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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40113 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 40113-h.htm or 40113-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40113/40113-h/40113-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40113/40113-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://archive.org/details/flagsofworldthei00hulmiala
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      A few typographical errors have been corrected; they are
+      listed at the end of the text.
+
+      To facilitate the use of the index, page numbers have
+      been included enclosed by curly brackets (example: {5}).
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FLAGS OF THE WORLD:
+
+Their History, Blazonry, and Associations.
+
+From the Banner of the Crusader to the Burgee of the Yachtsman;
+Flags National, Colonial, Personal;
+the Ensigns of Mighty Empires;
+the Symbols of Lost Causes.
+
+by
+
+F. EDWARD HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A.,
+
+Author of
+"Familiar Wild Flowers," "History, Principles and Practice of Heraldry,"
+"Birth and Development of Ornament," &c., &c.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London:
+Frederick Warne & Co.,
+and New York
+[All rights reserved.]
+
+
+
+{iii}
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+The necessity of some special Sign to distinguish Individuals, Tribes, and
+Nations--the Standards of Antiquity--Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek,
+and Roman--the Vexillum--the Labarum of Constantine--Invocation of
+Religion--the Flags of the Enemy--Early Flags of Religious Character--Flags
+of Saints at Funeral Obsequies--Company and Guild Flags of the Mediæval
+Period--Political Colours--Various kinds of Flags--the Banner--Rolls of
+Arms--Roll of Karlaverok--The Flag called the Royal Standard is really the
+Royal Banner--Main-sail Banners--Trumpet Banners--Ladies embroidering
+Banners for the Cause--Knights' Banneret--Form of Investiture--the
+Standard--the Percy Badges and Motto--Arctic Sledge-flags--the Rank
+governing the size of the Standard--Standards at State Funerals--the
+Pennon--Knights' Pennonciers--the Pennoncelle--Mr. Rolt as Chief
+Mourner--Lord Mayor's Show--the Pennant--the Streamer--Tudor Badges--Livery
+Colours--the Guidon--Bunting--Flag Devising a Branch of Heraldry--Colours
+chiefly used in Flags--Flags bearing Inscriptions--Significance of the Red
+Flag--of the Yellow--of the White--of the Black--Dipping the Flag--the
+Sovereignty of the Sea--Right of Salute insisted on--Political changes
+rendering Flags obsolete        1
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+The Royal Standard--the Three Lions of England--the Lion Rampant of
+Scotland--Scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the Scottish
+Tressure--the Harp of Ireland--Early Irish Flags--Brian Boru--the Royal
+Standards from Richard I. to Victoria--Claim to the Fleurs-de-lys of
+France--Quartering Hanover--the Union Flag--St. George for England--War
+Cry--Observance of St. George's Day--the Cross of St. George--Early Naval
+Flags--the London Trained Bands--the Cross of St. Andrew--the "Blue
+Blanket"--Flags of the Covenanters--Relics of St. Andrew--Union of England
+and Scotland--the First Union Flag--Importance of accuracy in
+representations of it--the Union Jack--Flags of the Commonwealth and
+Protectorate--Union of Great Britain and {iv} Ireland--the Cross of St.
+Patrick--Labours of St. Patrick in Ireland--Proclamation of George III. as
+to Flags, etc.--the Second Union Flag--Heraldic Difficulties in its
+Construction--Suggestions by Critics--Regulations as to Fortress Flags--the
+White Ensign of the Royal Navy--Saluting the Flag--the Navy the Safeguard
+of Britain--the Blue Ensign--the Royal Naval Reserve--the Red Ensign of the
+Mercantile Marine--Value of Flag-lore        29
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Army Flags--the Queen's Colour--the Regimental Colour--the Honours and
+Devices--the Flag of the 24th Regiment--Facings--Flag of the King's Own
+Borderers--What the Flag Symbolises--Colours of the Guards--the Assaye
+Flag--Cavalry Flags--Presentation of Colours--Chelsea College Chapel--Flags
+of the Buffs in Canterbury Cathedral--Flags of the Scottish Regiments in
+St. Giles's Cathedral--Burning of Rebel Flags by the Hangman--Special Flags
+for various Official Personages--Special Flags for different Government
+Departments--the Lord High Admiral--the Mail Flag--White Ensign of the
+Royal Yacht Squadron--Yacht Ensigns and Burgees--House or Company
+Flags--How to express Colours with Lines--the Allan Tricolor--Port
+Flags--the British Empire--the Colonial Blue Ensign and Pendant--the
+Colonial Defence Act--Colonial Mercantile Flag--Admiralty Warrant--Flag of
+the Governor of a Colony--the Green Garland--the Arms of the Dominion of
+Canada--Badges of the various Colonies--Daniel Webster on the Might of
+England--Bacon on the Command of the Ocean        61
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+The Flag of Columbus--Early Settlements in North America--the Birth of the
+United States--Early Revolutionary and State Flags--the Pine-tree Flag--the
+Rattle-snake Flag--the Stars and Stripes--Early Variations of it--the Arms
+of Washington--Entry of New States into the Union--the Eagle--the Flag of
+the President--Secession of the Southern States--State Flags again--the
+Stars and Bars--the Southern Cross--the Birth of the German Empire--the
+Influence of War Songs--Flags of the Empire--Flags of the smaller German
+States--the Austro-Hungary Monarchy--the Flags of Russia--the Crosses of
+St. Andrew and St. George again--the Flags of France--St. Martin--the
+Oriflamme--the Fleurs-de-lys--Their Origin--the White Cross--the White Flag
+of the Bourbons--the Tricolor--the Red {v} Flag--the Flags of Spain--of
+Portugal--the Consummation of Italian Unity--the Arms of Savoy--the Flags
+of Italy--of the Temporal Power of the Papacy--the Flag of Denmark--its
+Celestial Origin--the Flags of Norway and Sweden--of Switzerland--Cantonal
+Colours--the Geneva Convention--the Flags of Holland--of Belgium--of
+Greece--the Crescent of Turkey--the Tughra--the Flags of Roumania, Servia,
+and Bulgaria--Flags of Mexico, and of the States of Southern and Central
+America--of Japan--the Rising Sun--the Chrysanthemum--the Flags of China,
+Siam and Corea--of Sarawak--of the Orange Free State, Liberia, Congo State,
+and the Transvaal Republic        86
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Flags as a Means of Signalling--Army Signalling--the Morse Alphabet--Navy
+Signalling--First Attempts at Sea Signals--Old Signal Books in Library of
+Royal United Service Institution--"England expects that every man will do
+his duty"--Sinking Signal Codes on defeat--Present System of Signalling in
+Royal Navy--Pilot Signals--Weather Signalling by Flags--the International
+Signal Code--First Published in 1857--Seventy-eight Thousand Different
+Signals possible--Why no Vowels used--Lloyd's Signal Stations        127
+
+ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TEXT        141
+
+COLOURED PLATES        149
+
+
+
+{1}
+
+THE FLAGS OF THE WORLD.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+    The necessity of some special Sign to distinguish Individuals, Tribes,
+    and Nations--the Standards of Antiquity--Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian,
+    Greek, and Roman--the Vexillum--The Labarum of Constantine--Invocation
+    of Religion--the Flags of the Enemy--Early Flags of Religious
+    Character--Flags of Saints at Funeral Obsequies--Company and Guild
+    Flags of the Mediæval Period--Political Colours--Various kinds of
+    Flags--the Banner--Rolls of Arms--Roll of Karlaverok--The Flag called
+    the Royal Standard is really the Royal Banner--Mainsail
+    Banners--Trumpet Banners--Ladies embroidering Banners for the
+    Cause--Knights' Banneret--Form of Investiture--the Standard--the Percy
+    Badges and Motto--Arctic Sledge-flags--the Rank governing the size of
+    the Standard--Standards at State Funerals--the
+    Pennon--Knights-Pennonciers--the Pennoncelle--Mr. Rolt as Chief
+    Mourner--Lord Mayor's Show--the Pennant--the Streamer--Tudor
+    Badges--Livery Colours--the Guidon--Bunting--Flag Devising a Branch of
+    Heraldry--Colours chiefly used in Flags--Flags bearing
+    Inscriptions--Significance of the Red Flag--of the Yellow--of the
+    White--of the Black--Dipping the Flag--the Sovereignty of the
+    Sea--Right of Salute insisted on--Political Changes rendering Flags
+    obsolete.
+
+So soon as man passes from the lowest stage of barbarism the necessity for
+some special sign, distinguishing man from man, tribe from tribe, nation
+from nation, makes itself felt; and this prime necessity once met, around
+the symbol chosen spirit-stirring memories quickly gather that endear it,
+and make it the emblem of the power and dignity of those by whom it is
+borne. The painted semblance of grizzly bear, or beaver, or rattlesnake on
+the canvas walls of the tepi of the prairie Brave, the special chequering
+of colours that compose the tartan[1] of the Highland clansman, are
+examples of this; and as we pass from individual or local tribe to mighty
+nations, the same influence is still at work, and the distinctive Union
+Flag of Britain, the tricolor of France, the gold and scarlet bars of the
+flag of Spain, all alike appeal with irresistible force to the patriotism
+of those born beneath their folds, and speak to them of the glories and
+greatness of the historic past, the duties of the present, and the hopes of
+the future--inspiring those who gaze upon their proud blazonry with the
+determination to be no unworthy sons of their fathers, but to live, and if
+need be to die, for the dear home-land of which these are the symbol. {2}
+
+The standards used by the nations of antiquity differed in nature from the
+flags that in mediæval and modern days have taken their place. These
+earlier symbols were ordinary devices wrought in metal, and carried at the
+head of poles or spears. Thus the hosts of Egypt marched to war beneath the
+shadow of the various sacred animals that typified their deities, or the
+fan-like arrangement of feathers that symbolised the majesty of Pharoah,
+while the Assyrian standards, to be readily seen represented on the slabs
+from the palaces of Khorsabad and Kyonjik, in the British Museum and
+elsewhere, were circular disks of metal containing various distinctive
+devices. Both these and the Egyptian standards often have in addition a
+small flag-like streamer attached to the staff immediately below the
+device. The Greeks in like manner employed the Owl of Athene, and such-like
+religious and patriotic symbols of the protection of the deities, though
+Homer, it will be remembered, makes Agamemnon use a piece of purple cloth
+as a rallying point for his followers. The sculptures of Persepolis show us
+that the Persians adopted the figure of the Sun, the eagle, and the like.
+In Rome a hand erect, or the figures of the horse, wolf, and other animals
+were used, but at a later period the eagle alone was employed. Pliny tells
+us that "Caius Marius in his second consulship ordained that the Roman
+legions should only have the Eagle for their standard. For before that time
+the Eagle marched foremost with four others, wolves, minatours, horses, and
+bears--each one in its proper order. Not many years past the Eagle alone
+began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left behind in the camp.
+But Marius rejected them altogether, and since this it is observed that
+scarcely is there a camp of a Legion wintered at any time without having a
+pair of Eagles." The eagle, we need scarcely stay to point out, obtained
+this pre-eminence as being the bird of Jove. The Vexillum, or cavalry flag,
+was, according to Livy, a square piece of cloth fixed to a cross bar at the
+end of a spear; this was often richly fringed, and was either plain or bore
+certain devices upon it, and was strictly and properly a flag. The ensigns
+which distinguished the allied forces from the legions of the Romans were
+also of this character. Examples of these vexilla may be seen on the
+sculptured columns of Trajan and Antoninus, the arch of Titus, and upon
+various coins and medals of ancient Rome.
+
+The Imperial Standard or Labarum carried before Constantine and his
+successors resembled the cavalry Vexillum.[2] It was of purple silk, richly
+embroidered with gold, and though ordinarily {3} suspended from a
+horizontal cross-bar, was occasionally displayed in accordance with our
+modern usage by attachment by one of its sides to the staff.
+
+The Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples
+of the metropolis and of the chief cities of the Empire, and modern
+practice has followed herein the ancient precedent. As in classic days the
+protection of Jove was invoked, so in later days the blessing of Jehovah,
+the Lord of Hosts, has been sought. At the presentation of colours to a
+regiment a solemn service of prayer and praise is held, and when these
+colours return in honour, shot-rent from victorious conflict, they are
+reverently placed in stately abbey, venerable cathedral, or parish church,
+never more to issue from the peace and rest of the home of God until by
+lapse of years they crumble into indistinguishable dust.
+
+The Israelites carried the sacred standard of the Maccabees, with the
+initial letters of the Hebrew text, "Who is like unto Thee, O God, amongst
+the gods?" The Emperor Constantine caused the sacred monogram of Christ to
+be placed on the Labarum, and when the armies of Christendom went forth to
+rescue the Holy Land from the infidel they received their cross-embroidered
+standards from the foot of the altar. Pope Alexander II. sent a consecrated
+white banner to Duke William previous to his expedition against Harold, and
+we read in the "Beehive of the Romish Church," published in 1580, how "the
+Spaniardes christen, conjure, and hallow their Ensignes, naming one
+Barbara, another Katherine," after the names of saints whose aid they
+invoked in the stress of battle. We may see this invocation again very well
+in Figs. 147, 148: flags borne by the colonists of Massachusetts when they
+arrayed themselves against the mercenaries of King George, and appealed to
+the God of Battles in behalf of the freedom and justice denied by those who
+bore rule over them.
+
+This recognition of the King of kings has led also to the captured banners
+of the enemy being solemnly suspended in gratitude and thanksgiving in the
+house of God. Thus Speed tells us that on the dispersal and defeat of the
+Armada, Queen Elizabeth commanded solemn thanksgiving to be celebrated at
+the Cathedral Church of St. Paul's, in her chief city of London, which
+accordingly was done upon Sunday, the 8th of September, when eleven of the
+Spanish ensigns were hung, to the great joy of the beholders, as "psalmes
+of praise" for England's deliverance from sore peril. Very appropriately,
+too, in the Chapel of the Royal College at Chelsea, the home of the old
+soldiers who helped to win them, hang the flags taken at Barrosa,
+Martinique, Bhurtpore, Seringapatam, Salamanca, Waterloo, and many another
+hard-fought struggle; {4} and thus, in like manner, is the tomb of Napoleon
+I., in Paris, surrounded by trophies of captured flags. On March 30th,
+1814, the evening before the entry of the Allies into Paris, about 1,500
+flags--the victorious trophies of Napoleon--were burnt in the Court of the
+Eglise des Invalides, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy.
+
+Early flags were almost purely of a religious character.[3] The first
+notice of banners in England is in Bede's description of the interview
+between the heathen King Ethelbert and Augustine, the missionary from Rome,
+where the followers of the latter are described as bearing banners on which
+were displayed silver crosses; and we need scarcely pause to point out that
+in Roman Catholic countries, where the ritual is emotional and sensuous,
+banners of this type are still largely employed to add to the pomp of
+religious processions. Heraldic and political devices upon flags are of
+later date, and even when these came freely into use their presence did not
+supplant the ecclesiastical symbols. The national banner of England for
+centuries--the ruddy cross of her patron Saint George (Fig. 91)--was a
+religious one, and, whatever other banners were carried, this was ever
+foremost in the field. The Royal banner of Great Britain and Ireland that
+we see in Fig. 44, in its rich blazonry of the lions of England and
+Scotland and the Irish harp, is a good example of the heraldic flag, while
+our Union flag (Fig. 90), equally symbolizes the three nations of the
+United Kingdom, but this time by the allied crosses of the three patron
+saints, St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick, and it is therefore a
+lineal descendant and exemplar of the religious influence that was once
+all-powerful.
+
+The ecclesiastical flags were often purely pictorial in character, being
+actual representations of the Persons of the Trinity, of the Virgin Mother,
+or of divers saints. At other times the monasteries and other religious
+houses bore banners of heraldic character; as the leading ecclesiastics
+were both lords temporal and lords spiritual, taking their places in the
+ranks of fighting men and leading on the field the body of dependants and
+retainers that they were required to maintain in aid of the national
+defence. In such case {5} the distinguishing banner of the contingent
+conformed in character to the heraldic cognisances of the other nobles in
+the host. Fig. 77, for instance, was the banner of St. Alban's Abbey. In a
+poem on the capture of Rouen by the English, in the year 1418, written by
+an eye-witness of the scenes described, we read how the English commander--
+
+ "To the Castelle firste he rode
+  And sythen the citie all abrode,
+  Lengthe and brede he it mette
+  And riche baneres up he sette
+  Upon the Porte Seint Hillare
+  A Baner of the Trynyte;
+  And at Porte Kaux he sette evene
+  A Baner of the Quene of Heven;
+  And at Porte Martvile he upplyt
+  Of Seint George a Baner breight."
+
+and not until this recognition of Divine and saintly aid was made did
+
+ "He sette upon the Castelle to stonde
+  The armys of Fraunce and Englond."
+
+Henry V., at Agincourt, in like manner displayed at his headquarters on the
+field not only his own arms, but, in place of special honour and
+prominence, the banners of the Trinity, of St. George, and of St. Edward.
+These banners of religious significance were often borne from the
+monasteries to the field of battle, while monks and priests in attendance
+on them invoked the aid of Heaven during the strife. In an old statement of
+accounts, still existing, we read that Edward I. made a payment of 8½d. a
+day to a priest of Beverley for carrying throughout one of his campaigns a
+banner bearing the figure of St. John. St. Wilfred's banner from Ripon,
+together with this banner of St. John from Beverley, were brought on to the
+field at Northallerton; the flag of St. Denis was carried in the armies of
+St. Louis and of Philip le Bel, and the banner of St. Cuthbert of Durham
+was borrowed by the Earl of Surrey in his expedition against Scotland in
+the reign of Henry VIII. This banner had the valuable reputation of
+securing victory to those who fought under it. It was suspended from a
+horizontal bar below a spear head, and was a yard or so in breadth and a
+little more than this in depth; the bottom edge had five deep indentations.
+The banner was of red velvet sumptuously enriched with gold embroidery, and
+in the centre was a piece of white velvet, half a yard square, having a
+cross of red velvet upon it. This central portion covered and protected a
+relic of the saint. The victory of Neville's Cross, October 17th, 1346, was
+held to be largely {6} due to the presence of this sacred banner, and the
+triumph at Flodden was also ascribed to it.
+
+During the prevalence of Roman Catholicism in England, we find that banners
+of religious type entered largely into the funeral obsequies of persons of
+distinction: thus at the burial of Arthur, Prince of Wales, the eldest son
+of Henry VII., we find a banner of the Trinity, another with the cross and
+instruments of the Passion depicted upon it; another of the Virgin Mary,
+and yet another with a representation of St. George. Such banners, as in
+the present instance, were ordinarily four in number, and carried
+immediately round the body at the four corners of the bier. Thus we read in
+the diary of an old chronicler, Machyn, who lived in the reigns of Edward
+VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, that at the burial of the Countess of Arundel,
+October 27th, 1557, "cam iiij herroldes in ther cotes of armes, and bare
+iiij baners of emages at the iiij corners." Again, on "Aprell xxix, 1554,
+was bered my Lady Dudley in Saint Margarett in Westminster, with iiij
+baners of emages." Another item deals with the funeral of the Duchess of
+Northumberland, and here again "the iiij baners of ymages" again recur.
+Anyone having the old records, church inventories, and the like before
+them, would find it easy enough, as easy as needless, to multiply
+illustrations of this funeral use of pictured banners. These "emages" or
+"ymages" of old Machyn are of course not images in the sense of sculptured
+or carved things, but are painted and embroidered representations of
+various saints. Machyn, as a greatly interested looker-on at all the
+spectacles of his day, is most entertaining, but his spelling, according to
+the severer notions of the present day, is a little weak, as, for instance,
+in the following words that we have culled at random from his
+pages:--prossessyon, gaffelyns, fezyssyoun, dysquyet, neckclygens,
+gorgyusle, berehyng, wypyd, pelere, artelere, and dyssys of spyssys. The
+context ordinarily makes the meaning clear, but as our readers have not
+that advantage, we give the same words according to modern
+orthography--procession, javelins, physician, disquiet, negligence,
+gorgeously, burying, whipped, pillory, artillery, dishes of spices.
+
+The various companies and guilds of the mediæval period had their special
+flags that came out, as do those of their successors of the present day, on
+the various occasions of civic pageantry; and in many cases, as may be seen
+in the illuminated MSS. in the British Museum and elsewhere, they were
+carried to battle as the insignia of the companies of men provided at the
+expense of those corporations. Thus in one example that has come under our
+notice we see a banner bearing a chevron between hammer, trowels, and
+builder's square; in another between an axe and two pairs of compasses,
+while a third on its azure field bears a pair of golden {7} shears. In the
+representation of a battle between Philip d'Artevelde and the Flemings
+against the French, many of the flags therein introduced bear the most
+extraordinary devices, boots and shoes, drinking-vessels, anvils, and the
+like, that owe their presence there to the fact that various trade guilds
+sent their contingents of men to the fight. In a French work on mediæval
+guilds we find the candle-makers of Bayeux marching beneath a black banner
+with three white candles on it, the locksmiths of La Rochelle having a
+scarlet flag with four golden keys on it. The lawyers of Loudoun had a flag
+with a large eye on it (a single eye to business being, we presume,
+understood), while those of Laval had a blue banner with three golden
+mouths thereon. In like manner the metal-workers of Laval carried a black
+flag with a silver hammer and files depicted on it, those of Niort had a
+red flag with a silver cup and a fork and spoon in gold on either side. The
+metal-workers of Ypres also carried a red flag, and on this was represented
+a golden flagon and two buckles of gold. Should some national stress this
+year or next lead our City Companies, the Fishmongers, the Carpenters, the
+Vintners, and others to contribute contingents to the defence of the
+country, and to send them forth beneath the banners of the guilds, history
+would but repeat itself.
+
+In matters political the two great opposing parties have their distinctive
+colours, and these have ordinarily been buff and blue, though the
+association of buff with the Liberal party and "true blue" with the
+Conservatives has been by no means so entirely a matter of course as
+persons who have not looked into the matter might be disposed to imagine.
+The local colours are often those that were once the livery colours of the
+principal family in the district, and were assumed by its adherents for the
+family's sake quite independently of its political creed. The notion of
+livery is now an unpleasant one, but in mediæval days the colours of the
+great houses were worn by the whole country-side, and the wearing carried
+with it no suggestion either of toadyism or servitude. As this influence
+was hereditary and at one time all-powerful, the colour of the Castle, or
+Abbey, or Great House, became stereotyped in that district as the symbol of
+the party of which these princely establishments were the local centre and
+visible evidence, and the colour still often survives locally, though the
+political and social system that originated it has passed away in these
+days of democratic independence.
+
+It would clearly be a great political gain if one colour were all over
+Great Britain the definite emblem of one side, as many illiterate voters
+are greatly influenced by the colours worn by the candidates for their
+suffrages, and have sufficient sense of consistency of principle to vote
+always for the flag that first claimed {8} their allegiance, though it may
+very possibly be that if they move to another county it is the emblem of a
+totally distinct party, and typifies opinions to which the voter has always
+been opposed. At a late election a Yorkshire Conservative, who had acquired
+a vote for Bournemouth, was told that he must "vote pink," but this he very
+steadily refused to do. He declared that he would "never vote owt else but
+th' old true blue," so the Liberal party secured his vote; and this sort of
+thing at a General Election is going on all over the country. The town of
+Royston, for instance, stands partly in Hertfordshire and partly in
+Cambridgeshire, and in the former county the Conservatives and in the
+latter the Liberals are the blue party; hence the significance of the
+colour in one street of the little town is entirely different to that it
+bears in another. At Horsham in Sussex we have observed that the
+Conservative colour is pale pink, while in Richmond in Surrey it is a deep
+orange. The orange was adopted by the Whigs out of compliment to William
+III., who was Prince of Orange.
+
+In the old chronicles and ballads reference is made to many forms of flags
+now obsolete. The term flag is a generic one, and covers all the specific
+kinds. It is suggested that the word is derived from the Anglo-Saxon verb
+fleogan, to fly or float in the wind, or from the old German flackern, to
+flutter. Ensign is an alternative word formed on the idea of the display of
+insignia, badges, or devices, and was formerly much used where we should
+now employ the word colours. The company officers in a regiment who were
+until late years termed ensigns were at a still earlier period more
+correctly termed ensign-bearers. Milton, it will be recalled, describes a
+"Bannered host under spread ensigns marching." Sir Walter Scott greatly
+enlarges our vocabulary when he writes in "Marmion" of where
+
+ "A thousand streamers flaunted fair,
+  Various in shape, device, and hue,
+  Green, sanguine, purple, red, and blue,
+  Broad, narrow, swallow-tailed, and square,
+  Scroll, pennon, pensil, bandrol, there
+  O'er the pavilions flew,"
+
+while Milton again writes of
+
+ "Ten thousand thousand ensigns high advanced
+  Standards and gonfalons 'twixt van and rear
+  Stream in the air, and for distinction serve
+  Of hierarchies, orders, and degrees."
+
+We have seen that the pomp of funeral display led to the use of pictorial
+flags of religious type, and with these were associated others that dealt
+with the mundane rank and position of the {9} deceased. Thus we find
+Edmonson, in his book on Heraldry, writing as follows:--"The armorial
+ensigns, as fixed by the officers of arms, and through long and continued
+usage established as proper to be carried in funeral processions, are
+pennons, guidons, cornets, standards, banners, and banner-rolls, having
+thereon depicted the arms, quarterings, badges, crests, supporters, and
+devices of the defunct: together with all such other trophies of honour as
+in his lifetime he was entitled to display, carry, or wear in the field;
+banners charged with the armorial ensigns of such dignities, titles,
+offices, civil and military, as were possessed or enjoyed by the defunct at
+the time of his decease, and banner-rolls of his own matches and lineal
+descent both on the paternal and maternal side. In case the defunct was an
+Archbishop, banner-rolls of the arms and insignia of the sees to which he
+had been elected and translated, and if he was a merchant or eminent trader
+pennons of the particular city, corporation, guild, fraternity, craft, or
+company whereof he had been a member." However true the beautiful stanza of
+Gray--
+
+ "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
+    And all that beauty, all that wealth ere gave,
+  Await at last the inevitable hour,
+    The paths of glory lead but to the grave"--
+
+the survivors of the deceased most naturally and most justly bore to their
+rest those to whom honour was due with the full respect to which their
+career on earth entitled them.
+
+The names bestowed upon the different kinds of flags have varied from time
+to time, the various authorities of mediæval and modern days not being
+quite of one mind sometimes, so that while the more salient forms are
+easily identifiable, some little element of doubt creeps in when we would
+endeavour to bestow with absolute precision a name to a certain less common
+form before us, or a definite form to a name that we encounter in some old
+writer. Whatever looseness of nomenclature, however, may be encountered on
+the fringe of our subject, the bestowal of the leading terms is
+sufficiently definite, and it is to these we now turn our attention,
+reflecting for our comfort that it is of far greater value to us to know
+all about a form that is of frequent recurrence, and to which abundant
+reference is made, than to be able to quite satisfactorily decide what
+special name some abnormal form should carry, or what special form is meant
+by a name that perhaps only occurs once or twice in the whole range of
+literature, and even that perhaps by some poet or romance writer who has
+thought more of the general effect of his description than of the technical
+accuracy of the terms in which he has clothed it. {10}
+
+The Banner first engages our attention. This was ordinarily, in the earlier
+days of chivalry, a square flag, though in later examples it may be found
+somewhat greater in length than in depth, and in some early examples it is
+considerably greater in depth than in its degree of projection outwards
+from the lance. In the technical language of the subject, the part of a
+flag nearest the pole is called the hoist, and the outer part the fly. Fig.
+37 is a good illustration of this elongated form. It has been suggested
+that the shortness of the fly in such cases was in order that the greater
+fluttering in the wind that such a form as Fig. 30 would produce might be
+prevented, as this constant tugging at the lance-head would be disagreeable
+to the holder, while it might, in the rush of the charge, prevent that
+accuracy of aim that one would desire to give one's adversary the full
+benefit of at such a crisis in his career. Pretty as this may be as a
+theory, there is probably not much in it, or the form in those warlike days
+of chivalry would have been more generally adopted. According to an ancient
+authority the banner of an emperor should be six feet square; of a king,
+five; of a prince or duke, four; and of an earl, marquis, viscount, or
+baron three feet square. When we consider that the great function of the
+banner was to bear upon its surface the coat-of-arms of its owner, and that
+this coat was emblazoned upon it and filled up its entire surface in just
+the same way that we find these charges represented upon his shield, it is
+evident that no form that departed far either in length or breadth from the
+square would be suitable for their display. Though heraldically it is
+allowable to compress or extend any form from its normal proportions when
+the exigencies of space demand it,[4] it is clearly better to escape this
+when possible.[5] The arms depicted in Fig. 37 are certainly not the better
+for the elongation to which they have been subjected, while _per contra_
+the bearings on any of the banners in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
+or 11, have had no despite done them, the square form being clearly
+well-adapted for their due display.
+
+The Rolls of Arms prepared on various occasions by the mediæval and later
+heralds form an admirable storehouse of examples. Some of these have been
+reproduced in facsimile, and are, therefore, more or less readily
+accessible. We have before us as we write the roll of the arms of the
+Sovereign and of the {11} spiritual and temporal peers who sat in
+Parliament in the year 1515, and another excellent example that has been
+reproduced is the roll of Karlaverok. This Karlaverok was a fortress on the
+north side of Solway Frith, which it was necessary for Edward I. to reduce
+on his invasion of Scotland in the year 1300, and this investiture and all
+the details of the siege are minutely described by a contemporary writer,
+who gives the arms and names of all the nobles there engaged. As soon as
+the castle fell into Edward's hands he caused his banner and that of St.
+Edmund (Fig. 17), and St. Edward (Fig. 19), to be displayed upon its
+battlements. The roll is written in Norman French, of which the following
+passage may be given as an example:--
+
+ "La ont meinte riche garnement
+  Brode sur cendeaus et samis
+  Meint beau penon en lance mis
+  Meint baniere desploie."
+
+That is to say, there were--in modern English wording--many rich devices
+embroidered on silk and satin, many a beautiful pennon fixed on lance, many
+a banner displayed. The writer says:--"First, I will tell you of the names
+and arms, especially of the banners, if you will listen how." Of these
+numerous banners we give some few examples: Fig. 1 belongs to him "who with
+a light heart, doing good to all, bore a yellow banner and pennon with a
+black saltire engrailed, and is called John Botetourte." Fig. 2 is the
+banner of Sire Ralph de Monthermer; Fig. 3 the devices of Touches, "a
+knight of good-fame"; while Fig. 4, "the blue with crescents of brilliant
+gold," was the flag of William de Ridre. "Sire John de Holderton, who at
+all times appears well and promptly in arms," bore No. 6, the fretted
+silver on the scarlet field; while Fig. 5 is the cognisance of "Hugh
+Bardolph, a man of good appearance, rich, valiant, and courteous." Fig. 7
+is the well-known lion of the Percys, and is here the banner of Henri de
+Percy; we meet with it again in Fig. 14. Fig. 8 is "the banner of good Hugh
+de Courtenay," while Fig. 9 is that of the valiant Aymer de Valence. Fig.
+10 bears the barbels of John de Bar, while the last example we need give
+(Fig. 11) is the banner of Sire William de Grandison. Of whom gallant,
+courteous Englishmen as they were, we can now but say that "they are dust,
+their swords are rust," and deny them not the pious hope "their souls are
+with the saints, we trust."
+
+The well-known flag (Fig. 44), that everyone recognises as the Royal
+Standard, is nevertheless misnamed, as it should undoubtedly be called the
+Royal Banner, since it bears the arms of the Sovereign in precisely the
+same way that any of our preceding {12} examples bear the arms of the
+knights with whom they were associated. A standard, as we shall see
+presently, is an entirely different kind of flag; nevertheless, the term
+Royal Standard is so firmly established that it is hopeless now to think of
+altering it, and as it would be but pedantry to ignore it, and substitute
+in its place, whenever we have occasion to refer to it, its proper
+title--the Royal Banner--we must, having once made our protest, be content
+to let the matter stand. Figs. 22, 43, 44, 194, 226, and 245 are all royal
+or imperial banners, but popular usage insists that we shall call them
+royal or imperial "standards," so, henceforth, rightly or wrongly, through
+our pages standards they must be.
+
+The banners of the Knights of the Garter, richly emblazoned with their
+armorial bearings, are suspended over their stalls in St. George's Chapel,
+Windsor, while those of the Knights of the Bath are similarly displayed in
+the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey.
+
+The whole of the great mainsail of a mediæval ship was often emblazoned
+with arms, and formed one large banner. This usage may be very well seen in
+the illuminations, seals, etc., of that period. As early as the year 1247
+we find Otho, Count of Gueldres, represented as bearing on his seal a
+square banner charged with his arms, a lion rampant; and in a window in the
+Cathedral of Our Lady, at Chartres, is a figure of Simon de Montfort, Earl
+of Leicester from 1236 to 1265. He is depicted as bearing in his right hand
+a banner of red and white, as shown in Fig. 18.
+
+References in the old writers to the banner are very numerous. Thus in the
+"Story of Thebes" we read of "the fell beastes," that were "wrought and
+bete upon their bannres displaied brode" when men went forth to war.
+Lydgate, in the "Battle of Agincourt," writes:--
+
+ "By myn baner sleyn will y be
+  Or y will turne my backe or me yelde."
+
+The same writer declares that at the siege of Harfleur by Henry V., in
+September, 1415, the king--
+
+ "Mustred his meyne faire before the town,
+  And many other lordes, I dar will say,
+  With baners bryghte and many penoun."
+
+The trumpeters of the Life Guards and Horse Guards have the Royal Banner
+attached to their instruments, a survival that recalls the lines of
+Chaucer:--
+
+ "On every trump hanging a brode bannere
+  Of fine tartarium, full richly bete."
+
+{13}
+
+An interesting reference is found in a letter of Queen Katharine of Arragon
+to Thomas Wolsey, dated Richmond, August 13th, 1513, while King Henry VIII.
+was in France. Speaking of war with the Scots, her Majesty says: "My hert
+is veray good to it, and I am horrible besy with making standards, banners,
+and bagies."[6]
+
+While the men are buckling on their armour for the coming strife, wives,
+sisters, sweethearts, daughters, with proud hearts, give their aid, and
+with busy fingers--despite the tear that will sometimes blur the vision of
+the gay embroidery--swiftly and deftly labour with loving care on the
+devices that will nerve the warriors to living steel in the shock of
+battle. The Queen of England, so zealously busy in her task of love, is but
+a type and exemplar of thousands of her sex before and since. The raven
+standard of the Danish invaders of Northumbria was worked by the daughters
+of Regnar Lodbrok, and in the great rebellion in the West of England many a
+gentlewoman suffered sorely in the foul and Bloody Assize for her zealous
+share in providing the insurgents with the standards around which they
+rallied. The Covenanters of Scotland, the soldiers of Garibaldi freeing
+Italy from the Bourbons, the levies of Kossuth in Hungary, the Poles in the
+deadly grip of Russia, the armies of the Confederate States in America, the
+Volunteers who would fain free Greece from the yoke of the Turk,[7] all
+fought to the death beneath the banners that fair sympathisers with them,
+and with their cause, placed in their hands. When two great nations, such
+as France and Germany, fall to blows, the whole armament, weapons, flags,
+and whatever else may be necessary, is supplied from the government stores
+according to regulation pattern, but in the case of insurgents against
+authority struggling--rightly or wrongly--to be free, the weapons may be
+scythe blades or whatever else comes first to hand, while the standards
+borne to the field will bear the most extraordinary devices upon them,
+devices that appeal powerfully at the time to those fighting beneath their
+folds, but which give a shudder to the purist in heraldic blazonry, as for
+instance, to quote but one example, the rattle-snake flag with its motto
+"Beware how you tread on me," adopted by the North American colonists in
+their struggle against the troops of George III.
+
+When a knight had performed on the field of battle some especially valiant
+or meritorious act, it was open to the Sovereign to {14} mark his sense of
+it by making him a knight-banneret. Thus, in the reign of Edward III., John
+de Copeland was made a banneret for his service in taking prisoner David
+Bruce, the King of Scotland, at the battle of Durham; Colonel John Smith,
+having rescued the royal banner from the Parliamentarians at Edgehill, was
+in like manner made a knight-banneret by Charles I. The title does not seem
+to have been in existence before the reign of Edward I., and after this
+bestowal by Charles I. we hear no more of it till 1743, when the title was
+conferred upon several English officers by the king, George II., upon the
+field of Dettingen. It was an essential condition that the rank should be
+bestowed by the Sovereign on the actual field of battle and beneath the
+royal banner. General Sir William Erskine was given this rank by George
+III. on his return from the Continent in 1764, after the battle of
+Emsdorff; but as the investiture took place beneath the standard of the
+15th Light Dragoons and in Hyde Park, it was deemed hopelessly irregular,
+and, the royal will and action notwithstanding, his rank was not generally
+recognised.
+
+The ceremony of investiture was in the earlier days a very simple one. The
+flag of the ordinary knight was of the form known as the pennon--a small,
+swallow-tailed flag like that borne by our lancer regiments, of which Fig.
+30 is an illustration. On being summoned to the royal presence, the king
+took from him his lance, and either cut or tore away the points of his
+flag, until he had reduced it roughly to banner form, and then returned it
+to him with such words of commendation as the occasion called for. What the
+ceremony employed at so late a period as Dettingen was we have not been
+able to trace. As the officers there honoured were lanceless and
+pennonless, it is evident that the formula which served in the Middle Ages
+was quite inapplicable, but it is equally evident that in the thronging
+duties and responsibilities of the field of battle the ceremony must always
+have been a very short and simple one.
+
+The term Standard is appropriately applied to any flag of noble size that
+answers in the main to the following conditions--that it should always have
+the Cross of St. George placed next to the staff, that the rest of the flag
+should be divided horizontally into two or more stripes of colours, these
+being the prevailing colours in the arms of the bearers or their livery
+colours, the edge of the standard richly fringed or bordered, the motto and
+badges of the owner introduced, the length considerably in excess of the
+breadth, the ends split and rounded off. We find such standards in use
+chiefly during the fifteenth century, though some characteristic examples
+of both earlier and later dates may be encountered. Figs. 14 and 15 are
+very good typical illustrations. The {15} first of these (Fig. 14) is the
+Percy standard. The blue lion, the crescent, and the fetterlock there seen
+are all badges of the family, while the silver key betokens matrimonial
+alliance with the Poynings,[8] the bugle-horn with the Bryans,[9] and the
+falchion with the family of Fitzpayne. The ancient badge of the Percys was
+the white lion statant. Our readers will doubtless be familiar with the
+lines--
+
+ "Who, in field or foray slack,
+  Saw the blanch lion e'er give back?"
+
+but Henry Percy, the fifth earl, 1489 to 1577, turned it into a blue one.
+The silver crescent is the only badge of the family that has remained in
+active and continuous use, and we find frequent references to it in the old
+ballads--so full of interesting heraldic allusions--as, for instance, in
+"The Rising of the North"--
+
+ "Erle Percy there his ancyent spred,
+  The halfe-moon shining all soe faire,"
+
+and in Claxton's "Lament"--
+
+ "Now the Percy's crescent is set in blood."
+
+The motto is ordinarily a very important part of the standard, though it is
+occasionally missing. Its less or greater length or its possible repetition
+may cut up the surface of the flag into a varying number of spaces. The
+first space after the cross is always occupied by the most important badge,
+and in a few cases the spaces beyond are empty.
+
+The motto of the Percys is of great historic interest. It is referred to by
+Shakespeare, "Now Esperance! Percy! and set on," and we find in Drayton the
+line, "As still the people cried, A Percy, Esperance!" In the "Mirror for
+Magistrates" (1574) we read, "Add therefore this to Esperance, my word, who
+causeth bloodshed shall not 'scape the sword." It was originally the
+war-cry of the Percys, but it has undergone several modifications, and
+these of a rather curious and interesting nature, since we see in the
+sequence a steady advance from blatant egotism to an admission of a higher
+power even than that of Percy. The war-cry of the first Earl was
+originally, "Percy! Percy!" but he later substituted for it, "Esperance,
+Percy." The second and third Earls took merely "Esperance," the fourth took
+"Esperance, ma comfort," and, {16} later on, "Esperance en Dieu ma
+comfort," and the fifth and succeeding Earls took the "Esperance en
+Dieu."[10]
+
+Fig. 15 is the standard of Sir Thomas de Swynnerton. The swine is an
+example of the punning allusion to the bearer's name that is so often seen
+in the charges of mediæval heraldry.
+
+Figs. 14 and 15 are typical standards, having the cross of St. George, the
+striping of colours, the oblique lines of motto, the elongated tapering
+form, and all the other features that we have already quoted as belonging
+to the ideal standard, though one or two of these may at times be absent.
+Thus, though exceptions are rare, a standard is not necessarily
+particoloured for example, and, as we have seen, the motto in other
+examples may be missing. The Harleian MS. No. 2,358 lays down the rule that
+"every Standard or guydhome is to hang in the Chiefe the Crosse of St.
+George, to be slitte at the ende, and to conteyne the crest or supporter,
+with the poesy, worde, and devise of the owner." That the Cross of St.
+George, the national badge, must always be present and in the most
+honourable position is full of significance, as it means that whatever else
+of rank or family the bearer might be, he was first and foremost an
+Englishman.
+
+Figs. 13 and 16 are interesting modern examples of the Standard. They are
+from a series of sledge-flags used during the Arctic Expedition of 1875-6,
+the devices upon them being those of the officers in charge of each
+detachment.
+
+When in earlier days a man raised a regiment for national defence, he not
+only commanded it, but its flag often bore his arms or device. Thus the
+standard of the dragoons raised by Henry, Lord Cardross, in 1689 was of red
+silk, on which was represented the Colonel's crest, a hand holding a
+dagger, and the motto "Fortitudine," while in the upper corner next the
+staff was the thistle of Scotland, surmounted by the crown.
+
+Our readers should now have no difficulty in sketching out for themselves
+as an exercise the following: The standard of Henry V., white and blue, a
+white antelope standing between four red roses; the motto "Dieu et mon
+droit," and in the interspaces more red {17} roses. The standard of Richard
+II., white and green, a white hart couchant between four golden suns, the
+motto "Dieu et mon droit," in the next space two golden suns, and in the
+next, four. As further exercises, we may give the standard of Sir John
+Awdeley, of gold and scarlet, having a Moor's head and three white
+butterflies, the motto "Je le tiens," then two butterflies, then four; and
+the standard of Frogmorton, of four stripes of red and white, having an
+elephant's head in black, surrounded by golden crescents. While no one,
+either monarch or noble, could have more than one banner, since this was
+composed of his heraldic arms, a thing fixed and unchangeable, the same
+individual might have two or three standards, since these were mainly made
+up of badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto or poesy
+that he might change every day if he chose. Hence, for instance, the
+standards of Henry VII. were mostly green and white, since these were the
+Tudor livery colours; but in one was "a red firye dragon," and in another
+"was peinted a donne kowe," while yet another had a silver greyhound
+between red roses. Stowe and other authorities tell us that the two first
+of these were borne at Bosworth Field, and that after his victory there
+over Richard III. these were borne by him in solemn state to St. Paul's
+Cathedral, and there deposited on his triumphal entry into the metropolis.
