames pass. + Ventilation is provided for and there is an apparatus for controlling + the humidity of the air in the incubation chamber. As in Hüppe's + incubator, the bottom is conical in form. The walls of the incubator + are of lead-coated steel, and externally they are covered with + linoleum; there are two doors, an inner one of glass and an outer one + of metal. The temperature may be controlled as in Hüppe's incubator. + + Hearson has designed several forms of bacteriological (biological) + incubators, made by Chas. Hearson & Co., Ltd. Some are heated by a + petroleum lamp and others by a gas flame. In the form heated by a + lamp, for which, however, gas can be substituted, the incubation + chamber is surrounded by a water tank (fig. 9, A) and the lowest part + of this is traversed by an in-going (L) and an out-going flue. The + mode of regulation of the temperature is by means of a thermostat + which operates the movements of a cap (F) over the main flue (V), and + it is identical in its chief features with the method employed in the + chicken incubator. The thermostat (S) is situated in the upper part of + the incubation chamber. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator. (Heated + by a petroleum lamp.)] + + In the other form (fig. 10) for which gas is used exclusively, there + are no flues traversing the water tank. This latter is heated from its + conical floor by a burner beneath the incubator. The heat regulation + is controlled by a thermostat of the same nature as in the form of + incubator just described, but instead of operating by lowering or + raising a cap over a main flue, so as to direct the heated gases + either through the water tank if the temperature is falling, or + through the main flue directly to the exterior if it is rising, it + actuates a gas-governor, so that the flame itself is increased or + diminished in size according to the needs of the incubator. The + gas-governor (fig. 11) is fixed to the roof of the incubator. The + horizontal arm (D) is the same that raises the cap (fig. 9, F) over + the flue in the other form of incubator, but in this case it simply + acts as the bearer of the sliding weight. Beyond its fulcrum (fig. 11, + G) it is continued into a detent-like spur (B) which pushes down upon + a button attached to a rubber diaphragm, when the thermostat within + the incubator is expanded by a rise in temperature. The button thus + forced down, more or less completely closes the inlet gas aperture, + and so reduces or cuts off the gas supply to the flame. There is a + by-pass to prevent the flame from going out completely, and the size + of this can be adjusted by the screw (S). Hearson's incubators have + the reputation of very accurate performance and practically need no + attention for months, or even years. + + Schribaux's incubator is a hot-air form. Its walls are of metal, but + it is cased externally with wood, which serves as the insulating + material. Against the inner metal wall of the incubator, and upon its + internal surface, there are disposed a number of vertical tubes, which + open through the roof above into a common discharging funnel. Below, + at the bottom of the incubator they receive the heated gases of + several burners, which as they pass through them radiate their heat + evenly throughout the incubation chamber. In each side wall, at the + bottom of the chamber, is an adjustable ventilating valve. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Hearson's Bacteriological Incubator (heated + by a gas flame).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Gas-governor.] + + Inside the incubation chamber, and situated against its left-hand + wall, is a U-shaped bimetallic thermostat of the Roux design, + described below. This very accurately controls the temperature of the + incubator. + + (c) _Cool Incubators._--In bacteriological laboratories there are two + standards of temperature, one chiefly for the culture of + non-pathogenic organisms and the other for the pathogenic forms. The + first standard of temperature lies between 18° and 20° C., and the + second between 35° and 38° C. But in hot countries, and even in + temperate regions during the summer, the external temperature is much + higher than the former of these two standards, with the result that + many cultures, especially the gelatine ones, are spoiled. The + difficulty is often partially overcome by running cold water through + the incubator. + + Hearson, however, has constructed a "cool biological incubator," in + which by an ingenious device the expansion or contraction of the + thermostatic capsule deflects a horizontal pipe (C) (fig. 12), through + which cold water from an ordinary tap is kept running, in one of two + directions. If it is deflected so as to open into the tube (D), the + cold water passes into the tank (F), where it is warmed by a gas + flame, and thence it passes into the water-jacket of the incubator. If + it is deflected so as to open into the pipe (E), it then runs through + the ice tank (B), containing broken ice, before passing through the + water-jacket of the incubator. If it poured into neither of these + pipes it then simply passes out through the pipe (H) to the waste pipe + (N). By this device the temperature of the incubator can be kept + constant at any desired point, even though it may be some 30° to 40° + C. below that of the external air. + + Dr Roux has also designed an incubator which can be maintained at a + constant temperature below that of the surrounding air. This also + depends upon the principle of carrying water through an ice-safe, + which then traverses a pipe within the incubator chamber before + passing into the water-jacket of the machine. The heat-regulating + apparatus is a bimetallic thermostat. The incubator is made by Lequeux + of Paris. + + The most recent forms of all kinds of incubators, made by Hearson of + London, Lequeux of Paris and Lautenschläger of Berlin are both heated + and regulated by electricity. The heating is accomplished by electric + radiators. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Hearson's Cool Biological Incubator.] + + In Hearson's machines the regulation of the temperature is brought + about by the breaking or making of the electric current, through the + lifting or depression of a platinum contact, actuated by the expansion + or contraction of the thermostatic capsule. + + In Roux's apparatus, made by Lequeux, the make and break is attained + by the movement of one limb of a bimetallic thermostat, and in some + forms a resistance coil and rheostat are placed in the circuit. + + At the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and at other large laboratories in + France, the bacteriological incubator is raised to the dimensions of a + room. In the centre of this room is a large boiler heated by + gas-burners, the fumes from which pass through a large flue to the + outside. The flame of the burners is regulated by a bimetallic + thermostat. The gas by-pass can be regulated by an attendant. The + cultures are contained in vessels placed on shelves, which are ranged + round the side of the room. + + +_Human Incubators._ + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Tarnier's Incubator.] + +The first incubator designed for rearing children who are too weak to +survive under normal conditions, or who are prematurely born, is that of +Dr Tarnier. It was constructed in 1880 and was first used at the Paris +Maternity Hospital. Its form is that of a rectangular box measuring 65 × +30 × 50 centimetres (fig. 13). It is divided into an upper and lower +chamber; the former contains the infant, while the latter serves as a +heating chamber, and in reality is simply a modified water-tank. The +partition (P) which divides the incubator into two chambers does not +extend the whole length of it, so that the upper and lower chambers are +at one end of the apparatus in communication with each other. It is +through this passage that the heated air from the lower chamber passes +into the upper one containing the infant. The narrow bottom chamber C +serves to prevent loss of heat from the base of the water-bottles. The +outside air is admitted into the lower chamber at the opposite end, +through an aperture (A), and passing over a series of bottles (B) +containing warm water, becomes heated. The air is rendered adequately +moist by means of a wetted sponge (S) which is placed at the entrance of +the lower chamber into the upper. The warmed and moistened air is +determined in its direction by the position of the outlet aperture (O), +which is situated above and just behind the head of the infant. It +contains a helix valve (H) and the rotation of this is an indication +that the air is circulating within the incubator. + +The child is kept under observation by means of a sliding glass door (G) +situated in the upper or roof wall of the incubator. Immediately beneath +this, and attached to one of the side walls, is a thermometer (T) which +records the temperature of the air in the infant-chamber. The +temperature should be maintained at 31° to 32° C. The precise limit of +temperature must of course be determined by the condition of the child; +the smaller and weaker it is, the higher the temperature must be. + +The warm water vessels contain three-quarters of a pint of water and +four of them are sufficient to maintain the required temperature, +provided that the external air does not fall below 16° C. The vessels +are withdrawn and replaced through an entrance to the lower chamber, and +which can be opened or closed by a sliding door (D). + +The walls of the incubator, with the exception of the glass sliding +door, are made of wood 25 millimetres thick. + +The apparatus appears to have been successful, if by success is +understood the indiscriminate saving of life apart from all other +considerations, since the mortality of infants under 2000 grammes has +been reduced by about 30%, and about 45% of children who are prematurely +born are saved. + +Dr Tarnier's apparatus requires constant attention, and the water in the +warm water vessels needs renewing sufficiently often. It is not provided +with a temperature regulator and consequently fluctuations of internal +temperature, due to external thermal variations, are liable to occur. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Hearson's "Thermostatic Nurse."] + +In Hearson's Thermostatic Nurse these drawbacks are to a large extent +obviated. This "Nurse" consists fundamentally of an application of the +arrangements for heating and moistening the air and for regulating the +temperature of Hearson's chick incubator to Dr Tarnier's human +incubator. As in this latter form, there are two chambers (fig. 14), an +upper (A) and a lower (B), connected with each other in the same way as +in Tarnier's apparatus. The upper chamber contains the infant, but the +lower is not a heating but a moistening chamber. Through apertures (M) +in the bottom of the lower chamber, the external air passes through, and +as in the chick incubator it then passes through perforations in the +inner cylinder of a water tray (O) and thence over the surface of the +water in the tray, through a sheet of wet canvas, to the chamber itself. +Hence it passes to the infant chamber and ultimately leaves this through +a series of perforations round the top. The air in both chambers is +heated by a warm-water tank. This tank forms the partition which divides +the incubator into upper and lower chambers and is made of metal. +Through the water contained in it, an incoming (R) and an outgoing (R) +to the left flue, continuous with each other, pass. These two flues are +related to each other as in the chick incubator (see above) and the +inlet flue is heated in the same way and the outlet flue discharges +similarly. The heat-regulating apparatus is identical with that in the +chick incubator, and the thermostatic capsule (S) is placed in the upper +chamber, near the head of the infant. + +The child is placed in a basket which has perforated walls, and is open +above. The basket rests upon two shallow supports (D) situated on the +upper surface of the water-tank partition. The child is kept under +observation through a glass door in the upper or roof-wall of the +incubator. + +In Great Britain this apparatus is in use at various hospitals and +workhouses throughout the country, and provided there is no great +fluctuation of barometric pressure, it maintains a uniform temperature. + + +_Thermo-Regulators or Thermostats._ + +Certain special forms of thermo-regulators, adapted to the requirements +of the particular incubators to which they are attached, have already +been described. It remains now to describe other forms which are of more +general application. Only those kinds will be described which are +applicable to incubators. The special forms used for investigations in +physical-chemistry are not described. There are various types of +thermo-regulators, all of which fall into one of two classes. Either +they act through the expansion of a solid, or through that of a liquid. +They are so adjusted, that, at a certain