+
+The difference between the standard and the banner is very clearly seen in
+the description of the flags borne at the funeral obsequies of Queen
+Elizabeth--"the great embroidered banner of England" (Fig. 22), the banners
+of Wales, Ireland, Chester, and Cornwall, and the standards of the dragon,
+greyhound, and falcon. In like manner Stowe tells us that when King Henry
+VII. took the field in 1513, he had with him the standard with the red
+dragon and the banner of the arms of England, and Machyn tells that at the
+funeral of Edward VI., "furst of all whent a grett company of chylderyn in
+ther surples and clarkes syngyng and then ij harolds, and then a standard
+with a dragon, and then a grett nombur of ye servants in blake, and then
+anoder standard with a whyt greyhound." Later on in the procession came "ye
+grett baner of armes in brodery and with dyvers odere baners."
+
+Standards varied in size according to the rank of the person entitled to
+them. A MS. of the time of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions:--For
+that of the king, a length of eight yards; for a duke, seven; for an earl,
+six; a marquis, six and a half; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five;
+a knight banneret, four and a half; and for a knight, four yards. In view
+of these figures one can easily realise the derivation of the word
+standard--a thing that is meant to stand; to be rather fastened in the
+ground as a rallying point than carried, like a banner, about the field of
+action. {18}
+
+At the funeral of Nelson we find his banner of arms and standard borne in
+the procession, while around his coffin are the bannerolls, square
+banner-like flags bearing the various arms of his family lineage. We see
+these latter again in an old print of the funeral procession of General
+Monk, in 1670, and in a still older print of the burial of Sir Philip
+Sydney, four of his near kindred carrying by the coffin these indications
+of his descent. At the funeral of Queen Elizabeth we find six bannerolls of
+alliances on the paternal side and six on the maternal. The standard of
+Nelson bears his motto, "_Palmam qui meruit ferat_," but instead of the
+Cross of St. George it has the union of the crosses of St. George, St.
+Andrew, and St. Patrick, since in 1806, the year of his funeral, the
+England of mediæval days had expanded into the Kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland. In the imposing funeral procession of the great Duke of Wellington
+we find again amongst the flags not only the national flag, regimental
+colours, and other insignia, but the ten bannerolls of the Duke's pedigree
+and descent, and his personal banner and standard.
+
+Richard, Earl of Salisbury, in the year 1458, ordered that at his interment
+"there be banners, standards, and other accoutrements, according as was
+usual for a person of his degree" and what was then held fitting, remains,
+in the case of State funerals, equally so at the present day.
+
+The Pennon is a small, narrow flag, forked or swallow-tailed at its
+extremity. This was carried on the lance. Our readers will recall the
+knight in "Marmion," who
+
+ "On high his forky pennon bore,
+  Like swallow's tail in shape and hue."
+
+We read in the Roll of Karlaverok, as early as the year 1300, of
+
+ "Many a beautiful pennon fixed to a lance,
+  And many a banner displayed;"
+
+and of the knight in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," we hear that
+
+ "By hys bannere borne is hys pennon
+  Of golde full riche."
+
+The pennon bore the arms of the knight, and they were in the earlier days
+of chivalry so emblazoned upon it as to appear in their proper position not
+when the lance was held erect but when held horizontally for the charge.
+The earliest brass now extant, that of Sir John Daubernoun, at Stoke
+d'Abernon Church, in Surrey, represents the knight as bearing a lance with
+pennon. Its date is 1277, and the device is a golden chevron on a field of
+azure. In {19} this example the pennon, instead of being forked, comes to a
+single point.
+
+The pennon was the ensign of those knights who were not bannerets, and the
+bearers of it were therefore sometimes called pennonciers; the term is
+derived from the Latin word for a feather, _penna_, from the narrow,
+elongated form. The pennons of our lancer regiments (Fig. 30) give one a
+good idea of the form, size, and general effect of the ancient knightly
+pennon, though they do not bear distinctive charges upon them, and thus
+fail in one notable essential to recall to our minds the brilliant blazonry
+and variety of device that must have been so marked and effective a feature
+when the knights of old took the field. In a drawing of the year 1813, of
+the Royal Horse Artillery, we find the men armed with lances, and these
+with pennons of blue and white, as we see in Fig. 31.[11]
+
+Of the thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights represented
+in the Bayeux tapestry, twenty-eight have triple points, while others have
+two, four, or five. The devices upon these pennons are very various and
+distinctive, though the date is before the period of the definite
+establishment of heraldry. Examples of these may be seen in Figs. 39, 40,
+41, 42.
+
+The pennoncelle, or pencel, is a diminutive of the pennon, small as that
+itself is. Such flags were often supplied in large quantities at any
+special time of rejoicing or of mourning. At the burial in the year 1554 of
+"the nobull Duke of Norffok," we note amongst other items "a dosen of
+banerolles of ys progene," a standard, a "baner of damaske, and xij dosen
+penselles." At the burial of Sir William Goring we find "ther was viij
+dosen of penselles," while at the Lord Mayor's procession in 1555 we read
+that there were "ij goodly pennes [State barges] deckt with flages and
+stremers and a m penselles." This "m," or thousand, we can perhaps scarcely
+take literally, though in another instance we find "the cordes were hanged
+with innumerable pencelles."[12]
+
+The statement of the cost of the funeral of Oliver Cromwell is interesting,
+as we see therein the divers kinds of flags that graced the ceremony. The
+total cost of the affair was over £28,000, and the unhappy undertaker, a
+Mr. Rolt, was paid very little, if any, of his bill. The items include "six
+gret banners wrought on rich taffaty in oil, and gilt with fine gold," at
+£6 each. Five large standards, similarly wrought, at a cost of £10 each;
+six dozen {20} pennons, a yard long, at a sovereign each; forty trumpet
+banners, at forty shillings apiece; thirty dozen of pennoncelles, a foot
+long, at twenty shillings a dozen; and twenty dozen ditto at twelve
+shillings the dozen. Poor Rolt!
+
+In "the accompte and reckonyng" for the Lord Mayor's Show of 1617 we find
+"payde to Jacob Challoner, painter, for a greate square banner, the
+Prince's Armes, the somme of seven pounds." We also find, "More to him for
+the new payntyng and guyldyng of ten trumpet banners, for payntyng and
+guyldyng of two long pennons of the Lord Maior's armes on callicoe," and
+many other items that we need not set down, the total cost of the flag
+department being £67 15s. 10d., while for the Lord Mayor's Show of the year
+1685 we find that the charge for this item was the handsome sum of £140.
+
+The Pennant, or pendant, is a long narrow flag with pointed end, and
+derives its name from the Latin word signifying to hang. Examples of it may
+be seen in Figs. 20, 21, 23, 24, 36, 38, 100, 101, 102, and 103, and some
+of the flags employed in ship-signalling are also of pennant form. It was
+in Tudor times called the streamer. Though such a flag may at times be
+found pressed into the service of city pageantry, it is more especially
+adapted for use at sea, since the lofty mast, the open space far removed
+from telegraph-wires, chimney-pots, and such-like hindrances to its free
+course, and the crisp sea-breeze to boldly extend it to its full length,
+are all essential to its due display. When we once begin to extend in
+length, it is evident that almost anything is possible: the pendant of a
+modern man-of-war is some twenty yards long, while its breadth is barely
+six inches, and it is evident that such a flag as that would scarcely get a
+fair chance in the general "survival of the fittest" in Cheapside. It is
+charged at the head with the Cross of St. George. Figs. 26, 27, 74 are
+Tudor examples of such pendants, while Fig. 140 is a portion at least of
+the pendant flown by colonial vessels on war service, while under the same
+necessarily abbreviated conditions may be seen in Fig. 151 the pendant of
+the United States Navy, in 157 that of Chili, and in 173 that of Brazil.
+
+In mediæval days many devices were introduced, the streamer being made of
+sufficient width to allow of their display. Thus Dugdale gives an account
+of the fitting up of the ship in which Beauchamp, fifth Earl of Warwick,
+during the reign of Henry VI., went over to France. The original bill
+between this nobleman and William Seburgh, "citizen and payntour of
+London," is still extant, and we see from it that amongst other things
+provided was "the grete stremour for the shippe xl yardes in length and
+viij yardes in brede." These noble dimensions gave ample room for {21}
+display of the badge of the Warwicks,[13] so we find it at the head adorned
+with "a grete bere holding a ragged staffe," and the rest of its length
+"powdrid full of raggid staves,"
+
+             "A stately ship,
+  With all her bravery on, and tackle trim,
+  Sails filled, and streamers waving."
+
+Machyn tells us in his diary for August 3rd, 1553, how "The Queen came
+riding to London, and so on to the Tower, makyng her entry at Aldgate, and
+a grett nombur of stremars hanging about the sayd gate, and all the strett
+unto Leydenhalle and unto the Tower were layd with graffel, and all the
+crafts of London stood with their banars and stremars hangyd over their
+heds." In the picture by Volpe in the collection at Hampton Court of the
+Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover in the year 1520, to meet Francis I.
+at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, we find, very naturally, a great variety
+and display of flags of all kinds. Figs. 20, 21, 23 are streamers therein
+depicted, the portcullis, Tudor rose, and fleur-de-lys being devices of the
+English king, while the particular ground upon which they are displayed is
+in each case made up of green and white, the Tudor livery colours. We may
+see these again in Fig. 71, where the national flag of the Cross of St.
+George has its white field barred with the Tudor green. In the year 1554
+even the naval uniform of England was white and green, both for officers
+and mariners, and the City trained bands had white coats welted with green.
+Queen Elizabeth, though of the Tudor race, took scarlet and black as her
+livery colours; the House of Plantaganet white and red; of York, murrey and
+blue; of Lancaster, white and blue; of Stuart, red and yellow. The great
+nobles each also had their special liveries; thus in a grand review of
+troops on Blackheath, on May 16th, 1552, we find that "the Yerle of
+Pembroke and ys men of armes" had "cotes blake bordered with whyt," while
+the retainers of the Lord Chamberlain were in red and white, those of the
+Earl of Huntingdon in blue, and so forth.
+
+In the description of one of the City pageants in honour of Henry VII. we
+find among the "baggs" (_i.e._, badges), "a rede rose and a wyght in his
+mydell, golde floures de luces, and portcullis also in golde," the "wallys"
+of the Pavilion whereon these were displayed being "chekkyrs of whyte and
+grene."
+
+The only other flag form to which we need make any very definite reference
+is the Guidon. The word is derived from the {22} French _guide-homme_, but
+in the lax spelling of mediæval days it undergoes many perversions, such as
+guydhome, guydon, gytton, geton, and such-like more or less barbarous
+renderings. Guidon is the regulation name now applied to the small
+standards borne by the squadrons of some of our cavalry regiments. The
+Queen's guidon is borne by the first squadron; this is always of crimson
+silk; the others are the colour of the regimental facings. The modern
+cavalry guidon is square in form, and richly embroidered, fringed, and
+tasselled. A mediæval writer on the subject lays down the law that "a
+guydhome must be two and a half yardes or three yardes longe, and therein
+shall be no armes putt, but only the man's crest, cognizance, and device,
+and from that, from his standard or streamer a man may flee; but not from
+his banner or pennon bearinge his armes." The guidon is largely employed at
+State or ceremonious funeral processions; we see it borne, for instance, in
+the illustrations of the funeral of Monk in 1670, of Nelson in 1806, of
+Wellington in 1852. In all these cases it is rounded in form, as in Fig.
+28. Like the standard, the guidon bears motto and device, but it is
+smaller, and has not the elongated form, nor does it bear the Cross of St.
+George.
+
+In divers countries and periods very diverse forms may be encountered, and
+to these various names have been assigned, but it is needless to pursue
+their investigation at any length, as in some cases the forms are quite
+obsolete; in other cases, while its form is known to us its name is lost,
+while in yet other instances we have various old names of flags mentioned
+by the chroniclers and poets to which we are unable now to assign any very
+definite notion of their form. In some cases, again, the form we encounter
+may be of some eccentric individuality that no man ever saw before, or ever
+wants to see again, or, as in Fig. 33, so slightly divergent from ordinary
+type as to scarcely need a distinctive name. One of the flags represented
+in the Bayeux tapestry is semi-circular. Fig. 32 defies classification,
+unless we regard it as a pennon that, by snipping, has travelled
+three-quarters of the way towards being a banner. Fig. 35, sketched from a
+MS. of the early part of the fourteenth century, in the British Museum, is
+of somewhat curious and abnormal form. It is of religious type, and bears
+the Agnus Dei. The original is in a letter of Philippe de Mezières,
+pleading for peace and friendship between Charles VI. of France and Richard
+II. of England.
+
+Flags are nowadays ordinarily made of bunting, a woollen fabric which, from
+the nature of its texture and its great toughness and durability, is
+particularly fitted to stand wear and tear. It comes from the Yorkshire
+mills in pieces of forty yards in length, while the width varies from four
+to thirty-six inches. Flags are {23} only printed when of small size, and
+when a sufficient number will be required to justify the expense of cutting
+the blocks. Silk is also used, but only for special purposes.
+
+Flag-devising is really a branch of heraldry, and should be in accordance
+with its laws, both in the forms and the colours introduced. Yellow in
+blazonry is the equivalent of gold, and white of silver, and it is one of
+the requirements of heraldry that colour should not be placed upon colour,
+nor metal on metal. Hence the red and blue in the French tricolour (Fig.
+191) are separated by white; the black and red of Belgium (Fig. 236) by
+yellow. Such unfortunate combinations as the yellow, blue, red, of
+Venezuela (Fig. 170); the yellow, red, green of Bolivia (Fig. 171); the red
+and blue of Hayti (Fig. 178); the white and yellow of Guatemala (Fig. 162),
+are violations of the rule in countries far removed from the influence of
+heraldic law. This latter instance is a peculiarly interesting one; it is
+the flag of Guatemala in 1851, while in 1858 this was changed to that
+represented in Fig. 163. In the first case the red and the blue are in
+contact, and the white and the yellow; while in the second the same colours
+are introduced, but with due regard to heraldic law, and certainly with far
+more pleasing effect.
+
+One sees the same obedience to this rule in the special flags used for
+signalling, where great clearness of definition at considerable distances
+is an essential. Such combinations as blue and black, red and blue, yellow
+and white, carry their own condemnation with them, as anyone may test by
+actual experiment; stripes of red and blue, for instance, at a little
+distance blending into purple, while white and yellow are too much alike in
+strength, and when the yellow has become a little faded and the white a
+little dingy they appear almost identical. We have this latter combination
+in Fig. 198, the flag of the now vanished Papal States. It is a very
+uncommon juxtaposition, and only occurs in this case from a special
+religious symbolism into which we need not here enter. The alternate red
+and green stripes in Fig. 63 are another violation of the rule, and have a
+very confusing effect.[14]
+
+The colours of by far the greatest frequency of occurrence are red, white,
+and blue; yellow also is not uncommon; orange is only found once, in Fig.
+249, where it has a special significance, since this is the flag of the
+Orange Free State. Green occurs sparingly. Italy (Fig. 197) is perhaps the
+best known example. We also find it in the Brazilian flag (Fig. 169), the
+Mexican (Fig. 172), in the Hungarian tricolor (Fig. 214), and in Figs. 199,
+201, 209, the flags {24} of smaller German States, but it is more
+especially associated with Mohammedan States, as in Figs. 58, 63, 64, 235.
+Black is found but seldom, but as heraldic requirements necessitate that it
+should be combined either with white or yellow, it is, when seen,
+exceptionally brilliant and effective. We see it, for example, in the Royal
+Standard of Spain, (Fig. 194), in Figs. 207 and 208, flags of the German
+Empire, in Fig. 226, the Imperial Standard of Russia, and in Fig. 236, the
+brilliant tricolor of the Belgians.[15]
+
+In orthodox flags anything of the nature of an inscription is very seldom
+seen. We find a reference to order and progress on the Brazilian flag (Fig.
+169), while the Turkish Imperial Standard (Fig. 238) bears on its scarlet
+folds the monogram of the Sultan; but these exceptions are rare.[16] We
+have seen that, on the contrary, on the flags of insurgents and malcontents
+the inscription often counts for much. On the alteration of the style in
+the year 1752 this necessary change was made the subject of much ignorant
+reproach of the government of the day, and was used as a weapon of party
+warfare. An amusing instance of this feeling occurs in the first plate of
+Hogarth's election series, where a malcontent, or perhaps only a man
+anxious to earn a shilling, carries a big flag inscribed, "Give us back our
+eleven days." The flags of the Covenanters often bore mottoes or texts.
+Fig. 34 is a curious example: the flag hoisted by the crew of H.M.S.
+_Niger_ when they opposed the mutineers in 1797 at Sheerness. It is
+preserved in the Royal United Service Museum. It is, as we have seen,
+ordinarily the insubordinate and rebellious who break out into inscriptions
+of more or less piety or pungency, but we may conclude that the loyal
+sailors fighting under the royal flag adopted this device in addition as
+one means the more of fighting the rebels with their own weapons.
+
+During the Civil War between the Royalists and Parliamentarians, we find a
+great use made of flags inscribed with mottoes. Thus, on one we see five
+hands stretching at a crown defended by an armed hand issuing from a cloud,
+and the motto, "Reddite Cæsari." In another we see an angel with a flaming
+sword treading a dragon underfoot, and the motto, "Quis ut Deus," while yet
+another is inscribed, "Courage pour la Cause." On a fourth we find an
+ermine, and the motto, "Malo mori quam foedari"--"It is better to die than
+{25} to be sullied," in allusion to the old belief that the ermine would
+die rather than soil its fur. Hence it is the emblem of purity and
+stainless honour.
+
+The blood-red flag is the symbol of mutiny and of revolution. As a sign of
+disaffection it was twice, at the end of last century, displayed in the
+Royal Navy. A mutiny broke out at Portsmouth in April, 1797, for an advance
+of pay; an Act of Parliament was passed to sanction the increase of
+expenditure, and all who were concerned in it received the royal pardon,
+but in June of the same year, at Sheerness, the spirit of disaffection
+broke out afresh, and on its suppression the ringleaders were executed. It
+is characteristic that, aggrieved as these seamen were against the
+authorities, when the King's birthday came round, on June 4th, though the
+mutiny was then at its height, the red flags were lowered, the vessels
+gaily dressed in the regulation bunting, and a royal salute was fired.
+Having thus demonstrated their real loyalty to their sovereign, the red
+flags were re-hoisted, and the dispute with the Admiralty resumed in all
+its bitterness.
+
+The white flag is the symbol of amity and of good will; of truce amidst
+strife, and of surrender when the cause is lost. The yellow flag betokens
+infectious illness, and is displayed when there is cholera, yellow fever,
+or such like dangerous malady on board ship, and it is also hoisted on
+quarantine stations. The black flag signifies mourning and death; one of
+its best known uses in these later days is to serve as an indication after
+an execution that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out.
+
+Honour and respect are expressed by "dipping" the flag. At any parade of
+troops before the sovereign the regimental flags are lowered as they pass
+the saluting point, and at sea the colours are dipped by hauling them
+smartly down from the mast-head and then promptly replacing them. They must
+not be suffered to remain at all stationary when lowered, as a flag flying
+half-mast high is a sign of mourning for death, for defeat, or for some
+other national loss, and it is scarcely a mark of honour or respect to
+imply that the arrival of the distinguished person is a cause of grief or
+matter for regret.
+
+In time of peace it is an insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation
+above another, so that each flag must be flown from its own staff.
+
+Even as early as the reign of Alfred England claimed the sovereignty of the
+seas. Edward III. is more identified with our early naval glories than any
+other English king; he was styled "King of the Seas," a name of which he
+appears to have been very proud, and in his coinage of gold nobles he
+represented himself with shield and sword, and standing in a ship "full
+royally {26} apparelled." He fought on the seas under many disadvantages of
+numbers and ships: in one instance until his ship sank under him, and at
+all times as a gallant Englishman.
+
+If any commander of an English vessel met the ship of a foreigner, and the
+latter refused to salute the English flag, it was enacted that such ship,
+if taken, was the lawful prize of the captain. A very notable example of
+this punctilious insistance on the respect to the flag arose in May, 1554,
+when a Spanish fleet of one hundred and sixty sail, escorting the King on
+his way to England to his marriage with Queen Mary, fell in with the
+English fleet under the command of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral. Philip
+would have passed the English fleet without paying the customary honours,
+but the signal was at once made by Howard for his twenty-eight ships to
+prepare for action, and a round shot crashed into the side of the vessel of
+the Spanish Admiral. The hint was promptly taken, and the whole Spanish
+fleet struck their colours as homage to the English flag.
+
+In the year 1635 the combined fleets of France and Holland determined to
+dispute this claim of Great Britain, but on announcing their intention of
+doing so an English fleet was at once dispatched, whereupon they returned
+to their ports and decided that discretion was preferable even to valour.
+In 1654, on the conclusion of peace between England and Holland, the Dutch
+consented to acknowledge the English supremacy of the seas, the article in
+the treaty declaring that "the ships of the Dutch--as well ships of war as
+others--meeting any of the ships of war of the English, in the British
+seas, shall strike their flags and lower their topsails in such manner as
+hath ever been at any time heretofore practised." After another period of
+conflict it was again formally yielded by the Dutch in 1673.
+
+Political changes are responsible for many variations in flags, and the
+wear and tear of Time soon renders many of the devices obsolete. On
+turning, for instance, to Nories' "Maritime Flags of all Nations," a little
+book published in 1848, many of the flags are at once seen to be now out of
+date. The particular year was one of exceptional political agitation, and
+the author evidently felt that his work was almost old-fashioned even on
+its issue. "The accompanying illustrations," he says, "having been
+completed prior to the recent revolutionary movements on the Continent of
+Europe, it has been deemed expedient to issue the plate in its present
+state, rather than adopt the various tri-coloured flags, which cannot be
+regarded as permanently established in the present unsettled state of
+political affairs." The Russian American Company's flag, Fig. 59, that of
+the States of the Church, of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Turkish Imperial
+Standard, Fig. 64, and many others {27} that he gives, are all now
+superseded. For Venice he gives two flags, that for war and that for the
+merchant service. In each case the flag is scarlet, having a broad band of
+blue, which we may take to typify the sea, near its lower edge. From this
+rises in gold the winged lion of St. Mark, having in the war ensign a sword
+in his right paw, and in the peaceful colours of commerce a cross. Of
+thirty-five "flags of all nations," given as a supplement to the
+_Illustrated London News_ in 1858, we note that eleven are now obsolete:
+the East India Company, for instance, being now extinct, the Ionian Islands
+ceded to Greece, Tuscany and Naples absorbed into Italy, and so forth.
+
+In Figs. 52 and 53 we have examples of early Spanish flags, and in 54 and
+55 of Portuguese, each and all being taken from a very quaint map of the
+year 1502. This map may be said to be practically the countries lying round
+the Atlantic Ocean, giving a good slice of Africa, a portion of the
+Mediterranean basin, the British Isles, most of South America, a little of
+North America, the West Indies,[17] etc., the object of the map being to
+show the division that Pope Alexander VI. kindly made between those
+faithful daughters of the Church--Spain and Portugal--of all the unclaimed
+portions of the world. Figs. 52 and 53 are types of flags flying on various
+Spanish possessions, while Figs. 54 and 55 are placed at different points
+on the map where Portugal held sway. On one place in Africa we see that No.
+54 is surmounted by a white flag bearing the Cross of St. George, so we may
+conclude that--Pope Alexander notwithstanding--England captured it from the
+Portuguese. At one African town we see the black men dancing round the
+Portuguese flag, while a little way off three of their brethren are hanging
+on a gallows, showing that civilization had set in with considerable
+severity there. The next illustration on this plate (Fig. 56) is taken from
+a sheet of flags published in 1735; it represents the "Guiny Company's
+Ensign," a trading company, like the East India, Fig. 57, now no longer in
+existence. Fig. 62 is the flag of Savoy, an ancient sovereignty that,
+within the memory of many of our readers, has expanded into the kingdom of
+Italy. The break up of the Napoleonic _régime_ in France, the crushing out
+of the Confederate States in North America, the dismissal from the throne
+of the Emperor of Brazil, have all, within comparatively recent years, led
+to the superannuation and disestablishment of a goodly number of flags and
+their final disappearance.
+
+We propose now to deal with the flags of the various nationalities,
+commencing, naturally, with those of our own country. {28} We were told by
+a government official that the Universal Code of signals issued by England
+had led to a good deal of heartburning, as it is prefaced by a plate of the
+various national flags, the Union Flag of Great Britain and Ireland being
+placed first. But until some means can be devised by which each nationality
+can head the list, some sort of precedence seems inevitable. At first sight
+it seems as though susceptibilities might be saved by adopting an
+alphabetical arrangement, but this is soon found to be a mistake, as it
+places such powerful States as Russia and the United States nearly at the
+bottom of the list. A writer, Von Rosenfeld, who published a book on flags
+in Vienna in 1853, very naturally adopted this arrangement, but the calls
+of patriotism would not even then allow him to be quite consistent, since
+he places his material as follows:--Austria, Annam, Argentine, Belgium,
+Bolivia, and so forth, where it is evident Annam should lead the world and
+Austria be content to come in third. Apart from the difficulty of asking
+Spain, for instance, to admit that Bulgaria was so much in front of her, or
+to expect Japan to allow China so great a precedence as the alphabetical
+arrangement favours, a second obstacle is found in the fact that the names
+of these various States as we Englishmen know them are not in many cases
+those by which they know themselves or are known by others. Thus a
+Frenchman would be quite content with the alphabetical arrangement that in
+English places his beloved country before Germany, but the Teuton would at
+once claim precedence, declaring that Deutschland must come before "la
+belle France," and the Espagnol would not see why he should be banished to
+the back row just because we choose to call him a Spaniard.
+
+In the meantime, pending the Millenium, the flag that more than three
+hundred millions of people, the wide world over, look up to as the symbol
+of justice and liberty, will serve very well as a starting point, and then
+the great Daughter across the Western Ocean, that sprung from the Old Home,
+shall claim a worthy place next in our regard. The Continent of Europe must
+clearly come next, and such American nationalities as lie outside the
+United States, together with Asia and Africa, will bring up the rear.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{29}
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+    The Royal Standard--the Three Lions of England--the Lion Rampant of
+    Scotland--Scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the Scottish
+    Tressure--the Harp of Ireland--Early Irish Flags--Brian Boru--the Royal
+    Standards from Richard I. to Victoria--Claim to the Fleurs-de-Lys of
+    France--Quartering Hanover--the Union Flag--St. George for England--War
+    Cry--Observance of St. George's Day--the Cross of St. George--Early
+    Naval Flags--the London Trained Bands--the Cross of St. Andrew--the
+    "Blue Blanket"--Flags of the Covenanters--Relics of St. Andrew--Union
+    of England and Scotland--the First Union Flag--Importance of accuracy
+    in representations of it--the Union Jack--Flags of the Commonwealth and
+    Protectorate--Union of Great Britain and Ireland--the Cross of St.
+    Patrick--Labours of St. Patrick in Ireland--Proclamation of George III.
+    as to Flags, etc.--the Second Union Flag--Heraldic Difficulties in its
+    Construction--Suggestions by Critics--Regulations as to Fortress
+    Flags--the White Ensign of the Royal Navy--Saluting the Flag--the Navy
+    the Safeguard of Britain--the Blue Ensign--the Royal Naval Reserve--the
+    Red Ensign of the Mercantile Marine--Value of Flag-lore.
+
+Foremost amongst the flags of the British Empire the Royal Standard takes
+its position as the symbol of the tie that unites all into one great State.
+Its glowing blazonry of blue and scarlet and gold is brought before us in
+Fig. 44. The three golden lions on the scarlet ground are the device of
+England, the golden harp on the azure field is the device of Ireland, while
+the ruddy lion rampant on the field of gold[18] stands for Scotland. It may
+perhaps appear to some of our readers that the standard of the Empire
+should not be confined to such narrow limits; that the great Dominion of
+Canada, India, Australia, the ever-growing South Africa, might justly claim
+a place. Precedent, too, might be urged, since in previous reigns, Nassau,
+Hanover, and other States have found a resting-place in its folds, and
+there is much to be said in favour of a wider representation of the greater
+component parts of our world-wide Empire; but two great practical
+difficulties arise: the first is that the grand simplicity of the flag
+would be lost if eight or ten different devices were substituted for the
+three; and secondly, it would very possibly give rise to a good deal of
+jealousy and ill-feeling, since it would be impossible to introduce all. As
+it at present stands, it represents the central home of the Empire, the
+little historic seed-plot from whence all else has sprung, and to which all
+turn their eyes as the {30} centre of the national life. All equally agree
+to venerate the dear mother land, but it is perhaps a little too much to
+expect that the people of Jamaica or Hong Kong would feel the same
+veneration for the beaver and maple-leaves of Canada, the golden Sun of
+India, or the Southern Cross of Australasia. As it must clearly be all or
+none, it seems that only one solution of the problem, the present one, is
+possible. In the same way the Union flag (Fig. 90) is literally but the
+symbol of England, Scotland, and Ireland, but far and away outside its
+primary significance, it floats on every sea the emblem of that Greater
+Britain in which all its sons have equal pride, and where all share equal
+honour as brethren of one family.
+
+The earliest Royal Standard bore but the three lions of England, and we
+shall see presently that in different reigns various modifications of its
+blazonry arose, either the result of conquest or of dynastic possessions.
+Thus Figs. 43 and 44, though they bear a superficial likeness, tell a very
+different story; the first of these, that of George III., laying claim in
+its fourth quartering to lordship over Hanover and other German States, and
+in its second quarter to the entirely shadowy and obsolete claim over
+France, as typified by the golden fleurs-de-lys on the field of azure.
+
+How the three lions of England arose is by no means clear. Two lions were
+assigned as the arms of William the Conqueror, but there is no real
+evidence that he bore them. Heraldry had not then become a definite
+science, and when it did a custom sprang up of assigning to those who lived
+and died before its birth certain arms, the kindly theory being that such
+persons, had they been then living, would undoubtedly have borne arms, and
+that it was hard, therefore, that the mere accident of being born a hundred
+years too soon should debar them from possessing such recognition of their
+rank. Even so late as Henry II. the bearing is still traditional, and it is
+said that on his marriage with Alianore, eldest daughter of William, Duke
+of Aquitaine and Guienne, he incorporated with his own two lions the single
+lion that (it is asserted) was the device of his father-in-law. All this,
+however, is theory and surmise, and we do not really find ourselves on the
+solid ground of fact until we come to the reign of Richard Coeur-de-Lion.
+Upon his second Great Seal we have the three lions just as they are
+represented in Figs. 22, 43, 44, and as they have been borne for centuries
+by successive sovereigns on their arms, standards, and coinage, and as our
+readers may see them this day on the Royal Standard and on much of the
+money they may take out of their pockets. The date of this Great Seal of
+King Richard is 1195 A.D., so we have, at all events, a period of over
+seven hundred years, waiving a break during the Commonwealth, in which the
+three golden lions on their scarlet field have typified the might of
+England. {31}
+
+The rampant lion within the tressure, the device of Scotland--seen in the
+second quarter of our Royal Standard, Fig. 44--is first seen on the Great
+Seal of King Alexander II., about A.D. 1230, and the same device, without
+any modification of colour or form[19] was borne by all the Sovereigns of
+Scotland, and on the accession of James to the throne of the United
+Kingdom, in the year 1603, the ruddy lion ramping on the field of gold
+became an integral part of the Standard.
+
+The Scotch took considerable umbrage at their lion being placed in the
+second place, while the lions of England were placed first, as they
+asserted that Scotland was a more ancient kingdom than England, and that in
+any case, on the death of Queen Elizabeth of England, the Scottish monarch
+virtually annexed the Southern Kingdom to his own, and kindly undertook to
+get the Southerners out of a dynastic difficulty by looking after the
+interests of England as well as ruling Scotland. This feeling of jealousy
+was so bitter and so potent that for many years after the Union, on all
+seals peculiar to Scottish business and on the flags displayed north of the
+Tweed, the arms of Scotland were placed in the first quarter. It was also
+made a subject of complaint that in the Union Flag the cross of St. George
+is placed over that of St. Andrew (see Figs. 90, 91, 92), and that the lion
+of England acted as the dexter support of the royal shield instead of
+giving place to the Scottish Unicorn. One can only be thankful that Irish
+patriots have been too sensible or too indifferent to insist upon yet
+another modification, requiring that whensoever and wheresoever the Royal
+Standard be hoisted in the Emerald Isle the Irish harp should be placed in
+the first quarter. While it is clearly impossible to place the device of
+each nationality first, it is very desirable and, in fact, essential, that
+the National Arms and the Royal Standard should be identical in arrangement
+in all parts of the kingdom. The notion of unity would be very inadequately
+carried out if we had a London version for Buckingham Palace, an Edinburgh
+version for Holyrood, and presently found the Isle of Saints and "gallant
+little Wales" insisting on two other variants, and the Isle of Man in
+insurrection because it was not allowed precedence of all four.
+
+Even so lately as the year 1853, on the issue of the florin, the old
+jealousy blazed up again. A statement was drawn up and presented to Lord
+Lyon, King of Arms, setting forth anew the old grievances of the lions in
+the Standard and the crosses in the Flag of the Union, and adding that "the
+new two-shilling {32} piece, called a florin, which has lately been issued,
+bears upon the reverse four crowned shields, the first or uppermost being
+the three lions passant of England; the second, or right hand proper, the
+harp of Ireland; the third, or left hand proper, the lion rampant of
+Scotland; the fourth, or lower, the three lions of England repeated. Your
+petitioners beg to direct your Lordship's attention to the position
+occupied by the arms of Scotland upon this coin, which are placed in the
+third shield instead of the second, a preference being given to the arms of
+Ireland over those of this kingdom." It is curious that this document
+tacitly drops claim to the first place. Probably most of our
+readers--Scotch, Irish, or English--feel but little sense of grievance in
+the matter, and are quite willing, if the coin be an insult, to pocket it.
+
+The border surrounding the lion is heraldically known as the tressure. The
+date and the cause of its introduction are lost in antiquity. The mythical
+story is that it was added by Achaius, King of Scotland, in the year 792,
+in token of alliance with Charlemagne, but in all probability these princes
+scarcely knew of the existence of each other. The French and the Scotch
+have often been in alliance, and there can be little doubt but that the
+fleurs-de-lys that adorn the tressure point to some such early association
+of the two peoples; an ancient writer, Nisbet, takes the same view, as he
+affirms that "the Tressure fleurie encompasses the lyon of Scotland to show
+that he should defend the Flower-de-luses, and these to continue a defence
+to the lyon." The first authentic illustration of the tressure in the arms
+of Scotland dates from the year 1260. In the reign of James III., in the
+year 1471 it was "ordaint that in tyme to cum thar suld be na double tresor
+about his armys, but that he suld ber armys of the lyoun, without ony mur."
+If this ever took effect it must have been for a very short time. We have
+seen no example of it.
+
+Ireland joined England and Scotland in political union on January 1st,
+1801, but its device--the harp--was placed on the standard centuries before
+by right of conquest. The first known suggestion for a real union on equal
+terms was made in the year 1642 in a pamphlet entitled "The Generall Junto,
+or the Councell of Union; chosen equally out of England, Scotland, and
+Ireland for the better compacting of these nations into one monarchy. By H.
+P." This H. P. was one Henry Parker. Fifty copies only of this tract were
+issued, and those entirely for private circulation. "To persuade to union
+and commend the benefit of it"--says the author--"will be unnecessary.
+_Divide et impera_ (divide and rule) is a fit saying for one who aims at
+the dissipation and perdition of his country. Honest counsellors have ever
+given contrary advice. England and Ireland are inseparably knit; no
+severance is possible {33} but such as shall be violent and injurious.
+Ireland is an integral member of the Kingdom of England: both kingdoms are
+coinvested and connexed, not more undivided than Wales or Cornwall."
+
+The conquest of Ireland was entered upon in the year 1172, in the reign of
+Henry II., but was scarcely completed until the surrender of Limerick in
+1691. Until 1542 it was styled not the Kingdom but the Lordship of Ireland.
+
+An early standard of Ireland has three golden crowns on a blue field, and
+arranged over each other as we see the English lions placed; and a
+commission appointed in the reign of Edward IV., to enquire what really
+were the arms of Ireland, reported in favour of the three crowns. The early
+Irish coinage bears these three crowns upon it, as on the coins of Henry V.
+and his successors. Henry VIII. substituted the harp on the coins, but
+neither crowns nor harps nor any other device for Ireland appear in the
+Royal Standard until the year 1603, after which date the harp has remained
+in continuous use till the present day.
+
+In the Harleian MS., No. 304 in the British Museum, we find the statement
+that "the armes of Irland is Gules iij old harpes gold, stringed argent"
+(as in Fig. 87), and on the silver coinage for Ireland of Queen Elizabeth
+the shield bears these three harps. At her funeral Ireland was represented
+by a blue flag having a crowned harp of gold upon it, and James I. adopted
+this, but without the crown, as a quartering in his standard: its first
+appearance on the Royal Standard of England.
+
+Why Henry VIII. substituted the harp for the three crowns is not really
+known. Some would have us believe that the king was apprehensive that the
+three crowns might be taken as symbolising the triple crown of the Pope;
+while others suggest that Henry, being presented by the Pope with the
+supposed harp of Brian Boru, was induced to change the arms of Ireland by
+placing on her coins the representation of this relic of her most
+celebrated native king. The Earl of Northampton, writing in the reign of
+James I., suggests yet a third explanation. "The best reason," saith he,
+"that I can observe for the bearing thereof is, it resembles that country
+in being such an instrument that it requires more cost to keep it in tune
+than it is worth."[20] {34}
+
+The Royal Standard should only be hoisted when the Sovereign or some member
+of the royal family is actually within the palace or castle, or at the
+saluting point, or on board the vessel where we see it flying, though this
+rule is by no means observed in practice. The only exception really
+permitted to this is that on certain royal anniversaries it is hoisted at
+some few fortresses at home and abroad that are specified in the Queen's
+Regulations.
+
+The Royal Standard of England was, we have seen, in its earliest form a
+scarlet flag, having three golden lions upon it, and it was so borne by
+Richard I., John, Henry III., Edward I., and Edward II. Edward III. also
+bore it for the first thirteen years of his reign, so that this simple but
+beautiful flag was the royal banner for over one hundred and fifty years.
+Edward III., on his claim in the year 1340 to be King of France as well as
+of England, quartered the golden fleurs-de-lys of that kingdom with the
+lions of England.[21] This remained the Royal Standard throughout the rest
+of his long reign. Throughout the reign of Richard II. (1377 to 1399) the
+royal banner was divided in half by an upright line, all on the outer half
+being like that of Edward III., while the half next the staff was the
+golden cross and martlets on the blue ground, assigned to Edward the
+Confessor, his patron saint, as shown in Fig. 19. On the accession of Henry
+IV. to the throne, the cross and martlets disappeared, and he reverted to
+the simple quartering of France and England.
+
+Originally the fleurs-de-lys were scattered freely over the field, _semée_
+or sown, as it is termed heraldically, so that besides several in the
+centre that showed their complete form, others at the margin were more or
+less imperfect. On turning to Fig. 188, an early French flag, we see this
+disposition of them very clearly. Charles V. of France in the year 1365
+reduced the number to three, as in Fig. 184, whereupon Henry IV. of England
+followed suit; his Royal Standard is shown in Fig. 22. This remained the
+Royal Standard throughout the reigns of Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV.,
+Edward V., Richard III., Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and
+Elizabeth--a period of two hundred years.
+
+On the accession of the House of Stuart, the flag was rearranged. Its first
+and fourth quarters were themselves quartered again, these small
+quarterings being the French fleur-de-lys and the English lions; while the
+second quarter was the lion of Scotland, and the third the Irish harp; the
+first appearance of either of these latter kingdoms in the Royal Standard.
+This form remained in use throughout the reigns of James I., Charles I.,
+Charles II., and James II. The last semblance of dominion in France had
+long {35} since passed away, but it will be seen that alike on coinage,
+arms, and Standard the fiction was preserved, and Londoners may see at
+Whitehall the statue still standing of James II., bearing on its pedestal
+the inscription--"_Jacobus secundus Dei Gratia Angliæ, Scotiæ, Franciæ et
+Hiberniæ Rex_."
+
+During the Protectorate, both the Union Flag and the Standard underwent
+several modifications, but the form that the personal Standard of Cromwell
+finally assumed may be seen in Fig. 83, where the Cross of St. George for
+England, St. Andrew for Scotland, and the harp for Ireland, symbolise the
+three kingdoms, while over all, on a shield, are placed the personal arms
+of the Protector--a silver lion rampant on a sable field.
+
+William III., on his landing in England, displayed a standard which varied
+in many respects from those of his royal predecessors, since it contained
+not only the arms themselves, but these were represented as displayed on an
+escutcheon, surmounted by the crown, and supported on either side by the
+lion and unicorn. Above all this was the inscription "For the Protestant
+Religion and the Liberties of England,"[22] while beneath it was "je
+maintiendray." The arms on the shield are too complex for adequate
+description without the aid of a diagram; suffice it to say that in
+addition to the insignia of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France, were
+eight others dealing with the devices of smaller Continental possessions
+appertaining to the new monarch. When matters had settled down and his
+throne was assured, the aggressive inscription, etc., disappeared, and the
+Royal Standard of William and his Consort Mary, the daughter of King James,
+reverted to the form used by the Stuart Sovereigns, plus in the centre a
+small escutcheon bearing the arms of Nassau, these being a golden lion
+rampant, surrounded by golden billets, upon a shield of azure.
+
+The Royal Standard of Queen Anne bore the devices of England, Scotland,
+Ireland, and France. On the accession of George I. the arms of Hanover were
+added, and from 1714 to 1801 the flag was as shown in Fig. 43. The flag of
+Anne was very similar to this, only instead of Hanover in the fourth
+quarter, the arms of England and Scotland, as we see them in the first
+quarter, were simply repeated in the fourth.
+
+The Hanoverian quarter, Fig. 43, was made up as follows:--The two lions on
+the red field are the device of Brunswick; the blue lion rampant,
+surrounded by the red hearts, is the device of Lunenburg; the galloping
+white horse is for Saxony; and over all is the golden crown of Charlemagne
+as an indication of the claim set up of being the successor of that potent
+Sovereign. The horse {36} of Saxony is said to have been borne sable by the
+early kings, previous to the conversion to Christianity of Witekind, A.D.
+785. Verstigan, however, tells us that the ensign of Hengist at the time of
+the invasion of England by the Saxons was a leaping white horse on a red
+ground. The white horse is still the county badge for Kent. The flag, as we
+see it in Fig. 43, was that of George I. and George II., and remained in
+use until the forty-second year of the reign of George III.
+
+On January 2nd, 1801, the Fleurs-de-lys of France were at length removed,
+and the flag had its four quarters as follows:--First and fourth England,
+second Scotland, and third Ireland; the arms of Hanover being placed on a
+shield in the centre of the flag. This remained the Royal Standard during
+the rest of the reign of George III., and throughout the reigns of George
+IV. and William IV. On the accession of Victoria the operation of the
+Salique law severed the connexion of Hanover with England, and the present
+Royal Standard is as shown in Fig. 44, being in its arrangement similar to
+that of George IV. and William IV., except that the small central shield,
+bearing the arms of Hanover, is now removed.[23]
+
+We turn now to the National Flag. As the feudal constitution of the
+fighting force passed away, the use of private banners disappeared, and
+men, instead of coming to the field as the retainers of some great nobleman
+and fighting under his leadership and beneath his flag, were welded into a
+national army under the direct command of the king and such leaders as he
+might appoint. The days when a great noble could change the fortunes of the
+day by withdrawing his vassals or transferring himself and them, on the eve
+of the fight, to the opposing party, were over, and men fought no longer in
+the interests of Warwick or of Percy, but in the cause of England and
+beneath the banner of St. George, the national Patron Saint.
+
+ "Thou, amongst those saints whom thou dost see,
+  Shall be a saint, and thine own nation's frend
+  And patron: thou Saint George shalt called bee,
+  Saint George of Mery England, the sign of victoree."[24]
+
+{37}
+
+At the siege of Antioch, according to Robertus Monachus, a Benedictine of
+Rheims who flourished about the year 1120, and wrote a history of the
+Crusade, "Our Souldiers being wearied with the long continuance of the
+Battaile, and seeing that the number of enemies decreased not, began to
+faint; when suddenly an infinite number of Heavenly Souldiers all in white
+descended from the Mountains, the Standard-bearer and leaders of them being
+Saint George, Saint Maurice, and Saint Demetrius, which when the Bishop of
+Le Puy first beheld he cryed aloud unto his troopes, 'There are they (saith
+he) the succours which in the name of God I promised to you.' The issue of
+the miracle was this, that presently the enemies did turne their backs and
+lost the field: these being slaine, 100,000 horse, beside foot innumerable,
+and in their trenches such infinite store of victuals and munition found
+that served not only to refresh the wearied Christians, but to confound the
+enemy." This great victory at Antioch led to the recovery of Jerusalem. At
+the Crusades England, Arragon, and Portugal all assumed St. George as their
+patron saint.
+
+Throughout the Middle Ages the war-cry of the English was the name of this
+patron saint. "The blyssed and holy Martyr Saynt George is patron of this
+realme of Englande, and the crye of men of warre," we read in the "Golden
+Legend," and readers of Shakespeare will readily recall illustrations. Thus
+in "King Richard II." we read:--
+
+ "Sound drums and trumpets, boldly and cheerfully,
+  God and St. George! Richard and victory."
+
+or again in "King Henry V." where the king at the siege of Harfleur cries,
+
+                     "The game's afoot,
+  Follow your spirit, and upon this charge
+  Cry, God for Harry, England, and St. George!"
+
+while in "King Henry VI." we find the line,
+
+ "Then strike up, drums--God and St. George for us!"[25]
+
+At the battle of Poitiers, September 19th, 1356, upon the advance of the
+English, the Constable of France threw himself, Lingard tells us, across
+their path with the battle shout, "Mountjoy, St. Denis," which was at once
+answered by "St. George, St. George," and in the onrush of the English the
+Duke and the greater part of his {38} followers were swept away, and in a
+few minutes slain. In an interesting old poem on the siege of Rouen in
+1418, written by an eye-witness, we read that on the surrender of the city,
+
+ "Whanne the gate was openyd there
+  And thay weren ready in to fare,
+  Trumpis blew ther bemys of bras,
+  Pipis and clarionys forsoothe ther was.
+  And as they entrid thay gaf a schowte
+  With ther voyce that was full stowte,
+  Seint George! Seint George! thay criden on height
+  And seide, Welcome oure kynges righte!"
+
+We have before us, as we write, "The story of that most blessed Saint and
+Souldier of Christ Jesus, St. George of Cappadocia," as detailed by Peter
+Heylyn, and published in 1633, and the temptation to quote at length from
+it is great, as it is full of most interesting matter, but into the history
+of St. George space forbids us to go at any length. The author of the
+"Seven Champions of Christendom" makes St. George to be born of English
+parentage at Coventry, but for this there is no authority whatever, and all
+other writers make Cappadocia his birthplace. The history of St. George is
+more obscure than that of any name of equal eminence in the Calendar.
+According to the "Acta Sanctorum" he was the son of noble parents, became
+famous as a soldier, and, embracing Christianity, was tortured to death at
+Nicomedia in the year 303.
+
+ "The hero won his well-earned place,
+  Amid the Saints, in death's dread hour;
+  And still the peasant seeks his grave,
+  And, next to God, reveres his power.
+  In many a Church his form is seen,
+  With sword, and shield, and helmet sheen;
+  Ye know him by his shield of pride,
+  And by the dragon at his side."
+
+As Patron Saint, the dragon vanquisher is still seen on our crowns and
+sovereigns, and reference to such a book as Ruding's history of our coinage
+will show that it has for centuries been a popular device.
+
+In 1245, on St. George's Day, Frederic of Austria instituted an order of
+knighthood and placed it under the guardianship of the soldier-saint, and
+its white banner, bearing the ruddy cross, floated in battle alongside that
+of the Empire. In like manner on St. George's Day, in the year 1350, Edward
+III. of England instituted the order of the Garter with great solemnity.
+{39}
+
+St. George's Day, April 23rd, has too long been suffered to pass almost
+unregarded. The annual festivals of St. Andrew, St. Patrick, and St. David
+are never overlooked by the members of the various nationalities, and it
+seems distinctly a thing to be regretted that the Englishman should allow
+the name day of his Patron Saint to pass unnoticed.[26] Whatever conduces
+to the recognition of national life is valuable, and anything that reminds
+Englishmen of their common ties and common duties--and reminds them, too,
+of their glorious heritage in the past--should scarcely be allowed to fall
+into disuse. Butler, in his "Lives of the Fathers and Martyrs," tell us
+that at the great National Council, held at Oxford in 1222, it was
+commanded that the Feast of St. George should be kept. In the year 1415, by
+the Constitutions of Archbishop Chichely, St. George's Day was made one of
+the greater feasts and ordered to be observed the same as Christmas Day. In
+1545 a special collect, epistle, and gospel were prepared, and at the
+Reformation, when many of the Saints' Days were swept away, this was
+preserved with all honour, and it was not till the sixth year of the reign
+of Edward VI., when another revision was made, that in "The Catalogue of
+such Festivals as are to be Observed" St. George's day was omitted.
+
+The Cross of St. George was worn as a badge,[27] over the armour, by every
+English soldier in the fourteenth and subsequent centuries, even if the
+custom did not prevail at a much earlier period. The following extract from
+the ordinances made for the government of the army with which Richard II.
+invaded Scotland in 1386, is a good illustration of this, wherein it is
+ordered "that everi man of what estate, condicion, or nation thei be of, so
+that he be of owre partie, here a signe of the armes of Saint George,
+large, bothe before and behynde, upon parell that yf he be slayne or
+wounded to deth, he that hath so doon to hym shall not be putte to deth for
+defaulte of the cross that he lacketh. And that non enemy do bere the same
+token or crosse of Saint George, notwithstandyng if he be prisoner, upon
+payne of deth." It was the flag of battle, and we see it represented in the
+old prints and illuminations that deal with military operations both on
+land and sea. Ordinarily it is the Cross of St. George, pure and simple, as
+shown in Fig. 91, while at {40} other times, as in Figs. 66, 67, 68, it
+forms a portion only of the flag. The red cross on the white field was the
+flag under which the great seamen of Elizabeth's reign traded, explored, or
+fought; the flag that Drake bore round the world--that Frobisher unfolded
+amidst the Arctic solitudes--that gallant Englishmen, the wide world over,
+bore at the call of duty and died beneath, if need be, for the honour of
+the old home land; and to this day the flag of the English Admiral is the
+same simple and beautiful device, and the white ensign of the British Navy,
+Fig. 95, is similar, except that it bears, in addition, the Union; while
+the Union flag itself, Fig. 90, bears conspicuously the ruddy cross of the
+warrior Saint.
+
+Figs. 26, 27, 74 and 140 are all sea-pennants bearing the Cross of St.
+George. The first of these is from a painting of H.M.S. _Tiger_, painted by
+Van de Velde, while Fig. 27 is flying from one of the ships represented in
+the picture by Volpe of the embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover on his
+way to the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Fig. 74 is from a picture of H.M.S.
+_Lion_, engaging the French ship _Elisabethe_, on July 9th, 1745, the
+latter being fitted out to escort the Young Pretender to Scotland. Though
+the red, white, and blue stripes suggest the French tricolor, their
+employment in the pennant has, of course, no reference to France. The
+_Lion_ had at the foremast the plain red streamer seen at Fig. 25. Fig. 140
+is the pennant flown at the present day by all Colonial armed vessels,
+while the pennant of the Royal Navy is purely white, with the exception of
+the Cross of St. George. In a picture by Van de Velde, the property of the
+Queen, representing a sea fight on August 11th, 1673, between the English,
+French, and Dutch, we see some of the vessels with streamers similar to
+Fig. 140, thus ante-dating the Colonial flag by over two hundred years.
+
+As we have at the present time the white ensign, Fig. 95, the special flag
+of the Royal Navy; the blue ensign, Fig. 96, the distinguishing flag of the
+Royal Naval Reserve; and the red ensign, Fig. 97, the flag of the Merchant
+Service, each with the Union in the upper corner next the mast, so in
+earlier days we find the white flag, Fig. 65, the red flag, Fig. 66, and
+the blue, each having in the upper corner the Cross of St. George. Fig. 69
+becomes, by the addition of the blue, a curious modification of Fig. 66. It
+is from a sea piece of the sixteenth century. It was displayed at the poop
+of a vessel, while Fig. 79 is the Jack on the bowsprit.
+
+A hundred years ago or so, we may see that there was a considerable variety
+in the flags borne by our men-o'-war. Such galleries as those at Hampton
+Court or Greenwich afford many examples of this in the pictures there
+displayed. In a picture of a battle off Dominica, on April 12th, 1782, we
+find, one of the English {41} ships has two great square flags on the
+foremast, the upper one being plain red, and the lower one half blue and
+half white in horizontal stripes, while the main mast is surmounted by the
+Cross of St. George, and below it a tricolor of red, white, and blue in
+horizontal stripes. Other ships show equally curious variations, though we
+need not stop to detail them, except that in one case both fore and mizen
+masts are surmounted by plain red flags. In a picture of Rodney's Action
+off Cape St. Vincent, on January 16th, 1780, we meet with all these flags
+again. In the representation of an action between an English and French
+fleet on May 3rd, 1747, off Cape Finisterre, we notice that the English
+ships have a blue ensign at the poop, and one of them has a great plain
+blue flag at the foremast, and a great plain red flag at the main-mast
+head. In a picture of the taking of Portobello, November 21st, 1739, we
+notice the same thing again. These plain surfaces of blue or red are very
+curious. It will naturally occur to the reader that these are signal flags,
+but anyone seeing the pictures would scarcely continue to hold that view,
+as their large size precludes the idea. In the picture of H.M.S. _Tiger_
+that we have already referred to, the flag with five red stripes that we
+have represented in Fig. 70 is at the poop, while from the bow is hoisted a
+flag of four stripes, and from the three mastheads are flags, having three
+red stripes. These striped red and white flags may often be seen.
+
+Perhaps the most extraordinary grouping of flags may be seen in a picture
+of a naval review in the reign of George I. It was on exhibition at the
+Great Naval Exhibition at Chelsea, and is in private ownership. All the
+vessels are dressed in immense flags, and these are of the most varied
+description. It must be borne in mind that these are government bunting,
+not the irresponsible vagaries of private eccentricity. Besides the
+reasonable and orthodox flags, such as those represented in Figs. 65, 66,
+and others of equal propriety, we find one striped all over in red, white,
+blue, red, white, blue, in six horizontal stripes. Another, with a yellow
+cross on a white ground; a third, a white eagle on a blue field; another, a
+red flag inscribed--"For the Protestant Religion and the Liberty of
+England"; while another is like Fig. 65, only instead of having a red cross
+on white, it has a blue one instead. An altogether strange assortment.
+
+Figs. 67, 68, 72, and 78 are flags of the London Trained Bands of the year
+1643. The different regiments were known by the colour of their flags, thus
+Fig. 67 is the flag of the blue regiment, Fig. 68 of the yellow, Fig. 72 of
+the green, and Fig. 78 of the yellow regiment auxiliaries. Other flags were
+as follows:--white, with red lozenges; green, with golden wavy rays;
+orange, with white trefoils; in each case the Cross of St. George being in
+the canton. {42} In a list before us of the Edinburgh Trained Bands for
+1685 we find that the different bodies are similarly distinguished by
+colours.[28]
+
+On the union of the two crowns at the accession of James VI. of Scotland
+and I. of England to the English throne, the Cross of St. Andrew, Fig. 92,
+was combined with that of St. George.
+
+The Cross of St. Andrew has been held in the same high esteem north of the
+Tweed that the Southrons have bestowed on the ensign of St. George. It will
+be seen that it is shaped like the letter X. Tradition hath it that the
+Saint, deeming it far too great an honour to be crucified as was his Lord,
+gained from his persecutors the concession of this variation. It is
+legendarily asserted that this form of cross appeared in the sky to
+Achaius, King of the Scots, the night before a great battle with
+Athelstane, and, being victorious, he went barefoot to the church of St.
+Andrew, and vowed to adopt his cross as the national device. The sacred
+monogram that replaced the Roman eagles under Constantine, the cross on the
+flag of Denmark, the visions of Joan of Arc, and many other suchlike
+illustrations, readily occur to one's mind as indicative of the natural
+desire to see the potent aid of Heaven visibly manifested in justification
+of earthly ambitions, or a celestial support and encouragement in time of
+national discomfiture.
+
+Figs. 75 and 76 are examples of the Scottish red and blue ensigns. The
+first of these is from a picture at Hampton Court, where a large Scottish
+warship is represented as having a flag of this character at the main, and
+smaller but similar colours at the other mastheads and on the bowsprit.
+
+The famous banner, the historic "blue blanket," borne by the Scots in the
+Crusades, was on its return deposited over the altar of St. Eloi in St.
+Giles' Church, Edinburgh, and the queen of James II., we read, painted on
+its field of azure the white Cross of St. Andrew, the crown, and the
+thistle. St. Eloi was the patron saint of blacksmiths, and this craft was
+made the guardian of the flag, and it became the symbol of the associated
+trades of ancient Edinburgh. King James VI., when venting his indignation
+against his too independent subjects, exclaimed, "The craftsmen think we
+should be contented with their work, and if in anything they be controlled,
+then up goes the blue blanket." The craftsmen were as independent and
+difficult to manage as the London Trained Bands often proved, but King
+James VI. found it expedient to confirm them in {43} all their privileges,
+and ordered that the flag should at all times be known as the Standard of
+the Crafts, and later Sovereigns found it impossible to take away these
+privileges when they had once been granted. This flag was borne at Flodden
+Field. Beside the cross, crown, and thistle it bore on a scroll on the
+upper part of the flag the inscription, "Fear God and honor the king with a
+long lyffe and prosperous reigne," and on the lower portion the words, "And
+we that is trades shall ever pray to be faithfull for the defence of his
+Sacred Majesties' persone till deathe," an inscription that scarcely seems
+to harmonise with the turbulent spirit that scandalised this sovereign so
+greatly.
+
+The flags borne by the Covenanters in their struggle for liberty varied
+much in their details, but in the great majority of cases bore upon them
+the Cross of St. Andrew, often accompanied by the thistle, and in most
+cases by some form of inscription. Several of these are still extant. In
+one that was borne at Bothwell Brig, and now preserved in the Museum of the
+Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh, the four blue triangles (see Fig. 92 for
+these) are filled with the words, "For Religion----Couenants----King----and
+Kingdomes." The Avondale flag was a white one, having the cross, white on
+blue, as in Fig. 75, in the corner. On the field of the flag was the
+inscription, "Avondale for Religion, Covenant, and King,"[29] and beneath
+this a thistle worked in the national green and crimson. A very interesting
+Exhibition of Scottish national memorials was held at Glasgow in 1888, and
+many of these old Covenant flags were there displayed. At the great
+Heraldic Exhibition held in Edinburgh in 1891, one of the most interesting
+things shown was the Cavers Standard. This is of sage green silk, twelve
+feet by three. It bears the Cross of St. Andrew next the staff, and divers
+other devices are scattered over the rest of the flag. It is in excellent
+preservation, and its special interest lies in the fact that it is said to
+have been the standard of James, second Earl of Douglas and Mar, and borne
+by his son at the battle of Otterburn in the year 1388. If this be so it is
+one of the oldest flags in existence.
+
+On the signet-ring of Mary Queen of Scots the white Cross of St. Andrew is
+not shown on its usual blue ground, but on a ground striped blue and
+yellow, the royal colours; in the same way that the St. George's Cross is
+shown in Fig. 71, not on a {44} white ground, but on a ground striped white
+and green, the Tudor colours.
+
+Why St. Andrew was selected to be the Patron Saint of Scotland has never
+been satisfactorily settled.[30] Some uncharitable enquirer has hazarded
+the explanation that it was because it was this Apostle who discovered the
+lad who had the loaves and fishes. Others tell us that one Hungus, a
+Pictish prince, dreamt that the Saint was to be his champion in a fight
+just then pending with the men of Northumbria, and that a cross--the symbol
+of the crucifixion of this Apostle--appeared in the sky, the celestial omen
+strengthening the hearts and arms of the men of Hungus to such effect that
+the Northumbrians were completely routed. Should neither of these
+explanations appear sufficiently explanatory, we can offer yet a third. On
+the martyrdom of St. Andrew, in the year 69, at Patræ, in Achaia, his
+remains were carefully preserved as relics, but in the year 370, Regulus,
+one of the Greek monks who had them in their keeping, was warned in a
+vision that the Emperor Constantine was proposing to translate these
+remains to Constantinople, and that he must at once visit the shrine and
+remove thence an arm bone, three fingers of the right hand, and a tooth,
+and carry them away over sea to the west. Regulus was much troubled at the
+vision, but hastened to obey it, so putting the relics into a chest he set
+sail with some half-dozen other ecclesiastics, to whom he confided the
+celestial instructions that he had received. After a stormy voyage the
+vessel was at last dashed upon a rock, and Regulus and his companions
+landed on an unknown shore, and found themselves in a dense and gloomy
+forest. Here they were presently discovered by the aborigines, whose leader
+listened to their story and gave them land on which to build a church for
+the glory of God and the enshrining of the relics. This inhospitable shore
+proved to be that of "Caledonia, stern and wild," and the little forest
+church and hamlet that sprang up around it were the nucleus that thence and
+to the present day have been known as St. Andrews, a thriving, busy town in
+Fife, and for centuries the seat of a bishopric. On July 5th, 1318, Robert
+the Bruce repaired hither and testified his gratitude to God for the
+victory vouchsafed to the Scots at Bannockburn by the intercession of St.
+Andrew, guardian of the realm, when thirty thousand Scots defeated one
+hundred thousand Englishmen. What St. George could have been doing to allow
+this, seems a very legitimate question, but we can scarcely wonder that the
+Scots should very gladly appoint so potent a protector their patron, and
+look to him for succour in all their national difficulties.
+
+On the blending of the two kingdoms into one under the {45} sovereignty of
+King James,[31] it became necessary to devise a new flag that should typify
+this union and blend together the emblems of the puissant St. George and
+the no less honoured St. Andrew, and the flag represented in Fig. 73 was
+the result--the flag of the United Kingdoms of England and Scotland,
+henceforth to be known as Great Britain.
+
+The Royal Ordinance[32] ran as follows:--"Whereas some difference hath
+arisen between our subjects of South and North Britain, travelling by seas,
+about the bearing of their flags,--for the avoiding of all such contentions
+hereafter we have, with the advice of our Council, ordered that from
+henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of Greater Britain,
+and the members thereof, shall bear in their maintop the Red Cross,
+commonly called St. George's Cross, and the White Cross, commonly called
+St. Andrew's Cross, joined together, according to a form made by our
+Heralds, and sent by us to our Admiral to be published to our said
+subjects: and in their fore-top our subjects of South Britain shall wear
+the Red Cross only, as they were wont, and our subjects of North Britain in
+their fore-top the White Cross only, as they were accustomed. Wherefore we
+will and command all our subjects to be comparable and obedient to this our
+order, and that from henceforth they do not use or bear their flags in any
+other sort, as they will answer the contrary at their peril."
+
+Such a proclamation was sorely needed, as there was much ill-will and
+jealousy between the sailors and others of the two nationalities, and the
+Union flag itself, when "our heralds" produced it, did not by any means
+please the North, and the right to carry in fore-top the St. Andrew's Cross
+pure and simple was a concession that failed to conciliate them. The great
+grievance was that, as we see in Fig. 73, the Cross of St. George was
+placed in front of that of St. Andrew, and the Scottish Privy Council, in a
+letter dated Edinburgh, August 7th, 1606, thus poured forth their
+feelings:--"Most sacred Soverayne, a greate nomber of the maisteris of the
+schippis of this your Majesties kingdome hes verie havelie complenit to
+your Majesties Counsell, that the forme and patrone of the flagges of
+schippis sent down heir and command it to be ressavit and used be the
+subjectis of both kingdomes is verie prejudiciall to the fredome and
+dignitie of this Estate, and wil gif occasioun of reprotche to this natioun
+quhairevir the said flage sal happin to be worne beyond sea, {46} becaus,
+as your Sacred Majestie may persave, the Scottis Croce, callit Sanctandrois
+Croce, is twyse divydit, and the Inglishe Croce, callit Sanct George,
+drawne through the Scottis Croce, which is thereby obscurit, and no token
+nor mark to be seene of the Scottis armes. This will breid some heit and
+miscontentment betwix your Majesties subjectis, and it is to be feirit that
+some inconvenientis sall fall oute betwix thame, for our seyfaring men
+cannot be inducit to resave that flage as it is set down. They have drawne
+two new drauchtis and patrones as most indifferent for both kingdomes,
+whiche they presentid to the Counsell, and craved our approbation of the
+same, but we haif reserved that to your Majestie's princelie
+determinatioun, as moir particularlie the Erll of Mar, who was present, and
+herd their complaynt, and to whom we haif remittit the discourse and
+delyverie of that mater, will informe your Majestie and let your Heynes see
+the errour of the first patrone and the indifferencie of the two newe
+drauchties." These draughts are not to be found, nor does it appear that
+any notice was taken of the complaint.
+
+The Scottish Union flag, as carefully depicted in a scarce little work
+published in 1701, and entitled "The Ensigns, Colours, and Flags of the
+Ships at Sea, belonging to the several Princes and States in the World,"
+may be seen in Fig. 88. In it will be noted that the Cross of St. Andrew is
+placed in front of that of St. George--anyone comparing Figs. 73 and 88
+will readily see wherein they differ. Though its appearance in a book of
+sea-flags would seem to imply that such a flag had been made, we know of no
+other instance of it. Fig. 84 was also suggested as a solution of the
+problem, but here we get false heraldry, the blue in contact with the red,
+and in any case a rather weak-looking arrangement.
+
+The painful truth is that when two persons ride the same animal they cannot
+both be in front, and no amount of heraldic ingenuity will make two devices
+on a flag to be of equal value. The position next the staff is accounted
+more honourable than that remote from it, and the upper portion of the flag
+is more honourable than the lower.[33] At first sight it might appear that
+matters are impartially dealt out in Fig. 81, but the position next the
+staff is given to St. George, and in the quartered arrangement, Fig. 85,
+the same holds true. Both these were suggestions made at the time the
+difficulty was felt, but both were discarded in favour of the arrangement
+shown in Fig. 73.
+
+This Union Flag is not very often met with. It occurrs on one of the great
+seals of Charles II., and is seen also as a Jack on the {47} bowsprits of
+ships in paintings of early naval battles. It may, by good fortune, be seen
+also on the two colours of the 82nd regiment that in the year 1783 were
+suspended in St. Giles', Edinburgh, and a very good illustration of it may
+be seen in the National Gallery, where, in a battle scene by Copley,
+representing the death of Major Peirson, at St. Helier, Jersey, on January
+6th, 1781, this Union flag is conspicuous in the centre of the picture. We
+have it again in Fig 57, the original flag of the East India Company; the
+difference between this and the second Union Flag, made on the admission of
+Ireland's Cross of St. Patrick, may be very well seen on a comparison of
+Figs. 57 and 61. We have it again in Figs. 142 and 143, flags of the
+revolting American Colonists before they had thrown off all allegiance to
+the Old Country.
+
+A knowledge of the history of the flag has not only interest, but is of
+some little importance. We remember seeing a picture of the sailing of the
+_Mayflower_, in which, by a curious lack of a little technical knowledge,
+the flag depicted was the Union Flag of to-day, which did not come into
+existence until the first year of the present century, whereas the historic
+event represented in the picture took place in the year 1620. In a fresco
+in the House of Lords, representing Charles II. landing in England,[34] the
+artist has introduced a boat bearing the present Union Flag. In each of
+these cases it is evident that it should have been the first Union--that of
+England and Scotland--that the flag should have testified to.
+
+Charles I. issued a proclamation on May 5th, 1634, forbidding any but the
+Royal ships to carry the Union flag; all merchantmen, according to their
+nationality, being required to show either the Cross of St. George or that
+of St. Andrew. Queen Anne, on July 28th, 1707, required that merchant
+vessels should fly a red flag "with a Union Jack described in a canton at
+the upper corner thereof, next the staff," while the Union Flag, as before,
+was reserved for the Royal Navy. This merchant flag, if we cut out the
+inscription there shown, would be similar to Fig. 142. This is interesting,
+because, after many changes, so lately as October 18th, 1864, it was
+ordered that the red ensign once again should be the distinguishing flag of
+the commercial marine; the present flag is given in Fig. 97. It is further
+interesting because this proclamation of Queen Anne's is the first time
+that the term Union Jack, so far as we are aware, is officially used.
+
+Technically, our national banner should be called the Union Flag, though in
+ordinary parlance it is always called the Union Jack. {48} The latter flag
+is a diminutive of the former, and the term ought in strictness to be
+confined to the small Union Flag flown from the Jack-staff on the bowsprit
+of a ship. The Union Flag is, besides this, only used as the special
+distinguishing flag of an Admiral of the Fleet, when it is hoisted at the
+main top-gallant mast-head, and when the Sovereign is on board a vessel, in
+which case the Royal Standard is flown at the main and the Union at the
+mizen. With a white border round it, as in Fig. 104, it is the signal for a
+pilot: hence this is called the Pilot Jack. The sea flags now in use are
+the white, red, and blue ensigns, Figs. 95, 96, 97, to be hereafter
+described, while the Union flag is devoted especially to land service,
+being hoisted on fortresses and government offices, and borne by the
+troops.
+
+Why the flag should be called "Jack" at all has been the subject of much
+controversy. It is ordinarily suggested that the derivation is from
+Jacques, the French word for James, the Union Jack springing into existence
+under his auspices. Why it should be given this French name does not seem
+very clear, except that many of the terms used in blazonry are French in
+their origin. It never seems to have been suggested that, granting the
+reference to King James, the Latin Jacobus would be a more appropriate
+explanation, as the Latin names of our kings have for centuries supplanted
+the earlier Norman-French on their coins, seals, and documents. Several
+other theories have been broached, of varying degrees of improbability; one
+of these deriving it from the word "jaque"[35] (hence our modern jacket),
+the surcoat worn over the armour in mediæval days. This, we have seen, had
+the Cross of St. George always represented on it; but there is no proof
+that the jaque was ever worn with the union of the two crosses upon it, so
+that the derivation breaks down just at the critical point. The present
+flag came into existence in the reign of King George, but no one ever
+dreams on this account, or any other, of calling it the Union George.
+
+On the death of Charles I., the partnership between England and Scotland
+was dissolved, and the Union Flag, Fig. 73, therefore, was disestablished,
+and was only restored in the general Restoration, when the Commonwealth and
+Protectorate had run their course, and Charles II. ascended the throne of
+his forefathers.
+
+The earliest Commonwealth Flag was a simple reversion to the Cross of St.
+George, Fig. 91. At a meeting of the Council of State, held on February
+22nd, 1648-49, it was "ordered that the ships at sea in service of the
+State shall onely beare the red Crosse {49} in a white flag. That the
+engravings upon the Sterne of ye ships shall be the Armes of England and
+Ireland in two Scutcheons, as is used in the Seals, and that a warrant be
+issued to ye Commissioners of ye Navy to see it put in execution with all
+speed." The communication thus ordered to be made to the Commissioners was
+in form a letter from the President of the Council as follows:--"To ye
+Commissioners of ye Navy.--Gentlemen,--There hath beene a report made to
+the Councell by Sir Henry Mildmay of your desire to be informed what is to
+be borne in the flaggs of those Ships that are in the Service of the State,
+and what to be upon the Sterne in lieu of the Armes formerly thus engraven.
+Upon the consideration of the Councell whereof, the Councell have resolved
+that they shall beare the Red Crosse only in a white flagg, quite through
+the flagg. And that upon the Sterne of the Shipps there shall be the Red
+Crosse in one Escotcheon, and the Harpe in one other, being the Armes of
+England and Ireland, both Escotcheons joyned according to the pattern
+herewith sent unto you. And you are to take care that these Flaggs may be
+provided with all expedition for the Shipps for the Summer Guard, and that
+these engraveings may also be altered according to this direction with all
+possible expedition.--Signed in ye name and by order of ye Councell of
+State appointed by Authority of Parliament.--Ol. Cromwell, Derby House,
+February 23rd, 1648."
+
+In a Council meeting held on March 5th, considerably within a month of the
+one we have just referred to, it is "ordered that the Flagg that is to be
+borne by the Admiral, Vice-Admiral, and Rere-Admiral be that now presented,
+viz., the Armes of England and Ireland in two severall Escotcheons in a Red
+Flagg, within a compartment."[36] This arrangement may be seen in Fig. 82.
+A Commonwealth flag that is still preserved at the dockyard, Chatham,
+differs slightly from this. The ground of the flag is red, but the shields
+are placed directly upon it without any intervening gold border, and around
+them is placed a large wreath of palm and laurel in dark green colour.
+
+In the year 1787 an interesting book called the "Respublica" was published;
+the author, Sir John Prestwich, deriving much of his material from MSS.
+left by an ancestor of his who lived during the Interregnum. In this the
+reader may find full descriptions of many of the flags of the
+Parliamentarians. One of these is much like the Chatham example already
+referred to, except that the ground of the flag is blue, and that outside
+the shields, but within the wreath, is found the inscription--"_Floreat
+Respublica._" {50}
+
+The flag of the Commonwealth was borne to victory at Dunbar, Worcester, and
+many another hard-fought field, and under its folds Blake, Monk, and other
+gallant leaders gained glorious victories over the Dutch and Spaniards, and
+made the English name feared in every sea.
+
+ "Of wind's and water's rage they fearful be,
+  But much more fearful are your flags to see.
+  Day, that to those who sail upon the deep,
+  More wish'd for and more welcome is than sleep,
+  They dreaded to behold, lest the sun's light
+  With English streamers should salute their sight."[37]
+
+It was not until the year 1651 that Scotland was brought under the sway of
+the Commonwealth, and the ordinance for its full union with England and
+Ireland was not promulgated until April 12th, 1654. Somewhat later an Order
+of Council recognised the new necessities of the case, and decreed that the
+Standard for the Protectorate be as shown in Fig. 83. England and Scotland
+are here represented by their respective crosses, while Ireland, instead of
+having the Cross of St. Patrick, is represented by the harp. In Fig. 80 all
+three crosses are introduced, but there seems somewhat too much white in
+this latter flag for an altogether successful effect, and the blue of the
+Irish quarter, balancing the blue of the Scottish, is more pleasing. The
+Union Flag underwent yet another modification, and instead of being like
+Figs. 82 or 86, the Union Flag of James I., Fig. 73, was reverted to, and
+in the centre of the flag was placed a golden harp--"the Armes of England
+and Scotland united, according to the anncient form, with the addicion of
+the harpe." On the restoration of Charles II. this harp was removed, and
+Ireland does not appear again in the Union Flag, Fig. 73, until January
+1st, 1801.
+
+A pattern farthing of this period--preserved in the magnificent numismatic
+collection in the British Museum--shows on its reverse a three-masted ship:
+at the stern is a large flag divided vertically, like Fig. 86, into two
+compartments, the Cross of St. George in one and the harp in the other; the
+main and mizen masts are shown with flags containing St. George's Cross
+only, as in Fig. 91, while the foremast bears a flag with St. Andrew's
+Cross upon it, a flag similar to Fig. 92.
+
+For nearly fifty years before its rise, and for nearly one hundred and
+fifty years after the downfall of the Protectorate, that is to say from
+1602 to 1649 and from 1659 to 1801, the Union Flag was as shown in Fig. 73,
+but in 1801 the Legislative Union of Ireland with Great Britain was
+effected, and a new Union Flag, the one now in {51} use, was devised. This
+may be seen in Fig. 90, the noblest flag that flies under heaven.
+
+Though the National Flag is primarily just so much silk or bunting, its
+design and colouring are full of meaning: and though its prime cost may be
+but a few shillings, its value is priceless, for the national honour is
+enwrapped in its folds, and the history of centuries is figured in the
+symbolism of its devices. It represents to us all that patriotism means. It
+is the flag of freedom and of the greatest empire that the world has ever
+known. Over three hundred millions of people--in quiet English shires, amid
+Canadian snows, on the torrid plains of Hindustan, amidst the busy energy
+of the great Australian group of colonies, or the tropical luxuriance of
+our West Indian possessions--are to-day enjoying liberty and peace beneath
+its shelter. Countless thousands have freely given their lives to preserve
+its blazonry unstained from dishonour and defeat, and it rests with us now
+to keep the glorious record as unsullied as of old; never to unfurl our
+Union Flag in needless strife, but, when once given to the breeze, to
+emulate the deeds of our forefathers, and to inscribe on its folds fresh
+records of duty nobly done.
+
+How the form known as St. Patrick's Cross, Fig. 93, became associated with
+that worthy is not by any means clear. It is not found amongst the emblems
+of Saints, and its use is in defiance of all ecclesiastical tradition and
+custom, as St. Patrick never in the martyrological sense had a cross at
+all, for though he endured much persecution he was not actually called upon
+to lay down his life for the Faith. It has been suggested, and with much
+appearance of probability, that the X-like form of cross, both of the Irish
+and of the Scotch, is derived from the sacred monogram on the Labarum of
+Constantine, where the X is the first letter of the Greek word for Christ.
+This symbolic meaning of the form might readily be adopted in the early
+Irish Church, and thence be carried by missionaries to Scotland.
+
+A life of St. Patrick was written by Probus, who lived in the seventh
+century, and another by Jocelin, a Cistercian monk of the twelfth century,
+and this latter quotes freely from four other lives of the Saint that were
+written by his disciples.
+
+St. Patrick was born in Scotland, near where Glasgow now stands. The date
+of his birth was somewhere near the close of the fourth century, but as to
+the year authorities differ widely--372, 455, 464, and 493 being all given
+by various biographers.[38] His father was of good family, and, while the
+future saint was still under the paternal roof, God manifested to him by
+divers visions that he was {52} destined for the great work of the
+conversion of Ireland, at that time plunged in idolatry. Hence he resigned
+his birthright and social position, and devoted himself entirely to the
+salvation of these barbarians, suffering at their hands and for their sakes
+much persecution. He was ordained deacon and priest, and was ultimately
+made a bishop. He travelled over the whole of Ireland founding monasteries
+and filling the country with churches and schools of piety and learning.
+Animated by a spirit of perfect charity and humility, he demonstrated not
+only the faith but the spirit of his Master, and the result of his forty
+years of labour was to change Ireland from a land of barbarism into a seat
+of learning and piety, so that it received the title of the Island of
+Saints, and was for centuries a land of mental and spiritual light.
+
+On the Union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with Ireland in the year 1801,
+the following notice was issued by Royal Authority:--"Proclamation, George
+R.--Whereas by the First Article of the Articles of Great Britain and
+Ireland it was declared: That the said Kingdoms of Great Britain and
+Ireland should upon this day, being the First Day of January, in the Year
+of our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and One, for ever after be united
+into One Kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland: and that the Royal Style and Titles appertaining to the Imperial
+Crown of the said United Kingdom and its Dependencies, and also the Ensigns
+Armorial, Flags, and Banners thereof, should be such as We, by our Royal
+Proclamation under the Great Seal of the said United Kingdom should
+appoint: We have thought fit, by and with the advice of our Privy Council,
+to appoint and declare that our Royal Style and Titles shall henceforth be
+accepted, taken, and used as the same set forth in Manner and Form
+following: Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britannarium Rex, Fidei Defensor;
+and in the English Tongue by these words: George the Third, by the Grace of
+God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of
+the Faith; and that the Arms or Ensigns Armorial of the said United Kingdom
+shall be Quarterly: first and fourth, England: second, Scotland: third,
+Ireland: and it is Our Will and Pleasure that there shall be borne thereon
+on an escutcheon of pretence, the Arms of Our Domains in Germany, ensigned
+with the Electoral Bonnet:[39] And that the Union Flag shall be Azure, the
+Crosses Saltire of St. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly, per Saltire
+counterchanged Argent and Gules: the latter fimbriated of the second,
+surmounted by the Cross of St. George of the third, fimbriated as the
+Saltire." {53}
+
+The heralds who devised the new flag of the extended Union, Fig. 90, have
+been subjected to a very considerable amount of adverse criticism,[40] but
+no one has really been able to suggest a better plan than theirs. It will
+be noted in the illustration and in every Union flag that is made, that the
+red Cross of St. Patrick, Fig. 93, is not in the centre of the white Cross,
+Fig. 92, of St. Andrew. The scarlet Cross of St. George is equally fringed
+on either side by the white border or fimbriation that represents the
+original white field, Fig. 91, on which it was placed, and on the addition
+of the white cross or saltire of St. Andrew on its field of blue, Fig. 92,
+it fitted in very happily. When, however, another X-like cross had to be
+provided for, on the admission of Ireland to the Union, a difficulty at
+once arose. As the Irish Cross would, according to all rule and fairness,
+be of the same width on the joint flag as that of St. Andrew, the result of
+placing the second or red X over the first white one would be to entirely
+obliterate the latter. Even then the Irish Cross would not be rightly
+rendered, as it should be on a white ground, and by this method it would be
+on a blue one, while if we placed the Irish Cross on that of St. Andrew,
+but left a thin line of white on either side, St. Andrew's Cross would
+still be obliterated, as the thin fimbriation of white would be the just
+due of St. Patrick, and would not stand for St. Andrew at all. Besides,
+Scottish indignation would not unjustly be aroused at the idea that their
+noble white cross should become a mere edging to the symbol of St. Patrick.
+Hence the somewhat awkward-looking compromise that breaks the continuity of
+direction of the arms of the red cross of Ireland by its portions being
+thrown out of the centre of the white oblique bands, so that in each
+portion the crosses of Ireland and Scotland are clearly distinguished from
+each other. This compromise notwithstanding, no more effective or beautiful
+flag unfolds itself the round world over than the Union flag of Great
+Britain and Ireland.
+
+The crosses might have been quartered as we see them in Fig. 80, but it is
+clearly better to preserve the idea of the unity and blend all three
+crosses into one composition. No criticism or objection has ever come from
+Ireland as to the Union flag, but even so lately as 1853 the Scotch renewed
+their grievance against the Cross of St. Andrew being placed behind that of
+St. George, "and having a red stripe run through the arms thereof, for
+which there is no precedent in law or heraldry." If ever an Irishman cared
+to hunt up a grievance, surely here is one at last--the cross of his patron
+saint "a red stripe"! {54}
+
+When the Union flag is flown, it should always be as we have drawn it in
+Fig. 90, with the broad white stripe nearest to the head of the flagstaff.
+It would be quite possible, our readers will see, on a little study of the
+matter, to turn it with the red stripe uppermost; but this, as we have
+indicated, is incorrect; and, trivial as the matter may appear, there is a
+right and a wrong in it, and the point must not be overlooked.
+
+Many suggestions at the time of the Union were made by divers writers in
+the public prints, such as the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and the like. One
+version preserved the flag of the first Union, Fig. 73, but placed in the
+centre a large green circle having within it the golden harp of the Emerald
+Isle; but this is objectionable, as it brings green on red, which is
+heraldically false, and as Ireland has a cross as well as England and
+Scotland, it seems more reasonable to keep the whole arrangement in
+harmony. Another version, and by no means a bad one, is shown in Fig. 89,
+where each cross is distinct from the two others. This appeared in the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ for March 20th, 1803, and, like all the other
+suggestions, good, bad, and indifferent, suffered from the fatal objection
+that it saw the light when the whole matter was already settled and any
+alteration scarcely possible.
+
+In view of the changes from the simple Cross of St. George to its union
+later on with that of St. Andrew, and later on still the union of both with
+that of St. Patrick, it is sufficiently evident that Campbell's stirring
+appeal to the mariners of England to defend the flag that for a thousand
+years has braved the battle and the breeze, however excellent in spirit,
+does not fit in with the literal facts, though we would not willingly
+change it for such a version as
+
+  Ye mariners of England,
+    That guard our native seas:
+  Whose flag has braved since eighteen-one,
+    The battle and the breeze.
+
+The "Queen's Regulations" are very precise as to the hoisting of the flag
+at the various home and foreign stations and fortresses. Some few of these
+have the Royal Standard for use on Royal Anniversaries and State occasions
+only, and these flags are issued in two sizes--either twenty-four by twelve
+feet, or twelve by six feet--according to the importance of the position;
+thus Dover, Plymouth, and the Tower of London, for example, have the larger
+size. In like manner the Union Flag is of two sizes: twelve by six feet, or
+six by three feet. These flags at the various stations are either hoisted
+on anniversaries only, or on Sundays in addition, or else daily; thus
+Dover, besides its Standard, has a Union flag, twelve by six, for special
+occasions, and another, six by three, {55} which is hoisted daily. Our
+foreign stations, Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Cyprus, Gibraltar, Hong Kong,
+Halifax, St. Helena, and so forth, are all equally rigidly provided for in
+Regulations. There is no option anywhere in the matter. A particular
+fortress has to fly a particular flag of a particular size on a particular
+day.
+
+The white ensign, Fig. 95, is the distinguishing flag of the Royal Navy. It
+is hoisted at the peak of all vessels in commission, or in such other
+conspicuous position of honour as their rig or (as in the case of some
+ironclads) absence of rig will permit. It is a large white flag, having
+upon it the Cross of St. George, the portion of the flag nearest the
+mast-head being occupied by the Union.[41]
+
+Until 1864 the Royal Navy was divided into the white, the blue, and the red
+squadrons, distinguished by the flags shown in Figs. 95, 96, and 97, but
+this arrangement, though it had lasted for over two hundred years,[42] was
+found to have many inconveniences. It was very puzzling to foreigners, and
+it was necessary that each vessel should have three sets of colours, so as
+to be able to hoist the orthodox flag for the squadron in which, for the
+time being, it might be placed. It was also a difficulty that peaceful
+merchantmen were carrying a red ensign, Fig. 97, exactly similar to the war
+flag of the vessels of the red squadron. It was inconvenient in action,
+too; hence, Nelson at Trafalgar ordered the whole of his fleet to hoist the
+white ensign. An Order of Council, dated October 18th, 1864, put an end to
+this use of differing flags, declaring that henceforth the white ensign
+alone should be the flag of the Royal Navy. In the old days the red was the
+highest, the white the intermediate, and the blue the third in rank and
+dignity.
+
+Her Majesty's ships, when at anchor in home ports and roads, hoist their
+colours at 8 o'clock in the morning from March 25th to September 20th, and
+the rest of the year an hour later; and on foreign stations, at either of
+these hours as the commanding officer shall direct; and either abroad or at
+home they remain flying throughout the day until sunset.[43] When at sea,
+on passing, meeting, {56} joining or parting from any other of Her
+Majesty's ships or on falling in with any other ship the flag is hoisted,
+and also when in sight of land, and especially when passing any fort,
+battery, lighthouse, or town.