temperature, the expansion of +the material chosen causes the gas supply to be nearly completely cut +off. The gas flame is prevented from being wholly extinguished by means +of a small by-pass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Page's Thermostat.] + + We will first describe those which act through the expansion of a + liquid. A very efficient and cheap form is that described by F. J. M. + Page in the _Journal of the Chemical Society_ for 1876. The regulator + consists of a glass bulb (fig. 15 B), continuous above with a tubular + limb (L). At the upper part of the limb is a lateral tubular arm (A) + which bends downwards and constitutes the outlet pipe. At the upper + extremity of the limb there is a short and much wider tube (T), the + lower end of which slides upwards or downwards along it. The upper end + of this wider tube is closed by a cork and through a perforation in + this a very small glass tube (G) passes downwards into the limb of the + regulator to a point a short distance below the exit of the outlet + tube. The exact height of the lower aperture of the small tube can be + varied by sliding the wider tube up or down along the limb. The + by-pass (P) consists of a transverse connexion between the inlet and + outlet gas pipes, and the amount of gas which travels through the + short circuit thus formed is regulated by means of a stopcock. The + by-pass, however, can be formed, as suggested by Schäfer (_Practical + Histology_, 1877, p. 80), by making an extremely small hole in the + small inlet tube, a little way above its lower extremity. But unless + this hole be small enough, too much gas will be allowed to pass, and a + sufficiently low temperature therefore unattainable. The regulator is + filled with mercury until the top of the column reaches within ½ in. + of the exit of the outlet tube, the bulb is placed in the incubator + chamber, and gas is allowed to pass through it. By pushing down the + inner inlet tube (G) until its aperture is immersed beneath the + mercury, the gas supply is cut off, with the exception of that passing + through the by-pass. The stopcock is now turned until only the + smallest flame exists. The inlet pipe is then raised again above the + mercury, and the flame consequently increases in size. The temperature + of the incubator gradually rises, and when the desired degree is + reached, the inlet tube is pushed down until the end is just beneath + the surface of the mercury. The gas supply is thus cut off at the + desired temperature. If the temperature of the incubator falls, the + mercury contracts, the aperture of the inlet tube is uncovered, the + gas supply is renewed and the flame increased. The temperature will + then rise until the required point is reached, when the gas supply + will again be cut off. A uniform temperature which oscillates within a + range of half a degree is thus attained. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Reichert's Thermo-Regulator.] + + Reichert's Thermo-regulator (fig. 16) is another simple and also an + earlier form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged above and + receives a hollow T-piece (P), the vertical limb of which fits + accurately into the enlarged end of the stem, and one end of the + cross-limb receives the inlet gas pipe; the other end is closed. The + vertical limb of the T-piece is narrowed down at its lower extremity + and opens by a small aperture. Above this terminal aperture is a + lateral one of the smallest size. From the enlarged end of the stem + there passes out a lateral arm (A) which is connected with the outlet + pipe to the burner, and lower down another arm (L), which is closed at + its outer extremity by a screw (R), is also attached. The stem and + lower arm are filled with mercury and the bulb of the stem is placed + in the incubator chamber, and gas allowed to pass. When the desired + temperature is reached, the mercury in the stem is forced upwards + until it closes the aperture of the T-piece, by screwing in the screw + (R) of the lower lateral arm (L). + + There are several modifications of Reichert's original form. In one of + these the screw arrangement in the lower arm is replaced by a piston + rod working in a narrow bore of a vertically bent limb of the arm. In + another form, the other end of the cross bar of the T-piece is open + and leads through a stopcock to a third arm, which opens into the + enlarged upper end of the stem opposite to the outlet arm (A); this + modification acts as an adjustable by-pass and replaces the minute + aperture in the side of the vertical limb of the T-piece. + + In Babes' modification the gas supply is cut off, not by the occlusion + by the rising mercury of the aperture of the T-piece, but by a + floating beaded wire-valve. The aperture of the vertical limb of the + T-piece (P) is traversed by a fine wire which is enlarged at both ends + into a bead-like knob. The wire fits loosely in the aperture and not + only therefore works easily in it, but allows gas to freely pass. When + the lower bead-like knob, however, is raised by the expansion of the + mercury, the gas supply is cut off by the bead being carried up + against the orifice. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Cuccatti's Thermo-Regulator.] + + Cuccatti's thermo-regulator (fig. 17) is an exceedingly simple and + ingenious form. The stem (S) of the regulator is enlarged below into a + bulb, while above it divides into a V. The two limbs of the V are of + course traversed by a canal and they are connected above by a tubular + cross bar (C). In the middle of this there is a stopcock situated + between the two points where the bar joins the limbs of the V. One end + of the cross-tube serves as an inlet and the other as an outlet for + the gas. The stopcock serves as an adjustable by-pass. About an inch + below the point where the two limbs of the V join the stem, the bore + of the latter is enlarged, and it leads into a lateral arm (A), + containing a screw (R), similar to the corresponding arm in Reichert's + regulator. When the mercury in the bulb and stem expands, it rises, + and reaching the point when the two limbs of the V meet occludes the + orifice to both and thus cuts off the gas supply, except that which is + passing through the by-pass of the stopcock. The temperature at which + this occlusion will take place can be determined by the screw in the + lateral arm. The more this is screwed in, the lower will be the + temperature at which the gas becomes cut off, and vice versa. + + Bunsen's, Kemp's and Muenke's regulators are in reality of the nature + of air-thermometers, and act by the expansion and contraction of air, + which raises or lowers respectively a column of mercury; this in its + turn results in the occlusion or opening of the gas aperture. Such + forms, however, are subject to the influence of barometric pressure + and an alteration of 0.5 in. of the barometer column may result in the + variation of the temperature to as much as 2°. + + Lothar Meyer's regulator is described in the _Berichte of the German + Chemical Society_, 1883, p. 1089. It is essentially a liquid + thermometer, the mercury column being raised by the expansion of a + liquid of low boiling-point. The liquid replaces the air in Bunsen's + and other similar forms. The boiling-point of this liquid must be + below the temperature required as constant. + + The solid forms of thermostats are constructed upon the same principle + as the compensation balance of a watch or the compensation pendulum of + a clock. This depends upon the fact that the co-efficient of expansion + is different for different metals. It therefore results that if two + bars of different metals are fastened together along their lengths + (fig. 18, Z and ST) with the same rise of temperature one of these + will expand or lengthen more than the other. And since both are + fastened together and must therefore accommodate themselves within the + same linear area, it follows that the compound rod must bend into a + curved form, in order that the bar of greater expansion may occupy the + surface of greater length, i.e. the convex one. Conversely, when the + temperature falls, the greater degree of contraction will be in the + same bar, and the surface occupied by it will tend to become the + concave one. If, then, one end of this compound rod be fixed and the + other free, the latter end will describe a backward and forward + movement through an arc of a circle, which will correspond with the + oscillations of temperature. This movement can be utilized by means of + simple mechanical arrangements, to open or close the stopcock of a gas + supply pipe. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Dr Roux's Thermostat (straight bar).] + + In the construction of this type of thermostat it is obvious that the + greater the difference in the co-efficient of expansion of the two + metals used, the larger will be the amplitude of the movement + obtained. Steel and zinc are two metals which satisfy this condition. + The co-efficient of steel is the lowest of all metals and is + comparable in its degree with that of glass. Substances which are not + metals, such as vulcanite and porcelain, are sometimes used to replace + steel, as the substance of low co-efficient of expansion. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Dr Roux's Thermostat (U-shaped bar).] + + The bimetallic thermostat most commonly employed is one of the two + forms designed by Dr Roux. In one of these forms the compound bar is + straight (fig. 18) and in the other it is U-shaped (fig. 19). In the + former type the bar itself is enclosed in a tube (T) of metal, the + wall of which is perforated. Towards the open end of this tube the gas + box or case (C) is fixed. In the U-shape form it is attached to the + outer surface (zinc) of one limb of the bar. The gas box is capable of + adjustment with respect to its distance from the bar, by means of a + screw (S) and a spiral spring (SP), which moves the box outwards or + inwards along a rod (R). This adjustment enables the degree of + temperature at which it is desired that the gas shall be cut off to be + fixed accurately, and within a certain more or less extended range. + The inlet and the outlet pipe are disconnected from each other in the + gas box by means of a piston-like rod (P) and valve (V), which slides + backwards and forwards in the tubular part (T) of the box, from which + the outlet pipe emerges. When the valve (V) rests upon the edge of + this box, the gas is completely cut off from passing through the + outlet pipe, with the exception of that which passes through an + exceedingly small aperture (B), serving as a by-pass. This is just + large enough to allow sufficient gas to pass to maintain a small + flame. The piston-like rod and valve, when free, is kept pressed + outwards by means of a spiral spring. This ensures that the valve + shall follow the movements of the compound bar. When this bar bends + towards the gas box owing to a fall of temperature, the valve is + pushed back away from the orifice and gas in increasing quantity + passes through. The temperature of the incubator begins then to rise, + and the zinc bar (Z) expanding more than the steel one (ST), the bar + bends outwards and the valve once more cuts off the gas supply. + + (d) _Gas-Pressure Regulators._--The liquid form of thermo-regulators + especially work with a greater degree of accuracy if they are combined + with some apparatus which controls the variations in gas pressure. + There are various forms of these regulators, most of which are figured + and sometimes partially described in the catalogues of various makers + of scientific instruments. It will suffice if we describe two forms, + one of which (that of Buddicom) can be made by a laboratory attendant + of average intelligence. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Buddicom's Gas Regulator.] + + In R. A. Buddicom's gas regulator (fig. 20) the inlet (I) and outlet + (O) gas pipe open into a metal bell (B), the lower and open end of + which is immersed beneath water contained in a metal tray (T). The + bell is suspended upon the arm of a balance (B) and the other arm is + poised by a weight (W). This weight may be made of any convenient + material. In the original apparatus a test-tube partially filled with + mercury was used. The weight dips into one limb of a U-shaped glass + tube (U), which contains mercury. Into the other limb of this tube the + gas from the meter enters through a glass tube (G) which is held in + position by a well-fitting cork. The internal aperture of the tube (G) + is very oblique, and it rests just above the level of the mercury when + the instrument is finally adjusted. This adjustment is better made in + the morning when the gas pressure in the main is at its lowest. Just + above the internal aperture of the tube (G), a lateral tube (L) passes + out from the limb of the U and is connected with the inlet pipe (I) of + the bell. If the gas pressure rises, the bell (B) is raised and the + counter-poising weight (W) is proportionately lowered. This