+
+When salutes are fired on the occasion of a foreign national festival, such
+as the birthday of the sovereign, the flag of the nation in question is
+hoisted at the main during the salute and for such further time as the war
+ships of such nation are be-flagged, but if none are present, then their
+flag remains up till sunset. Should a British war vessel arrive at any
+foreign fortified port, the flag of the foreign nation is hoisted at the
+main during the exchange of salutes.
+
+It is a rank offence for any vessel to fly any ensign or pendant similar to
+those used in the Royal Navy. It will at once be boarded by any officer of
+Her Majesty's Service, the offending colours seized, and the vessel
+reported. The penalty for the offence is a very heavy one.
+
+The admiral has as a flag the white flag with the Cross of St. George
+thereon, Fig. 91, and this must be displayed at the main top-gallant
+mast-head, since both the vice and rear-admirals are entitled to fly a
+similar flag, but the former of these displays his from the fore, and the
+latter from the mizen top-gallant mast-head; it being not the flag alone
+but the position of it that is distinctive of rank. The commodore's broad
+pendant is a very similar flag, but it tapers slightly, and is
+swallow-tailed.
+
+The "Naval Discipline Act," better known as "The Articles of War,"
+commences with the true and noble words--"It is on the Navy, under the Good
+Providence of God, that our Wealth, Prosperity, and Peace depend," and we
+may trust that the glorious traditions of this great service may be
+maintained to the full as effectually under the White Ensign as in any
+former period for the defence of
+
+ "This royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle,
+  This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
+  This other Eden, demi-paradise;
+  This fortress built by nature for herself,
+  Against infection, and the hand of war;
+  This happy breed of men, this little world;
+  This precious stone set in the silver sea,
+  Which serves it in the office of a wall,
+  Or as a moat defensive to a house,
+  Against the envy of less happier lands;
+  This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England."
+
+The blue ensign, Fig. 96, is the flag of the Royal Naval Reserve, and may
+be flown by any merchant vessels that comply with the {57} Admiralty
+conditions respecting that service. Such vessels must be commanded by
+officers of the Reserve, and at least one-third of their crew must belong
+to it: they then, the structural conditions being satisfactory, receive a
+Government subvention and an Admiralty Warrant to fly the blue ensign.
+Officers commanding Her Majesty's ships, meeting with ships carrying the
+blue ensign, are authorised to go on board them at any convenient
+opportunity and see that these conditions are strictly carried out,
+provided that they are of superior rank to the officers of the Royal Naval
+Reserve. The men of the Reserve receive an annual retainer and drill pay.
+The number of men in the Reserve, at the time we write these lines, is
+10,600 in the first class and 10,800 in the second. The first class Reserve
+is composed of the men on the long voyage ships, the second being the
+fishermen and coasting crews. In addition to this there are some 3,000
+engineers and stokers, and some 1,500 or so of officers, all equally
+prepared to rally to the pennant and to take their place in the national
+defence.
+
+This utilisation of the faster vessels of the Mercantile Marine as cruisers
+in war time has seriously engaged the attention of the Admiralty. The
+Government gives an annual subsidy, and then claims the right to the vessel
+at a fixed charge in case of emergency. Such vessels would be of immense
+service in time of war in many ways: for scouting, for transporting troops,
+and for engaging such of the enemy as she felt fairly a match for. When,
+some few years ago, it seemed as though war with Russia was imminent, the
+_Massilia_ and the _Rosetta_ of the Peninsula and Oriental Company's fleet
+were put in commission by telegraph at Sydney and Hong Kong respectively.
+These vessels were provided at once with warlike stores, and were at gun
+practice off the ports referred to a few hours after the receipt of
+instructions, and ready to go anywhere. This Company, during the Crimean
+War, carried over sixty thousand men to the scene of operations, and during
+the Indian Mutiny, the war in the Soudan, and all other possible occasions,
+has rendered the greatest aid to the State. The _Teutonic_ and the
+_Majestic_, of the White Star Line, each carry twelve Armstrong guns, and
+could either of them land two thousand infantry at Halifax in five days, or
+at Bombay in fourteen days, or at Hong Kong in twenty-one; and many other
+armed cruisers of the Mercantile Marine, that we need not stay to
+particularise, could do as much, and as effectively, flying the Blue Ensign
+as worthily as those we have named.
+
+ "Little England! Great in story!
+    Mother of immortal men!
+  Great in courage! Great in glory!
+    Dear to Freedom's tongue and pen!
+  {58}
+  If the world combine to brave thee,
+    English hearts will dare the fight,
+  English hands will glow to save thee,
+    Strong for England and the right!"[44]
+
+The Red Ensign, represented in Fig. 97, is the special flag of the ordinary
+merchantman. "The Red Ensign"--lays down the "Merchant Shipping (Colours)
+Act"--"usually worn by merchant ships, without any defacement or
+modification whatsoever, is hereby declared to be the proper national
+colour of all ships and boats belonging to any subject of Her Majesty,
+except in the case of Her Majesty's ships or boats, or in the case of any
+other ship or boat for the time being allowed to wear any other national
+colours, in pursuant of a Warrant from Her Majesty or from the Admiralty."
+
+This Act goes on to say that any ship belonging to any subject of the Queen
+shall, on a signal being made to her by one of Her Majesty's ships, or on
+entering or leaving any foreign port, hoist the red ensign, and if of fifty
+tons gross tonnage or upwards, on entering or leaving any British port
+also, or incur a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds. A merchantman
+may also fly the Union Jack from the bowsprit, but if so the flag, as in
+Fig. 104, must have a broad white border.
+
+The earliest form of red ensign is seen in Fig. 66. In a picture at Hampton
+Court, representing the embarkation of William of Orange for England, in
+the year 1688, his ship is shown as wearing two flags, one a red one with
+St. George's Cross in the canton, as in Fig. 66, while the other, also red,
+has the Union Flag in the canton. We get, therefore, a regular sequence of
+red ensigns: that with St. George's Cross alone in the corner next the
+masthead; that with the Union of St. George and St. Andrew--this picture at
+Hampton Court being the earliest example known of its use; and, thirdly,
+that of to-day with the crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick.
+
+Some little degree of flag-lore is valuable not only to the soldier, the
+seaman, or the traveller, but to everyone. For want of this knowledge,
+ludicrous and serious mistakes are often made. Discussing these matters
+with a man of good general knowledge, we found that he had a notion that
+there were two kinds of "Union Jack," one, that had most red in it, being
+the Army flag; while the other, in which blue preponderated, was the flag
+of the Navy! Outside a large provincial theatre we saw a conspicuous notice
+indicating that the piece then running was entitled "The Old Flag." To
+emphasise this was a picture of a square of British linesmen surrounded by
+{59} Zulus, while in the centre of the square rose the Royal Standard! As a
+set-off to this we saw, not far off, a public house called the "Royal
+Standard," flying from its roof the white Ensign! A friend of ours brought
+home for his son a really capital toy model of an ironclad, with turrets,
+ram, fighting tops, etc., and yet flying the red ensign of the harmless
+merchantman!
+
+At a church we occasionally pass, the living being in the gift of the
+Queen, the Royal Standard is hoisted on such Church festivals as Christmas
+Day, while at other times, for no apparent reason, the white Ensign is
+substituted--the special flag of the War Navy. Anyone venturing to point
+out to the authorities thereof that, as the old church could scarcely take
+up its position as a unit in our fighting fleet--having, in fact, quite
+another mission in the world--the special flag of the Royal Navy was not
+the most appropriate, would probably derive from the interview the
+impression that, after all, to the churchwardens a flag was a flag, and
+that it was quite possible to make a mountain out of a molehill.
+
+To one who knows anything about it, the eruption of silk bunting, and baser
+fabrics innumerable that comes to the fore on any occasion of national
+rejoicing, is a thing of horror, not merely in the festal disfigurements of
+the patchwork counterpane or cotton pockethandkerchief type, seeing that to
+some people any coloured piece of stuff that will blow out in the wind is a
+valid decoration, but in the painful ignorance shown in the treatment of
+recognised ensigns. Some little time ago, for instance, we found ourselves
+in a town gaily beflagged and radiant in bunting on the occasion of a great
+popular rejoicing. The Royal Standard, betokening the presence in the house
+of some member of the Royal Family, was flying with a profusion that made
+it impossible to believe that all the people displaying it could be
+entertaining such distinguished guests. As a set-off, others were decking
+their houses with red flags, the symbols of revolution and bloodshed, or
+with yellow ones, leaving us to infer that such houses were to be avoided
+as nests of yellow fever or such-like deadly infection. The Stars and
+Stripes of the United States were, in almost every case, upside down, as
+indeed were many others; a thing that, except for the ignorance that was
+its excuse, might be considered as an insult to the various Foreign Powers,
+while the repeated reversal of the red ensign implied a signal of distress.
+The good folks really meant no harm to anybody, and they were quite happy
+to believe, as they strolled in their thousands up the leading streets of
+the town, that their decorations were a great success. At the same time, a
+little more knowledge would have done them no harm. As it is an insult to
+hoist one national flag below another, it is a rigid law that in all
+official decorations national flags may not be so placed, but {60}
+enthusiastic and irresponsible burgesses, in the depth of their ignorance,
+ignore all such considerations of international courtesy, and in the length
+of a short street commit sufficient indiscretion to give umbrage to all
+mankind. It may be said that
+
+ "Happiness too swiftly flies,
+  Thought would destroy their Paradise"--
+
+that "he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow," that
+
+ "From ignorance our comfort flows,
+  The only wretched are the wise"--
+
+but despite all this philosophy, that "where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly
+to be wise," no one is the worse for knowing something about the matter
+with which he is dealing; and if proverbial philosophy is to count for
+anything in the matter, a not inappropriate moral may be quoted as to the
+rushing in of fools where their betters feel a judicious modesty. The
+confidence of knowledge is better than the confidence of ignorance, and
+would certainly, in street flagging, produce a more satisfactory result.
+
+We have in Plate VI. some few examples of these vagaries from sketches that
+we made at the time. Fig. 45, if it had not got the Union in the canton,
+would nearly be the Danish flag, Fig. 225, but the addition of the canton
+makes it sheer foolishness. Fig. 46 is a good example of the notion that
+anything will do if it be only bright enough: it is a mere piece of
+patchwork, not by any means the only one in evidence. Figs. 47 and 50
+explain themselves; it is evident that in one case the decorator started
+with a white ensign and in the other with a blue one, and then, feeling
+that they were a little small and insignificant looking, tacked on a goodly
+amount of red material to bring them up to their notion of what would be
+sufficiently conspicuous in size. Fig. 48 is very quaint: there is a notion
+of the white ensign hovering about it, but the Royal Standard employed as a
+canton in one quarter is outside all the proprieties, and in any case all
+the arm of the cross that one would expect to see below the canton is
+absorbed by it. The addition of the two red tails to the Royal Standard in
+Fig. 49 is not by any means legitimate, while in Fig. 51 the Royal Standard
+is made the canton of a red ensign, and, as if this were not bad enough in
+itself, the whole thing is flown upside down. Many of the so-called flags
+had no semblance to anything, some were strange and abnormal tricolors;
+others, chequers: one, we remember, was deep crimson, with a broad
+bordering round three of its edges of light blue. Whatever opportunity of
+going wrong seemed to be at all feasible appeared to be eagerly seized by
+some well-meaning burgess, so that the result was a perfect museum of
+examples of how not to do it, and therefore of immense interest.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{61}
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+    Army Flags--the Queen's Colour--the Regimental Colour--the Honours and
+    Devices--the Flag of the 24th Regiment--Facings--Flag of the King's Own
+    Borderers--What the Flag Symbolises--Colours of the Guards--the Assaye
+    Flag--Cavalry Flags--Presentation of Colours--Chelsea College
+    Chapel--Flags of the Buffs in Canterbury Cathedral--Flags of the
+    Scottish Regiments in St. Giles's Cathedral--Burning of Rebel Flags by
+    the Hangman--Special Flags for various Official Personages--Special
+    Flags for different Government Departments--The Lord High Admiral--The
+    Mail Flag--White Ensign of the Royal Yacht Squadron--Yacht Ensigns and
+    Burgees--House or Company Flags--How to express Colours with Lines--the
+    Allan Tricolor--Port Flags--the British Empire--the Colonial Blue
+    Ensign and Pendant--the Colonial Defence Act--Colonial Mercantile
+    Flag--Admiralty Warrant--Flag of the Governor of a Colony--the Green
+    Garland--the Arms of the Dominion of Canada--Badges of the various
+    Colonies--Daniel Webster on the Might of England--Bacon on the Command
+    of the Ocean.
+
+Having now dealt with the Union Flag and the Red and Blue Ensigns, we
+proceed to see how these are modified by the addition of various devices
+upon them.
+
+The flags of the army claim the first place in our regard. Each infantry
+regiment has two "colours," one being called the "Queen's Colour," and the
+other the "Regimental Colour." On turning to Barret's "Theorike and
+Practike of Modern Warres," a book published in the year 1598, we find the
+following passage:--"We Englishmen do call them of late colours, by reason
+of the variety of colours they be made of, whereby they be the better noted
+and known." This we may doubtless accept as a sufficient explanation of the
+word, and the passage is interesting, too, as approximately fixing a date
+for the introduction of the term, and showing that it has been in use for
+at least three hundred years.
+
+The Queen's Colour in every regiment of the line is the flag of the Union,
+Fig. 90, bearing in its centre the Imperial crown and the number of the
+regiment beneath it in Roman figures worked in gold, and its territorial
+designation.
+
+The regimental Colour is of the colour of the facings of the regiment,
+except when these are white, in which case the body of the flag is not
+plain white all over, but bears upon it the Cross of St. George. Whatever
+the colour, it bears in its upper corner the Union, and in the centre of
+the flag the crown and title of {62} the regiment, and around it whatever
+devices, or badges, or other distinctions have been specially conferred
+upon it, together with the names of the actions in which the regiment has
+taken part, the records of its gallant service in many a hard-fought
+struggle in the Peninsula, on the sultry plains of India, beneath the
+burning sun of Africa, or wherever else the call of honour and of duty has
+added to its laurels. Thus the regimental flag of the 1st regiment of the
+line bears the proud record--St. Lucia, Egmont-op-Zee, Egypt, Corunna,
+Busaco, Salamanca, Vittoria, St. Sebastian, Nive, Peninsula, Niagara,
+Waterloo, Nagpore, Maheidpore, Ava, Alma, Inkermann, Sebastopol, and
+several other records of struggles in which they bore gallant share; and
+many another regiment could show as fine a record of service.
+
+In Fig. 94 we have a representation of the regimental colour of the 24th
+Regiment. As the facings of this distinguished corps are green,[45] the
+body of the flag is of that colour. Beneath its territorial designation
+will be seen its special badge, the Sphinx, bestowed upon it for
+distinguished service in Egypt, and around are grouped the names of famous
+victories which it contributed to win.
+
+The 24th Regiment, now in the territorial arrangement in vogue known as the
+2nd Warwickshire, was first formed in the year 1689. In 1776 it embarked
+for Canada and greatly distinguished itself in the American struggle. In
+1801 we find it in Egypt, where by its gallantry it won the right to bear
+the Sphinx.[46] From 1805 to 1810 it was fighting its way along at the Cape
+of Good Hope, and then went on to India. In 1829 we find it sent off to
+Canada again to suppress rebellion, and it did not return to England till
+1841. In 1846 we see it in the thick of the Punjaub struggle, taking its
+part right well in the brilliant engagements of Chillianwallah and
+Goojerat, and in 1857 it is in the thick of the sanguinary Mutiny in India;
+and, after fifteen years in India, lands in 1861 in England once more. In
+1874 we find it again at the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1877-78 engaged in
+the Kaffir war, and in all times and in all places taking a gallant share
+in upholding the national cause.
+
+In 1804 a second battalion was added to the regiment. This only existed ten
+years, but in that time it earned by its distinguished {63} bravery the
+names of the Peninsula battles for the flag,[47] and at the conclusion of
+the struggle it was so weak in numbers that it was disembodied. In 1858 a
+new second battalion was formed, and did good service in Burmah, South
+Africa, etc. Both battalions were in Zululand in 1879, and with the
+exception of one hundred men detailed for special duty, the regiment, save
+nine men, was wiped out of existence in the fatal field of Isandhlwana.
+Lieutenants Melville and Coghill tore the colours from their staffs and
+wrapped them around their bodies, and after the fight was over and the
+enemy had retired they were recovered. On the arrival of the colours in
+England they were taken by Royal Command to Osborne, where the Queen
+fastened to each a wreath of immortelles, and bestowed on the two dead
+heroes the Victoria Cross as the highest acknowledgment then possible to
+her of her deep appreciation of the sacrifice that these young gallant
+officers had made for her, for England, and for the honour of the flag. The
+colours, therefore, that we have represented in Fig. 94, in all their broad
+blazon of gallant service, even in the hour of defeat never fell into the
+hands of the enemy, to be hung in triumph in some Zulu kraal, but were
+brought back in honour and proud rejoicing, since defeat so valiantly met
+was no disgrace, and the honour of the flag and of the gallant 24th was
+without stain.
+
+As one more illustration of regimental colours we may instance those of the
+25th Regiment, the King's Own Borderers. Here the groundwork of the flag is
+blue, with, of course, the Union in the upper corner next the staff. In the
+centre of the flag is a representation of Edinburgh Castle, and within a
+band the words, "King's Own Borderers." Outside this we have a wreath of
+rose, shamrock, and thistle, surmounted by the crown. Below this is a
+sphinx for service in Egypt, and below this again the word "Martinique." On
+either side is inscribed "Minden" and "Egmont op Zee," and above all,
+"Afghanistan." In the upper outer angle of the flag is the lion on the
+crown and the motto "_In veritate religionis confido_," and in the lower
+outer angle the white horse of Hanover and the motto "_Nec aspera
+terrent_."[48] This was originally known as the Edinburgh Regiment, as it
+was raised in four hours in 1689 to defend that city; but George III., for
+some reason more or less {64} satisfactory to himself, changed the name to
+the one it has ever since borne--the King's Own Borderers.
+
+In the year 1811 the Prince Regent, on behalf of the King, issued an order
+to regulate the colours of the Army, and, amongst other things, sanctioned
+the custom that had sprung up of inscribing the names of victories on the
+flags. The custom of inscribing these honours, the names of the actions
+fought, did not begin till the battle of Minden, so that the victories of
+Marlborough and all other glorious achievements prior to the year 1759
+would have gone unrecorded; but in July, 1881, sanction was given for the
+Grenadiers and the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 10th, 15th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 23rd, 24th,
+26th, and 27th Regiments of the Line to add Blenheim and Ramilies to their
+colours. Oudenarde, Malplaquet, and Dettingen[49] were also added to the
+colours of those regiments that were there engaged.
+
+By the "Queen's Regulations" these colours are required to be of silk, and
+to be three feet nine inches in length and three feet in breadth; the cords
+and tassels are to be of mixed crimson and gold; the staff is to be eight
+feet seven inches long, and surmounted by a golden crown on which stands a
+lion. They are to be carried on parade by the two junior lieutenants, and
+guarded by two sergeants and two privates. These form what is called "the
+colour party." The distinguishing badge of the colour-sergeant consists of
+crossed colours, embroidered on the sleeve above the chevrons of his rank.
+
+It has taken something like a thousand years of time to build up the
+British Empire, while the lavish outlay of toil and forethought of
+statesmen, the ceaseless spending of blood and treasure, the brilliant
+strategy by land and sea of a long line of distinguished commanders have
+all contributed to its birth and proud maintenance; and of all this
+devotion in the past and the determination to uphold it in the future, the
+flag is the living concrete symbol. It is the flag beneath whose folds
+Nelson and Wellington and countless heroes more were carried to their rest;
+it waved in triumph on the Heights of Abraham, and its honour was safe with
+Elliot at Gibraltar; it was unfurled on many a battlefield in the
+Peninsula, and nerved the arms of those who scaled the heights of the Alma
+and stood unconquerable in the stubborn fight of Inkerman; and it waved
+triumphant in the breeze at Sebastopol. The sight of it was strength,
+comfort, and hope in the dark days of Lucknow and Cawnpore. It floated, a
+symbol of duty, over the heroes of the burning _Birkenhead_, and to Ross,
+Parry, Franklin and McClure, in the icy wastes of the far North it was an
+incentive to renewed {65} effort and a symbol of home. It was the flag of
+Speke and Livingstone in savage Africa, of Burke and Wills in their
+explorations in Australia; and for the honour of England that it symbolises
+men have thought no sacrifice too great.
+
+The Queen's Colour is a pledge of loyalty to the Sovereign, an emblem of
+the unity of all, while the second colour deals with the honour that
+specially appertains to each regiment--a subject of legitimate pride in the
+past and an incentive to prove not unworthy in the future of those who
+gained it such distinction.
+
+For some recondite reason the Guards reverse the arrangement that holds in
+the Line regiments, as with them the Queen's Colour is crimson and bears
+the regimental devices and honours, while the Union Flag is the Regimental
+Colour. William IV., in 1832, gave the Grenadier Guards a special flag of
+crimson silk, bearing in its centre the royal cypher W.R., interlaced in
+gold, and having grouped together in the four corners the rose, thistle,
+and shamrock.
+
+The Governor-General in India issued in the year 1803 a general order that
+all the regiments engaged in Wellington's greatest Indian
+victory--Assaye--should be entitled to the special distinction of a third
+flag, and the Royal authority confirmed the honour. This flag, borne by the
+74th Highlanders, the 78th or Ross-shire Buffs, and other distinguished
+regiments, was of white silk, having in its centre an elephant, beneath
+this the regimental number, and around it a wreath. On blue bands above and
+below were inscribed in gold the words Assaye and Seringapatam. In the year
+1830 the general use on parade of these flags was discontinued by order,
+and they were reserved for very special occasions.
+
+The number of colours borne by the different regiments was formerly very
+irregular: sometimes it was one to a company, sometimes only one to a whole
+regiment, now it is two to each battalion. During the eighteenth century
+several regiments carried three colours, and the 5th, or Northumberland
+Fusiliers, continued to do so until 1833. By an unfortunate accident these
+were then all burnt, and when the question of granting new colours came
+forward, the right to carry the third was objected to, and the claim had to
+be surrendered. King Charles's Royal Regiment of Foot Guards lost eleven
+out of thirteen colours at Edgehill.
+
+The Standards carried by the Life Guards, Horse Guards, and Dragoon Guards
+are of crimson silk, thirty inches by twenty-seven; and the guidons of the
+dragoon regiments are forty-one inches by twenty-seven, are slit in the fly
+and have the outer corners rounded off. The tassels and cords are of
+crimson silk and gold, and each flag bears the Royal or other title of the
+regiment in letters of gold in a circle, and beneath it the number of the
+regiment, all being surmounted by the crown, surrounded by a {66} wreath of
+rose, shamrock, and thistle, and the honours. Where a regiment has a
+particular badge, such device will be placed in the centre, and the
+territorial and numerical position placed outside; thus the Scots Greys
+(the 2nd Royal Dragoons) bear as their badge the Imperial Eagle of France,
+because at Waterloo this distinguished regiment captured the eagle of the
+French 45th Regiment, on which were inscribed the words Jena, Austerlitz,
+Wagram, Eylau, and Friedland.[50] The 3rd Dragoons have as their badge the
+white horse of Hanover, and, as record of good service, Salamanca,
+Vittoria, Toulouse, Peninsula, Cabool, Moodkee, Sobraon, Ferozeshah,
+Punjaub, Chillianwallah, Goojerat. The Lancers and Hussars, like the Royal
+Engineers, the Royal Artillery, and the Rifle Brigade, have no colours, and
+therefore bear their badges, devices, etc., on their appointments. Thus,
+for instance, King George II. ordered the 17th Light Dragoons (now the 17th
+Lancers) to wear the device of the skull and cross-bones, and beneath it
+the words "or glory" on the front of their caps and on the left breast.
+This device the "Death or Glory Boys" still retain, like the famous
+Pomeranian Horse and the Black Brunswickers, continental corps from whom
+the Anglo-Hanoverian monarch doubtless derived the idea.[51]
+
+The presentation of colours to a regiment is always an imposing ceremony,
+as with prayer of consecration, martial music, and stirring address they
+are delivered into its custody, but the bestowal of the old colours in some
+honoured place of safe keeping is yet more impressive. In the one case
+there are the hopes and dangers of the future, while in the other the hopes
+have all been abundantly realised, the dangers triumphantly passed, as the
+tattered colours--storm tossed, torn by shot and shell--are borne in honour
+to their last resting place, where, strife for ever over, they rest in
+peace in the Sanctuary of God, a memorial to all men, until their last
+shreds fall to decay, of duty nobly and fully done.
+
+Visitors to Canterbury Cathedral will scarcely fail to have noticed the
+flags therein suspended. The colours of the 1st Battalion of the Buffs (the
+East Kent Regiment) there find fitting resting place, and the last of these
+were added so lately as October, 1892.[52] On their entrance, with imposing
+military ceremony, into the {67} Cathedral, they were met by the clergy and
+choir, and a hymn of thanksgiving for victory and of safe return from war
+was sung, commencing--
+
+ "Grateful, we bring from lands afar,
+  Torn, shattered, but unstained,
+  Banners that Thy servant blessed
+  Ere the stern conflict came;
+  Lord, let their fragments ever rest
+  Where dwells Thy Holy name."
+
+After a short service of prayer and praise the Dean of Canterbury addressed
+the great congregation. It might be asked, he said, why they, who were the
+Ministers of the Prince of Peace, should take such interest in these
+military proceedings. It was because they recognised in them the greatest
+force for peace that there was in our land, for it was through them that
+this country of ours had not been trampled for centuries under the feet of
+any foreign foe, it was through them that the _Pax Britannica_ prevailed,
+and that everywhere where the British Flag was present it carried with it
+peace, and tranquillity, and justice. It was through the help of the army
+that the peaceful people of this country could carry on their avocations
+and serve God and do His work in peace; and therefore the clergy gratefully
+acknowledged their services, and hoped and prayed that everywhere the
+colours of each regiment might still be not only unstained, but covered
+with laurels in struggling for right and for justice.
+
+Colonel Hobson then addressed the vast audience, reminding the younger
+soldiers present that the regiment to which they had the honour to belong
+was formed more than three hundred years ago, and was, therefore, the
+oldest in the Army. It had won honour and renown in every part of the
+world, and the colours which they were that day appropriately laying to
+rest in the Warriors' Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral represented as
+glorious a record as that of any regiment in the British Army. The earliest
+existence of the regiment dated from the movement set on foot in this
+country in the latter half of the sixteenth century, to assist the cause of
+civil and religious liberty in the Netherlands. The dragon, which is on the
+colours, was the crest of the City of London, from whose Trained Bands the
+regiment was formed in 1572; and the regimental march, so familiar to them
+all, was given them by Queen Elizabeth. After enumerating some few of the
+services that the regiment had rendered, he concluded by saying:--"The few
+words I have still to say I want you young soldiers especially to listen to
+and to take to heart. The colours of a regiment are symbolical of what
+ought to be the watchword of an army--duty; the Queen's Colours--duty to
+{68} your Sovereign and to your country; the Regimental Colours--duty
+towards the regiment. In these days the material side of the profession of
+arms is much insisted upon, but I tell you that an army without something
+higher than that, however well cared for in other respects, is a bad army,
+and that when thoughtfulness and care for the good name of a regiment is
+sacrificed for selfish, individual advancement, the regiment, as a whole,
+will suffer. The spirit which animated the regiments of the British
+Army--who placed those names, of which we are so proud to-day, on those
+colours--was, duty first, self afterwards; and it will be a bad day for the
+British Army if that spirit is ever allowed to depart from it. There was no
+position in the army, however humble, in which men could not sustain the
+credit and honour of their regiment and thus contribute to their country's
+welfare."
+
+The Dean thereupon solemnly accepted the care of the colours and pronounced
+the Benediction, and the whole audience then joined heart and voice, with
+thrilling effect, in singing the National Anthem.
+
+It seems so natural to write of England and of Englishmen, so stilted to
+put Great Britain and Ireland, that one may possibly forget that,
+comprehensive as we intend the terms to be, we may, perhaps, wound the
+susceptibilities of our fellow subjects and brother Britons across the
+Tweed. Let us then turn to a companion picture, and see how, with equal
+honour and devotion, the flags of our gallant Highlanders are borne to
+their rest.
+
+A movement was, some time ago, set on foot to gather in the old flags from
+the various Scottish regiments and to place them all in the Cathedral
+Church of Edinburgh. This was effected, and the perspective effect of
+these, as they line the nave on either side, is very fine. The oldest
+colours there are those of the 82nd, the Duke of Hamilton's regiment,
+presented in the year 1782, and still in excellent preservation.
+
+When on November 14th, 1883, the old colours borne by the various Scottish
+regiments were deposited in St. Giles' Cathedral, they were escorted in all
+honour and military pomp from the Castle; and says one who was there: "When
+the colours came in sight, the multitude raised a shout and cheered, but
+the impulse was but momentary, for at sight of the array of shattered rags
+the noise of the tumult died away, and a half-suppressed sound was heard as
+through the hearts of the people there flashed a thrill of mingled pride
+and pain. Those who saw it will never forget the scene. In the centre the
+tattered silk of the Colours, and on the fringe and in the background a
+wonder-stricken crowd, as past uncovered heads, past dimmed eyes and
+quivering lips, the old flags were carried."
+
+When the flags had been received with service of prayer and {69} praise,
+the meaning of it all was summed up in burning words of love, devotion, and
+pride. "We have gathered to-day," said the speaker, "for a noble
+purpose--to receive with all honour into this national church these flags,
+which have been borne by our soldiers through many a hard fight and in many
+a distant land. 'In the name of the Lord,' said the inspired Psalmist long
+ago, 'we will set up our banners.' In the spirit in which he spoke, these
+banners were first unfurled; and in that great Name they were blessed by
+God's ministers ere they were committed to those who were to carry them, as
+a testimony that, as a nation, we believe in God, and desire that He should
+guide our destinies alike in war and in peace; and now, after the lapse of
+years, they are brought back to rest in God's house as a testimony to the
+same truth, that we acknowledge Him as the supreme source of all our
+national success and greatness. 'Thine, O Lord, is the greatness and the
+power, and the victory, and the majesty! Both riches and honour come of
+Thee, and in Thine hand it is to make great and to give strength unto all.'
+It is in this spirit that we place these emblems in Scotland's great
+historic church. The associations that gather around these faded banners
+are of the tenderest and most touching kind. They are such as cause the
+heart to swell and the tear to come to the eye. Few, I feel sure, in this
+vast assemblage have not felt in some degree their power. There are
+soldiers here whom they carry back to old days, and to comrades with whom
+they stood shoulder to shoulder in many a perilous hour. The old flag has
+for the British soldier a meaning so deep and powerful that it is
+impossible to put it into words. It is but a piece of silk, often faded and
+tattered, and rent with shot: but it is a symbol, and symbols are amongst
+the most sacred things on earth. It means for the soldier his Queen and his
+country, and all the honour, loyalty, truth, and heroism they demand of
+him. Therefore it is that men will follow their colours down into the
+dreadful pit, and would be willing to die twice for them rather than let
+them be taken by an enemy; and in the hour of defeat, like the heroes of
+Isandlwhana, will fall pierced through with wounds, but with these precious
+symbols, still untarnished, wrapped around them. And though to the peaceful
+citizen these emblems can never mean all they stand for to those who have
+served under them, even to him, as they hang here, they may speak of things
+that it is good for him to remember. They may well tell him of the history
+of his country, and the wonderful way by which God has led her, and of the
+brave men He has raised up to fight for her. Nor can we help specially
+remembering that these are the colours of our Scottish regiments. Scotland
+is a poor country compared to the great neighbour with whom it is happily
+united, but it possesses a distinct national life {70} of its own which all
+true Scotchmen would not willingly let die. We are proud of our Scotch
+regiments. We feel that they, of the whole army, belong especially to
+ourselves; and they too, as they have swept on to battle with the cry,
+'Scotland for ever!' feel, we believe, that they belong specially to us.
+Providence, said Napoleon sneeringly, is generally on the side of the
+strongest battalions. Be it so; but will anyone deny that the character of
+the soldier has much to do with the strength of the battalion they form?
+And was it not the character of our soldiers--a character fostered by the
+traditions of their native land, fostered still more, perhaps, by the
+religious teaching of their native church and parish school--that made them
+strong on many a memorable day, and never more than on that memorable day
+at Waterloo, when the great commander I have named generously exclaimed, as
+he saw his own ranks yielding before the onslaught, 'Les braves Ecossais!'
+May the sight of these banners inspire every soldier who looks on them,
+whether Lowland or Highland, to echo the desire to hand down the name they
+bear without a blemish! And should the day ever come when we as a people
+are tempted to succumb to sloth and luxury, first to undervalue, and
+finally to give up, national power and privileges which are an heritage
+from God, and have been dearly purchased by those who went before us--may
+these emblems, and the stirring memories that cling to them, help us in
+some degree to wake up the last drop of blood left in our hearts, and nerve
+us to bear ourselves like the children of our sires. 'We have heard with
+our ears, O God, and our fathers have told us, what Thou didst in their
+days in the times of old. For they got not the land in possession by their
+own sword, neither did their own arm save them, but Thy right hand and
+Thine arm, and the light of Thy countenance, because Thou hadst a favour
+unto them. Through Thee will we push down our enemies; through Thy name
+will we tread them under that rise up against us.'" This impressive and
+imposing ceremony closed with the magnificent "Hallelujah Chorus" of
+Handel, and the final Benediction.
+
+That colours do not always perish in honour may be seen by the following
+extract from the _Scots' Magazine_ of June, 1746, where the citizens of
+Edinburgh assisted at a very different function to the one we have just
+described. "Fourteen rebel colours," says the ancient newsman, "taken at
+Culloden, were brought into Edinburgh on the 31st May, and lodged in the
+castle. On Wednesday, the 4th of June, at noon, they were brought down to
+the Cross, the Pretender's own standard carried by the hangman, and the
+rest by chimney sweepers. The sheriffs, accompanied by the heralds,
+pursuivants, trumpeters, city constables, etc., and escorted by the city
+guard, walked to the Cross, where a proclamation was {71} made that the
+colours belonging to the rebels were ordered by the Duke of Cumberland to
+be burnt by the hands of the common hangman. The Pretender's standard was
+then put on a fire that had been prepared, and afterwards all the rest one
+by one--a herald always proclaiming to whom each belonged, the trumpets
+sounding, and the populace, of which there was a great number assembled,
+huzzaing."
+
+Various government officials have their special flags. The flag of the
+Union having been established by "Queen's Regulations" for the naval
+service, as the distinguishing flag to be borne by the admiral of the
+fleet, great inconvenience arose from the use of the same flag when
+military authorities, diplomatic and consular agents were embarking in
+boats or other vessels; so it became necessary to make some modification in
+the flag. It is therefore now ordered that a general or other officer
+commanding a military station shall have, in the centre of the Union, a
+blue shield bearing the Royal initials, surmounted by a crown and
+surrounded by a garland; those in the diplomatic service shall have, in the
+centre of the Union, a white shield bearing the Royal Arms, and surrounded
+by a garland; while consuls-general, consuls, or consular agents have the
+Blue Ensign as their distinguishing flag, and in the centre thereof the
+Royal Arms. The flag of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland is the Union, and in
+its centre, as we may see in Fig. 106, a blue shield bearing the golden
+harp.
+
+Different Government Departments have their special flags also. Thus the
+Transport Service has the blue ensign with a golden anchor, placed
+horizontally, in the fly, while the Victualling Department has the blue
+ensign again, but this time as shown in Fig. 98, with two crossed anchors.
+On the blue ensign of the Board of Trade is found in the fly a white
+circle, and within this a ship in full sail (see Fig. 105). The Ordnance
+Department flag, represented in Fig. 108, bears a shield with cannons and
+cannon balls upon it, while vessels and boats employed on submarine mining
+service are authorized to carry the blue ensign with--as its special
+badge--a hand issuing from a mural crown, and grasping a thunderbolt. The
+Telegraph branch of the Post-Office has a very striking device: a
+representation of Father Time with his hour glass smashed by lightning. The
+red ensign is employed by the Custom House and the Excise, in the first
+case having, as we see in Fig. 107, a golden crown in the fly, and, in the
+second, a crown and star. The flag of the Admiralty is a very striking one
+(Fig. 99). This association of the anchor with the Admiralty is a very
+natural one; we see it not only in our English flag, but in those of
+France, Italy, Germany, Russia, etc. Our Admiralty flag is hoisted on any
+ship when the Commissioners {72} of the Admiralty are on board,[53] and it
+is also hoisted at the fore top-gallant mast of every ship on which the
+Queen may be on board. Vessels carrying Her Majesty's mail fly on the
+fore-mast a white burgee, having in its centre a crown, and on one side of
+it the word "Royal" and on the other "Mail"; the words Royal Mail and the
+crown being in red on the white field of the flag.
+
+The White Ensign, Fig. 95, the special flag of Her Majesty's Navy, is, by
+very exceptional privilege, allowed to be flown by the Royal Yacht
+Squadron. This distinction was conferred on that Club in the year 1829, the
+Club itself being established in 1812.[54] In the old days, when the Royal
+Navy used the red, white, and blue ensigns, the red ensign was of the
+highest dignity; and it was this from 1821 to 1829 that the Royal Yacht
+Squadron flew, but, as the red ensign was also used by merchant vessels,
+they adopted in 1829 the white ensign as being more distinctive. In 1842
+the Admiralty drew up a Minute that no warrant should be issued to any
+other yacht club to fly the white ensign, and that those privileged Clubs
+that already had it must henceforth forego it. Copies of the minute were
+accordingly sent to the Royal Western of England, Royal Thames, Royal
+Southern, and some two or three other clubs, but, by some oversight, the
+Royal Western of Ireland was overlooked, and that Club continued to use the
+white ensign until the mistake was discovered by the Admiralty in the year
+1857. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron, which has always been under
+the special patronage of Royalty, has been alone in its use. Its value is
+purely sentimental; it carries no substantial privilege. A rather marked
+case arose, in fact, to the contrary in 1883, when Lord Annesley's yacht,
+the _Seabird_, was detained by the Turkish authorities at the Dardanelles
+in consequence of her bearing the white ensign. No foreign man-of-war is
+allowed to pass the Dardanelles without special permission; and the white
+{73} ensign of the Royal Navy brought her within that category. On account
+of this, all yacht owners were warned that should they wish to pass the
+Dardanelles under the white or blue ensign, the latter being also the flag
+of the Royal Naval Reserve, they must first obtain an Imperial Iradé,
+otherwise they were recommended to display the red ensign. Austria-Hungary,
+Spain, Denmark, Italy, Sweden, Norway, and France have each, in like
+manner, given to the leading club of the country the privilege of flying
+the naval flag. In America and Russia a special ensign has been accorded to
+all yacht clubs, and all take equal rank. Some years ago the Royal Cork
+Yacht Club wished to adopt a green ensign, but the Admiralty refused to
+sanction a new colour.
+
+The Blue Ensign is conferred on certain Yacht Clubs by special Admiralty
+warrant. The Royal Eastern, Royal Barrow, Royal Clyde, Royal Highland,
+Royal Northern, Royal Western of England, Royal Cinque Ports, Royal Albert,
+Royal Dorset, etc., fly the Blue Ensign pure and simple; others have a
+distinguishing badge on the fly, thus the Royal Irish has a golden harp and
+crown, the Royal Ulster a white shield with the red hand, the Royal
+Cornwall the Prince of Wales' Feathers, the Royal Harwich a golden rampant
+lion, and so forth. The clubs flying the Red Ensign change it slightly from
+that flown by the Merchant Service; thus the Royal St. George, Royal
+Victoria, and Royal Portsmouth have a golden crown in the centre of the
+Union canton, while the Royal Yorkshire has a white rose and gold crown on
+the fly, and the Royal Dart a golden dart and crown. Each club has also its
+distinguishing burgee, and ordinarily of the same colour as its ensign;
+thus, though the Royal Clyde and the Royal Highland both fly the plain blue
+ensign, the Royal Clyde burgee has on it the yellow shield and red lion
+rampant, while the Royal Highland has the white cross of St. Andrew. Fig.
+100 is the burgee of the Ranelagh Club, Fig. 101 of the Yare, Fig. 102 of
+the Royal Thames, Fig. 103 of the Dublin Bay Club.
+
+Besides these club ensigns and burgees, each yacht bears its owner's
+individual device, that is supposed to distinguish it from all others,
+though one finds, in looking through a series of such flags, that some of
+the simpler devices are borne by more than one yacht. Every yacht club has
+its special burgee, which is flown by each yacht in the club at her truck,
+but when the vessel is racing the individual flag takes its place. Many of
+these flags, though simple in character, are very effective and striking.
+The lower flags on Plate XII. are good typical examples. Fig. 121 is the
+yacht flag of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales--the flag of the
+well-known _Britannia_; and Figs. 122 and 123 are those respectively of the
+equally-famed _Ailsa_ and _Valkyrie_. {74}
+
+Merchant vessels are permitted to adopt any House or Company flag on
+condition that it does not resemble any national flag. Its great use is
+that it should be clearly distinctive; and many of the flags employed are
+of strict heraldic propriety, and very attractive, while others are about
+as unsatisfactory and bald as they well could be. It would clearly be a
+painful and invidious thing to pick out any of these latter, so we can only
+suggest that any of our readers who have an opportunity of visiting busy
+ports, such as London, Southampton, Bristol, Liverpool, should collect
+their own awful examples and paint them in the margin of this page.
+
+We may point out, by the way, that anyone sketching flags would be greatly
+assisted by knowing the symbols for the various colours, as it may well be
+that anyone might have only a pencil in his pocket when desiring to make
+such a memorandum. White is expressed by simply leaving the paper plain,
+yellow by dotting the surface over, red by a series of upright lines, blue
+by horizontal lines, green by sloping lines, and black by a series of
+upright lines crossed by others at right angles to them. These are the
+colours used in books on heraldry, and they are very easily remembered. On
+some of our coins the colours of the arms in the shield are thus expressed,
+and on heraldic book-plates and the like they may be also seen--wherever,
+in fact, colour has to be expressed or notified without the actual use of
+it. Our readers will find that if they will sketch out in black and white
+some few of our examples they will soon gain a useful facility that may
+stand them in good stead whenever for this or any other purpose they want
+to make a colour memorandum, and have only a pencil or pen and ink to make
+it with.
+
+In the upper portion of Plate XII. we have several illustrations of Company
+flags. Fig. 109 is the well-known ensign of Green's Blackwall Line, while
+Fig. 110 is that of the Cunard. The Peninsular and Oriental flag (Fig. 111)
+is divided by lines from corner to corner into four triangles, the upper
+one white, the lower yellow, the hoist blue, and the fly red. This division
+into triangles is a rather favourite one; we see it again in Fig. 112, the
+Flag of the Australasian Steam Navigation Company. In the flag of the
+Demerara and Berbice Steamship Company the upper and lower portions are
+white, and the two side portions red; in the flag of the vessels belonging
+to Galbraith, Pembroke and Co., the upper is red, the lower blue, and the
+two sides white. In another company, that of Wesencraft of Newcastle, the
+colours are the same as the P. and O. flag, though differently placed, the
+blue being at the top, the red at the bottom, the yellow at the hoist, and
+the white at the fly. Fig. 113 is the flag of the fleet of Devitt and
+Moore, an Australian Line. Fig. 114 betokens the vessels of the {75}
+Canadian Pacific Company, and Fig. 115 the ships of the Castle Line to
+South Africa. Fig. 116 is the Company flag of the Union Steamship Company,
+of Southampton, while Fig. 117 is the device of the Mediterranean and New
+York Steamship Company. Our remaining illustrations are; Fig. 118, the flag
+adopted by Messrs. Houlden Brothers; Fig. 119, that of the popular White
+Star Line; and Fig. 120, that of the New Zealand Shipping Company. The
+well-known Allan Line has as its house flag the three upright strips of
+blue, white, and red that we see in the French tricolor, Fig. 191, plus a
+plain red burgee that is always hoisted immediately above it. The Allan is
+the largest private ship-owning company in the world; in the course of the
+year there are some two hundred arrivals and departures of their vessels at
+or from Glasgow, and some fifty thousand people are carried annually to or
+from America. During the Crimean War many of the steamers of this line were
+chartered by the French Government for the transport of their troops, and
+it is in memory of this that the vessels of the Allan fleet adopt the
+tricolor as their house flag.
+
+That we have by no means exhausted this portion of our subject is patent
+from the fact that in a book before us that is specially devoted to these
+house flags seven hundred and eighty-two examples are given, wherein we
+find not only stripes, crosses, and such-like simple arrangements, but
+crescents, stars, anchors, lions, stags, thistles, castles, bells, keys,
+crowns, tridents, and many other forms.
+
+In earlier days merchant ships flew rather the flag of their port than of
+their nation, so that a vessel was known to be of Plymouth, Marseilles,
+Dantzic, or Bremen by the colours displayed. Thus the flag of Marseilles
+was blue with a white cross upon it; Texel, a flag divided horizontally
+into two equal strips, the upper being green and the lower black; Rotterdam
+was indicated by a flag having six horizontal green stripes upon it, the
+interspaces being white; Cherbourg, blue, white, blue, white, horizontally
+arranged; Riga, a yellow cross on a blue ground.
+
+The British Empire--the Greater Britain across the seas, some eighty times
+larger in area than the home islands of its birth--must now engage our
+attention. Its material greatness is amazing, far exceeding that of any
+other empire the world has ever seen, and its moral greatness is equal to
+its material. Wherever the flag of Britain flies, there is settled law,
+property is protected, religion is free; it is no mere symbol of violence
+or rapine, or even of conquest. It is what it is because it represents
+everywhere peace, and civilization, and commerce. Protected by the _Pax
+Britannica_ dwell four hundred millions out of every race under heaven, the
+{76} Mother of Nations extending to Jew, Parsee, Arab, Chinese, Blackfoot,
+Maori, the liberties that were won at Runnymead and in many another stern
+fight for life and freedom. In every school-room in the United States hangs
+the flag of their Union, the Stars and Stripes; and devotion to all that it
+symbolises is an essential part of the teaching. We in turn might well in
+our systems of education give a larger space to the history, laws, and
+literature of our great Empire, taking a more comprehensive view than is
+now ordinarily the case, studying the growth of the mighty States that have
+sprung into existence through British energy, and attaching at least as
+much importance to the lives of the men who have built up this goodly
+heritage as to the culinary shortcomings of Alfred or the schemes of Perkin
+Warbeck.
+
+As regards the value of our Colonies to the Empire, the following extract
+from a speech made by the Prince of Wales at the Royal Colonial Institute
+may very aptly be quoted:--
+
+"We regard the Colonies as integral parts of the Empire, and our warmest
+sympathies are with our brethren beyond the seas, who are no less dear to
+us than if they dwelt in Surrey or Kent. Mutual interests, as well as ties
+of affection, unite us as one people, and so long as we hold together we
+are unassailable from without. From a commercial point of view, the
+Colonies and India are among the best customers for home manufacturers, it
+being computed that no less than one-third of the total exports are
+absorbed by them. They offer happy and prosperous homes to thousands who
+are unable to gain a livelihood within the narrow limits of these islands,
+owing to the pressure of over-population and consequent over-competition.
+In transplanting themselves to our own Colonies, instead of to foreign
+lands, they retain their privileges as citizens of this great Empire, and
+live under the same flag as subjects of the same Sovereign. As Professor
+Seeley remarks in his very interesting work, 'The Expansion of England,'
+'Englishmen in all parts of the world remember that they are of one blood
+and one religion; that they have one history, and one language and
+literature.' We are, in fact, a vast English nation, and we should take
+great care not to allow the emigrants who have gone forth from among us to
+imagine that they have in the slightest degree ceased to belong to the same
+community as ourselves."
+
+Our statesmen and thinkers have never failed to recognise the brotherhood
+of Greater Britain. Of this fact it would be easy enough to reproduce
+illustrations by the score. We need, however, here but refer to the
+sentiments of the Earl of Rosebery on the expansion of the Empire, where we
+find him declaring-- {77}
+
+"Since 1868 the Empire has been growing by leaps and bounds. That is,
+perhaps, not a process which everybody witnesses with unmixed satisfaction.
+It is not always viewed with unmixed satisfaction in circles outside these
+islands. There are two schools who view with some apprehension the growth
+of our Empire. The first is composed of those nations who, coming somewhat
+late into the field, find that Great Britain has some of the best plots
+already marked out. To those nations I will say that they must remember
+that our Colonies were taken--to use a well-known expression--at prairie
+value, and that we have made them what they are. We may claim that whatever
+lands other nations may have touched and rejected, and we have cultivated
+and improved, are fairly parts of our Empire, which we may claim to possess
+by an indisputable title. But there is another ground on which the
+extension of our Empire is greatly attacked, and the attack comes from a
+quarter nearer home. It is said that our Empire is already large enough,
+and does not need extension. That would be true enough if the world were
+elastic, but, unfortunately, it is not elastic, and we are engaged at the
+present moment, in the language of mining, in 'pegging out claims for the
+future.' We have to consider not what we want now, but what we shall want
+in the future. We have to consider what countries must be developed, either
+by ourselves or some other nation, and we have to remember that it is part
+of our responsibility and heritage to take care that the world, as far as
+it can be moulded by us, shall receive an 'English-speaking' complexion,
+and not that of another nation. We have to look forward beyond the chatter
+of platforms, and the passions of party, to the future of the race of which
+we are at present the trustees, and we should, in my opinion, grossly fail
+in the task that has been laid upon us did we shrink from responsibilities,
+and decline to take our share in a partition of the world which we have not
+forced on, but which has been forced upon us."
+
+Statistics of area of square miles, population, and so forth, can be
+readily found by those who care to seek for them, and we need give them no
+place here; but let us at least try and realise just by bare enumeration
+something of what this Greater Britain is. In Europe it includes, besides
+the home islands, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus. In Asia--the great Indian
+Empire, Ceylon, Aden, Hong-Kong, North Borneo, the Straits Settlements,
+Perim, Socotra, Labuan. In America--the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland,
+Trinidad, Guiana, Honduras, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Bermudas, Barbadoes,
+Falkland Isles, the Leeward and Windward Isles. In Australasia--New South
+Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania, Queensland, New Zealand,
+Fiji, New Guinea. In Africa--the Cape Colony, Basutoland, Bechuanaland,
+Zululand, Natal, {78} Gold Coast, Lagos, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Mauritius,
+Seychelles, Ascension, St. Helena. Our list is by no means a complete one.
+
+Newfoundland was the earliest British colony, the settlement being made
+about the year 1500. Many of our colonies have been thus created by
+peaceful settlement, while others have fallen to us in victorious fights
+with France, Holland, Spain, and other Powers, or have been ceded by
+treaty.
+
+The flags of our colonies are those of the Empire, with, in some cases,
+special modifications. In all our colonies, for instance, the Royal
+Standard, as we see it in England, is displayed on the fortresses on the
+anniversaries of the birth and coronation of the Sovereign.
+
+The Blue Ensign is the flag borne by any vessel maintained by any colony
+under the clauses of the Colonial Defence Act, 28 Vic., Cap. 14. The
+"Queen's Regulations" state that "Any vessel provided and used, under the
+third section of the said Act, shall wear the Blue Ensign, with the seal or
+badge of the Colony in the fly thereof, and a blue pendant. All vessels
+belonging to, or permanently in the service of, the Colony, but not
+commissioned as vessels of war under the Act referred to, shall wear a
+similar blue ensign, but not the pendant." In Figs. 127, 128, 130, and 135
+we have the Government Ensigns of four of our great Colonies--Cape Colony,
+Queensland, Canada, and Victoria--while in Fig. 140 we have the blue
+pendant.
+
+This Colonial Defence Act of 1865 is so important in its bearings on the
+possibilities of Naval defence that it seems well to quote from it some of
+its provisions. Its object is to enable the several Colonial possessions of
+Her Majesty to make better provision for Naval defence, and, to that end,
+to provide and man vessels of war; and also to raise a volunteer force to
+form part of the Royal Naval Reserve, to be available for the general
+defence of the Colony in case of need. This Act declares that "in any
+Colony it shall be lawful for the proper Legislative Authority, with the
+Approval of Her Majesty in Council, from Time to Time to make Provision for
+effecting at the Expense of the Colony all or any of the Purposes
+following:
+
+    "For providing, maintaining, and using a Vessel or Vessels of War,
+    subject to such Conditions and for such Purposes as Her Majesty in
+    Council from Time to Time approves.
+
+    "For raising and maintaining Seamen and others entered on the Terms of
+    being bound to serve as ordered in any such Vessel. {79}
+
+    "For raising and maintaining a Body of Volunteers entered on the Terms
+    of being bound to general Service in the Royal Navy in Emergency, and,
+    if in any Case the proper Legislative Authority so directs, on the
+    further Terms of being bound to serve as ordered in any such Vessel as
+    aforesaid:
+
+    "For appointing Commissioned, Warrant, and other Officers to train and
+    command or serve as Officers with any such Men ashore or afloat, on
+    such Terms and subject to such Regulations as Her Majesty in Council
+    from Time to Time approves:
+
+    "For obtaining from the Admiralty the Services of Commissioned,
+    Warrant, and other Officers and of Men of the Royal Navy for the
+    last-mentioned Purposes:
+
+    "For enforcing good Order and Discipline among the Men and Officers
+    aforesaid while ashore or afloat within the Limits of the Colony:
+
+    "For making the Men and Officers aforesaid, while ashore or afloat
+    within the Limits of the Colony or elsewhere, subject to all Enactments
+    and Regulations for the Time being in force for the Discipline of the
+    Royal Navy.
+
+"Volunteers raised as aforesaid in any Colony shall form Part of the Royal
+Naval Reserve, in addition to the Volunteers who may be raised under the
+Act of 1859, but, except as in this Act expressly provided, shall be
+subject exclusively to the Provisions made as aforesaid by the proper
+Legislative Authority of the Colony.
+
+"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
+Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
+Admiralty to issue to any Officer of the Royal Navy volunteering for the
+Purpose a Special Commission for Service in accordance with the Provisions
+of this Act.
+
+"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
+Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
+Admiralty to accept any Offer for the Time being made or to be made by the
+Government of a Colony, to place at Her Majesty's Disposal any Vessel of
+War provided by that Government and the Men and Officers from Time to Time
+serving therein; and while any Vessel accepted by the Admiralty under such
+Authority is at the Disposal of Her Majesty, such Vessel shall be deemed to
+all Intents a Vessel of War of the Royal Navy, and {80} the Men and
+Officers from Time to Time serving in such Vessels shall be deemed to all
+Intents Men and Officers of the Royal Navy, and shall accordingly be
+subject to all Enactments and Regulations for the Time being in force for
+the Discipline of the Royal Navy.
+
+"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
+Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
+Admiralty to accept any Offer for the Time being made or to be made by the
+Government of a Colony, to place at Her Majesty's Disposal for general
+Service in the Royal Navy the whole or any Part of the Body of Volunteers
+with all or any of the Officers raised and appointed by that Government in
+accordance with the Provisions of this Act; and when any such Offer is
+accepted such of the Provisions of the Act of 1859 as relate to Men of the
+Royal Naval Reserve raised in the United Kingdom when in actual Service
+shall extend and apply to the Volunteers whose Services are so accepted."
+
+As the Act winds up by saying that "nothing in this Act shall take away or
+abridge any power vested in or exerciseable by the Legislature or
+Government of any Colony," it is evident that the whole arrangement is a
+purely voluntary one.
+
+The vessels of the Mercantile Marine registered as belonging to any of the
+Colonies, fly the red ensign without any distinguishing badge, so that a
+Victorian or Canadian merchantman coming up the Thames or Mersey would
+probably fly a flag in all respects similar (Fig. 97) to that of a merchant
+vessel owned in the United Kingdom. There is, however, no objection to
+colonial merchant vessels carrying distinctive flags with the badge of the
+Colony thereon, in addition to the red ensign, provided that the Lords
+Commissioners of the Admiralty give their warrant of authorization. The red
+ensign differenced may be seen in Fig. 129, the merchant flag of
+Canada,[55] and in Fig. 134 that of Victoria, the device on this latter
+bearing the five stars, representing the constellation of the Southern
+Cross--a simple, appropriate, and beautiful device. {81}
+
+"Governors of Her Majesty's Dominions in foreign parts, and governors of
+all ranks and denominations administering the governments of British
+Colonies and Dependencies shall"--as set forth in "Queen's
+Regulations"--"fly the Union Jack with the arms or badge of the Colony
+emblazoned in the centre thereof." Figs. 139 and 141 are illustrations, the
+first being the special flag of the Viceroy of India, and the second that
+of the Governor of Western Australia. The Governor-General of Canada has in
+the centre of his flag the arms of the Dominion, while the
+Lieutenant-Governors of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
+Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward's Island have in the centre
+of their flags the arms of their province alone. These arms in each case
+are placed on a shield within a white circle, and surrounded by a wreath.
+The Admiralty requirements are that the Colonial badge on the governor's
+flag should be placed within a "green garland," and this is understood to
+be of laurel; but in 1870 Canada received the Imperial sanction to
+substitute the leaves of the maple.[56]
+
+Though the provinces that together make the Dominion of Canada are seven in
+number, the Canadian shield only shows the arms of four--Ontario, Quebec,
+Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick--an arrangement that can be scarcely
+palatable to the other three.
+
+
+
+The Queen's Warrant, published in the _Canadian Gazette_ of November 25th,
+1869, is as follows:--
+
+"VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, &c.
+
+"To Our Right Trusty and well-beloved Councillor, Edward George Fitzalan
+Howard (commonly called Lord Edward George Fitzalan Howard), Deputy to Our
+Right Trusty and Right entirely beloved cousin, Henry Duke of Norfolk, Earl
+Marshal and Our Hereditary Marshal of England--greeting:--
+
+"WHEREAS, by virtue of, and under the authority of an Act of Parliament,
+passed in the Twenty-ninth year of Our Reign, entitled 'An Act for the
+Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the Government
+thereof," we were empowered to declare after a certain day therein
+appointed, that the said Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
+should {82} form one Dominion under the name of Canada. And it was provided
+that on and after the day so appointed, Canada should be divided into four
+Provinces, named, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; that the
+part of the then Province of Canada, which formerly constituted the
+Province of Upper Canada, should constitute the Province of Ontario; and
+the part which formerly constituted the Province of Lower Canada, should
+constitute the Province of Quebec; and that the Provinces of Nova Scotia
+and New Brunswick should have the same limits as at the passing of the said
+Act. And whereas we did by Our Royal Proclamation, bearing date the
+Twenty-second day of May last, declare, ordain, and command that, on and
+after the first day of July, 1867, the said Provinces should form and be
+one Dominion under the name of Canada accordingly.
+
+"And forasmuch as it is Our Royal will and pleasure that, for the greater
+honour and distinction of the said Provinces, certain Armorial Ensigns
+should be assigned to them,
+
+"KNOW YE, therefore, that We, of our Princely Grace and special favour,
+have granted and assigned, and by these presents do grant and assign the
+Armorial Ensigns following, that is to say:--
+
+    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO:
+
+"Vert, a sprig of three Leaves of Maple slipped, or, on a chief Argent the
+Cross of St. George.
+
+    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC:
+
+"Or, on a Fess Gules between two Fleurs de Lis in chief Azure, and a Sprig
+of three Leaves of Maple slipped vert in base, a Lion passant guardant or.
+
+    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA:
+
+"Or, on a Fess Wavy Azure between three Thistles proper, a Salmon Naiant
+Argent.
+
+    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK:
+
+Or, on waves a Lymphad, or Ancient Galley, with oars in action, proper, on
+a chief Gules a Lion passant guardant or, as the same are severally
+depicted in the margin hereof, to be borne for the said respective
+Provinces on Seals, Shields, Banners, Flags, or otherwise according to the
+Laws of Arms.
+
+"And We are further pleased to declare that the said United Provinces of
+Canada, being one Dominion under the name of {83} Canada, shall, upon all
+occasions that may be required, use a common Seal, to be called the 'Great
+Seal of Canada,' which said seal shall be composed of the Arms of the said
+Four Provinces quarterly, all which armorial bearings are set forth in this
+Our Royal Warrant."
+
+This latter point is a somewhat important one, as owing to the
+semi-official endorsement given in many colonial publications, it appears
+to be a popular misconception that as many different arms as possible are
+to be crowded in. In one example before us five are represented, the
+additional one being Manitoba. In a handbook on the history, production,
+and natural resources of Canada, prepared by the Minister of Agriculture
+for the Colonial Exhibition, held in London in 1886, the arms of the seven
+provinces are given separately, grouped around a central shield that
+includes them all. The whole arrangement is styled "Arms of the Dominion
+and of the Provinces of Canada."
+
+When the Queen's Warrant was issued in 1869, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia,
+and New Brunswick were the only members of the Confederation. Manitoba
+entered it in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in
+1873.
+
+The Royal Canadian Yacht Club, the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron, and
+the Royal Hamilton Yacht Club have the privilege of flying the blue ensign.
+
+Canada, unlike Australia, supplies no contingent towards the Imperial Navy,
+but she has spent on public works over forty million pounds sterling. By
+her great trans-continental railway a valuable alternative route to the
+East is furnished; she provides graving docks at Quebec, Halifax, and
+Victoria; trains an annual contingent of forty thousand volunteers,
+supports a military college at Kingston, of whose cadets between eighty and
+ninety are now officers in the British Army; and in many other ways
+contributes to the well-being of the Empire, that Greater Britain, which
+has been not unaptly termed "a World-Venice, with the sea for streets."
+
+The badges of the various Colonies of the Empire, as shown in the official
+flag-book of the Admiralty, are very diverse in appearance; some pleasing
+and others less charming, perhaps, than fantastic. It is needless to
+particularise them all. Some, like those of Mauritius, Jamaica, and of Cape
+Colony (Fig. 127) are heraldic in character, while others--as Barbadoes,
+where Britannia rides the waves in a chariot drawn by sea-horses, or South
+Australia, where Britannia lands on a rocky shore on which a black man is
+seated--are symbolical. Queensland has the simple and pleasing device we
+see in Fig. 128, the Maltese Cross, having a crown at its centre.
+Newfoundland has a crown on a white disc and the {84} Latinised name _Terra
+Nova_ beneath, and Fiji (Fig. 137) adopts a like simple device, the crown
+and the word Fiji, while New Guinea does not get even so far as this, but
+has the crown, and beneath it the letters N. G. The gnu appears as the
+device of Natal; the black swan (Fig. 141) as the emblem of West Australia.
+An elephant and palm-tree on a yellow ground stand for West Africa, and an
+elephant and temple for Ceylon. British North Borneo (Fig. 132), on a
+yellow disc has a red lion, and Tasmania (Fig. 133), on a white ground has
+the same, though it will be noted that the action of the two royal beasts
+is not quite the same. The Straits Settlements have the curious device seen
+in Fig. 131. New Zealand (Fig. 136) has a cross of stars on a blue field.
+Victoria we have already seen in Figs. 134 and 135, while New South Wales
+has upon the white field the Cross of St. George, having in the centre one
+of the lions of England, and on each arm a star--an arrangement shown in
+Fig. 138. British East Africa has the crown, and beneath it the golden sun
+shooting forth its rays, one of the simplest, most appropriate, and most
+pleasing of all the Colonial devices; when placed in the centre of the
+Governor's flag it is upon a white disc, and the sun has eight principal
+rays. When for use on the red or blue ensigns, the sun has twelve principal
+rays, and both golden sun and crown are placed directly upon the field of
+the flag. St. Helena, Trinidad, Bermuda, British Guiana, Leeward Isles,
+Labuan, Bahamas, and Hong Kong all have devices in which ships are a
+leading feature--in the Bermuda device associated with the great floating
+dock, in the Hong Kong with junks, and in the other cases variously
+differentiated from each other, so that all are quite distinct in
+character. In the device of the Leeward Isles, designed by Sir Benjamin
+Pine, a large pine-apple is growing in the foreground, and three smaller
+ones away to the right. It is jocularly assumed that the centre one was Sir
+Benjamin himself, and the three subordinate ones his family.
+
+With Great Britain the command of the ocean is all-important. By our
+sea-power our great Empire has been built up, and by it alone can it
+endure. "A power to which Rome in the height of her glory is not to be
+compared--a power which has dotted over the surface of the whole globe her
+possessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun,
+and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous
+and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England." So spoke Daniel
+Webster in 1834, and our ever-growing responsibilities have greatly
+increased since the more than sixty years when those words were uttered.
+Let us in conclusion turn to the "True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates,"
+written by Bacon, a great and patriotic Englishman, where we may read the
+warning words:-- {85}
+
+"We see the great effects of battles by sea; the Battle of Actium decided
+the empire of the world; the Battle of Lepanto arrested the greatness of
+the Turk.
+
+"There be many examples where sea-fights have been final to the war; but
+this is when princes or States have set up their rest upon the battles; but
+this much is certain, that he who commands the sea is at great liberty, and
+may take as much and as little of the war as he will, whereas those that be
+strongest by land are many times, nevertheless, in great straits.
+
+"Surely at this day, with us of Europe, the vantage of strength at sea
+(which is one of the dowries of this kingdom of Great Britain) is great;
+both because most of the kingdoms of Europe are not merely inland, but girt
+with the sea most part of their compass, and because the wealth of both
+Indies seems, in great part, but an accessory to the command of the seas."
+
+We are the sons of the men who won us this goodly heritage, and it behoves
+us in turn to hand it on to our descendants in undiminished dignity, a
+world-wide domain beneath the glorious Union Flag that binds all in one
+great brotherhood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{86}
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+    The Flag of Columbus--Early Settlements in North America--the Birth of
+    the United States--Early Revolutionary and State Flags--the Pine-tree
+    Flag--the Rattle-snake Flag--the Stars and Stripes--Early Variations of
+    it--the Arms of Washington--Entry of New States into the Union--the
+    Eagle--the Flag of the President--Secession of the Southern
+    States--State Flags again--the Stars and Bars--the Southern Cross--the
+    Birth of the German Empire--the Influence of War Songs--Flags of the
+    Empire--Flags of the smaller German States--the Austro-Hungary
+    Monarchy--The Flags of Russia--The Crosses of St. Andrew and St. George
+    again--the Flags of France--St. Martin--The Oriflamme--the
+    Fleurs-de-lys--Their Origin--the White Cross--the White Flag of the
+    Bourbons--the Tricolor--the Red Flag--the Flags of Spain--of
+    Portugal--the Consummation of Italian Unity--the Arms of Savoy--the
+    Flags of Italy--of the Temporal Power of the Papacy--the Flag of
+    Denmark--its Celestial Origin--the Flags of Norway and Sweden--of
+    Switzerland--Cantonal Colours--the Geneva Convention--the Flags of
+    Holland--of Belgium--of Greece--the Crescent of Turkey--the Tughra--the
+    Flags of Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria--Flags of Mexico and of the
+    States of Southern and Central America--of Japan--the Rising Sun--the
+    Chrysanthemum--the Flags of China, Siam, and Corea--of Sarawak--of the
+    Orange Free State, Liberia, Congo State, and the Transvaal Republic.
+
+The well-known Ensign (Fig. 146) of the United States of America is the
+outcome of many changes; the last of a long series of National, State, and
+local devices.
+
+The first flag planted on American ground was borne thither by Christopher
+Columbus, in the year 1497, and bore on its folds the arms of Leon and
+Castile, a flag divided into four and having upon it, each twice repeated,
+the lion of Leon and the Castle of Castile: the first red on white, the
+second white on red. These arms form a portion of the present Spanish
+Standard, and may be seen in the upper staff corner in Fig. 194. In this
+same year--1497--Newfoundland was discovered, but the first English
+settlement on the mainland was not made until Sir Walter Raleigh took
+possession of a tract of country in 1584, naming it Virginia, after
+Elizabeth, the Virgin-Queen he served, and hoisting the Standard of Her
+Majesty, bearing in its rich blazonry (Fig. 22) the ruddy lions of England
+quartered with the golden lilies of France. The Dutch established
+themselves, in the year 1614, in what is now the State of New York; the
+French, having already founded a colony in Canada in 1534, took possession
+of Louisiana, so called after their King Louis, in 1718, while Florida, at
+first French, became Spanish, and in 1763 was ceded to England. {87}
+
+Three ships, bearing the earliest Pilgrim Fathers from England to America,
+had already sailed from England in the year 1606, and these were followed
+by the historic _Mayflower_ and the _Plymouth Rock_, in 1620. While these
+exiles for conscience sake established for themselves a new England in the
+west, a colony of Scotchmen in the year 1622 took possession of a tract of
+land which they named Nova Scotia. Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
+Jersey, Carolina, Pennsylvania, and other colonies were successively formed
+by parties of Englishmen--the final outcome of peaceful settlement, or the
+arbitrament of the sword, being that the greater part of the eastern
+seaboard, and the country beyond it, came under the sway of the English
+Crown, until injudicious taxation and ill-advised repression led at length
+to open discontent and disloyalty, and finally to revolution and the birth
+of the great Republic of the West.
+
+So long as the Colonists owed allegiance to the British crown, one would
+naturally have taken for granted that they would have been found beneath
+the national flag, but this was not altogether the case. In the early days
+of New England the Puritans strongly objected to the red cross on the flag:
+not from any disloyalty to the old country, but from a conscientious
+objection to the use of a symbol which they deemed idolatrous. By the year
+1700, though the Cross of St. George was still the leading device, the
+different colonies began to employ special devices to distinguish their
+vessels from those of England and of each other.[57] This, though it
+indicated a certain jealousy and independence amongst the colonies
+themselves, was no proof of any desire for separation from the old country,
+and even when, later on, the dispute between King and Colonists became
+acute, we find them parting from the old flag with great reluctance. Fig.
+142 is a very good illustration of this; its date is 1775.
+
+In the early stages of the Revolution each section adopted a flag of its
+own, and it was only later on, when the desirability of union and
+uniformity became evident, that the necessity for one common flag was felt.
+Thus, the people of Massachusetts ranged themselves beneath banners bearing
+pine trees; the men of South Carolina went in for rattle-snakes; the New
+Yorkers adopted a white flag with a black beaver thereon; the Rhode
+Islanders had a white flag with a blue anchor upon it; and, in like manner,
+each contingent adopted its special device.
+
+In Fig. 144, one of the flags of the insurgents at Bunker's Hill, {88} June
+17th, 1775, we see that the Cross of St. George is still preserved, and it
+might well fly in company with Fig. 67, a flag of the London Trained Bands,
+except that in the corner we see the pine tree. In Fig. 145 the English
+emblem has dropped out and the pine tree has become much more conspicuous,
+and in Figs. 147 and 148 all suggestion of St. George or of the red or blue
+Ensigns has disappeared. This arboreal device was not by any means a new
+one to the men of Massachusetts. We find a mint established at Boston as
+early as 1651, busily engaged in coining the silver captured from the
+Spaniards by the Buccaneers. On one side was the date and value of the
+coin, and, on the reverse, a tree in the centre and "In Massachusetts"
+around it. It must be remembered that at the time there was no king to
+resent this encroachment on the royal prerogative, and no notice was taken
+of it by the Parliament or by Cromwell. There was a tacit allowance of it
+afterwards, even by Charles II., for more than twenty years. It will be
+remembered that on his enquiry into the matter he was told by some courtier
+that the device was intended for the Royal Oak, and the question was
+allowed to drop.
+
+South Carolina adopted the rattle-snake flag at the suggestion of one
+Gadsden, a delegate to the General Congress of the South Carolina
+Convention in 1776. On a yellow ground was placed a rattlesnake, having
+thirteen rattles; the reptile was coiled ready to strike, and beneath was
+the warning motto, "Don't tread on me." The number thirteen had reference
+to the thirteen revolted States, as it was originally proposed that this
+flag should be the navy flag for all the States. As an accessory to a
+portrait of Commodore Hopkins, "Commander-in-chief of the American fleet,"
+we see a flag of thirteen alternate red and white stripes. It has no
+canton, but undulating diagonally across the stripes is a rattlesnake. The
+idea was not altogether a new one, as we find the _Pennsylvania Gazette_,
+in commenting twenty-five years previously on the iniquity of the British
+Government in sending its convicts to America, suggesting as a set off that
+"a cargo of rattlesnakes should be distributed in St. James's Park, Spring
+Gardens, and other places of pleasure." At the commencement of any great
+struggle by a revolting people there is often a great variety of device,
+and it is only after a while that such a multiplicity is found to be a
+danger. Hence we find that prior to the yellow rattlesnake flag, South
+Carolina had, with equal enthusiasm, adopted the blue flag with the
+crescent moon that we have figured in No. 158.[58] {89}
+
+In the year 1775 a committee was appointed to consider the question of a
+single flag for the thirteen States. This ensign, though it went far
+towards moulding these different sections into the United States, was a
+curious illustration of that reluctance that we have already referred to,
+to sever themselves finally from the Old Country, as the Committee
+recommended the retention of the Union in the upper corner next the staff,
+but substituted for the broad red field of the rest of the flag thirteen
+horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white, the emblems of
+the union into one of the thirteen colonies in their struggle against
+oppression. We have this represented in Fig. 57. It was also the flag of
+the East India Company.
+
+On the final declaration of Independence, when the severance from the Old
+Country was irrevocable, and the colonists became a nation, the question of
+a national flag was one of the points awaiting solution; but it was not
+till about a year afterwards that a decision was come to. The vessels
+commissioned by Washington flew the flag we have figured in No. 147; this
+was approved in April, 1776, and remained in use some little time, as did
+also the one represented in Fig. 149. Sometimes we find the cross and
+pine-tree removed and the whole flag nothing but the red and white stripes.
+This flag composed of stripes alone was not peculiar to the American navy,
+as a flag of similar design was for a long time a well-known signal in the
+British fleet, being that used for the red division to form up into line of
+battle.
+
+Anyone looking over a collection of the common pottery made from about a
+hundred and fifty years ago up to comparatively recent times will find that
+stirring contemporary events are very freely introduced--sea-fights,
+portraits of leading statesmen, generals, and so forth. These are often
+caricatures, as, for example, the hundreds that may be seen in our various
+museums and private collections derisive of "Boney," while others are as
+historically correct as the potter's knowledge and skill could compass.
+Anyone visiting the Corporation Museum at Brighton will find a jug bearing
+the head of Zebulon M. Pike, an American general; trophies of flags are
+grouped around this, but the only flag with any device upon it is a plain
+striped one. Another that bears the head of Commodore Decatur, U.S.N., has
+below it a cannon, on the left a trophy of flags and weapons, and on the
+right a ship; and a very similar jug may be seen in honour of Commodore
+Parry. In each of these cases the flags in the trophies and on the ships
+are simply striped.
+
+On August 14th, 1777, Congress resolved "that the flag of the United States
+be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, and that the Union be
+thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing {90} a new
+constellation."[59] This was the birth of the national flag, "the stars and
+stripes," and it would appear at first sight to be a final settlement of
+the device, though in practice the result did not work out at all
+uniformly, the number of stripes being unequal. If we commence at the top
+with a white one, we shall have seven white and six red, whereas if we
+begin with a red stripe we shall get seven red and six white. Each of these
+renderings was for some years in use, until it was authoritatively laid
+down that the latter was the arrangement to be adopted. It seems a minor
+point, but any of our readers who will re-draw Fig. 146 and transpose the
+colours of the stripes, so that the upper and lower edges of the flag are
+white instead of red, will be surprised to note how so apparently trivial a
+change will affect the appearance of the flag.[60] In like manner the stars
+were sometimes made with six points, and at others with five. Even so late
+as 1779, we find such a striking variation as a flag bearing stars with
+eight points, and its stripes alternately red, blue, and white. The coins
+issued during the presidency of Washington had five-pointed stars on them,
+but later on they had six points. Nobody seems now to know why this change
+was made.
+
+As nothing was said in this resolution of Congress as to the arrangement of
+the stars on the blue field, a further opening for variety of treatment was
+found. In some of the early flags they were arranged to represent the
+letters U.S., in others they were all placed in a circle, in others again
+they were dispersed irregularly, so as the better to suggest a
+constellation; and it was finally ordered that they should be placed in
+parallel horizontal rows, as we now see them.
+
+Though the stars did not appear in the American flag until 1777, we find in
+a poem in the _Massachusetts Spy_ of March 10th, 1774, on the outbreak of
+the rebellion, the lines--
+
+ "The American ensign now sparkles a star
+  Which shall shortly flame wide through the skies."
+
+{91}
+
+This poetic and prophetic flight is the earliest suggestion of the stars in
+the national flag of the United States.
+
+It has been held that the American Eagle and the stars and stripes of the
+national flag were suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington
+family. This statement has been often made; hence we find an American
+patriot writing:--"It is not a little curious that the poor, worn-out rag
+of feudalism, as many would count it, should have expanded into the bright
+and ample banner that now waves on every sea." But that it should be so
+seems by no means an established fact. No reference is made to it in
+Washington's correspondence, or in that of any of his contemporaries. The
+arms of the Washington family are a white shield having two horizontal red
+bars, and above these a row of three red stars; and this certainly bears
+some little resemblance to the American flag, but how much is mere
+coincidence, and how much is adaptation it is impossible to say. These arms
+may be seen on a brass in Solgrave Church, Huntingdonshire, on the tomb of
+Laurence Washington, the last lineal ancestor who was buried in England. He
+was twice Mayor of Northampton, in 1533 and in 1546, and the first
+President of the United States was his great-great-grandson. He was a man
+of considerable influence, and on the dissolution of the monasteries Henry
+gave him the Priory of St. Andrews, Northampton. In the troublous times
+that succeeded, his son John went to America, and lived for some twenty
+years on the banks of the Potomac.
+
+Another theory that has been advanced is that the blue quarter was taken
+from the blue banner of the Scotch Covenanters, and was therefore
+significant of the Solemn League and Covenant of the United Colonies
+against oppression, while the stripes were a blending of the red colours
+used in the army with the white flags used in the navy. We give the theory
+for what it is worth, which we venture to say is not very much; but as it
+was advanced by an American writer, we give it place.
+
+Should our readers care to consider yet another theory, they may learn that
+the genesis of the star-spangled banner was very much less prosaic. Prose
+has it that a Committee of Council, accompanied by General Washington,
+called on Mrs. Ross, an upholstress of Arch Street, Philadelphia, and
+engaged her to make a flag from a rough sketch that they brought with them,
+that she in turn suggested one or two practical modifications, and that at
+her wish Washington re-drew it there and then, that she at once set to work
+on it, and in a few hours the first star-spangled flag was floating in the
+breeze; but the poet ignores the services of Mrs. Ross altogether, and
+declares that {92}
+
+ "When Freedom from her mountain height
+  Unfurled her standard to the air,
+  She tore the azure robe of Night
+  And set the stars of glory there.
+  She mingled with its gorgeous dyes
+  The milky baldric of the skies,
+  And striped its pure celestial white
+  With streakings of the morning light:
+  Then from his mansion in the sun
+  She called her eagle-bearer down
+  And gave into his mighty hand
+  The symbol of her chosen land."
+
+This view was expressed by another great American in the words:--"As at the
+early dawn the stars shine forth even while it grows light, and then, as
+the sun advances, that light breaks out into banks and streaming lines of
+colour, the glowing red and intense light striving together and ribbing the
+horizon with bars effulgent, so on the American flag stars and beams of
+light shine out together. Where this flag comes, and men behold it, they
+see in its sacred emblazoning no ramping lions, and no fierce eagle, no
+embattled castles, or insignia of imperial authority: they see the symbols
+of light: it is the banner of dawn; it means Liberty!"
+
+We have clearly now got a long way from the establishment in Arch Street.
+This flag, which, after such glowing passages as the foregoing, we should
+almost expect to find too sacred a thing for change or criticism, has
+undergone some few modifications in its details, though the original broad
+idea has remained untouched.
+
+As the first conception was that each of the original thirteen States was
+represented in the national flag by a star and a stripe, other States, as
+they came into the Union, naturally expected the same consideration: hence
+on the admission of Vermont in 1791, and Kentucky in 1792, an Act was
+passed which increased the number of stars and stripes from thirteen to
+fifteen. Later on came Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, and so forth, and the
+flag was presently made to consist of twenty stars and stripes, but it was
+found to be so objectionable to be thus continually altering it that it was
+settled in the year 1818 to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but
+to add a star for each new State. Hence the stripes show always the
+original number of the States at the birth of the nation, while the stars
+show the present number in the Union.
+
+It is interesting to trace the growth of the country, Illinois being
+enrolled in the Union in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, Missouri in
+1821, Arkansas in 1836, Michigan in 1837, and so on; but suffice it now to
+say that by 1891 the original thirteen had {93} grown to forty-four, and it
+was announced that on and after the 4th of July of that year the national
+flag should bear this latter number of stars. As there are still several
+territories awaiting promotion to the rank of States, the constellation is
+even yet incomplete.
+
+ "A song for our banner! The watchword recall
+    Which gave the Republic her station;
+  United we stand, divided we fall,
+    It made, and preserves us, a nation!
+  The union of lakes, the union of lands,
+    The union of States none can sever;
+  The union of hearts, the union of hands,
+    And the flag of our Union for ever."
+
+The most striking modification of the flag is seen in the Revenue Service.
+We have still the silver stars on the azure field and the stripes of
+alternate red and white, but in this special case the stripes, instead of
+being disposed horizontally, are placed vertically, a slight enough
+difference apparently, but one which makes a striking alteration in the
+appearance of the flag.
+
+The pendant of the United States Navy is shown in Fig. 151; the stars in
+it, it will be seen, are reduced to the original thirteen, while the
+narrowness of the flag permits but two of the stripes.
+
+The American Jack is simply the blue and white portion of the National
+flag, Fig. 146, made into a separate flag.
+
+The Commodore's broad pendant is a swallow-tailed blue flag, with one white
+star in the centre. The Admiral's flag, hoisted at the main, is shown in
+Fig. 143; the Vice-Admiral's flag, hoisted at the fore, has three white
+stars on the blue field; and the Rear-Admiral's flag, hoisted at mizen, has
+two arranged vertically over each other.
+
+While in some nationalities the flag of the war navy differs from that of
+the mercantile marine--as in the case of Great Britain, Germany, and
+Spain--in others the same flag is used. This is so in the United States,
+France, etc.
+
+The Chief of the State, whether he be called Emperor, King, President, or
+Sultan, has his own flag--his personal Standard--and this special and
+personal flag, in the case of the President of the United States, has on
+its blue field an eagle, bearing on its breast a shield with the stars and
+stripes, and beneath it the national motto, "_E pluribus unum_." As it has
+been suggested that the employment of the eagle as a symbol of the State
+was derived from the crest of Washington, it may not be inopportune to
+state that the crest in question was not an eagle at all, but a raven. The
+idea of the eagle, together with the word "Senate," and many such similar
+{94} things, no doubt arose from their use in ancient Rome, and afforded an
+illustration the more of the pseudo-classicalism that was raging in the
+eighteenth century in France and elsewhere.
+
+The eagle appears on many of the early flags of America. Fig. 150 is a
+curious example of its use. In an old engraving we see a figure of Liberty
+defended by Washington, and above them this flag. In another old print
+before us we see Washington leaning on a cannon, and behind him a flag
+bearing the stars and stripes, plus an eagle, that with outstretched wings
+fills up much of the field, having in his beak a label with the "_E
+pluribus unum_" upon it, with one foot grasping the thunderbolts of War,
+and the other the olive-branch of Peace.
+
+Both these eagle-bearing flags, it will be seen, are associated with the
+President; but in many of these early examples there seems no necessary
+connection. Thus in one instance we see a busy ship-building scene, and
+while the ship in the foreground has at stern the stars and stripes, at the
+bowsprit it bears a Jack that is identical with the blue and white portion
+of Fig. 150.
+
+In a Presidential Standard proposed in 1818 the flag is quartered. In the
+first quarter are twenty white stars on a blue field; in the second quarter
+is the eagle and thunderbolt; in the third a sitting figure emblematic of
+Liberty; in the fourth, seven red horizontal stripes alternating with six
+white ones. We found the flag figured in an old American book, but are
+unable to say whether such a flag was ever actually made, proposition and
+adoption not being altogether the same thing.
+
+History repeated itself on the secession from the Union, in the year 1860,
+of North and South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
+Louisiana, Virginia, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee. There was the same
+desire at first for individuality in the different flags adopted by the
+seceding States, the same unwillingness to break wholly away from the old
+flag, that we have seen as features in the first revolt.
+
+Louisiana adopted the flag shown in Fig. 156; this was emblematic of the
+origin and history of the State, Louisiana having been settled by Louis
+Quatorze in 1718, ceded to Spain at the peace of 1763, restored to France
+in 1802, sold by France to America in 1803, and admitted as a State of the
+Union in 1812. The Spanish Flag, Fig. 192, is red and yellow, hence the
+golden star on the ruddy field, while the stripes of red, white and blue
+are the colours found in the flags of France and America.
+
+On the election of President Lincoln in November, 1860, South Carolina, by
+vote of Convention, proclaimed her resumption of independence as a
+Sovereign State, and on the 17th of the month the new State Flag, having a
+green Palmetto palm in the centre of a {95} field of white, was hoisted in
+Charleston amidst the ringing of bells, a salute of one hundred guns, and
+every possible sign of public rejoicing. In January, 1861, the flag shown
+in Fig. 155 was substituted, the old crescent moon of the first rebellion,
+1775, reappearing, but in the _Charleston Mercury_, of January 29th, 1861,
+we read that "the Legislature last night again altered the design of the
+State Flag. It now consists of a blue field with a white Palmetto palm tree
+in the middle. The white crescent in the upper flagstaff corner remains as
+before, but the horns pointing upwards. This may be regarded as final."
+This flag is shown in Fig. 159. Fig. 160 is the flag of Texas--"the lone
+star" State.
+
+ "Hurrah for the Lone Star!
+    Up, up to the mast
+  With the honoured old bunting,
+    And nail it there fast.
+  The ship is in danger,
+    And Texans will fight
+ 'Neath the flag of the Lone Star
+    For God and their right."