forces the + mercury up in the other limb of the U-tube and consequently diminishes + the size of the oblique orifice in the tube (G). Some of the gas is + thus cut off and the pressure maintained constant. Should the pressure + fall, the reverse processes occur, and more gas passes through the + orifice of G and consequently to the burner by the outlet tube (O). + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Moitessier's Gas Regulator.] + + Moitessier's regulator (fig. 21) is more complex, and needs more + skilled work in its construction. It consists of an outer and closed + cylinder (O), which is filled about half-way up with a mixture of + acid-free glycerine and distilled water in the proportion of two to + one respectively. Within the cylinder is a bell (B), the lower and + open end of which dips under the glycerine-water mixture. From the top + of the bell a vertical rod (R) passes up through an aperture in the + cover of the outer cylinder, and supports the weighted dish (D). The + inlet (I) and outlet (O) pipes enter the chamber of the bell above the + level of the glycerine-water mixture. The outlet tube is a simple one; + but the inlet tube is enlarged into a relatively capacious cylinder + (C), and its upper end is fitted with a cover which is perforated by + an aperture having a smooth surface and concave form. Into this + aperture an accurately fitting ball- or socket-valve (V) fits. The + ball-valve is supported by a suspension thread (T) from the roof of + the bell (B). The apparatus should be adjusted in the morning when the + pressure is low, and the dish (D) should be then so weighted that the + full amount of gas passes through. The size of the flame should then + be adjusted. Should the pressure increase, the bell (B) is raised and + with it the ball-valve (V). The aperture in the cover of the inlet + cylinder is consequently reduced and some of the gas cut off. When the + pressure falls again, the ball-valve is lowered and more gas passes + through. The relative pressure in the inlet and outlet pipes can be + read off on the manometer (M) placed on each of these tubes. + + Levelling screws allow of the apparatus being horizontally adjusted. + The friction engendered by the working of the vertical rod (R) through + the aperture in the collar of the cylinder cover is reduced to a + minimum by the rod being made to slide upwards or downwards on three + vertical knife-edge ridges within the aperture of the collar. + + AUTHORITIES.--Charles A. Cyphers, _Incubation and its Natural Laws_ + (1776); J. H. Barlow, _The Art and Method of Hatching and Rearing all + Kinds of Domestic Poultry and Game Birds by Steam_ (London, 1827); and + _Daily Progress of the Chick in the Egg during Hatching in Steam + Apparatus_ (London, 1824); Walthew, _Artificial Incubation_ (London, + 1824); William Bucknell, _The Eccaleobin. A Treatise on Artificial + Incubation_, in 2 parts (published by the author, London, 1839); T. + Christy, jun., _Hydro-Incubation_ (London, 1877); L. Wright, _The Book + of Poultry_ (2nd ed. London, 1893); A. Forget, _L'Aviculture et + l'incubation artificielle_ (Paris, 1896); J. H. Sutcliffe, _Incubators + and their Management_ (Upcott Gill, London, 1896); H. H. Stoddard, + _The New Egg Farm_ (Orange Judd Co., New York, 1900); Edward Brown, + _Poultry Keeping as an Industry_ (5th ed., 1904); F. J. M. Page, "A + Simple Form of Gas Regulator," _Journ. Chem. Soc._ i. 24 (London, + 1876); V. Babes, "Über einige Apparate zur Bacterienuntersuchung," + _Centralblatt für Bacteriologie_, iv. (1888); T. Hüppe, _Methoden der + Bacterienforschungen_ (Berlin, 1889). For further details of + bacteriological incubators and accessories see catalogues of + Gallenkamp, Baird & Tatlock, Hearson of London, and of the Cambridge + Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge; of P. Lequeux of Paris; and + of F. & M. Lautenschläger of Berlin. That of Lequeux and of the + Cambridge Company are particularly useful, as in many instances they + give a scientific explanation of the principles upon which the + construction of the various pieces of apparatus is based. + (G. P. M.) + + + + +INCUBUS (a Late Latin form of the classical _incubo_, a night-mare, from +_incubare_, to lie upon, weigh down, brood), the name given in the +middle ages to a male demon which was supposed to haunt women in their +sleep, and to whose visits the birth of witches and demons was +attributed. The female counterparts of these demons were called +_succubae_. The word is also applied generally to an oppressive thing or +person. + + + + +INCUMBENT (from Lat. _incumbere_, to lean, lie upon), a general term for +the holder (rector, vicar, curate in charge) of an ecclesiastical +benefice (see BENEFICE). In Scotland the title is generally confined to +clergy of the Episcopal Church. The word in this application is peculiar +to English. Du Cange (_Glossarium, s. v._ "Incumbens") says that the +_Jurisconsulti_ use _incumbere_ in the sense of _obtinere_, _possidere_, +but the sense may be transferred from the general one of that which +rests or is laid on one as a duty which is also found in post-classical +Latin; to be "diligently resident" in a parish or benefice, has also +been suggested as the source of the meaning. + + + + +INCUNABULA, a Latin neuter-plural meaning "swaddling-clothes," a +"cradle," "birthplace," and so the beginning of anything, now curiously +specialized to denote books printed in the 15th century. Its use in this +sense may have originated with the title of the first separately +published list of 15th-century books, Cornelius a Beughem's _Incunabula +typographiae_ (Amsterdam, 1688). The word is generally recognized all +over Europe and has produced vernacular forms such as the French +incunables, German _Inkunabeln_ (_Wiegendrucke_), Italian _incunaboli_, +though the anglicized _incunables_ is not yet fully accepted. If its +original meaning had been regarded the application of the word would +have been confined to books printed before a much earlier date, such as +1475, or to the first few printed in any country or town. By the end of +the 15th century book-production in the great centres of the trade, such +as Venice, Lyons, Paris and Cologne, had already lost much of its +primitive character, and in many countries there is no natural +halting-place between 1490 and 1520 or later. The attractions of a round +date have prevailed, however, over these considerations, and the year +1500 is taken as a halting-place, or more often a terminus, in all the +chief works devoted to the registration