+
+When it became necessary, as it almost immediately did, to adopt one flag
+as the common Ensign of all the Confederate States, a special committee was
+appointed to consider the matter, and to study the numerous designs
+submitted to them. On presenting their report the Chairman said--"A flag
+should be simple, readily made, and capable of being made up in bunting; it
+should be different from the flag of any other country, place, or people:
+it should be significant: it should be readily distinguishable at a
+distance: the colours should be well contrasted and durable: and lastly,
+and not the least important point, it should be effective and handsome. The
+Committee humbly think that the flag which they submit combines these
+requirements. It is very easy to make; it is entirely different from any
+other national flag. The three colours of which it is composed--red, white,
+and blue--are the true Republican Colours; they are emblematic of the three
+great virtues--valour, purity, and truth. Naval men assure us that it can
+be recognised at a great distance. The colours contrast admirably, and are
+lasting. In effect and appearance it must speak for itself." The flag, thus
+highly and justly commended, was first hoisted on March 4th, 1861, at
+Montgomery. It is represented in Fig. 152, and was quickly known as the
+"Stars and Bars."[61] Even the _New York Herald_ admitted that "the design
+of this flag is striking, and it has {96} the merit of originality as well
+as of durability." The circle of white stars was intended to correspond in
+number with the States in the Confederacy, but no great attention seems to
+have been paid to this. The flag may be seen engraved on the paper money of
+the different Southern States, and on other Government papers. In one
+example before us the stars are seven in number, and in another nine are
+shown, the number of seceding States being eleven.
+
+While the "Stars and Bars," Fig. 152, was quite a different flag from Fig.
+146, the "Stars and Stripes," it was found that, nevertheless, in the
+stress of battle confusion arose; so the battle flag, Fig. 153, known as
+the "Southern Cross," became largely adopted, though its use was never
+actually legalised. Here, again, we find that though eleven should be the
+proper number of the stars, they are in our illustration thirteen, while in
+one example we have found seventeen. It would be found in practice very
+difficult to make a pleasing arrangement of eleven stars; given a central
+one, and two on either side of it in the arms of the cross, and we get nine
+as a result, with three on either side it will total to thirteen, and with
+four it must take seventeen. In a few instances it may be seen without the
+red portions--a white flag with the blue cross and white stars. One great
+objection to the Southern Cross was that it was not adapted for sea
+service, since being alike in whatever way it was looked at, it could not
+be reversed in case of distress. To obviate this difficulty, at a Congress
+in Richmond in 1863 the form seen in Fig. 154 was adopted--a plain white
+flag having the Southern Cross as its Union; but this, in turn, was
+objected to as being too much like a flag of truce, so to meet this, in the
+following year, it was ordered that the space between the Union and the
+outer edge of the flag should be divided vertically in half, and that the
+outer half should be red: an alteration that may have been necessary, but
+which greatly spoiled the appearance of what was, before this, a handsome
+and striking flag. As the struggle came to an end in the following year,
+the "Stars and Bars" and the "Southern Cross" perished in the general
+downfall of the Southern cause--the victories of Fredericksburg,
+Chancellorsville, Shenandoah Valley, Chattanooga, and many another
+hard-fought field, and the brilliant strategy of Lee, Beauregard,
+Longstreet, Jackson, Early, Hood, and many another gallant commander, being
+all in vain against the unlimited resources of the North. Over six hundred
+and fifty thousand human lives, over seven hundred millions of pounds
+sterling, were spent in what an American writer delicately calls "the late
+unpleasantness."
+
+The Americans, jealous of the honour of their flag, have sometimes, to our
+insular notions, a rather odd way of showing it. Some {97} of our readers
+will remember how an American, some time ago, undertook to carry the flag
+of his country through England. Whatever visions he or his compatriots may
+have had of his defending it gallantly against hostile attack were soon
+proved to be baseless. Englishmen, _cela va sans dire_, have no hostility
+to the Americans, and the populace--urban, suburban, and rural--everywhere
+entered into the humour of the thing, and cheered the gallant sergeant and
+his bunting wherever he appeared. All the risk and terror of the exploit
+melted away in general acclamation and hearty welcome. An Englishman told
+us that in descending a mountain in Norway he met an American carrying
+something rolled up; he unfolded it, and displayed the Stars and Stripes,
+and said that he had brought it to plant on the summit of the mountain. Why
+he should do so is by no means apparent: but still, as it pleased him and
+hurt no one else, it would be churlish, indeed, to demur to so innocent a
+pastime. Our friend courteously raised his hat to the symbol of the great
+daughter nation over the ocean, whereupon the American heartily
+reciprocated, saying, "Thanks, stranger; and here's to the Union Jack."[62]
+
+When the French declared war against Prussia, on July 16th, 1870, they were
+entirely unprepared for the enthusiasm and unity with which the various
+German States rallied together against the common opponent. It was thought
+that the Southern and Catholic States would, at least, be neutral, if they
+did not side with France against a Power that, during previous conflict
+with Austria, had laid heavy hand on those that had then taken sides
+against her. But this, after all, had been but a quarrel amongst
+themselves; and the attempt of France to violate German soil was at once
+the signal for Germans to stand shoulder to shoulder in one brotherhood
+against the common foe. The separate interests and grievances of Bavarians,
+Saxons, Hessians, Badeners, Brunswickers, Wurtemburgers, Hanoverians, were
+at once put aside, and united Germany, in solid phalanx, rose in
+irresistible might. In the great historic Palace of Versailles, in the hall
+dedicated "to all the glories of France," the Confederate Princes of
+Germany, headed by the King of Bavaria, {98} conferred on the King of
+Prussia the title of Emperor of Germany, bestowing on him the duty of
+representing all the German States in international questions, and
+appointing him and his successors the Commander-in-chief of the German
+forces. Thus, on January 17th, 1871, amid the acclamation of the allied
+Sovereigns and the deep bass of the cannon in the trenches surrounding the
+beleagured capital of the common enemy, the principle of German unity
+received its seal and consummation.
+
+The War Ensign of the Empire is represented in Fig. 207. The colours of
+Prussia, black and white, and the Prussian Eagle enter largely into it, and
+perhaps it may at first sight appear that these symbols of the Prussian
+State are even a little too conspicuous, but it must be borne in mind that
+it is to the Sovereign of this State the headship of all is given, and that
+the vital interests of Prussia in the matter may be further illustrated by
+the fact that while she has a population, in round numbers, of thirty
+millions, Bavaria has but five, and Saxony three, while the Wurtemburgers
+and Badeners between them make up about another three millions, and no
+other State in the Empire comes at all near these figures. Prussia has over
+130,000 square miles of territory to fight for, while Bavaria has but
+29,292, and the next largest, Wurtemburg, has only an area of 7,531; in
+every way, political, commercial, or what not, the interests of Prussia are
+overwhelmingly predominant.
+
+The flag of West Prussia is the black, white, black, shewn in Fig. 211,
+while the East Prussian flag is made up of but two horizontal strips, the
+upper black and the lower white. Hence the well-known war song, "Ich bin
+ein Preussen,"[63] commences,
+
+ "I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?
+    Before me floats my flag of black and white!
+  My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
+    So say those colours floating in your sight."
+
+{99}
+
+The black, white, and red canton in the staff-head corner of the flag is
+also made into an independent flag, as at Fig. 208, and used as a "Jack" in
+the Imperial Navy, while this same flag, Fig. 208, minus the cross, is the
+flag of the Mercantile Marine. On the 25th of October, 1867, on the
+establishment of the North German Confederacy, at the conclusion of the
+Austro-Prussian campaign, the King of Prussia sanctioned a proposal for a
+flag common to all. We find in this decree that "the confederate flag
+henceforth solely to bear the qualification of the national flag, and as
+such to be exclusively on board the merchantmen of the Confederacy, shall
+be composed of three equilateral stripes horizontally arranged: the colour
+of the top one being black, the middle stripe white, and that of the bottom
+stripe red." On the inclusion of the South German States on the formation
+of the German Empire, the latter still more potent and august body retained
+the Confederacy Flag for its mercantile marine. Up to the year 1867 no
+German national flag had ever flown on the ocean, as the various States and
+free cities had their special colours of merely local value.
+
+The responsible Minister of the Crown, in a speech delivered in the Diet in
+1867, stated to the members that the combination of colours was emblematic
+of a junction of the black-white Prussian flag with the red-white ensign of
+the Hanseatic League. This league of the sea-ports of Germany was organised
+in 1164 for their mutual defence and for the interchange of commercial
+advantages. As its strength and reputation increased, many other cities
+sought to be admitted, but international jealousies disintegrated the
+League, and by the year 1630 it was reduced from sixty-six cities to
+three--Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. These three Hanse towns still retain
+special privileges. The red and the white in the German flag represents the
+commercial prosperity of the nation, while the black and white symbolises
+the strong arm of the State prepared to protect and foster it. The flags of
+these three cities still retain the old colours, Lubeck being half white
+and half red, Bremen red and white stripes, and Hamburg a white castle on a
+red field.
+
+The arms of the Hohenzollerns are quarterly arranged. The first and fourth
+quarters are themselves quartered, black and white for Zollern, while the
+second and third quarters are azure with a golden stag for Sigmaringen.
+Friedrich VI., the first of the Hohenzollerns, the Burggraf of Nürnberg,
+became Friedrich I., Elector of Brandenburg, in 1417. There were twelve in
+all, of these Hohenzollern Electors, and Friedrich III., the last of these,
+became in 1701 the first King of Prussia. All the succeeding Sovereigns
+have been of the same house, so that the black and {100} white in the flag
+of to-day is the black and white that for over five hundred years has been
+emblazoned in the arms of the Hohenzollerns.
+
+The cross on the flag (Figs. 207 and 208)--the "iron cross" so highly
+prized as the reward of fine service--is the cross of the Teutonic Order,
+and dates from the close of the 12th century. The history of the Teutonic
+Order, in its connexion with Prussia, is dealt with very fully in the first
+volume of Carlyle's "Frederick the Great."
+
+The Imperial Standard of Germany has the iron cross, black with white
+border, on a yellow field, in the centre of all being a shield bearing the
+arms of Prussia, surmounted by a crown and surrounded by the collar of the
+Order of the Black Eagle. The yellow groundwork of the flag is diapered
+over in each quarter with three black eagles and a crown. The arms of the
+cross stretch out to the four edges of the flag.
+
+The Admiral's flag in the Imperial German Navy is square, and consists of
+the black cross on a white ground--the cross, as in the standard, extending
+to the edges of the flag. The Vice-Admiral's flag is similar, but has in
+the upper staff-space a black ball in addition, while the Rear-Admiral has
+the same flag again, but with the addition of a black ball in each of the
+quarters nearest the mast. The Chief of the Admiralty has a white flag
+again with the cross in the centre, but in this case there is a
+considerable margin of white all round, and four red anchors are placed so
+that they extend in a sloping direction from the corners of the flag
+towards the inner angles of the cross. We get the characteristic black and
+white again in the burgee of the Imperial Yacht Club, which is thus
+quartered, an upright line meeting a horizontal one in the centre of the
+burgee, and thus giving a first and fourth black quarter and a second and
+third white one. The signal for a pilot again is a white flag with a broad
+border of black; if our readers will take a mourning envelope with a good
+deep margin of black to it, they will see the effect exactly.
+
+German vessels engaged in trade on the East African coast fly the black,
+white, red, but in the centre of the white stripe is a blue anchor placed
+erect, while the Imperial Governor in East Africa substitutes for the
+anchor the black eagle. The German East Africa Company's flag is white cut
+into quarters by a narrow and parallel-edged cross and a red canton with
+five white stars on it in the quarter nearest the masthead.
+
+While we find amongst the minor States of Germany Oldenburg, Fig. 204, with
+a cross-bearing flag, the greater number are made up of stripes disposed
+horizontally, and either two or three in number. Thus Fig. 199 is the
+white-green of Saxony, Fig. 200 {101} the black-red-yellow of Waldeck, Fig.
+202 the blue-white of Pomerania, Fig. 203 the black-red of Wurtemburg, Fig.
+205 the red-yellow-blue of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Fig. 206 the blue-yellow
+of Brunswick, Fig. 209 the green-white of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Fig. 210 the
+blue-red-white of Schomberg Lippe, Fig. 212 the red-white of Hesse. Others
+that we have not figured are the red-yellow of Baden, the white-blue of
+Bavaria, the yellow-white of Hanover, the yellow-red of Elsass, the
+red-yellow of Lothringen.[64] To these, others might be added:
+Sleswig-Holstein, Brandenburg, Posen, Silesia, etc., all agreeing in the
+same general character.
+
+The Imperial Standard of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is yellow, and has
+in its centre the black double-headed eagle and a bordering all round
+composed of equal-sided triangles turning alternately their apices inwards
+and outwards; the first of these are alternately yellow and white, the
+second alternately scarlet and black. On the displayed wings of the eagle
+are the arms of the eleven provinces of the empire.
+
+The war-ensign of the monarchy in represented in Fig. 213; it is composed
+of three equal horizontal bands of red, white, red, and bears in its centre
+beneath the Imperial crown a shield similarly divided. This flag originated
+in 1786, when the Emperor Joseph II. decreed its introduction. This shield
+was the heraldic device of the ancient Dukes of Austria, and is known to
+have been in existence in the year 1191, as Duke Leopold Heldenthum bore
+these arms at that date during the Crusades.
+
+The "Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie," to give it its official title, is
+under the command of one Sovereign, who is both Emperor of Austria and King
+of Hungary, but each of these great States has its own Parliament,
+Ministry, and Administration. Austria had long held the Hungarians in most
+unwilling subjection, and the disastrous outcome for Austria of the war
+with Prussia made it absolutely essential to make peace with Hungary, the
+Magyars seeing in the humiliation of Austria the opportunity that they had
+long been awaiting of becoming once again an independent State. A
+compromise was effected in February, 1867, by which the Hungarians were
+willing to remain under the rule of the Emperor of Austria, but only on
+condition that he submitted to be crowned King of Hungary, and that in the
+dual monarchy thus {102} created they should have absolutely the same
+rights and freedom as the Austrians. The Austrian flag, as we have seen, is
+red-white-red, while the Hungarian is red-white-green, and a commission
+being appointed to consider how these two flags could be blended into one,
+introduced on March 6th, 1869, as the result of its deliberations, the
+Austro-Hungarian national flag that we have represented in Fig. 214.
+
+The Austrian provinces have chiefly bi- or tri-color flags, the stripes
+being arranged horizontally. Thus Bohemia is red-white; Tyrol is white-red;
+Dalmatia is blue-yellow; Galicia is blue-red; Croatia is red-white-blue;
+Istria yellow-red-blue.
+
+We are so used in England to the idea that cheering is a spontaneous
+product that it seems strange to find that the official welcome by the
+Austrian fleet to their Emperor is a salute of twenty-one guns, followed by
+fifteen hurrahs. Each rank has its special limit of honour; thus a minister
+of State or field-marshal is saluted by nineteen guns and eleven hurrahs; a
+general by thirteen and seven, while a commodore drops to eleven and three;
+ambassadors, archbishops, consuls, all have their definite share of
+gunpowder and such specified amount of shouting as is held to be befitting
+to their position.
+
+The Imperial Standard of the Czar of all the Russias is the brilliant
+yellow and black flag represented in Fig. 226. The introduction of the
+black two-headed eagle dates back from the year 1472, when Ivan the Great
+married Sophia, a niece of Constantine Palæolagus, and thence assumed the
+arms of the Greek Empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon
+bearing on its red field in silver the figure of St. George slaying the
+dragon, the whole being surrounded by the collar of the Order of St.
+Andrew. On the displayed wings of the eagle are other shields, too small
+for representation in our figure, bearing the arms of Kiow, a silver angel
+on an azure field; of Novgorod, two black bears on a golden shield; of
+Voldermirz, a golden lion rampant on a red shield; of Kasan, a black wyvern
+on a silver ground, and so forth. The flag of the Czarina is similar,
+except that it has a broad blue bordering to it.
+
+A new Standard is made for each Czar. It was originally borne before him in
+battle, but this custom has fallen into disuse, and it is now deposited
+with the rest of the regalia. On the heavy gold brocade is embroidered the
+black eagle, and around this the arms of the provinces of the Empire. From
+the eagle that surmounts the staff are pendant the blue ribbons of the
+Order of St. Andrew, embroidered in gold, with the dates of the foundation
+of the Russian State in 862, the baptism by St. Vladimir in 986, the union
+of all Russian possessions under the sceptre of John III. in 1497, and the
+{103} proclamation of the Empire by Peter the Great. Its dedication is a
+great religious function, and its sacred character and its appeal to a
+lofty patriotism duly enforced. Thus we find the Imperial Chaplain
+addressing the present Czar before the consecration of the standard as
+follows:--
+
+"Divine Providence has resolved, by the right of succession to the Throne,
+to entrust to thee, as Supreme Head and Autocrat of the Peoples of the
+Empire of all the Russias, this Sacred Banner, an emblem of its unity and
+power.
+
+"We pray the Heavenly Father for the union of all thy subjects in loyalty
+and devotion to their Throne and Country, and in the unselfish fulfilment
+of their patriotic duties.
+
+"May this Banner inspire thy enemies with dread, may it be a sign to thee
+of Divine Assistance, and in the name of God, of the Orthodox Faith, of
+Right and of Justice; may it help thee, in spite of all obstacles, to lead
+thy people to prosperity, greatness, and glory."
+
+After the Benediction, holy water was sprinkled upon the standard, and the
+Czar, as the embodiment of the Nation, was again addressed:--
+
+"The Almighty has been pleased, in the course of the law of inheritance, to
+enthrone you as the Sovereign Ruler of all the peoples of the Russian
+nation; this sacred Standard is a token of unity and power. We pray it may
+unite all thy subjects in unquestioning loyalty to the Throne and Country,
+and in unselfish fulfilment of each duty of a subject. May it be to thee a
+sign, terrible to the foes of Russia, of the help given by the Lord God to
+the glory of His Holy Name, that, through Orthodox Faith, notwithstanding
+all limitations, thy people may be led to prosperity, greatness, and glory;
+so shall all nations know that God is on our side."
+
+The Russians venerate St. Andrew as their patron Saint, believing that it
+was he who carried the doctrines of Christianity into their midst. Origen
+asserts that he preached in Scythia. Peter the Great instituted under his
+name and protection, in the year 1698, the first and most noble order of
+Knighthood of the Russian Empire as a reward for the valour of his officers
+in the war against the Ottomans. The badge is the X-like cross of St.
+Andrew displayed upon the Imperial Eagle and pendant from a broad blue
+ribbon. We have already seen that St. Andrew is the Patron Saint of
+Scotland also, but in Scotland the cross, Fig. 92, is white upon a field of
+blue, while in Russia, Fig. 217, it is blue upon a field of white. This
+flag, Fig. 217, is the war ensign, the flag of the Imperial Navy.
+
+The creed of the Russian Church extols the worship of Saints, and amongst
+the numerous subjects of veneration St. George takes {104} rank next to St.
+Andrew himself. Hence we see his presentment on the Standard of the Czar,
+and hence Catherine II., in 1762, instituted an order of knighthood in his
+honour. The badge is a cross of gold, having in its centre a medallion with
+a figure of the saint slaying the dragon; the ribbon being yellow and
+black. St. George, we need scarcely remind our readers, is the great
+warrior-Saint of England too, but while we place his scarlet cross, Fig.
+91, on the field of white, the Russians reverse the arrangement and place
+his white cross on scarlet.[65]
+
+Fig. 215 is the Russian Union Jack that combines the crosses of St. Andrew
+and St. George. Fig. 73 is the British Union Jack that deals with precisely
+the same combination.
+
+The flag of the Russian merchant service is represented in Fig. 218. This
+was originally instead of being white, blue, red, a flag of blue, white,
+red. Peter the Great borrowed this from the Dutch, amongst whom he learnt
+ship-building. The Dutch flag, Fig. 237, it will be seen is a tricolor of
+red, white, blue. Peter simply turned this upside down, and afterwards, for
+greater distinction, charged the central white space with a small blue St.
+Andrew's Cross, as we see in Fig. 219, which represents this early form of
+flag. Later on, for still greater clearness of distinction, the blue and
+the white strips changed places, and so we get the modern Russian
+mercantile flag, as shown in Fig. 218. It was evidently undesirable that
+the flag of the great Empire of Russia should be the same as that of a
+reversed Dutch ensign--a signal of distress and disaster.
+
+Based upon these two simple forms, the government Cross of St. Andrew, Fig.
+217, and the commercial tricolor, Fig. 218, we get a great variety of
+official flags. Thus Fig. 220 is a very happy blending of the two forms in
+the flag of a Consul-General, since he is an official of the State, and at
+the same time his duties deal largely with commercial interests; and much
+the same ground may be taken as regards the blending of the two flags in
+Fig. 221, the flag of a Russian Chargé d'Affaires. Fig. 223 is the ensign
+of a Russian transport; if of the second division the field of the flag is
+blue, and if of the third it is red, in each of these cases the crossed
+anchors being white. The Russian signal for a pilot is the Jack shown in
+Fig. 215, but with a broad white border to it. {105}
+
+A Russian Ambassador or Minister Plenipotentiary flies the flag shown in
+Fig. 222. In the Imperial Navy we find a considerable variety of flag
+types. While the full Admiral flies the Imperial Naval Flag, Fig. 217, that
+of the Vice-Admiral has along its bottom edge a horizontal strip of blue,
+and that of the Rear-Admiral in the same position a strip of red. The flag
+of the Minister of Marine is the official flag, Fig. 217, except that
+instead of the four plain white spaces there seen these triangles hold each
+of them a golden anchor, the fluke end outwards. There are many other
+modifications that we need not here particularise.
+
+Fig. 216 is the official flag of Poland; the device in the canton in the
+upper corner, the white eagle on the scarlet field, is the ancient Polish
+flag, when Poland was yet a nation.
+
+The early history of the French flag is lost in obscurity, and it is not
+always easy to trace the various modifications that it has undergone. At
+the earliest date of which we have record we find the kings of the Franks
+marshalling their forces under the plain blue flag known as the Chape de
+St. Martin. Later on the red flag of St. Denis, known as the oriflamme,
+came into use, and was held in great popular esteem, until by the tenth
+century we find it accepted as the national flag, though the blue flag
+still held its ground as a recognised flag. We may, in fact, assume that as
+the Russians placed themselves beneath the protection both of St. George
+and also of St. Andrew, so the French felt that a double claim on saintly
+assistance would be by no means amiss.
+
+The Chape de St. Martin was originally in the keeping of the monks of the
+Abbey of Marmoutiers, and popular belief held it to be a portion of the
+actual blue cloak that the legend affirms the Saint divided with the beggar
+suppliant. The Counts of Anjou claimed the right to take this blue flag to
+battle with them. We find it borne by Clovis in the year 507 against
+Alaric, and again by Charlemagne at the battle of Narbonne; and time after
+time it led the hosts of France to victory. When the kings of France
+transferred the seat of government to Paris, the great local Saint, St.
+Denis, was held in high honour, and the scarlet flag of the Abbey Church of
+St. Denis gradually ousted the blue flag of St. Martin, and "St. Denis"
+became the war-cry of France.[66] Fig. 179 is a representation of the
+oriflamme from some ancient stained glass, but the authorities differ
+somewhat; thus the "Chronique de Flandre" describes it as having three
+points and tassels of green {106} silk attached thereto, while an English
+authority says, "The celestial auriflamb, so by the French admired, was but
+of one colour, a square redde banner." Du Cange gives no hint of its shape,
+but affirms that it was simple, "sans portraiture d'autre affaire." All
+therefore that seems quite definite is that it was a plain scarlet flag.
+The last time that the sacred ensign was borne to battle was at Agincourt
+on October 25th, 1415, when it certainly failed to justify the confidence
+of its votaries.
+
+The precise date when the golden fleurs-de-lys were added to the blue flag
+is open to doubt, but we find the form at a very early date, and from the
+first recognition of heraldic coats of arms this blazon was the accepted
+cognizance of the kings of France. We see this represented in Fig. 184.
+Originally the fleurs-de-lys were powdered, as in Fig. 188, over the whole
+surface, but in the reign of Charles V., A.D. 1365, the number was reduced
+to three.[67]
+
+The meaning of the fleur-de-lys has given rise to much controversy; some
+will tell us that it is a lily flower or an iris, while others affirm that
+it is a lance-head. Some authorities see in it an arbitrary floral form
+assumed by King Louis,[68] and therefore the fleur-de-Louis; while others
+are so hard put to it that they tell us of a river Lys in Flanders that was
+so notable for its profusion of yellow iris that the flower became known as
+the fleur-de-Lys. The ancient chronicles gravely record that they were
+lilies brought from Paradise by an angel to King Clovis in the year 496, on
+the eve of a great battle fought near Cologne. Clovis made a vow that if he
+were victorious he would embrace the Christian faith, and the angel
+visitant and the celestial gift were a proof that his prayers were heard
+and his vow accepted. As the belief that France was in an especial degree
+under Divine protection was a very flattering one, the lilies were held for
+centuries in great favour; and the fleur-de-lys did not finally disappear
+from the flag of France until the downfall of Louis Philippe in the year
+1848, a date within the recollection, doubtless, of some of our readers.
+Finality, indeed, may not even yet have been reached in the matter. As the
+bees of Napoleon I. reappeared in the arms of Napoleon III., so the
+fleur-de-lys may yet again appear on the ensigns of France. By virtue of a
+Napoleonic decree in 1852 against factious or treasonable emblems, it was
+forbidden to introduce the fleur-de-lys in jewellery, tapestry, or any
+other decorative way, lest its introduction might peril the position of a
+{107} sovereign who rose to power by lavish bribery, and the free
+outpouring of blood. Napoleon the First, and at least by contrast the
+Great, when at Auch enquired the reason why many of the windows of the
+cathedral were partially concealed by paper, and he was informed that it
+was because it was feared that he would be offended at the sight of certain
+ancient emblems there represented. "What!" he exclaimed, "the
+fleurs-de-lys? Uncover them this moment. During eight centuries they guided
+the French to glory, as my eagles do now, and they must always be dear to
+France and held in reverence by her true children."
+
+The white cross frequently appears on the early French flags. Fig. 188, the
+flag of the French Guards in the year 1563, is a good example of this. We
+find Favyn, in a book published in Paris in 1620, "Le Théâtre d'honneur et
+de Chevalerie," writing: "Le grand estendard de satin bleu celeste en riche
+broderie de fleurs de lys d'or a une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui
+est la croix de France." Figs. 180 and 181 are taken from a MS. executed in
+the time of Louis XII., A.D. 1498, illustrating a battle scene; these two
+flags are placed by the side of the fleur-de-lys flag, Fig. 184. When Louis
+XI., in 1479, organised the national infantry we find him giving them as
+the national ensign a scarlet flag with white cross on it; and some two
+hundred years later we find the various provincial levies beneath flags of
+various designs and colours, but all agreeing in having the white cross as
+the leading feature. Fig. 182, for example, is that of the Soissonois.
+Desjardins, in his excellent book on the French flag,[69] gives a great
+many illustrations of these. In the Musée d'Artillerie in Paris we find a
+very valuable collection of martial equipments from the time of
+Charlemagne, and amongst these a fine series (original where possible, or,
+failing this copies) of the flags of France from the year 1250.
+
+The Huguenot party in France adopted the white flag, and when King Henry
+III., 1574 to 1589, himself a Protestant, came to the throne, the white
+flag became the royal ensign, and was fully adopted in the next reign, that
+of Henry IV., the first king of the house of Bourbon, as the national flag.
+The whole history of the flag prior to the Great Revolution, is somewhat
+confused, and in the year 1669, which we may consider about the middle of
+the Bourbon or white flag period,[70] we find the order given by the {108}
+Minister of the Marine that "the ensigns are to be blue, powdered with
+yellow fleurs-de-lys, with a large white cross in the middle." Merchant
+ships were to wear the same flag as the ships of war except that in the
+canton corner was to be placed the device of their province or town. Before
+the end of the year a new order was issued to the effect that "the ensigns
+at the stern are to be in all cases white," while the merchants were to fly
+the white flag with the device of the port in the corner. The white flag
+was sometimes plain, as in Fig. 183, and at other times provided with
+yellow fleurs-de-lys. On the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, after the
+Republic, Consulate, and Empire, the white flag was again the flag of the
+nation, and remained so until 1830, its last appearance in France, unless
+or until the house of Bourbon again arises to the throne, when the
+restoration of the _drapeau blanc_ would probably follow. The white flag
+has therefore been the national ensign of France for over two hundred
+years.
+
+In a book in the library of the Science and Art Department, South
+Kensington, we found the flag represented in Fig. 185 figured as the French
+Standard, with Fig. 187 apparently as an alternative, while the National
+flag of France is represented as the tricolor with bordering shown in Fig.
+189, and the Admiral's flag is given as pure white. The book is entitled "A
+Display of Naval Flags of all Nations." It was published in Liverpool; no
+date is given, but we can arrive approximately at this, as the British
+Standard is represented as including the arms of Hanover; this limits its
+publication to between the years 1714 and 1837.
+
+The well-known tricolor of France, Fig. 191, dates from the era of the
+Revolution and came into existence in 1789. It has, with the exception of
+the short Bourbon Restoration, been the flag of France for over a century,
+and it remains so to this day, though it underwent some few modifications
+ere it settled down to the present form. Thus, for instance, on October
+24th 1790, it was decreed that the colour next the staff was to be red, the
+central strip white and the outer blue, but on February 15th, 1794, it was
+ordered that "the flag prescribed by the National Assembly be abolished.
+The national flag shall be formed of the three national colours in equal
+bands placed vertically, the hoist being blue, the centre white, and the
+fly red." On the Revolution of 1848, the provisional government ordered on
+March 5th that the colours were to run thus--blue, red, white, but the
+opposition to this was so strong that only two days later the order was
+cancelled. In 1790 the tricolor was made the Jack, and the ensign was as
+shown in Fig. 190. This ensign was to be common to both the men-of-war and
+the flags of the merchant navy, but the arrangement was not of long
+continuance. The spirit of change that was felt in every department
+affected the flags {109} likewise, and some little time elapsed before the
+matter was satisfactorily settled.
+
+The arms of Paris are a white galley on a red ground, and above this are
+three golden fleurs-de-lys on a blue band or strip. On July 14th, 1789, it
+was determined that a civic guard of forty thousand men should be raised,
+and that its colours should be those of the city, the gules and azure of
+the groundwork of the escutcheon, to which, on the proposal of Lafayette,
+the white of the royal _drapeau blanc_ was added.
+
+During the first and second Empire the Imperial Standard was still the
+tricolor, but it bore in the centre of the white strip the eagle; and all
+three strips were richly diapered over with the golden bees of the
+Napoleons. The national flag was the tricolor pure and simple, both for the
+Imperial and the Commercial Navy. As the flags of the army were borne on
+staffs surmounted by a golden eagle, the term "eagle" was often applied to
+these colours.[71]
+
+On the outbreak of the second Republic in 1848, the people immediately on
+its proclamation demanded the adoption of the ill-omened red flag.
+Lamartine, the leading member of the provisional Government, closed an
+impassioned address with the words: "Citizens, I will reject even to death
+this banner of blood, and you should repudiate it still more than myself,
+for this red flag you offer us has only made the circuit of the Champs de
+Mars bathed in the blood of the people, while the tricolor has made the
+circuit of the world, with the name, the glory, and the liberty of your
+country." Louis Blanc and other members of the Government were in favour of
+the red flag, and at last a compromise was effected and the tricolor was
+accepted with the addition of a large red rosette. Louis Blanc, not
+unreasonably, as a Republican, pointed out that Lafayette had in 1789
+associated the white of the Bourbon flag with the red and blue of the arms
+of the City, and that the tricolor flag was therefore the result of a
+compromise between the king and the people, but that in 1848 the king
+having abdicated, and monarchy done away with, there was no reason why any
+suggestion of the kingly power should continue. Doubtless the suppression
+of the flag of the barricades, the symbol of civil strife, {110} of anarchy
+and bloodshed, and the retaining of the tricolor was the wiser and more
+patriotic course, though it required no mean amount of courage and strong
+personal influence to effect the change.
+
+The Imperial Eagle, so long a symbol of victory, has now in these
+Republican days[72] disappeared from the national colours. The flag of the
+French army is now surmounted by a wreath of laurel traversed by a golden
+dart with the letters R.F. and the regimental number, while on one face of
+the flag itself is, in the middle, the inscription "Republique Française,
+Honneur et Patrie," each corner being occupied by a golden wreath enclosing
+the number of the regiment. The name of the regiment and its "honours"
+occupy the other side.
+
+The pendant of the French man-of-war is simply, Fig. 186, the tricolor
+elongated. The Admiral flies a swallow-tailed tricolor, while the
+Rear-Admiral and the Vice-Admiral have flags of the ordinary shape, like
+Fig. 191, except that the former officer has two white stars on the blue
+strip near the top of it, and the latter three. Maritime prefects have the
+three white stars on the blue plus two crossed anchors in blue in the
+centre of the white strip. The Governor of a French colony has such a
+special and distinctive flag as Fig. 96 would be if, instead of the Union
+canton on the blue, we placed in similar place the tricolor. There are
+naturally a great many other official flags, but the requirements of our
+space forbid our going into any further description of them.
+
+The war and mercantile flags of Spain have undergone many changes, and
+their early history is very difficult to unravel; but on May 28th, 1785,
+the flags were adopted that have continued in use ever since. Fig. 192 is
+the flag of the Spanish Navy; it consists, as will be seen, of three
+stripes--a central yellow one, and a red one, somewhat narrower, above and
+below. The original proportion was that the yellow should be equal in width
+to the two red ones combined. This central stripe is charged, near the
+hoist, with an escutcheon containing the arms of Castile and Leon, and
+surmounted by the royal crown. The mercantile flag, Fig. 193, is also red
+and yellow. The yellow stripe in the centre is without the escutcheon, and
+in width it should be equal to one-third of the entire depth of the flag,
+the remaining thirds above and below it being divided into two equal
+strips, the one red and the other yellow. This simple striping of the two
+colours was doubtless {111} suggested by the arms of Arragon, the vertical
+red and yellow bars[73] of which may be seen also in the Spanish Royal
+Standard, Fig. 194. Spain, like Italy, has grown into one monarchy by the
+aggregation of minor States. In the year 1031 we have the Union of Navarre
+and Castile; in 1037 we find Leon and Asturias joining this same growing
+kingdom, and in the year 1474 Ferdinand II. of Arragon married Isabella of
+Castile, and thus united nearly the whole of the Christian part of Spain
+into one monarchy. In 1492 this same prince added to his dominions Moorish
+Spain by the conquest of Granada.
+
+Legend hath it that in the year 873 the Carlovingian Prince Charles the
+Bold honoured Geoffrey, Count of Barcelona, by dipping his four fingers in
+the blood from the Count's wounds after a battle in which they were allied,
+and drawing them down the Count's golden shield, and that these ruddy bars
+were then and there incorporated in the blazon. Barcelona was shortly
+afterwards merged into the kingdom of Arragon, and its arms were adopted as
+those of that kingdom. Its four upright strips of red, the marks of the
+royal fingers, are just beyond the upper shield in Fig. 194.
+
+The pendant of the Spanish Navy bears at its broad end a golden space in
+which the arms and crown, as in Fig. 192, are placed; the rest of the
+streamer is a broad strip of yellow, bordered, as in Fig. 192, by two
+slightly narrower strips of red.
+
+The Royal Standard of Spain, Fig. 194, is of very elaborate character, and
+many of its bearings are as inappropriate to the historic facts of the
+present day as the retention in the arms of Great Britain of the French
+fleurs-de-lys centuries after all claim to its sovereignty had been lost.
+In the upper left hand part of the flag we find quartered the lion of Leon
+and the castle of Castile.[74] At the point we have marked "C" are the arms
+of Arragon. "D" is the device of Sicily. The red and white stripes at "E"
+are the arms of Austria; we have already encountered these in Fig. 213. The
+flag of ancient Burgundy, oblique stripes of yellow and blue within a red
+border, is placed at "F." The black lion on the golden ground at "G" is the
+heraldic bearing of Flanders, while the red eagle "H" is the device of
+Antwerp. At "I" we have the {112} golden lion of Brabant, and above it at
+"J" the fleurs-de-lys and chequers of ancient Burgundy. The upper small
+shield contains the arms of Portugal, and the lower contains the
+fleurs-de-lys of France.[75]
+
+The Portuguese were an independent nation until Philip II. of Spain overran
+the country, and annexed it in the year 1580 to his own dominions, but in
+the year 1640 they threw off the Spanish yoke, which had grown intolerable,
+and raised John, Duke of Braganza, to the throne. The regal power has ever
+since remained in this family.
+
+The Royal Standard bears on its scarlet field the arms of Portugal,
+surmounted by the regal crown. These arms were originally only the white
+shield with the five smaller escutcheons that we see in the centre of the
+present blazon. Would the scale of our illustration (Fig. 195) permit it,
+each of these small escutcheons should bear upon its surface five white
+circular spots. Portugal was invaded by the Moors in the year 713, and the
+greater part of the country was held by them for over three centuries. In
+the year 1139 Alphonso I. defeated an alliance of five great Moorish
+princes at the Battle of Ourique, and the five escutcheons in the shield
+represents the five-fold victory, while the five circles placed on each
+escutcheon symbolise the five wounds of the Saviour in whose strength he
+defeated the infidels. The scarlet border with its castles was added by
+Alphonso III., after his marriage in 1252 with the daughter of Alphonso the
+Wise, King of Castile, the arms of which province, as we have already seen
+in discussing the Spanish Standard, are a golden castle on a red field.
+
+In an English poem, written by an eye-witness of the Siege of Rouen in the
+year 1418, we find an interesting reference to the arms of Portugal, where
+we read of
+
+ "The Kyngis herandis and pursiuantis,
+  In cotis of armys arryauntis.
+  The Englishe a beste, the Frensshe a floure
+  Of Portyugale bothe castelle and toure,
+  And other cotis of diversitie
+  As lordis beren in ther degre."[76]
+
+The Portuguese ensign for her vessels of war and also for the merchant
+service bears the shield and crown, but instead of the {113} scarlet field
+we find the groundwork of the flag half blue, and half white, as shown in
+Fig. 196. The choice of these special colours, no doubt, arose from the
+arms on the original shield, the five blue escutcheons on the white ground.
+The Portuguese Jack has the national arms and royal crown in the centre of
+a white field, the whole being surrounded by the broad border of blue.
+
+Italy, for centuries a geographical expression, is now one and indivisible.
+Within the recollection of many of our readers the peninsula was composed
+of the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, the Pontifical States, the Grand Duchy
+of Tuscany, the Duchies of Parma and Modena. There was also in the north
+the Kingdom of Sardinia, while Lombardy and Venetia were in the grip of
+Austria. It is somewhat beside our present purpose to go into the wonderful
+story of how Victor Emmanuel of Savoy, aided by Cavour, Garibaldi, and many
+another noble patriot, by diplomacy, by lives freely laid down on the
+Tchernaya, on the fields of Magenta and Solferino, by the disaster at
+Sedan, by bold audacity at one time, by patient waiting at another, was
+finally installed in Rome, the Capital of United Italy, as king of a great
+and free nation of over thirty millions of people. Suffice it now to say
+that this Kingdom of Italy, as we now know it, did not achieve until the
+year 1870 this full unity under one flag that had been for centuries the
+dream of patriots who freely shed their blood on the battlefield or the
+scaffold, or perished in the dungeons of Papal Rome, or Naples, or Austria
+for this ideal.
+
+On the downfall in 1861 of the Bourbon Government in the Kingdom of the two
+Sicilies before the onslaught of the Volunteers of Garibaldi, the first
+National Parliament met in Turin, and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of
+Italy. The title was at once acknowledged by Great Britain, and, later on,
+by the other Powers, and the capital of the rising State was transferred to
+Florence. The Papal States were still under the protection of France, "the
+eldest Son of the Church"; and the young Kingdom, unable to wrest Rome from
+the French, had to wait with such patience as it could command for the
+consummation of its hopes. The long-looked-for day at last arrived, when
+amidst the tremendous defeats inflicted in 1870 by Germany on France, the
+French garrison in Rome was withdrawn, and the Italians, after a short,
+sharp conflict with the Papal troops, entered into possession of the
+Eternal City, and at once made it the Capital of a State at last free
+throughout its length and breadth--no longer a geographical expression, but
+a potent factor to be reckoned with and fully recognised.
+
+Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom in the year 1805, but it was
+ruled by himself and the Viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois, he appointed; and on
+his overthrow this, like the various other political {114} arrangements he
+devised, came to nought. The flag he bestowed was a tricolor of green,
+white, and red, his idea being that, while giving the new Kingdom a flag of
+its own, it should indicate by its near resemblance to that of France the
+source to which it owed its existence. In 1848, the great revolutionary
+period, this flag, which had passed out of existence on the downfall of
+Napoleon, was reassumed by the Nationalists of the Peninsula, and accepted
+by the King of Sardinia as the ensign of his own kingdom, and charged by
+him with the arms of Savoy. This tricolor, so charged (see Fig. 197) was
+the flag to which the eyes of all Italian patriots turned, and it is to-day
+the flag of all Italy. The flag we have represented is the ensign of the
+Merchant Service; the flag of the armed forces military and naval, is
+similar, save that the shield in the centre is surmounted by the Royal
+Crown. The Royal Standard, the personal flag of the King, has the arms of
+Savoy in the centre, on a white ground, the whole having a broad bordering
+of blue.
+
+This shield of Savoy, the white cross on the red field, was the device of
+the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, an order semi-religious,
+semi-military, that owed its origin to the Crusades. In the year 1310 the
+Knights captured Rhodes from the Saracens, but being hard pressed by the
+infidels, Duke Amadeus IV., of Savoy, came to the rescue, and the Grand
+Master of the Order conferred upon him the cross that has ever since been
+borne in the arms of Savoy. The Jack or bowsprit flag of the Italian
+man-of-war, Fig. 234, is simply this shield of the Knights of St. John
+squared into suitable flag-like form.
+
+The Minister of Marine has the tricolor, but on the green portion is placed
+erect a golden anchor. The vessels carrying the Royal Mail fly a burgee of
+green, white, red, having a large white "P" on the green; and there are
+many other official flags, the insignia of various authorities or different
+departments, but lack of space forbids our dwelling at greater length upon
+them.
+
+The war flag of the defunct temporal power of the Pope was white, and in
+its centre stood figures of St. Peter and St. Paul, and above them the
+cross keys and tiara. Fig. 198 was the flag of the merchant ships owned by
+the subjects of the States of the Church. The combination of yellow and
+white is very curious. In the banner borne by Godfrey, the Crusader King of
+Jerusalem, the only tinctures introduced were the two metals, gold and
+silver, five golden crosses being placed upon a silver field. This was done
+of deliberate intention that it might be unlike all other devices, as it is
+in all other cases deemed false heraldry to place metal on metal. The
+theory that these metals were selected because of the reference in the
+Psalms to the Holy City, may also be a very possible one--"Though ye have
+lien amongst the pots, yet shall ye {115} be as the wings of a dove covered
+with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold." However this may be, the
+yellow and white of the arms of Jerusalem was adopted by the Papal
+Government.
+
+The Danish flag is the oldest now in existence. In the year 1219, King
+Waldemar of Denmark in a critical moment in his stormy career, saw, or
+thought he saw, or said he saw, a cross in the sky. He was then leading his
+troops to battle against the Livonian pagans, and he gladly welcomed this
+answer to his prayers for Divine succour, this assurance of celestial aid.
+This sign from Heaven he forthwith adopted as the flag of his country, and
+called it the Dannebrog, _i.e._, the strength of Denmark. As a definite
+chronological fact, apart from all legend, this flag dates from the
+thirteenth century. There was also an Order of Dannebrog instituted in
+1219, in further commemoration and honour of the miracle; and the name is a
+very popular one in the Danish Royal Navy, one man-of-war after another
+succeeding to the appellation. One of these Dannebrogs was blown up by the
+fire of Nelson's fleet in 1801.