and description of early printed +books. The most important of these are (i.) Panzer's _Annales +typographici ab artis inventae origine ad annum MD._, printed in five +volumes at Nuremberg in 1793 and subsequently in 1803 carried on to 1536 +by six additional volumes; (ii.) Ham's _Repertorium bibliographicum in +quo libri omnes ab arte typographica inventa usque ad annum MD. typis +expressi ordine alphabetico vel simpliciter enumerantur vel adcuratius, +recensentur_ (Stuttgart, 1826-1838). In Panzer's _Annales_ the first +principle of division is that of the alphabetical order of the Latin +names of towns in which incunabula were printed, the books being +arranged under the towns by the years of publication. In Hain's +_Repertorium_ the books are arranged under their authors' names, and it +was only in 1891 that an index of printers was added by Dr Konrad +Burger. In 1898 Robert Proctor published an _Index to the Early Printed +Books in the British Museum: from the invention of printing to the year +MD., with notes of those in the Bodleian Library_. In this work the +books were arranged as far as possible chronologically under their +printers, the printers chronologically under the towns in which they +worked, and the towns and countries chronologically in the order in +which printing was introduced into them, the total number of books +registered being nearly ten thousand. Between 1898 and 1902 Dr W. +Copinger published a _Supplement to Hain's Repertorium_, described as a +collection towards a new edition of that work, adding some seven +thousand new entries to the sixteen thousand editions enumerated by +Hain. From the total of about twenty-three thousand incunabula thus +registered considerable deductions must be made for duplicate entries +and undated editions which probably belong to the 16th century. On the +other hand Dr Copinger's _Supplement_ had hardly appeared before +additional lists began to be issued registering books unknown both to +him and to Hain, and the new _Repertorium_, begun in 1905, under the +auspices of the German government, seemed likely to register, on its +completion, not fewer than thirty thousand different incunabula as +extant either in complete copies or fragments. + +In any attempt to estimate the extent to which the incunabula still in +existence represent the total output of the 15th-century presses, a +sharp distinction must be drawn between the weightier and the more +ephemeral literature. Owing to the great religious and intellectual +upheaval in the 16th century much of the literature previously current +went out of date, while the cumbrous early editions of books still read +were superseded by handier ones. Before this happened the heavier works +had found their way into countless libraries and here they reposed +peacefully, only sharing the fate of the libraries themselves when these +were pillaged, or by a happier fortune amalgamated with other +collections in a larger library. The considerable number of copies of +many books for whose preservation no special reason can be found +encourages a belief that the proportion of serious works now completely +lost is not very high, except in the case of books of devotion whose +honourable destiny was to be worn to pieces by devout fingers. On the +other hand, of the lighter literature in book-form, the cheap romances +and catchpenny literature of all kinds, the destruction has been very +great. Most of the broadsides and single sheets generally which have +escaped have done so only by virtue of the 16th-century custom of using +waste of this kind as a substitute for wooden boards to stiffen +bindings. Excluding these broadsides, &c., the total output of the +15th-century presses in book form is not likely to have exceeded forty +thousand editions. As to the size of the editions we know that the +earliest printers at Rome favoured 225 copies, those at Venice 300. By +the end of the century these numbers had increased, but the soft metal +in use then for types probably wore badly enough to keep down the size +of editions, and an average of 500 copies, giving a possible total of +twenty million books put on the European market during the 15th century +is probably as near an estimate as can be made. + +Very many incunabula contain no information as to when, where or by whom +they were printed, but the individuality of most of the early types as +compared with modern ones has enabled typographical detectives (of whom +Robert Proctor, who died in 1903, was by far the greatest) to track most +of them down. To facilitate this work many volumes of facsimiles have +been published, the most important being K. Burger's _Monumenta +Germaniae et Italiae Typographica_ (1892, &c.), J. W. Holtrop's +_Monuments typographiques des Pays-Bas_ (1868), O. Thierry-Poux's +_Premiers monuments de l'imprimerie en France au XV^e siècle_ (1890), K. +Haebler's _Typographie ibérique du quinzième siècle_ (1901) and Gordon +Duff's _Early English Printing_ (1896), the publications of the Type +Facsimile Society (1700, &c.) and the _Woolley Facsimiles_, a collection +of five hundred photographs, privately printed. + +In his _Index to the Early Printed Books at the British Museum_ Proctor +enumerated and described all the known types used by each printer, and +his descriptions have been usefully extended and made more precise by Dr +Haebler in his _Typenrepertorium der Wiegendrucke_ (1905, &c.). With the +aid of these descriptions and of the facsimiles already mentioned it is +usually possible to assign a newly discovered book with some certainty +to the press from which it was issued and often to specify within a few +weeks, or even days, the date at which it was finished. + +As a result of these researches it is literally true that the output of +the 15th-century presses (excluding the ephemeral publications which +have very largely disappeared) is better known to students than that of +any other period. Of original literature of any importance the +half-century 1450-1500 was singularly barren, and the zeal with which +15th-century books have been collected and studied has been criticized +as excessive and misplaced. No doubt the minuteness with which it is +possible to make an old book yield up its secrets has encouraged +students to pursue the game for its own sake without any great +consideration of practical utility, but the materials which have thus +been made available for the student of European culture are far from +insignificant. The competition among the 15th-century printers was very +great and they clearly sent to press every book for which they could +hope for a sale, undaunted by its bulk. Thus the great medieval +encyclopaedia, the _Specula_ (_Speculum naturale_, _Speculum +historiale_, _Speculum morale_, _Speculum doctrinale_) of Vincent de +Beauvais went through two editions at Strassburg and found publishers +and translators elsewhere, although it must have represented an outlay +from which many modern firms would shrink. It would almost seem, indeed, +as if some publishers specially affected very bulky works which, while +they remained famous, had grown scarce because the scribes were afraid +to attempt them. Hence, more especially in Germany, it was not merely +the output of a single generation which came to the press before 1500, +but the whole of the medieval literature which remained alive, i.e. +retained a reputation sufficient to attract buyers. A study of lists of +incunabula enables a student to see just what works this included, and +the degree of their popularity. On the other hand in Italy the influence +of the classical renaissance is reflected in the enormous output of +Latin classics, and the progress of Greek studies can be traced in the +displacement of Latin translations by editions of the originals. The +part which each country and city played in the struggle between the old +ideals and the new can be determined in extraordinary detail by a study +of the output of its presses, although some allowance must be made for +the extent to which books were transported along the great trade routes. +Thus the fact that the Venetian output nearly equalled that of the whole +of the rest of Italy was no doubt mainly due to its export trade. +Venetian books penetrated everywhere, and the skill of Venetian printers +in liturgical books procured them commissions to print whole editions +for the English market. From the almost complete absence of scholarly +books in the lists of English Incunabula it would be too much to +conclude that there was no demand for such books in England. The demand +existed and was met by importation, which a statute of Richard III.'s +expressly facilitated. But that it was not commercially possible for a +scholarly press to be worked in England, and that no man of means was +ready to finance one, tells its own tale. The total number of incunabula +printed in England was probably upwards of four hundred, of which Caxton +produced fully one-fourth. Of the ten thousand different incunabula +which the British Museum and Bodleian library possess between them, +about 4100 are Italian, 3400 German, 1000 French, 700 from the +Netherlands, 400 from Switzerland, 150 from Spain and Portugal, 50 from +other parts of the continent of Europe and 200 English, the proportion +of these last being about doubled by the special zeal with which they +have been collected. The celebration in 1640 of the second centenary (as +it was considered) of the invention of printing may be taken as the date +from which incunabula began to be collected for their own sake, apart +from their literary interest, and the publication of Beughem's +_Incunabula typographiae_ in 1688 marks the increased attention paid to +them. But up to the end of the 17th century Caxtons could still be +bought for a few shillings. The third centenary of the invention of +printing in 1740 again stimulated enthusiasm, and by the end of the 18th +century the really early books were eagerly competed for. Interest in +books of the last ten or fifteen years of the century is a much more +modern development, but with the considerable literature which has grown +up round the subject is not likely to be easily checked. + + The chief collections of incunabula are those of the Bibliothèque + Nationale at Paris, Royal library, Munich, and British Museum, London, + the number of separate editions in each library exceeding nine + thousand, with numerous duplicates. The number of separate editions at + the Bodleian library is about five thousand. Other important + collections are at the University library, Cambridge, and the John + Rylands library, Manchester, the latter being based on the famous + Althorp library formed by Earl Spencer (see BOOK-COLLECTING). + (A. W. Po.) + + + + +INDABA, a Zulu-Bantu word, formed from the inflexional prefix _in_ and +_daba_, business, news, for an important conference held by the +"indunas" or principal men of the Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South +Africa. Such "indabas" may include only the "indunas" of a particular +tribe, or may be held with the representatives of other tribes or +peoples. + + + + +INDAZOLES (BENZOPYRAZOLES), organic substances containing the ring +system + + /\/ CH \ + | | \ NH. + \/\ N / + +The parent substance indazole, C7H6N2, was obtained by E. Fischer +(_Ann._ 1883, 221, p. 280) by heating ortho-hydrazine cinnamic acid, + + /CH = CH·COOH + C6H4 / = C2H4O2 + C7H6N2. + \ NH·NH2 + +It has also been obtained by heating ortho-diazoaminotoluene with acetic +acid and benzene (F. Heusler, _Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 4161). + + / CH3 + C6H4 / = C7H7NH2 + C7H6N2. + \ N:N NHC7H7 + +It crystallizes in needles (from hot water), which melt at 146.5° C. and +boil at 269°-270° C. It is readily soluble in hot water, alcohol and +dilute hydrochloric acid. Nitrous acid converts it into nitrosoindazole; +whilst on heating with the alkyl iodides it is converted into alkyl +indazoles. + +A series of compounds isomeric with these alkyl derivatives is known, +and can be considered as derived from the ring system + + /\/ NH \ + | | \ N. + \/\ CH // + +These isomers are called _isindazoles_, and may be prepared by the +reduction of the nitroso-ortho-alkylamino-acetophenones with zinc dust +and water or acetic acid. The indazoles are weak bases, which +crystallize readily. Phenyl indazole, on reduction with sodium and +absolute alcohol, gives a dihydro derivative (K. L. Paal, _Ber._, 1891, +24, p. 963). + + For other derivatives, see E. Fischer and J. Tafel, _Ann._ 1885, 227, + p. 314. + + + + +INDEMNITY (through Fr. _indemnité_, Lat. _indemnis_, free from damage or +loss; _in_-, negative, and _damnum_, loss), in law, an undertaking, +either express or implied, to compensate another for loss or damage, or +for trouble or expense incurred; also the sum so paid (see CONTRACT; and +INSURANCE: _Marine_). An act of indemnity is a statute passed for the +purpose either of relieving persons from disabilities and penalties to +which they have rendered themselves liable or to make legal transactions +which, when they took place, were illegal. An act or bill