+
+The Danish Man-of-War Ensign is shown in Fig. 224. The Royal Standard, like
+the Ensign, is swallow-tailed, but in the centre of the cross is placed a
+white square, indicated in our illustration, Fig. 224, by dots. This
+central, square space contains the Royal Arms, surrounded by the Collars of
+the Orders of the Elephant and of the Dannebrog. The merchant flag, Fig.
+225, is rectangular.
+
+In the year 1397, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark all formed one kingdom under
+the rule of the latter, but in 1414 the Swedes waged with more or less
+success an arduous struggle for liberty, and their independence was
+definitely acknowledged in the year 1523. The flag of Sweden is the yellow
+cross on the blue ground shown in Fig. 231. The blue and yellow are the
+colours of the Swedish arms,[77] and they were then doubtless chosen for
+the flag as the colours of freedom and independence.
+
+Norway had no separate political existence until the year 1814, but in that
+year the Norwegians seceded from Denmark, and declared their independence.
+Their first flag was still a red flag with a white cross on it, and the
+arms of Norway in the upper corner next the flagstaff, but this being found
+to too closely resemble the Danish flag, they substituted for it the device
+seen in Fig. 230, which it will be noted is still the Danish flag, plus the
+blue cross on the white one. The administration of Norway is entirely
+distinct from Sweden, and it retains its own laws, but in 1814 the two
+Kingdoms were united under one Sovereign. As a sign of the union there is
+carried in the upper square, next to the flagstaff in the flags of both
+countries, a union device, a combination of the Swedish {116} and Norwegian
+National colours. After considerable dispute, the Union Jack shown in Fig.
+229 was accepted as the symbol of the political relationship of the two
+nations. It is a very neat arrangement, for if we look at the upper and
+lower portions we see the flag (Fig. 230) of Norway, if we study the two
+lateral portions we find they are the flag (Fig. 231) of Sweden. Both the
+Swedish and Norwegian war flags are swallow-tailed, and have the outer limb
+of the cross projecting; we may see this very clearly in Fig. 228, where
+the main body of the flag is Norwegian. The merchant flag is with each
+nationality rectangular; in Fig. 227 we have the flag of a Swedish merchant
+vessel. Both in the Norwegian and Swedish flags, as we may note in Figs.
+227 and 228, it will be noticed that the Union device is conspicuously
+present. The Norwegian man-of-war flag, Fig. 228, would be that of a
+Norwegian merchant if we cut off the points in the fly; the Swedish
+merchant flag, Fig. 227, would be that of a Swedish man-of-war if instead
+of the straight end we made it swallow-tailed. As Sovereign of Sweden, the
+King places his arms in the centre of the large yellow cross; as Sovereign
+of Norway, in the centre of the large blue cross; hence we get the Swedish
+and Norwegian Royal Standards, the one for use in the one country, and the
+other for service in the other, the Union device being present in the upper
+corner in each case, and the outer portion of the flags swallow-tailed. The
+Standard is, in fact, the war flag plus the royal arms. The Post Service
+has in the centre of the flag a white square, with a golden horn and crown
+in it; the Customs flag has a similar white square at the junction of the
+arms of the cross, and in its centre is placed a crowned "T."
+
+Fig. 232, on the same sheet as the flags of Norway and Sweden, is the
+simple and beautiful flag of Switzerland. Like the crosses of St. George,
+St. Andrew, St. Patrick, or that on the flag of Denmark, its device has a
+religious significance. Gautier tells us that:--"La première fois qu'il en
+est fait mention dans l'histoire écrite est dans la Chronique du Bearnois
+Justinger. Il dit, après avoir fait l'énumération des forces des Suisses
+quittant Berne pour marcher contre l'armée des nobles coalisés en 1339--'Et
+tous étaient marqués au signe de la Sainte Croix, une croix blanche dans un
+écusson rouge, par la raison que l'affranchissement de la nation était pour
+eux une cause aussi sacrée que la délivrance des lieux saints.'"
+
+Its twenty-two cantons are united by a Constitution, under one President
+and one flag, but each canton has its own cantonal colours. Thus Basel is
+half black and half white; St. Gallen, green and white; Geneva, red and
+yellow; Aargau, black and blue; Glarus, red, black, and white; Uri, yellow
+and black; Berne, black and red; Fribourg, black and white; Lucerne, blue
+and white; {117} Tessin, red and blue; and so forth. In each case the
+stripes of colour are disposed horizontally, and the one we have each time
+mentioned first is the upper colour.
+
+Within the walls of the City of Geneva was held, in 1863, an International
+Conference, to consider how far the horrors of war could be mitigated by
+aid to the sick and wounded. This Conference proposed that in time of war
+the neutrality should be fully admitted of field and stationary hospitals,
+and also recognised in the most complete manner by the belligerent Powers
+in the case of all officials employed in sanitary work, volunteer nurses,
+the inhabitants of the country who shall assist the wounded, and the
+wounded themselves--that an identical distinctive sign should be adopted
+for the medical corps of all armies, and that an identical flag should be
+used for all hospitals and ambulances, and for all houses containing
+wounded men. The distinctive mark of all such refuges is a white flag with
+a red cross on it--the flag of Switzerland reversed in colouring--and all
+medical stores, carriages, and the like, bear the same device upon them;
+while the doctors, nurses, and assistants, have a white armlet with the red
+cross upon it, the sacred badge that proclaims their mission of mercy. In
+deference to the religious feelings of Turkey a red crescent may be
+substituted for the cross in campaigns where that country is one of the
+belligerents. These valuable proposals were confirmed by a treaty in
+August, 1864, signed by the representatives of twelve Powers, and known as
+the Geneva Convention. Since then all the civilised Powers in the world,
+with the exception of the United States, have given in their adhesion to
+it. In 1867 an International Conference was held at Paris for still further
+developing and carrying out in a practical manner the principles of the
+Geneva Conference, and another at Berlin in 1869 for the same object. One
+notable feature of these two Conferences was the extension of the
+principles accepted for land conflict to naval warfare.
+
+Holland, as an Independent State, came into existence in the year 1579.
+From 1299 we find the country under the rule of the Courts of Hainault, and
+in 1436 it came into the hands of the Dukes of Burgundy, who in turn were
+subjugated by the Spaniards. The tyranny and religious persecution to which
+the Netherlanders were exposed by the Spaniards led to numerous revolts,
+which at last developed into a War of Independence, under William, Prince
+of Orange. The Hollanders adopted as their flag the colours of the House of
+Orange--orange, white, and blue. At first there was great latitude of
+treatment, the number of the bars of each colour and their order being very
+variable, but in 1599 it was definitely fixed that the flag of the
+Netherlands was to be orange, white, blue, in three horizontal stripes of
+equal width. How the orange became {118} changed to red is very doubtful;
+Fournier, writing in 1643, we see refers to the Dutch flag as a tricolor of
+red, white, blue.
+
+Fig. 237 represents the Royal Standard of Holland; the army and navy and
+commercial flags are similar, except that the Royal Arms are not
+introduced.
+
+During the general effervescence caused by the French Revolution, the naval
+flag of Holland had in the upper staff-corner a white canton, charged with
+a figure of Liberty, but the innovation was not at all popular, as the
+sailors preferred the old tricolor under which the great victories of
+Reuter and Van Tromp were gained, and in 1806 it was deemed expedient to
+revert to it.
+
+The brilliant scarlet, yellow, and black tricolor represented in Fig. 236
+is the flag of Belgium. The Standard has, in addition, the Royal Arms
+placed in the centre of the yellow strip. The black, yellow, and red, are
+the colours of the Duchy of Brabant, and these were adopted as the national
+flag in 1831.
+
+From 1477 onwards we find Belgium under Austrian domination, and in 1566 it
+fell into the hands of Spain. In 1795, and for some years following, it was
+held by France, and in 1814 was handed over to the Prince of Orange, but in
+1830 the Belgians rose against the Hollanders, and before the end of the
+year their independence was acknowledged by the Great Powers, and Leopold
+of Coburg, in the following year, became first King of Belgium. Within a
+month of his accession to the throne, the Dutch recommenced the struggle,
+and it was only in 1839 that a final treaty of peace was signed in London
+between Belgium and Holland, and its claims to independence frankly
+recognised by the Dutch.
+
+Greece, originally invaded by the Turks in the year 1350, remained for
+nearly five hundred years under their oppressive yoke, rising from time to
+time against their masters, only to expose their country, on the failure of
+their attempts, to the greater tyranny and the most dreadful excesses. Over
+ten thousand Greeks were slaughtered in Cyprus in 1821, while the
+bombardment of Scio in 1822, and the horrible massacre on its capture,
+stand out in lurid colours as one of the most atrocious deeds the world has
+ever known: over forty thousand men, women, and children fell by the sword.
+Seven thousand who had fled to the mountains were induced to surrender by a
+promise of amnesty, and these, too, were murdered. The towns and villages
+were fired, and the unfortunate inhabitants, hemmed in by the Turks,
+perished in the flames or fell beneath the swords of their relentless foes
+if they attempted to escape. Small wonder, then, that the heart of Europe
+was stirred, and that Lord Byron and thousands more took up the cause of
+Greek independence, by contributions of arms and money, by fiery
+denunciation, and with strong right hand. Missolonghi, Navarino, {119} and
+many another scene of struggle we cannot here dwell upon, suffice it to say
+that at last the victory was won and Greece emerged, after a tremendous
+struggle, from the bondage of the Turks, and took its place in Europe as a
+free and independent nation, the Porte acknowledging the inexorable logic
+of the _fait accompli_ on April 25th, 1830. After a short Presidency under
+one of the Greek nobles, Otho of Bavaria was elected King of Greece in
+1833, and the new Kingdom was fairly launched.
+
+The Greeks adopted the blue and white, the colours of Bavaria, as a
+delicate compliment to the Prince who accepted their invitation to ascend
+the throne of Greece. The merchant flag of Greece is shown in Fig. 233. It
+will be seen that it consists of nine stripes, alternately blue and white,
+the canton being blue, with a white cross in it. The navy flag is similar,
+except that in addition there is placed a golden crown in the centre of the
+cross. The Royal Standard is blue with a white cross; the arms of the cross
+are not, as in Fig. 233, of equal length, but the one next the staff is
+shorter, as in the Danish flag, Fig. 225. In the open space at the crossing
+of the arms is placed the Royal Arms.
+
+The Turkish Empire has undergone many changes and vicissitudes, and has in
+these latter days shrunk considerably. European Turkey now consists of
+about seventy thousand square miles, while Turkey in Asia, Syria, Asia
+Minor, Palestine, Armenia, etc., is over seven hundred thousand.[78]
+
+The crescent moon and star, Figs. 239 and 240, were adopted by the Turks as
+their device on the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet II., in 1453. They
+were originally the symbol of Diana, the Patroness of Byzantium, and were
+adopted by the Ottomans as a badge of triumph. Prior to that event, the
+crescent was a very common charge in the armorial bearings of English
+Knights, but it fell into considerable disuse when it became the special
+device of the Mohamedans, though even so late as the year 1464 we find
+René, Duke of Anjou, founding an Order of Knighthood having as its badge
+the crescent moon, encircled by a motto signifying "praise by increasing."
+Though the crescent was, as we have seen, originally a Pagan symbol, it
+remained throughout the rise and development of the Greek Church the
+special mark of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow and other Russian
+cities the {120} crescent and the cross may be seen combined on the
+churches, the object being to indicate the Byzantine origin of the Russian
+Church.
+
+The crescent may be seen on the coins and medals of Augustus, Trajan, and
+other Emperors. The origin of the symbol was as follows: Philip, the father
+of Alexander the Great, meeting with many unforeseen difficulties in
+carrying on the siege of the city, set the soldiers to work one dark night
+to undermine the walls, but the crescent moon appearing the design was
+discovered and the scheme miscarried; and in acknowledgment the Byzantines
+erected a statue to Diana, and made the crescent moon--the attribute of the
+Goddess--the symbol of their city.
+
+The War Flag of Turkey is the crescent and star on the scarlet field, as
+shown in Fig. 239. The flag of the Merchant Service seems less definitely
+fixed. In the Official Flag Book[79] of the English Admiralty, Fig. 239 is
+given as both the man-of-war flag and the merchant flag for Turkey, Egypt,
+and Tripoli, while in an excellent book on the subject, published at Vienna
+in 1883, Fig. 235 is given as the flag of the commercial marine; and we
+have also seen a plain red flag with a star in the upper corner of the
+hoist, and another divided into three horizontal bands, the upper and lower
+being red, and the central one green.
+
+The Military and Naval Service of Tunis has the flag represented in Fig.
+240, while the Tunisian commercial flag is simply red, without device of
+any kind.
+
+In a map bearing the date 1502 the Turkish Dominions are marked by a
+scarlet flag having three points and bearing three black crescents, while
+in a sheet of flags with the comparatively modern date of 1735, "Turk" is
+represented by a blue flag with three crescents in white upon it.
+
+The personal flag of the Sultan, corresponding to our Royal Standard, is
+scarlet, and bears in its centre the device of the reigning sovereign:
+hence it undergoes a change at each accession to the throne. This device,
+known as the Tughra, is placed on the coinage, postal stamps, etc., as well
+as on the Royal Flag, and consists of the name of the Sultan, the title
+Khan, and the epithet _El muzaffar daima_, signifying the ever-victorious.
+The history of the Tughra is curious: When Sultan Murad I. entered into a
+treaty of peace with the Ragusans, he was not sufficiently scholarly to be
+able to affix {121} his signature to the document, so he wetted his open
+hand with ink and pressed it on the paper, the first, second, and third
+fingers making smears in fairly close proximity, while the thumb and fourth
+finger were apart on either side. Within the mark thus made, the Ottoman
+Scribes wrote the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet that bore
+testimony to his ever-victorious career. The Tughra remains the symbol of
+this, the three upright forms being the three fingers of Murad, the rounded
+line to the left the thumb, and the line to the right the little finger;
+these leading forms do not vary, but the smaller characters change with the
+change of sovereign. This Murad, sometimes called Amurath, ascended the
+throne in the year 1362.[80]
+
+The personal flag of the Khedive of Egypt is green, and has in its centre
+the crescent and three white stars.
+
+By the Treaty of Berlin, July 1878, the provinces of Moldavia and
+Wallachia, formerly a portion of the Turkish Empire, and the territory of
+the Dobrudscha, were recognised as an independent State, and were formed
+into the kingdom of Roumania somewhat later, the sovereign who had
+previously held the rank of prince being crowned king in March, 1881. The
+flag of Roumania is the brilliant blue, yellow and red tricolor shown in
+Fig. 242.
+
+The flag of Servia, another small kingdom of Eastern Europe, is shown in
+Fig. 243; the royal standard is similar, except that the arms are placed in
+the centre of the blue stripe. It will be seen that the flag of Servia is
+that of Russia, Fig. 218, reversed. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878, Servia
+received a large increase of territory, and was created an independent
+State, its princely ruler being crowned king in March, 1882.
+
+The State of Bulgaria is another of the creations of the Berlin Treaty. It
+is governed by a prince who is nominally under the suzerainty of Turkey.
+Its war flag is shown in Fig. 241; the mercantile flag has no leonine
+canton, but is simply a tricolor of white, green, and red.
+
+Having already dealt with the United States, we propose now to turn our
+attention to the other Governments of the New World. The simple and
+effective ensign of Chili is represented in Fig. 161. This flag is used
+both by the Chilian men-of-war and by the vessels of the mercantile marine.
+Fig. 157 is so much of the pendant of a man-of-war as the limits of our
+page will permit. The Chilian Jack is the blue canton and white star of
+Fig. 161, treated as a distinct {122} flag, and the flags of the various
+naval ranks are also blue with a varying number of white stars.
+
+Fig. 164 is the merchant flag of New Granada; the Government ensign has in
+addition the shield of arms in the centre of the blue stripe. It will be
+observed that the colours in this tricolor are the same as those of
+Roumania, Fig. 242, only differently disposed. New Granada is composed of
+nine small States, and in 1863 these bound themselves into a closer
+confederation, and changed their collective name from New Granada to that
+of the United States of Colombia, and adopted a tricolor of yellow, blue,
+and red, only disposed horizontally instead of as in Fig. 164, vertically.
+This sounds identical with the flag of Venezuela, but in the centre of the
+Colombian flag is placed a different device, and the yellow stripe takes up
+half the space, the other two being only half its width. Fig. 165 is the
+flag of Uruguay, a State that was formerly a province of Brazil, but
+declared its independence in the year 1825. The next flag on our plate,
+Fig. 166, is the war ensign of Guatemala: the shield in the centre bears a
+scroll with the words "Libertad 15 de Setiembre, 1821," surmounted by a
+parrot, surrounded by a wreath, and having behind it crossed rifles and
+swords. The merchant flag is the plain blue, white, blue, without the
+shield. In the year 1525 the country was conquered by Don Pedro de
+Alvarado, one of the companions of Cortes, and it remained subject to Spain
+until 1821, when it gained its independence, the "Libertad" of the scroll.
+It then went in vigorously for several years of civil war, and the outcome
+of this was that the country known under Spanish rule as Guatemala, a
+country embracing all Central America, split up in 1839 into five
+Republics, all absolutely independent of each other, viz., Guatemala, San
+Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
+
+The next flag, Fig. 167, is the ensign of Costa Rica: the one represented
+is that of the Merchant Service. The war ensign differs from it in having
+in the centre the arms of the State, surrounded on either side by a trophy
+of three flags, and beneath all a wreath. Fig. 168, the flag of Paraguay,
+is very suggestive of the colours of Holland, though the device in the
+centre serves to differentiate it. Paraguay is the only State in America
+that has no sea-board, and therefore no Mercantile Marine.
+
+Brazil, discovered by the Portuguese in 1500, remained in their possession
+until a revolutionary struggle in the year 1821 ended in favour of the
+Brazilians, when an Empire was shortly afterwards established. Compared to
+the other States of South America, it has passed through long periods of
+rest and prosperity, but of late years its political position has been one
+of considerable uncertainty, the Emperor having been dismissed and the
+rival {123} ambitions for the Presidentship leading to civil war. These
+political changes have necessarily produced modifications in the flag. The
+present flag, Fig. 169, is not altogether unlike that of the late Empire,
+though in this latter case the yellow diamond on the green ground held a
+shield and Imperial crown, flanked by sprays of coffee and tobacco. In the
+present flag this yellow diamond has a blue sphere spotted over with stars
+and a white band running across it, that bears in blue letters the legend
+_Ordem e progresso_.[81] Fig. 173 is the upper portion of the man-of-war
+pendant, a blue ground with white stars. Fig. 169 is the ensign, both of
+the War and Merchant Navy of Brazil.
+
+The yellow, blue, and red tricolor, Fig. 170, is the merchant ensign of
+Venezuela; the war flag has the same stripes, and in addition the shield of
+the arms of the State is placed on the yellow band at the staff corner.
+When the Spaniards arrived off the coast in the year 1499, they found on
+landing that some of the native Indians were living in huts built on piles,
+hence they called the country Venezuela, or little Venice.
+
+Bolivia, formerly comprised in the Spanish Vice-Royalty of Colombia,
+derives its present name from Simon Bolivar, the leader of the revolution
+that gained it its freedom. Its commercial flag is shown in Fig. 171; the
+war flag only differs in having the arms of the State placed in the centre
+of the red strip.
+
+The familiar green, white, red of Italy is repeated in the flag of Mexico,
+but instead of the cross of Savoy, we have the eagle and serpent. The
+Mexican merchant ensign is the plain tricolor of green, white, red, the
+central device we see in Fig. 172 marking it as the war flag. Mexico was
+discovered in 1518, and conquered, with infamous cruelties, by Cortes.
+After a lengthened revolutionary struggle, the yoke of Spain was finally
+thrown off in 1829, and the independence of Mexico was recognised by all
+the great European Powers.
+
+Peru was discovered by the Spaniards in 1513, and was soon afterwards,
+under the command of Pizarro, added to the dominions of the King of Spain.
+Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and
+all their descendants, and committed the most frightful cruelties) until
+1826, when the independence of the country, after a prolonged struggle, was
+completely achieved. The Peruvian war ensign is given in Fig. 174, the
+merchant flag being the plain red, white, red.
+
+San Salvador, the smallest of the Central American Republics, {124}
+established itself in 1839, on the break-up of the Spanish State of
+Guatemala. Its flag is shown in Fig. 175.
+
+The country now held by the Argentine Republic was discovered in 1517, and
+settled by the Spaniards in 1553. The war ensign is represented in Fig.
+176; the merchant ensign has the three stripes, but the golden sun is
+missing.
+
+The Government of Ecuador has Fig. 177 as its war flag, the merchant ensign
+being without the ring of white stars. The last flag on the sheet (Fig.
+178) is the merchant flag of Haiti; the Government flag has the blue and
+red reduced to a broad border, the central portion of the flag being white.
+In the centre of this white portion stands a palm tree, and below it a
+trophy of arms and flags, flanked on either side by a cannon.
+
+The flag of the Cuban national forces in conflict with Spain has at the
+hoist a triangular portion of blue, one side of this triangle being the
+depth of the flag itself, and on this blue field is a white, five-pointed
+star. The rest of the flag is made up of the following horizontal and equal
+stripes--red, white, red, white, red.
+
+Japan--known to the Japanese as Niphon, derived from _Nitsu_, Sun, and
+_Phon_, the rising--the Land of the Rising Sun,[82] has adopted this rising
+sun as its emblem. Japan claims to possess a written history of over 2,500
+years, but the fairly authentic portion begins with the year 660 B.C., when
+the present hereditary succession of rulers commenced. English merchants
+visited Japan in 1612, and the Portuguese almost a century before. By 1587
+the converts of the Portuguese Jesuit Missions numbered some six hundred
+thousand. At this time some Spanish Franciscans appeared on the scene, and
+political and religious discord soon followed. The Japanese ruler took
+alarm at the Papal claim to universal sovereignty, and the Buddhist
+Priesthood and the English and Dutch Protestant traders fanned the flame of
+suspicion and jealousy. This was done so effectually that the Japanese
+Government banished all foreigners, and closed the country against them.
+This state of things lasted for over two centuries, and it was only in the
+year 1853 that Japan was re-opened to the outside world. The flag of Japan,
+the rising sun, is represented in Fig. 244. The red ball without the rays
+is used as a Jack, in which case it is placed in the centre of the white
+field. Fig. 245 is the Standard of the Emperor. The chrysanthemum is the
+emblem of Japan, and its golden flower, somewhat conventionally rendered it
+must be admitted, is the form we see introduced in Fig. 245.[83] Figs. 246
+and 248 are the transport flag and the guard flag respectively of the
+Japanese war marine. {125}
+
+The Imperial Standard of China is yellow with a blue dragon. The official
+flag book of the Admiralty gives the flag of a Chinese Admiral as made up
+of the following horizontal stripes: yellow, white, black, green, red, a
+blue dragon on a white ground being the canton in the staff-head corner.
+The merchant ensign is shown in Fig. 247. Amongst the Chinese flags
+captured in 1841, and preserved in the Royal United Service Institution, is
+one with a blue centre with an inscription in white upon it, and with a
+broad notched border of white; another has its centre of a pale blue and a
+darker blue dragon upon it, the whole being surrounded by a broad and
+deeply-notched border of red.
+
+The flag of Siam is scarlet with a white elephant thereon. Before Xacca,
+the founder of the nation, was born his mother dreamt that she brought
+forth a white elephant, and the Brahmins affirm that Xacca, after a
+metempsychosis of eighty thousand changes, concluded his very varied
+experiences as this white elephant, and thence was received into the
+company of the Celestial Deities. On this account the white elephant is
+held a sacred beast, and the Siamese rejoice to place themselves beneath so
+potent a protector. The flag of Korea bears the tiger. In the
+thickly-wooded glens of the interior, the royal tiger is found in
+formidable numbers.
+
+The flag of Sarawak, a territory of some forty thousand square miles, on
+the north-west of Borneo, is shown in Fig. 252. The Government was obtained
+in 1842 from the Sultan of Borneo by an Englishman, Sir James Brooke, and
+it is still ruled by one of the family, a nephew of the first Rajah.
+
+In Africa, the only flags that we need particularize are those of the
+Orange Free State, Liberia, the Congo State, and the South African
+Republic.
+
+The Orange Free State was founded by Dutch emigrants from the Cape of Good
+Hope. It was proclaimed British territory in 1848, but by a Convention
+entered into in 1854, the inhabitants were declared to be "to all intents
+and purposes, a free and independent people, and their Government to be
+treated thenceforth as a free and independent Government." The flag, Fig.
+249, is the only one that has orange in it, clearly in allusion to the name
+of the State, while the canton of red, white, and blue, equally shows the
+pride of the people in their Dutch origin.
+
+The flag of the Independent Negro Republic of Liberia, is shown in Fig.
+250. The population largely consists of freed slaves, emigrants from
+America and their descendants, plus the aborigines. The flag, it will be
+seen, even to the thirteen stripes, is largely based on that of the United
+States, though one would have thought that that would have been about the
+last thing they would have selected. {126}
+
+The Congo Free State in Central Africa was established in 1885 by the King
+of the Belgians; its flag is the golden star on the blue ground that we see
+in Fig. 251, a device at once simple, expressive and pleasing.
+
+In 1840, a number of Dutch Boers, dissatisfied with the Government of Cape
+Colony, established themselves in Natal, where their treatment of the
+natives was so unjustifiable that a general rising was imminent, and the
+British Government was compelled to interfere, and itself take charge of
+the district. This the Boers resented, so they crossed the Vaal and
+established themselves afresh in the wilderness. In 1854, the British
+Government recognised the Transvaal or South African Republic, and in 1881
+a fresh Convention was agreed to by which the Boers were confirmed in full
+possession of the land, subject to the recognition of the British
+suzerainty. The flag of the Transvaal Government is shown in Fig. 253.
+
+Now have we journeyed the whole world over and found in every land the
+emblems of nationality and patriotism. Unfamiliar as many of these may
+appear to us, they each represent a symbol endeared to thousands or
+hundreds of thousands of hearts, and thus are they full of warm human
+interest. For these various strips of gaily-coloured bunting, men have
+given without hesitation their lives, have poured out blood and treasure
+without stint or count of cost, and wherever they encounter them the wide
+world over, the wanderers forget for a while the alien shore or waste of
+ocean as their thoughts turn to the dear homeland.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{127}
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+    Flags as a Means of Signalling--Army Signalling--the Morse
+    Alphabet--Navy Signalling--First Attempts at Sea Signals--Old Signal
+    Books in Library of Royal United Service Institution--"England expects
+    that every man will do his duty"--Sinking Signal Codes on
+    defeat--Present System of Signalling in Royal Navy--Pilot
+    Signals--Weather Signalling by Flags--the International Signal
+    Code--First Published in 1857--Seventy-eight Thousand different Signals
+    possible--Why no Vowels used--Lloyd's Signal Stations.
+
+We propose in this, our final chapter, to deal with the use of flags as a
+means of signalling; a branch of the subject by no means wanting either in
+interest or in practical value.
+
+The flags used for army signalling are only two in number if we consider
+their design, though, as each of these is made in two sizes, the actual
+outfit consists of four flags. The large size is three feet square, and the
+smaller is two feet square; the larger sizes are clearly more visible, but
+on the other hand the smaller save weight and consequently labour; and with
+good manipulation and clear weather their messages can be followed by
+observers, with ordinary service telescopes, up to a distance of twelve
+miles or so. The poles are respectively five feet six inches long and three
+feet six inches, and the flags themselves are either white with a blue
+horizontal stripe across the centre, or wholly blue. Only one flag is used
+at a time, the first being used when the background is dark and the second
+when light, so as to ensure under all circumstances the greatest
+visibility.
+
+The person sending the signals should hold the flag pointing upwards to the
+left, and with the pole making an angle of about 25°, with an imaginary
+vertical line passing down the centre of his body. The signals are based
+upon the dot and dash system of Morse. The dot or short stroke is made by
+waving the flag from the normal position to the corresponding point on the
+right hand, while for the dash or long stroke the flag is waved till the
+head of the pole nearly touches the ground.
+
+The Morse alphabet is so constructed that the letters of most frequent
+occurrence are represented by the shortest symbols, and no letter requires
+more than four of these for its expression, while figures are all
+represented by five signs. {128}
+
+The letters of the alphabet are thus represented:--
+
+  A ·-
+  A (æ) ·-·-
+  B -···
+  C -·-·
+  D -··
+  E ·
+  F ··-·
+  G --·
+  H ····
+  I ··
+  J ·---
+  K -·-
+  L ·-··
+  M --
+  N -·
+  O ---
+  O (oe) ---·
+  P ·--·
+  Q --·-
+  R ·-·
+  S ···
+  T -
+  U ··-
+  U (ue) ··--
+  V ···-
+  W ·--
+  X -··-
+  Y -·--
+  Z --··
+  Ch ----
+
+The following code is adopted to represent figures:--
+
+  1 ·----
+  2 ··---
+  3 ···--
+  4 ····-
+  5 ·····
+  6 -····
+  7 --···
+  8 ---··
+  9 ----·
+  0 -----
+
+A space about equal in length to the dash is left between each letter, and
+a time interval of about three times the duration between each word. This
+alphabet, once learned, it is evident can be utilized in many ways.
+Steamers, by means of short and long whistles, can spell out messages to
+each other; seamen, across a harbour, can communicate by waving their arms;
+prisoners by opening and shutting their hands. It is also utilised in the
+light-flashes of the heliograph, in telegraphy again, and in various other
+directions.
+
+Classes are held at the School of Army Signalling at Aldershot, and from
+thence the knowledge permeates the Army and the Auxiliary Forces.[84] The
+requirements are steadiness, intelligence, quickness of eye-sight and of
+action, and the power to spell correctly; and it takes a man from fifteen
+to twenty days, at five hours drill a day, to learn the alphabet and the
+proper manipulation of the flags. The standard of efficiency is ten words a
+minute with the large flag or sixteen with the small. If our readers will
+take the trouble to count the letters in the first sixteen words in this
+present sentence they {129} will find that they are sixty-nine in number,
+and they will further find, if they take the additional trouble to
+translate these letters into Morse, that it will take 105 dots and 60
+dashes to do it. Our readers will probably then go on to conclude that as
+it takes one hundred and sixty-five motions of the flag, plus sixty-eight
+intervals between the letters to signal these sixteen words, a speed of ten
+words a minute is a very creditable performance either for the sender to
+work off or for the receiver to read.
+
+Besides the ordinary spelling out of the words, various arbitrary signs are
+used, thus a continued succession of dots ······ is used to call attention
+to the fact that a message is going to be sent, and a series of dashes
+------ means that it is finished. G means "go on," R is a request to "move
+more to the right" and L to "shift a little to the left"; B means "use the
+blue flag," and W "use the white flag," K.Q is "say when you are ready,"
+F.I means that figures are coming, and F.F indicates that the figures are
+finished. Those who have to receive the message may see that the background
+behind the transmitter is not quite satisfactory for the due observation of
+the flags, and they may then flash back H or O, meaning either "higher up"
+or "lower down," as the case may be, and in case of any misunderstanding,
+they will signal I.M.I, which means "please repeat," and as soon as all is
+clear, they will signal R.T, meaning "all right."
+
+As our man-of-war's-men are also instructed in this system of signalling,
+communication can be established during an expedition between the ships and
+the troops on shore. The signal for communication is a white pendant with
+two black X.X on it. Should this special flag not be forthcoming, the X.X
+-··--··- (see code of letters) is flashed at night or waved by the flag by
+day, and as soon as the preparative dots ······ have been acknowledged, the
+message is dispatched. When the message is of a general character, nothing
+more need be done, but when it is intended for a particular vessel, the
+communication is preceded by the special sign apportioned to that vessel.
+
+Though the Morse system has its place, as we have seen, in the drill of our
+blue-jackets, it does not altogether meet naval requirements. A man waving
+flags on board ship would be a scarcely conspicuous enough object, and
+intermediate vessels in a squadron would block out all view of him from
+those farthest off, hence naval communications are ordinarily made by means
+of flags exhibited from the mast head or other clearly visible position.
+Instead of one flag being used, our men-of-war have over forty, and these
+are all conspicuously distinct from each other. The messages are not spelt
+out, as in land operations, but the flags are used in various combinations,
+and the meaning of the signal is found by reference to a {130} code-book.
+These flags, it is arithmetically evident, can be transposed and grouped in
+some thousands of different ways, and the code-book contains questions and
+answers to meet the very varied requirements of naval service, and the
+special signal hoist for each.
+
+The first real attempt at sea-signalling was made during the reign of
+Charles II., when a series of signs of the most arbitrary character was
+devised, consisting for the most part of flags hoisted in various parts of
+the ship, and altering their significance as their locality was changed.
+The system was a very cumbrous one, and in 1780 Kempenfeldt, the Commander
+of the ill-fated _Royal George_, improved to some extent upon it, but even
+then the result was not very brilliant. Lord Howe, in 1792, could only make
+a total of one hundred and eighty-three signals. As yet, however, it had
+never struck anybody how much simplicity and advantage would be gained by
+employing numbered or lettered flags, and then using them in the thousands
+of combinations that such a system rendered possible. It is stated by
+various authorities--and even authorities have a way of copying from each
+other--that flags were numbered for the first time about the year 1799, but
+in the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen "An
+Essay on Signals, by an Officer of the British Navy," bearing the date
+1788.[85] The flags were numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and
+they are represented in our illustrations by Figs. 287, 288, 289, 290, 291,
+292, 293, 294, 295, and 296. It will be seen that they are all of a very
+clear and distinct character. When such a number as 444 was required, it
+would appear to be necessary to have three flags like Fig. 290--the No. 4
+of the series--but to avoid this multiplication of identical flags, a red
+triangular flag called a decimal, a white triangular called a centenary,
+and a blue triangular called a millenary, were used, and these were placed
+as required before the unit to be repeated. By this plan 444 would be
+expressed by the yellow flag, the No. 4, having below it the red and white
+pennants. Sometimes these flags really meant numbers, and then the required
+number was hoisted, plus a yellow swallow-tailed flag. Thus in answer to
+"How many guns does she carry?" if the response should be fifty, the five
+and the nought flags, Figs. 290 and 296, plus the swallowtail or cornet, as
+it is technically called, would be hoisted, while the same five-nought
+signal, without the cornet, would signify "whole fleet change course four
+points to starboard."
+
+If we want to find the English equivalent of some German word, we turn to
+the German-English half of our dictionary, but if we {131} required the
+German equivalent of our English word, we should refer to the
+English-German part of the book, and signal codes are in like manner
+divided into flag-message and message-flag. By the system we are at present
+discussing, we should find by referring to the flag-message half of our
+book, that the three flags 7, 3, 6, meant, "recall cruisers," while 8, 3,
+6, signified "sprung a leak." On the other hand, if we wished ourselves to
+send such an order we should turn to the message-flag half of our code
+book, and under the heading of "Cruisers," find all the references that
+could concern the management of such vessels until we presently found
+"Cruisers, recall--7, 3, 6," and then at once proceed to hoist those
+particular flags. Only fourteen flags, the ten numerals, the three
+pennants, and the cornet, suffice for sending many hundreds of messages,
+but the anonymous author adds, "exclusive of this arrangement, I would
+propose to have the most current signals in battle made with one flag only,
+and these should be used on the day of battle only. A similarity between
+these and the flags used as the numerical signals ought as much as possible
+to be avoided." Figs. 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, and 286, are
+illustrations of some of these. The striking design of the rising sun
+signifies "engage the enemy." Fig. 280 is an order for "close action." Fig.
+281 is an instruction to "invert the line of battle by tacking," while Fig.
+282 is a direction to "force the enemy's line." It is needless to
+particularise them all, suffice it to say that each and all are of stirring
+significance. Many minds were at work on the urgent problem of an adequate
+system of sea-signalling, and numerous plans, therefore, were suggested. It
+does not appear that the one we have just referred to as an example of
+these endeavours to solve the difficulty was ever adopted.
+
+The official "Signal Book for the Ships of War," compiled by the Admiralty
+in 1799, and afterwards amplified in 1803 by Admiral Sir Hope Popham, is of
+immense interest, as it was introduced into the Navy for the first time in
+the fleet of Nelson, and it was therefore the code of Trafalgar. In the
+copy preserved in the Library of the Royal United Service Museum is
+written, "this is a copy of the signal book by means of which the battle of
+Trafalgar was fought." All signals are by numbers. In the book in question,
+those given have been pasted over others, but some of those underneath are
+still visible: thus the flag that once represented one here stands for
+five, and the flag that heretofore was three is now seven. "If the
+Admiral"--an instruction in the book says--"should have reason to believe
+that the enemy has got possession of these signals, he will make the signal
+for changing the figures of the flags. The figure, which by the new
+arrangement each flag is to represent, is to be immediately entered in
+every ship's signal-book," and it is {132} evident that one of these
+transpositions has been made here. The ten flags of the code are
+represented in Figs. 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, and 278.
+It is very difficult to say really how the flags were arranged for the
+world-famed "England expects that every man will do his duty," as the
+numerical significance of the ten flags was so often changed during the
+exigencies of war. The book we have referred to makes Fig. 270 stand for 1,
+Fig. 278 for 2, Fig. 275 for 3, Fig. 273 for 4, Fig. 269 for 5, etc.; and
+while it declares that it was by this code Trafalgar was fought, we have no
+evidence as to who wrote this statement. It may have been the authoritative
+statement of some one at the time in full possession of the facts, or a
+mere surmise added a dozen years afterwards by some irresponsible
+scribbler. On turning to the "Naval History" of James, Vol. IV., p. 34, we
+read "there is not, that we are aware of, a single publication which gives
+this message precisely as it was delivered. The following is a minute of
+the several flags, as noted down on board more than one ship in the fleet."
+He then proceeds to give them, and the arrangement that he follows is that
+of our illustration, his 1 being Fig. 269; 2, Fig. 270; 3, Fig. 271; 4,
+Fig. 272; 5, Fig. 273; 6, Fig. 274; 7, Fig. 275; 8, Fig. 276; 9, Fig. 277;
+and 0 Fig. 278. If he may be accepted as a reliable authority, "England"
+was expressed by the flags 2, 5, and 3; "expects," by 2, 6, and 9; "that,"
+by flags 8, 6, and 3; "every," by flags 2, 6, and 1; "man," by 4, 7, and 1;
+"will," by 9, 5, and 8; "do," by 2, 2 and 0; and "his," by 3, 7, 0, those
+being the code numbers assigned to those words in the vocabulary. This
+necessitated eight distinct hoists, one group of flags for each word, but
+singularly enough the code contained no signal for "duty," so that it was
+necessary to spell this out letter by letter, making four hoists more, flag
+4 being for "d"; 2 and 1 for "u"; 1 and 9 for "t"; and 2 and 5 for "y." As
+given in one or two French historical works the signal is equally short and
+expressive: "L'Angleterre compte que chacun fera son devoir." The story of
+Nelson's signal is best told in the words of the _Victory's_ Signal
+Lieutenant, Pasco, the officer who received Nelson's orders to make it.
+"His Lordship," Lieutenant Pasco says, "came to me on the poop, and, after
+ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, said, 'Mr.
+Pasco, I want to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do
+his duty."' He added, 'You must be quick,[86] for I have one more to add,
+which is for "close action."'[87] I replied, 'If your Lordship will permit
+me to substitute "expects" for "confides" the signal will soon be {133}
+completed, because the word "expects" is in the vocabulary, and "confides"
+must be spelt.'[88] His Lordship replied in haste, and with seeming
+satisfaction, 'That will do, Pasco, make it directly.' As the last hoist
+was hauled down, Nelson turned to Captain Blackwood, who was standing by
+him, and said, 'Now I can do no more. We must trust to the Great Disposer
+of all events, and the justice of our cause; I thank God for this great
+opportunity of doing my duty.'" And Great Britain that day did not call
+upon her sons in vain, nor was the appeal to the God of Battles unheard,
+though the rejoicing of victory was turned into mourning at the loss of him
+who had so nobly done his duty in the nation's service.
+
+In the Royal Navy of the present day, a special code, requiring forty-five
+different flags, is employed. Figs. 254 to 267 inclusive, are examples of
+some of these.[89] This code, we need scarcely say, is of a confidential
+nature, and is not published anywhere for all the world to study. The
+Commercial code of International signals being now recognised by the
+principal maritime States of the world, is, by Queen's regulations, made
+use of by our men-of-war when communicating with foreign war-ships, or with
+merchant vessels whether British or foreign. The signal codes of the Royal
+Navy, when not actually in use, are kept in perforated metal cylinders, so
+that in case of capture of the vessel they may at once be thrown overboard.
+In the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen the
+Signal book of the U.S. frigate _Chesapeake_, with bullets attached to it
+for the purpose of sinking it. In the confusion incidental to the capture
+of the vessel by H.M.S. _Shannon_,[90] it fell into the hands of the
+Britisher. Besides these regulation signals of the American Navy, a second
+set, supplied to privateers, was also captured, marked "Strictly
+confidential. The commanders of private armed vessels are to keep this
+paper connected with a piece of lead or other weight, and to throw the
+whole overboard before they shall strike their flag, that they may be
+sunk." This also, instead of going to the bottom of the Atlantic, may be
+seen within half a mile of Charing Cross.
+
+Landsmen have a notion, remembering possibly that Nelson went into action
+with the signal for close action flying, that when a signal is made it is
+to be instantly obeyed, but the present system of signalling is on somewhat
+different lines. The hoisting of a signal on the flag ship is preparative.
+The ships leading the other columns repeat the signal, hoisting their
+colours three-quarters of {134} the way up the mast. The other ships each
+hoist their "answering pennants" to show that they have seen and understood
+the order. Then when the repeating ships notice that all the other vessels
+have answered, they hoist the signal right up as an intimation to the
+Admiral that this is the case. Then it is that on the Admiral's ship the
+signal is hauled down, thus giving the executive order for its purport to
+be obeyed, so that the signal is cautionary of what is coming, and the
+manoeuvre is only executed when to the eye no instructions at all are to be
+seen. The answering pennant has vertical stripes--red, white, red, white,
+red.
+
+Fig. 268 is the flag used by any vessel that wishes to communicate with a
+coastguard station, or hoisted when one coastguard station wants to send a
+message to another. Thus when Beachy Head has any notification to make to
+the neighbouring post away down at Burling Gap, the first thing to be done
+is to hoist at the masthead Fig. 268. When the men on duty at Burling Gap
+see this they hoist the answering pennant, meaning "all right, talk away,"
+and then the arms of the Beachy Head semaphore work vigorously, or the gay
+signal flags flutter in the breeze and send their message across the downs.
+
+War vessels signal to each other at night by means of the Morse system of
+short and long flashes,[91] and all the large steamship lines have night
+signals peculiar to themselves, thus the night signal of the Orient Line is
+red and blue lights burnt alternately. Any vessel seeing this, knows that
+they are dealing with this special Line and similarly report themselves,
+and after this due introduction proceed to dot and dash to their heart's
+content.
+
+The last two rows of flags on plate XXIII. are signals for pilots. These
+are either the two flags standing for P. and T. in the International Signal
+Code, a system we have yet to deal with, or it may be a single flag, the
+special pilot flag of each nation. Fig. 297 is the pilot flag of the
+Argentine Republic; Fig. 298, that of Brazil; Fig. 299, that of Ecuador.
+Fig. 300 is the pilot flag of Greece; 301, that of Japan; and 304, that of
+Spain. France, Mexico and Chili all adopt a flag like Fig. 278, a white
+flag with broad blue border, while Great Britain, Fig. 104, Germany, Fig.