of indemnity +used to be passed every session by the English parliament for the relief +of those who had unwittingly neglected to qualify themselves in certain +respects for the holding of offices, &c., as, for example, justices, +without taking the necessary oaths. The Promissory Oaths Act 1868 +rendered this unnecessary. + + + + +INDENE, C9H8, a hydrocarbon found in the fraction of the coal tar +distillate boiling between 176° and 182° C., and from which it may be +extracted by means of its picrate (G. Kramer, A. Spilker, Ber., 1890, +23, p. 3276). It may also be obtained by distilling the calcium salt of +hydrindene carboxylic acid, C6H4(CH2)2·CH·COOH. It is an oil which boils +at 179.5°-180.5°, and has a specific gravity 1.04 (15° C.). Dilute +nitric acid oxidizes it to phthalic acid, and sodium reduces it in +alcoholic solution to _hydrindene_, C9H10. A. v. Baeyer and W. H. Perkin +(Ber., 1884, 17, p. 125) by the action of sodiomalonic ester on +ortho-xylylene bromide obtained a hydrindene dicarboxylic ester, + + C6H4(CH2Br)2 + 2CHNa(CO2C2H5)2 = 2NaBr + CH2(CO2C2H5)2 + + C6H4:[CH2]2:C(CO2C2H5)2; + +this ester on hydrolysis yields the corresponding acid, which on heating +loses carbon dioxide and gives the monocarboxylic acid of hydrindene. +The barium salt of this acid, when heated, yields indene and not +hydrindene, hydrogen being liberated (W. H. Perkin, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, +1894, 65, p. 228). Indene vapour when passed through a red hot tube +yields chrysene. It combines with nitrosyl chloride to form indene +nitrosate (M. Dennstedt and C. Ahrens, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1331) and it +reacts with benzaldehyde, oxalic ester and formic ester (J. Thiele, +_Ber._, 1900, 33, p. 3395). + + On the derivatives of indene see W. v. Miller, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. + 1883; Th. Zincke, _Ber._, 1887, 20, p. 2394, 1886, 19, p. 2493; and W. + Roser and E. Haselhoff, _Ann._, 1888, 247, p. 140. + + + + +INDENTURE (through O. Fr. _endenture_ from a legal Latin term +_indentura_, _indentare_, to cut into teeth, to give a jagged edge, in +_modum dentium_, like teeth), a law term for a special form of deed +executed between two or more parties, and having counterparts or copies +equal to the number of parties. These copies were all drawn on one piece +of vellum or paper divided by a toothed or "indented" line. The copies +when separated along this waved line could then be identified as +"tallies" when brought together. Deeds executed by one party only had a +smooth or "polled" edge, whence the name "deed poll." By the Real +Property Act 1845, § 5, all deeds purporting to be "indentures" have the +effect of an "indenture," even though the indented line be absent. The +name "chirograph" (Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, [Greek: graphein], to +write) was also early applied to such a form of deed, and the word +itself was often written along the indented line (see further DEED and +DIPLOMATIC). The term "indenture" is now used generally of any sealed +agreement between two or more parties, and specifically of a contract of +apprenticeship, whence the phrase "to take up one's indentures," on +completion of the term, and also of a contract by labourers to serve in +a foreign country or colony (see COOLIE). + + + + +INDEPENDENCE, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Missouri, +U.S.A., 3 m. S. of the Missouri river and 10 m. E. of Kansas City. Pop. +(1890) 6380, (1900) 6974 (937 negroes); (1910) 9859. The city is served +by the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Kansas City +Southern railways, and by an electric line and fine boulevard to Kansas +City. It is situated about 1000 ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by +a fertile agricultural district. The city has a small public square +(surrounding the court-house) and a public library, and is the seat of +St Mary's Academy, under the control of the Sisters of Mercy. Among its +manufactures are farming implements, flour and lumber. The municipality +owns its electric lighting plant. Independence was laid out as a town +and chosen as the county-seat in 1827, first chartered as a city in 1849 +and made a city of the third-class in 1889. About 1500 Mormons, +attracted by the "revelation" that this was to be a Zion, settled in and +about Independence in 1831 and 1832. They contemplated building their +chief temple about ½ m. W. of the site of the present court house, but +in 1833 (partly because they invited free negroes to join them) were +expelled by the "gentile" inhabitants of Independence. In 1867 a +settlement of about 150 Hedrickites, or members of the "Church of Jesus +Christ" (organized in Illinois in 1835), came here and secretly bought +up parts of the "Temple Lot." The heirs of the settlers of 1831-1832 +conveyed the lot by deed to the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of +Latter Day Saints (with headquarters at Lamoni, Iowa), which brought +suit against the Hedrickites, but in 1894 the U.S. Circuit Court of +Appeals decided the case on the ground of laches in favour of the +Hedrickites, who fifteen years afterwards had nearly died out. In +1867-1869 a few families belonging to the Reorganized Church of Jesus +Christ of Latter Day Saints (monogamists) settled in Independence, and +in 1908 their church here had about 2000 members. Besides a large church +building, they have here a printing establishment, from which is issued +the weekly _Zion's Ensign_ (founded in 1891), and the "Independence +Sanitarium" (completed in 1908). The faithful Mormons still look to +Independence as the Zion of the church. In 1907 a number of Mormons from +Utah settled here, moving the headquarters of the "Central States' +Mission" from Kansas City to Independence, and founded a periodical +called _Liahona, the Elder's Journal_. From about 1831 to 1844, when its +river landing was destroyed by flood, Independence was the headquarters +and outfitting point of the extensive caravan trains for the Santa Fé, +Oregon and Old Salt Lake trails. During the Civil War about 300 Federals +under Lieut.-Colonel D. H. Buel, occupying the town, were captured on +the 16th of August 1862 by Colonel Hughes in command of 1500 +Confederates, and on the 22nd of October 1864 a part of General Sterling +Price's Confederate army was defeated a few miles E. of Independence by +General Alfred Pleasonton. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 14, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40156 *** |