+302, Belgium, Fig. 303, Denmark, Fig. 305, Holland, Fig. 306, Sweden,
+Austria-Hungary, Italy, all fly the national flag of the country with a
+broad white border to it. Russia takes the Jack, Fig. 215, for the same
+purpose, and places this {135} white band around it, while the United
+States of America takes the star-bestrewn azure canton from the national
+flag, Fig. 146, and similarly surrounds it with the broad band of white.
+
+Penalties are recoverable, as they clearly should be, if any ship uses or
+displays signals which may be mistaken for either pilot calls or signals of
+distress.
+
+The United States uses flags for its weather signals at the various
+meteorological stations. A violent storm is prognosticated by a red flag
+with a black centre. A red pennant signifies "storm approaching station,"
+while a yellow pennant signifies "call at station for special information."
+A plain white flag betokens fine weather and a plain blue one rain or snow,
+and there are various combinations of other flags that indicate direction,
+intensity, velocity and so forth. It is evident that this employment of
+flags could be made a very valuable one.
+
+Another instance of its use with which we are acquainted, is at the London
+office in St. Paul's Churchyard of the _Draper's Record_, one of the
+largest in circulation of any trade paper in the world. The citizen of
+London may see displayed from its roof by private enterprise the whole of
+the forecasts issued by the Meteorological Office, viz., the 11 a.m., the
+3.30 p.m., and the 8.30 p.m. for the South of England, which officially
+includes St. Paul's Churchyard. A white flag is hoisted for clear weather,
+a blue one for rain, while local showers are prognosticated by a flag half
+blue and half white. Changeable weather is indicated by a flag like Fig.
+267, and a coming fog by a yellow flag with black ball in its centre, like
+Fig. 258. Snow is foretold by a flag like Fig. 278, and squally weather by
+a swallow-tailed flag, having its upper half black, and the lower white. A
+plain red triangular flag is used to indicate temperature; when this is
+hoisted above other flags, it indicates rising temperature; when placed
+below, falling temperature; and when omitted we are to conclude that things
+are stationary. Thus the red flag, then below it the white one, and then
+the blue hoisted together, would mean that we might expect warmer weather,
+at first fair, but succeeded by rain, while the blue flag above the red
+would indicate that wet weather was before us, and a fall of temperature.
+
+At the 1894 meeting of the National Rifle Association at Bisley a system of
+this kind was inaugurated, in order to give those in camp an idea of the
+weather that might be expected for the ensuing twelve hours, the hoisting
+of a blue flag indicating fine weather or moderate wind, a red one
+foretelling stormy weather or strong wind; green, pointing to unsettled
+weather or gusty wind, and a yellow flag indicating thunder or rain storms.
+For shooting purposes a knowledge of the strength of the wind is very
+valuable. {136}
+
+The development of a code of flag signals seems to have exercised a great
+fascination on many minds, and the result has been that until the general
+adoption of the International code things had got into a somewhat chaotic
+state. Some systems had many excellent points in them, while others broke
+down under the strain of practical use. In some cases, too, the claims of
+patriotism influenced the choice, it being difficult for an Englishman or
+an American to believe that the scheme of a Frenchman or German could
+possibly be better than the home-grown article.
+
+The systems best known in this country are the Admiralty codes of 1808,
+1816, and 1826, Lynn's in 1818, Squire's in 1820, Raper's in 1828,
+Philipps' in 1836, Eardley Wilmot's in 1851, the code of Rogers, the
+American, in 1854, the French code of Reynolds in 1855, and the system
+devised by Marryat in 1856, all being superseded by that of the Board of
+Trade.
+
+The International code of signals was prepared and first published in
+April, 1857, in accordance with the views and recommendations of a
+Committee appointed by the Lords of the Privy Council. Three members,
+Admiral Beechey, Captain Robert Fitzroy, and Mr. J. H. Brown, the
+Registrar-General of Seamen, were named by the Board of Trade; one member,
+Admiral Bethune, by the Admiralty; an elder brother, Captain Bax, was
+appointed as a member by the Trinity House; Mr. W. C. Hammett and Captain
+Halstead were the members named by Lloyds; while the Liverpool Shipowners'
+Association, and the General Shipowners' Society, each, by the nomination
+of a member, had a voice in the discussion.
+
+After a deliberation of more than a year, the examination of the thirteen
+then existing codes and due attention to any practical suggestion made to
+them, a mature and valuable scheme was promulgated. Eighteen flags in all,
+viz., one burgee, four pennants, and thirteen square flags, were employed,
+and these represented the consonants of the alphabet. These are depicted in
+the three upper rows on plate XXIV. Figs. 307 to 324, the letter it stands
+for in the code being placed by each flag. These flags are combined in
+various ways, either in twos, threes, or fours, and are always read
+downwards, thus Fig. 325 must be read B.D.T.F; if we read it the reverse
+way, as F.T.D.B, it would have an entirely different significance.
+
+Of the two-flag signals we have three varieties. Should the burgee, Fig.
+307, be uppermost it constitutes what is termed an attention signal; thus
+the hoisting of B.D signifies, "What ship is that?" If the upper flag be a
+pennant C.D.F. or G it is a compass signal; thus G.F means
+west-north-west-half-west. If a square flag be uppermost it is an urgency
+signal; thus, N.C signifies "am in distress," or N.J "am driving, no more
+anchors to let go." {137}
+
+Signals made with three flags are not classified according to the upper
+flag; they relate to subjects of general inquiry or communication of news.
+In the lower portion of Plate XXIV. we have given five examples of these.
+Fig. 330, flags B.P.Q, asks "Do you wish to be reported?" while the
+hoisting of P.D.S, see Fig. 332, replies, "Report me to Lloyds' Agent."
+Fig. 333, H.V.F, asks, "Do you want assistance?" while Fig. 334, G.B.H,
+enquires, "Has any accident happened?" Fig. 331, made up of flags V.K.C,
+gives the reassuring answer to both enquiries--"All safe." As weather
+signals, we find "barometer rising" indicated by G.F.W; "barometer falling"
+by G.H.B; and "barometer standing," by G.H.C. Fine weather is
+prognosticated by the group H.M.S; a breeze off sea is foretold in the
+combination H.S.V; and a breeze off land by H.S.W.
+
+Signals composed of four flags are divided into different sections again,
+according to the form of the uppermost flag employed. If this upper flag be
+either of the pennants C.D or F, it indicates that the signal is what is
+called vocabulary. If the upper be the burgee--the letter B of the code--it
+is a geographical signal; thus, any vessel beating up channel and seeing
+Fig. 325, made up of B.D.T.F, hoisted from a lighthouse, would, even if
+uncertain before, know their position, as this signal is the one specially
+assigned to the Eddystone. Fig. 326, the letters B.D.P.Q, signifies that
+the vessel flying it hails from the port of London, while B.F.Q.T. is
+Edinburgh, and so on. All names of ships are expressed by four letters,
+thus N.V.B.Q is the code signal (Fig. 327) of the steamship _Germanic_;
+M.N.D.L (Fig. 328) that of the _Hesperus_; and Fig. 329, made up of
+G.R.C.T, is the special grouping assigned to H.M.S. _Devastation_. All
+these names are recorded in the Shipping List, so that two vessels passing
+each other in mid-ocean are able at once to determine each others' names if
+within sighting distance of the flags run up. Should we see a stately liner
+coming to port, flying M.T.L.Q, we recognise that it is the _Australia_ of
+the great Peninsula and Oriental Line, but if she runs up L.H.T.B then she
+is the Orient Company's boat _Orotava_. Some names occur frequently, thus
+other _Australias_, belonging to various owners, are distinguished by the
+code signals R.L.H.V, J.T.G.K, M.P.F.C, M.Q.N.G, M.T.W.D, W.F.T.N, etc.,
+etc. Figs. 355, 356, 357, 358, 359 are all code signals of various
+_Australias_. While the Peninsular and Oriental Company has also a
+_Victoria_, K.M.Q.F., they have no monopoly of the name. There are numerous
+other boats of that popular designation, but even when vessels have the
+same name no two vessels ever have the same code letters assigned to them.
+Other _Victorias_, for example, are differentiated, as W.Q.M.N., L.S.H.R,
+K.P.G.Q, M.K.C.H, M.S.P.B, M.Q.C.J, L.D.F.H, T.R.B.N, K.J.H.P, T.D.R.F,
+etc., etc. Figs. 350, 351, 352, 353, {138} 354 are all _Victorias_; and
+Figs. 360, 361, 362, 363, 364 are the flag-signals of various _Britannias_.
+Our readers will see at once how distinctive they are. Figs. 335 to 349
+inclusive are the special flags of well-known steamships of the Peninsular
+and Oriental, the Orient Line, and the _Compagnie Générale
+Transatlantique_.
+
+Should the vessel be a yacht, it is the _Aline_ if she shows the flags
+P.W.N.D; the _Star of the Sea_ if her signal is T.N.B.H; but if it is the
+_Meteor_ we shall be aware of the fact from her hoisting the four flags
+L.C.T.P. The flag signal of the _Valkyrie_ is L.F.M.G.
+
+Applications for the allotment of a code-signal, for the purpose of making
+ships' names known at sea, should be made, if of the United Kingdom, to the
+Registrar General of Shipping, Custom House, and, if belonging to a Colony,
+to the Registrar at the port to which the vessel belongs. If a ship to
+which this International Code Signal has been alloted is reported wrecked,
+lost, or sold to a foreigner, and her register is in consequence cancelled,
+the signal letters allotted to her are also cancelled, so that if the ship
+is afterwards recovered or re-purchased from foreigners, either in her
+original or some other name, new signal letters will be necessary, and the
+owner must make application anew for another allotment, as the signal
+letters the vessel originally bore may have been in the interval
+re-allotted.
+
+The flags to be hoisted at one time never exceed four, and it is an
+interesting arithmetical fact, that, with these eighteen flags, never using
+more than four at a time, over seventy-eight thousand different
+combinations can be made. With these flags, only using two at a time, 306
+different arrangements can be made, while by using three at a time we get
+4,896 possibilities, and by using four at a time, we can make 73,440
+changes; a total in all of 78,642 variations made from these simple
+elements. Marryat's code, prior to the introduction of the International,
+being the one most in use, twelve out of its sixteen flags were, to save
+expense, incorporated in the new code. Their significance was, however,
+entirely changed. Marryat's flags, too, were numerals, while the
+International code, as we have seen, has its flags named after the letters
+of the alphabet.
+
+Proposals are in the air to add eight new flags to the code, the X, Y, and
+Z, and the five vowels, since it is held that even the great number of
+combinations now possible may in time not suffice. The reason for the
+absence of the vowels is a somewhat curious one. Directly vowels are
+introduced we begin to spell words, and it was found that amongst the
+thousands of combinations possible, would be presently included all the
+profane, obscene, and otherwise objectionable four-letter words of the
+whole world. To hoist D.B.M.N could offend no one's susceptibilities, but
+to {139} run up the signal D.A.M.N in response to an enquiry is quite
+another matter, and it must be remembered that as this code is used by all
+civilised nations, a word that is merely meaningless in one country might
+be most offensive in another. An English Captain might hoist as a necessary
+signal J.A.L.P. or F.L.U.M. and see no possible objection to it, but "jalp"
+or "flum" might to the people of some other nationality carry a most
+atrocious significance.
+
+It is a practical necessity that all connected with the sea should
+understand the use of the International code, therefore, the Lords
+Commissioners of the Admiralty require that all Royal Naval Reserve men who
+act as Masters or Mates of ships should be instructed in its working, and
+the Board of Trade makes like requirements from all candidates for Masters'
+or Mates' Certificates. Its International character is a most valuable
+feature, as by its use two captains, say a Dane and a Greek, or a Russian
+and a Spaniard, who, on the quay, could not comprehend a word of each
+other's language, can at sea, by this common flag-language, come to a
+perfectly clear understanding of each other's need, or impart any
+information required. It is the only code used at the signal stations
+around our coasts. Lloyds' have thirty-three of these signal stations at
+Dover, Beachy Head, Lundy Island, Dungeness, Flamborough Head, St.
+Catherine's Point, North Foreland, and other conspicuous points on our line
+of ocean traffic, and abroad again at Aden, Ascension, Gibraltar, Bermuda,
+Honolulu, Suez, Perim, Malta, Teneriffe, and elsewhere, and here too, the
+International is the only code recognised.
+
+This "Lloyds," that we may see daily referred to in the newspapers, is a
+Corporation that, amongst other marine business, distributes shipping
+intelligence. A Mr. Edward Lloyd, in the seventeenth century, kept a coffee
+house in Tower Street, which in time from the daily gathering there of
+merchants, captains, and others interested in marine affairs, became a
+centre for shipping and underwriting news and business. In the year 1692 it
+was moved to Lombard Street, and in 1774 the coffee supplying part of the
+business was abandoned and rooms were taken in the Royal Exchange. During
+the wars with Napoleon, the Government was often indebted to the Committee
+of Lloyds' for the earliest information of important events all over the
+world. Lloyds' has its agents in every port, and by its complete
+organisation and the potent aid of the telegraph, the shipping business of
+the world is brought day by day before us. Vessels spoken far out on the
+ocean are reported by the vessel that spoke them immediately on its arrival
+at any port. Thus a sailing-vessel journeying from London to Vancouver may
+be five months or more before it touches land, {140} but during that time
+it is sighted by other vessels from time to time, and these report having
+seen it, and that all was well on board. So the mother knows that her son,
+who is parted from her by thousands of miles of ocean, has got thus far in
+health and safety; and the owners of the vessel learn that their venture
+has so far surmounted the perils of Cape Horn and the other dangers of the
+deep. The good ship is drawing nearer at each report to the end of her long
+voyage, and on arrival at last off Vancouver, as the land is sighted, the
+signal flags run up once more to the masthead, the news of her coming is
+flashed across continent and ocean, and the London newspaper of the next
+morning contains the brief notification that far exceeds to anxious hearts
+all else of interest its broad pages may contain.
+
+Familiarity, though it may not necessarily breed contempt, dulls the sense
+of the wonder of it all, and yet how marvellous it is! We have before us
+the _Standard_, that came into our hands about seven o'clock this morning,
+and we find from it that yesterday the _Glenshiel_ had arrived at Hong
+Kong, that the _Arab_, from Cape Town, had just put in at Lisbon, that the
+_Sardinian_, from Quebec, had reached Moville, that the _Circassian_ was
+safely at New York, that the _Orizaba_, speeding on to Sydney, had at 2
+a.m. passed the desolate shores of arid Perim, that the _Danube_, from
+Southampton, had at 6 a.m. entered the harbour of Rio Janeiro. Of this, and
+much else of the same tenor, may we read in a space of a quarter-column or
+so of the paper as we sit at breakfast and see pass before us a panorama of
+world-wide interest and extent; and to accomplish this result, the flags we
+have figured have been a potent factor.
+
+
+
+Though we have covered much ground, it must have been patent to all readers
+who have thus far companioned us that much detail was necessarily omitted,
+unless our book had to grow to the dimensions of an encyclopædia. It would
+probably, for instance, take some fifty figures or so to give all the
+distinctive flags of the various government departments, official ranks,
+etc., of a single Great Power. We trust nevertheless that while our labours
+have been by no means exhaustive, they have been instrumental in showing
+that there is much of interest in flag-lore, and that an increased
+knowledge and appreciation of our subject may be one result of our pleasant
+labours, and prove full justification for our work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{141}
+
+INDEX.
+
+          A.
+  Aargau, flag of   116
+  "Acta Sanctorum," the   38
+  Admiral's flag, R.N.   56
+  Admiralty, flag of the   71, 72
+  Agincourt, battle of   106
+  Agincourt, flags at   5
+  Agnus Dei, as device on flag   22
+  _Ailsa_, flag of the yacht   73
+  Allan Line, flag of the   75
+  Allotment of code signals   138
+  Ambulance flag   117
+  Ancient Irish harp   33
+  Anchor as badge   63, 71, 87, 100, 114
+  Andrew, cross of St.   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
+  Andrew, St., of Scotland   37, 42, 44
+  Andrew, St., of Russia   103, 104
+  Andrew, St., order of   102
+  Anne, Standard of Queen   35
+  Annunciation on flag   4
+  Answering pennant   134
+  Antelope as a device   16
+  Antiquity, standards of   2
+  Antwerp, device of city of   111
+  Anvil as device on flag   7
+  Argentine Republic, flag of   124
+  Armada, defeat of the   3
+  Arms of Canada   81, 82
+  Arms of Washington   91
+  Army, flags of the   61
+  Army signalling   127, 128, 129
+  Arragon, arms of   111
+  Articles of War   56
+  Assaye, special flag for   65
+  Assyrian standards   2
+  Athene, owl of   2
+  Australian Steam Navigation Company's house flag   74
+  Austro-Hungarian flags 101, 102
+  Avondale flag   43
+  Awdeley, standard of Sir John   17
+
+          B.
+  Bacon on sea-power   84, 85
+  Baden, flag of   101
+  Badge   9, 13, 15, 21, 62, 66, 67, 83, 84, 117
+  Bahamas, Badge of the   84
+  Balmoral tartan   1
+  Banner, its nature   10
+  Banneroll, kind of flag   18
+  Bannockburn, battle of   44
+  Barbadoes, badge of   83
+  Barcelona, arms of   111
+  Bar, banner of Sir John de   11
+  Bardolph, banner of Sir Hugh   11
+  Basel, flag of city of   116
+  Bavaria, flag of   101, 119
+  Bayeux tapestry, flags represented in   19, 22
+  Bear as a device   1, 2
+  Beau-seant of Knights Templars   24
+  Beaver as a device   1, 30
+  Bede on flags   4
+  "Beehive of the Romish Church"   3
+  Bees of the Napoleons   106, 109
+  Belgium, flags of   23, 118
+  Bermuda, badge of   84
+  Berne, flag of   116
+  Beverley, flag of   5
+  Birkenhead, burning of the   64
+  Black and white flag of Prussia   98
+  Black as a flag colour   7, 24, 25
+  Black Swan, device of the   84
+  Blackwall line of shipping   74
+  Black Watch, the   62
+  Blenheim, battle of   64, 66
+  Blue blanket of Edinburgh   42
+  Blue ensign   40, 56, 73, 78, 83
+  Board of Trade, flag of the   71
+  Bohemia, flag of   102
+  Bolivia, flag of   23, 123
+  Bombardment of Scio   118
+  Boots and shoes on a flag   7
+  Bordered Jack   48, 58
+  Botetourte, banner of Sir John   11
+  Bourbon kings, the   107
+  {142}
+  Brabant, lion of   112
+  Brass of Sir John Daubernoun   18
+  Brazil, flag of   23, 24, 123
+  Brazil, pendant of   20
+  Bremen, flag of port of   99
+  _Britannia_, flag of the yacht   73
+  British East Africa, device of,  84
+  British Guiana, badge of   84
+  British North Borneo, badge of   84
+  Broad pendant   56
+  Brunswick, arms of   35
+  Brunswick, flag of   101
+  Buckles as device on flag   7
+  Bugle-horn as a device   15
+  Builder's square on flag   6
+  Bulgaria, flag of   121
+  Bunker's Hill, battle of   87
+  Bunting as material for flags   22
+  Burgee, variety of flag   19, 73
+  Burgundy, flag of   111, 112
+  Burning of rebel colours   70
+  Butler's "Lives of the Fathers"   39
+  Butterflies as a flag device   17
+
+          C.
+  Campbell on the national flag   54
+  Canada, Dominion of   10
+  Canada, flags of Dominion of   80
+  Canadian Pacific steamship line   75
+  Candlemakers' flag, the   7
+  Canterbury Cathedral, flags in   66
+  Cantonal colours   116
+  Cape of St. Martin   105
+  Cape St. Vincent, action off   41
+  Castle Line, house flag of the   75
+  Castle on flag as a device   111, 112
+  Cavalry standards   65
+  Cavers standard, the   43
+  Ceylon, device of the Colony of   84
+  Chapel of Royal College, Chelsea, flags in   3, 66
+  Chaucer, quotation from   12, 18
+  Cheering to order   102
+  Cherbourg, flag of port of   75
+  Chili, flag of   121
+  Chili, pendant of   20
+  Chinese flags   125
+  Chrysanthemum flag of Japan   124
+  Coastguard flag   134
+  Codes for flag-signalling   136
+  Coffee plant on flag   123
+  Coins, devices on   2, 88, 90, 120
+  Colombia, flag of United States of   122
+  Colonial Defence Act   78, 79, 80
+  Colonial flags   20, 40, 78
+  Colonies, value of   76, 77
+  Colour party   64
+  Colours, Queen's   61, 65, 67
+  Colours, regimental   61, 65, 67
+  Colours used in flags   23
+  Columbus, flag flown by   86, 111
+  Commodore's broad pendant   56
+  Commonwealth flags   48
+  Company or house flags   74, 75
+  Compasses as a device   6
+  Compass signals   136
+  Confederate States of America   27, 94, 95
+  Congo Free State, flag of   126
+  Conquest of Ireland   33
+  Consecrated banner   3, 103
+  Constantine, Labarum of   2, 3, 51
+  Consular flag   71
+  Consul-General, Russian, flag of   104
+  Cornet, variety of flag   19, 130
+  Costa Rica, flag of   122
+  Courtenay, banner of Sir Hugh de   11
+  Covenanter flags   24, 43, 91
+  Crescent as device   11, 15, 88, 95, 119, 120
+  Croatia, flag of   102
+  Cromwell, arms of   35
+  Cromwell, funeral of   19
+  Cross of St. Andrew   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
+  Cross of St. George   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
+  Cross of St. Patrick   4, 51, 53, 116
+  Crown of Charlemagne   35
+  Crowns of Ireland   33
+  Cuba, flag of   124
+  Culloden, battle of   70
+  Cunard Line, house flag of   74
+  Customs Department, flag of   71
+  Czarina, standard of the   102
+  Czar, standard of the   102, 103
+
+          D.
+  Dalmatia, flag of   102
+  Dannebrog, the   115
+  Demerara and Berbice Steamship Company   74
+  Denis, St., flag of   5
+  {143}
+  Denmark, flags of   115
+  Derivation of word flag   8
+  Desjardins on French flag   107
+  Devitt and Moore house flag   74
+  Diana, crescent of   119
+  Diplomatic Service, flag of   71
+  Dipping the flag   25
+  Dragon as a device   17, 125
+  Drayton, quotation from   15
+  Durham, St. Cuthbert of   5
+
+          E.
+  Eagle as a device   41, 91, 93, 94, 98, 101, 102, 105, 109, 110
+  Early Spanish flags   27
+  East Africa Company, German   100
+  East India Company, flag of   47, 89
+  East Kent Regiment, flags of   66
+  East Prussia, flag of   98
+  Ecclesiastical flags often pictorial   4
+  Ecuador, flag of   124
+  Eddystone Light flag signal   137
+  Edinburgh Cathedral, flags in   68
+  Edinburgh Trained Bands   42
+  Edmonson on flag usage   9
+  Edward the Confessor, arms of   34
+  Edward III., "King of the Seas"   25
+  Edward VI., funeral of   17
+  Egypt, ancient, standards of   2
+  Egyptian flags, modern   120, 121
+  Electoral bonnet   52
+  Elephant as a device   65, 84, 125
+  Elephant, order of the   115
+  Elizabeth, funeral of Queen   17
+  Elizabeth, thanksgiving service   3
+  Elsass, flag of   101
+  Emperor of Germany   98
+  Ensign   8
+  Ermine as a flag device   24
+  Errors in flag-making   58, 59, 60
+  Excise, flag of the   71
+  Eye as a device on flag   7
+
+          F.
+  Facings of the regiment   62
+  Falcon as a device   17
+  Favyn "Le Théâtre d'honneur"   4, 107
+  Fiji, badge of colony   84
+  Files represented on trade flag   7
+  Flag-book of the Admiralty   120
+  Flag-lore valuable   58
+  Flagons on trade flag   7
+  Flag-signalling   127, _et seq._
+  Flanders, badge of   111
+  Flashing messages at night   134
+  Fleur-de-lys   21, 34, 36, 106, 108, 109, 112
+  Flodden, battle of   6
+  Florida, settlement of   86
+  Florin, arms on the   32
+  Fly of a flag, the   10
+  Fork and spoon on a flag   7
+  Four-flag signals   137
+  France, flags of   1, 21, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110
+  Franco-German War of 1870   97
+  Fribourg, flag of   116
+  Frogmorton, standard of   17
+  Funeral obsequies, flags at   6, 17, 18, 19, 22
+
+          G.
+  Garter, order of the   38
+  Gautier on the Swiss flag   116
+  Geneva Convention   117
+  Geneva, flag of   116
+  Geographical signals   137
+  George, St., cross of   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87,
+      116
+  George, St., of England   36, 37, 116
+  George, St., of Russia   102, 103
+  German Unity   97, 98
+  Germany, flags of   99, 100
+  Globe on flag   63, 87
+  Gnu as a flag device   84
+  Golden Legend, the   37
+  Gonfalon, kind of flag   8
+  Government, departments, flags of   71
+  Governor-General of Canada, flag of   81
+  Governors of Colonies, flags of   81, 84
+  Grandison, banner of Sir William de   11
+  Gray, quotation from   9
+  Greater Britain   77
+  Great Seal of Canada   83
+  Great Seal of Richard I.   30
+  Greece, flag of   119
+  Green and white of the Tudors   21
+  Green as a flag colour   23, 43, 113, 123
+  Greyhound as a device   17
+  {144}
+  Growth of the Italian State   113
+  Guards, flags of the   65
+  Guatemala, flag of   23, 122
+  Guidon, form of flag   21
+  Guild flags   6, 7
+  Guinea Company's flag   27
+
+          H.
+  Half-mast high, flags at   25
+  Hamburg, flag of city of   99
+  Hammer represented on flag   6, 7
+  Hand as a device   2
+  Hanover, arms of   29, 35, 52
+  Hanover, flag of   101
+  Hanseatic League, flag of   99
+  Harfleur, siege of   12
+  Harleian MS. on flags   16, 21
+  Harp of Ireland   4, 29, 32, 33, 34, 49, 54
+  Hayti, flag of   23, 124
+  Heavenly succour   37, 42, 44, 106, 115
+  Henry V., standard of   16
+  Henry VII., flags in chapel of   12
+  Heraldic Exhibition, Edinburgh   43
+  Heraldic requirements in flag devising   23, 54
+  Hesse, flag of   101
+  Highland tartans   1
+  "History and principles of Heraldry"   10
+  Hohenzollerns, arms of the   99
+  Hoisting one flag over another   25
+  Hoist of the flag, the   10
+  Holderton, banner of Sir John de   11
+  Holland, flags of   117, 118
+  Hong Kong, badge of colony of   84
+  Horse as a device   2
+  Horsham, political colours at   8
+  House flags   24, 74, 75
+  House of Orange, flag of   117
+  Hungary, flag of   23, 102
+
+          I.
+  Idolatrous emblem   87
+  Illiterate voters, mistakes of   7, 8
+  Imperial Eagle   66, 101, 102
+  Inscriptions on flags   3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90,
+      93, 122, 123
+  International signal code   133, 136, 137, 138
+  Investiture of knight-banneret   14
+  Invocation of saints   3
+  Ireland joined to Great Britain   32
+  Iron cross of Germany   100
+  Isandlwana, battle of   63, 69
+  Istria, flag of   102
+  Italy, flags of   23, 113, 114
+
+          J.
+  James II., statue of   35
+  Japan, flags of   124
+  Jerusalem, arms of city of   114, 115
+  Jewish standards   3
+  Joan of Arc, standard of   4
+  Jove, Eagle of   2
+
+          K.
+  Karlaverok, siege of   11, 18
+  Kasan, arms of province of   102
+  Katharine of Arragon flag-making   13
+  Kempenfeldt's signal code   130
+  Key as a device on flag   15
+  Khorsabad, slabs from   2
+  Kingdom of Hungary   101
+  King's Own Borderers   63
+  Kiow, arms of province of   102
+  Knights-banneret   14
+  Knights of the Bath, banners of   12
+  Knights of the Garter, banners of   12
+  Knights Templars, banner of the   24
+  Köbel, book on costume and flags   101
+  Korea, flag of kingdom of   125
+
+          L.
+  Labarum of Constantine   2, 3, 51
+  Labuan, badge of colony of   84
+  La Haye's book on flags   87
+  Lamartine on the red flag   109
+  Lancer pennon   14, 19
+  Landing of Charles II.   47
+  Land of the rising sun   124
+  Laurel wreath on flag   49, 81
+  Lawyers, flag of the   7
+  Leeward Isles, badge of the   84
+  Leon and Castile, arms of   86, 110, 111
+  Liberia, flag of   125
+  Liberty, figure of   94, 118
+  Lion of Scotland   4, 29, 31, 34
+  Lions of England   4, 29, 30, 34
+  {145}
+  Livery colours   7, 14, 17, 21
+  Livy on Vexillum   2
+  Lloyd's signal stations   139
+  Locksmiths, flag of the   7
+  London, port of, flag signal   137
+  London Trained Bands   41, 67
+  Lone Star State, flag of the   95
+  Lord Cardross, flag of   16
+  Lord High Admiral of England   72, 80
+  Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, flag of   71
+  Lord Mayor's Show, flags at   19, 20
+  Loss of colours at Edgehill   65
+  Lothringen, flag of   101
+  Louisiana, flag of State of   94
+  Louisiana, settlement of   86
+  Lozenges as a device on flag   41
+  Lubeck, flag of city of   99
+  Lucerne, flag of   116
+  Lunenburg, arms of   35
+  Lydgate, the duty of chivalry   12
+
+          M.
+  Maccabees, standard of the   3
+  Machyn, diary of   6, 17, 21, 39, 111
+  Mackay, extract from   57, 58
+  Mail service flag   72
+  Mainsail emblazoned  as banner   12
+  Malplaquet, battle of   64
+  Man-of-war pendant   20, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
+  Maple-leaf of Canada   30, 81
+  Marmion, quotation from   8, 18
+  Martin, description of Western Islands   1
+  Marseillaise, the   98
+  Marseilles, flag of port of   75
+  Martlets on flag   34
+  Massachusetts, flag of   3, 87
+  _Mayflower_, sailing of the   87
+  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, flag of   101
+  Mediæval spelling   6, 22
+  Mediterranean and New York Company   75
+  Merchant flag, red ensign   40, 47, 58, 73, 80
+  Merchant Shipping (Colours) Act   58
+  Metal-workers, flag of the   7
+  Meteorological signals   135
+  Mexico, flag of   23, 123
+  Milton, quotation from   8
+  Minotaur as a device   2
+  Minden, battle of   64
+  "Mirror for Magistrates," quotation from   15
+  Mohammedan flags often green   24
+  Monasteries, flags of   5
+  Monk, funeral of General   18, 22
+  Monogram, sacred, on flag   3, 42, 51
+  Monthermer, banner of Sir Ralph   11
+  Morse alphabet for signalling   127, 128, 129
+  Mottoes on flags   3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90, 93,
+      122, 123
+  Mutiny in the Royal Navy   25
+
+          N.
+  Napoleon, flags at tomb of   4
+  Nassau, arms of   29, 35
+  Natal, device of colony of   84
+  Naval Discipline Act   56
+  Naval Exhibition at Chelsea   41
+  Navy signalling   129, _et seq._
+  Nelson, funeral of   18, 22
+  Neville's Cross, battle of   5
+  New Brunswick, arms of province of   82
+  Newfoundland, badge of colony of   83
+  New Granada, flag of   122
+  New Guinea, badge of colony of   84
+  New South Wales, badge of colony of   84
+  New Zealand, badge of   84
+  New Zealand Shipping Company   24, 75
+  Night signalling at sea   134
+  Nisbet on the tressure   32
+  Norie's "Flags of All Nations"   26
+  Northallerton, sacred flags at   5
+  North German Confederacy   99
+  Norway, flag of   115
+  Nova Scotia, arms of province of   82
+  Nova Scotia, settlement of   87
+  Novgorod, arms of province of   102
+
+          O.
+  Obsolete flags   8, 22, 26
+  Ontario, arms of province of   82
+  Orange flag   8
+  Orange Free State, flag of   23, 125
+  Order of Black Eagle   100
+  {146}
+  Ordnance Department flag   71
+  Orient Steam Navigation Company   24, 134
+  Oriflamme   105
+  Oudenarde, battle of   64
+  Owl of Athene   2
+
+          P.
+  Palmetto palm on flag   94, 95
+  _Pamiot Azof_, flag of the   104
+  Papal States, flag of the   23, 114, 115
+  Paraguay, flag of   122
+  Paris, arms of city of   109
+  Passion symbols on flag   6
+  Patrick, St., life of   51, 52
+  Pendant or pennant,   20, 40, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
+  Peninsular and Oriental Company, flag of   74
+  Pennoncelle or pencel   19
+  Pennon, nature of the   14, 18, 19
+  Pepys, extract from diary of   55
+  Percy, banner of Sir Henri de   11
+  Percy lion   11, 15
+  Percy motto   15, 16
+  Percy standard   15
+  Persepolis, sculptures of   2
+  Peruvian flag   123
+  Pictorial flags   4
+  Pilgrim Fathers, the   87
+  Pilot flag   48, 100, 104, 134
+  Pine-apple as a device   84
+  Pine-tree flag   87, 88, 89
+  Plantagenet livery colours   21
+  Pliny on Roman standards   2
+  Poland, flag of   105
+  Political colours   7
+  Political devices on flags   4
+  Pomerania, flag of   101
+  Popham's signal code   131
+  Portcullis as a device   21
+  Portobello, capture of   41
+  Ports, flags of   75
+  Portugal, flags of   112, 113
+  Pottery, representation of flags on   89
+  Precedence a difficulty   28
+  Presentation of colours   3, 66
+  President, U.S.A., flag of   93, 94
+  Printed flags   23
+  Protectorate flag, the   50
+  Prussian eagle   98
+
+          Q.
+  Quarantine flag, the   25, 59
+  Quebec, arms of province of   82
+  Queen's colour   61, 65
+  Queensland, badge of colony of   83
+  Queen's Regulations   54, 55, 64, 71, 78, 81
+
+          R.
+  Ramilies, battle of   64
+  Rattlesnake flag   1, 13, 87, 88
+  Raven of the Danes   13
+  Rebel colors burnt   70
+  Red ensign   40, 47, 58, 73, 80
+  Red flag of revolution   25, 59, 109
+  Relics of saints worked into flag   5
+  Religious character of early flags   4, 5, 22
+  Religious service   3, 103
+  Revenue flag, U.S.A.   93
+  Rey on the French flag   107
+  Rhode Island, flag of   87
+  Richard II., standard of   17
+  Ridre, standard of Sir William de   11
+  Riga, flag of port of   75
+  Ripon, St. Wilfrid's banner at   5
+  Rolls of arms   10
+  Rome, standards of ancient   2, 42
+  Roses as a flag device   16, 21
+  Rotterdam, flag of port of   75
+  Rouen, capture of   5, 38, 112
+  Roumania, flag of   121
+  Royal Colonial Institute   76
+  Royal Horse Artillery of 1813   19
+  Royal Marines   63
+  Royal Naval Reserve   40, 56, 57, 73, 79, 139
+  Royal Navy, flag code of the   133
+  Royal Oak on coins   88
+  Royal Standard   11, 29, 34, 48, 54, 59, 78
+  Royal United Service Museum   24, 125, 130, 131
+  Royal Yacht Squadron, flag of the   72
+  Royston, political colours at   8
+  Russia, flags of   24, 102, 103, 104, 105
+  Russian American Company's flag   26
+
+          S.
+  Sacred monogram on flag   3
+  Salique law, operation of   36
+  Salmon as a flag device   82
+  Saluting the flag   26, 55, 56
+  {147}
+  San Salvador, flag of   124
+  Sarawak, flag of   125
+  Sardinia, flag of   26
+  Savoy, flag of   27, 113, 123
+  Saxe-Coburg Gotha, flag of   101
+  Saxony, arms of   35
+  Saxony, flag of   100
+  Schomburg-Lippe, flag of   101
+  School of Army Signalling   128
+  "Scotland for ever"   70
+  Scots Greys 66
+  Scottish grievance as to arms   31, 45, 46, 53
+  Scottish variation of Union flag   46
+  Scott, quotation from   8, 29
+  Servia, flag of   121
+  Seven Champions of Christendom,  38
+  Seventeenth Lancers   66
+  Shakespeare, quotation from   15, 37
+  _Shannon_ and _Chesapeake_ duel   90
+  Shears as a device on trade flag   7
+  Siam, flag of kingdom of   125
+  Signal-book of _Chesapeake_   133
+  Signalling by flags   20, 23, 127, _et seq._
+  Simon de Montfort, banner of,  12
+  Skull and cross-bones device   66
+  Sledge flags of Arctic expedition   16
+  South Australia, badge of   83
+  South Carolina, flag of   87, 88, 94
+  Southern Cross   30, 80, 96
+  Sovereignty of the seas   25, 26
+  Spain, flags of   1, 24, 110, 111, 112
+  Spelling, mediæval liberty of   6, 22
+  Spenser, quotation from   36
+  Sphinx as a badge   62, 63
+  Spoon and fork on trade flag   7
+  Standard, nature of the   14
+  St. Andrew, cross of   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
+  Stars and bars, C.S.A.   95, 96
+  Stars and stripes, U.S.A.   59
+  St. Denis, flag of   105
+  Stewart on tartans   1
+  St. Gallen, flag of   116
+  St. George, cross of   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
+  St. Helena, badge of colony of   84
+  Storm signals by flags   135
+  "Story of Thebes," quotation from   12
+  St. Patrick, cross of   4, 51, 53, 116
+  Straits Settlement, device of   84
+  Streamer, variety of flag   20, 21
+  Strictly confidential signals   133
+  Stuart, livery colours of house of   21
+  Sun as a device   2, 17
+  Swallow-tail flag   14, 18, 93, 110, 115, 116, 130
+  Swan, black, of Western Australia   84
+  Sweden, flag of   115
+  Switzerland, flag of   116
+  Swynnerton, standard of Sir Thomas de   16
+  Sydney, Sir Philip, funeral of   18
+  Sidney, Sir Philip, on war   19
+  Symbols to express colours   74
+
+          T.
+  Tartans, Scottish   1
+  Tasmania, device of colony of   84
+  Telegraph Department, flag of   71
+  Tessin, flag of Canton   117
+  _Teutonic_, armament of the   57
+  Teutonic order, cross of the   100
+  Texas, flag of the State of   95
+  Texel, flag of the port of   75
+  "The late unpleasantness"   96
+  "Theorike and Practike of Modern Warres"   61
+  Third Dragoons   66
+  Thistle as a flag device   42, 82
+  Three-flag signals   137
+  Tiger of Korea   125
+  Titus, the arch of   2
+  Tobacco plant on flag   123
+  Torpedo practice flag   133
+  Trafalgar, Nelson's famous signal   132, 133
+  Trajan's column, standards on   2
+  Transport service, flag of the   71, 104
+  Transvaal, flag of the   126
+  Trefoils as a device   41
+  Tressure of Scotland, the   31, 32
+  Tricolor of France   40, 108
+  Trinidad, badge of colony of   84
+  Trinity, banner of the   5, 6
+  Trowel on guild flag   6
+  Trumpet banners   12, 20
+  Tudor flags   17
+  Tughra device, the   120, 121
+  {148}
+  Tunisian flags   120
+  Turkey, flags of   24, 119, 120
+  Twenty-fourth regiment   62
+  Tyrol, flag of the   102
+
+          U.
+  Union between England and Scotland 45
+  Union between Great Britain and Ireland 50, 52
+  Union flag   1, 4, 45, 47, 50, 54, 61
+  Union flag of Sweden and Norway,  116
+  Union Jack   47, 48
+  Union Steamship Company's flag   75
+  United Italy   113
+  United States of America, flag of   86, 89, 90, 91
+  Universal code for signalling   28
+  Urgency flag signals   136
+  Uri, flag of Canton of   116
+  Uruguay, flag of   122
+  Utilisation of liners as cruisers   57
+
+          V.
+  Valence, banner of Sir Aymer de   11
+  _Valkyrie_, flag of the yacht   73
+  Variation in size a sign of rank   17
+  Venezuela, flag of   23, 122, 123
+  Venice, obsolete flags of   27
+  Versailles, palace of   97
+  Vessels spoken at sea   139, 140
+  Viceroy of India, flag of   65, 81
+  Victoria Cross   63
+  Victoria, flag of colony of   80
+  Victualling Department, flag of   71
+  Virginia, settlement of   86
+  Virgin Mary on flag   6
+  Vocabulary signals   137
+  Voldermirz, arms of   102
+  Vowel flags objectionable   138, 139
+
+          W.
+  Waldeck, flag of   101
+  War cries   37
+  War songs   95, 98
+  Warriors' Chapel at Canterbury   66, 67
+  Washington, arms of   91, 93
+  "Watch upon the Rhine"   98
+  Waterloo, battle of   70
+  Weather signals   135, 137
+  Wellington, funeral of Duke of   18, 22
+  West Africa, device of   84
+  Western Australia, device of   84
+  Western Australia, governor's flag   81
+  West Prussia, flag of   98
+  White cross of France   107
+  White elephant of Siam   125
+  White ensign   40, 55, 59, 72
+  White horse of Hanover   63, 66
+  White horse of Kent   36
+  White Star Line, house flag of 57, 75
+  Why called "Jack"   48
+  William III., standard of   35
+  Wreath on flag   63, 66, 81
+  Wolf as a device   2
+  Wurtemburg, flag of   101
+
+          Y.
+  Yacht flags   100, 138
+  Yellow flag, its significance   24, 59
+  York, livery colours of house of   21
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{149}
+
+COLOURED PLATES.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+1 Banner of Sir John Botetourte. 2 Banner of Sir Ralph de Monthermer. 3
+Banner of Sir Hugh Touches. 4 Banner of Sir William de Ridre. 5 Banner of
+Sir Hugh Bardolph. 6 Banner of Sir John de Holderton. 7 Banner of Sir Henri
+de Percy. 8 Banner of Sir Hugh de Courtenay. 9 Banner of Sir Aymer de
+Valence. 10 Banner of Sir John de Bar. 11 Banner of Sir William de
+Grandison.
+
+PLATE II.
+
+12 Percy Flag, Crescent Badge. 13 Arctic Sledge-flag, Expedition of
+1875-76. 14 The Percy Standard. 15 Standard of Sir Thomas de Swynnerton. 16
+Arctic Sledge-flag, Expedition of 1875-76. 17 Banner of St. Edmund. 18
+Banner of Simon de Montfort. 19 Banner of St. Edward.
+
+PLATE III.
+
+20 Streamer, Tudor Fleur-de-Lys Badge, 1520. 21 Streamer, Tudor Portcullis
+Badge, 1520. 22 Standard of Henry VIII. 23 Streamer, Tudor Rose Badge,
+1520. 24 Streamer, Tudor Red Dragon Badge, 1520. 25 Pendant of H.M.S.
+_Lion_. 26 Pendant of H.M.S. _Tiger_. 27 Pendant of Warship of 1520.
+
+PLATE IV.
+
+28 Guidon form of Flag. 29 Abnormal form of Pennon. 30 Lancer Pennon of
+present day. 31 Pennon, Royal Horse Artillery, 1813. 32 Flag from Early
+German Book. 33 Modification of Pennon form. 34 Flag of H.M.S. _Niger_,
+1797. 35 Ecclesiastical Flag, MS. British Museum. 36 Burgee, the Ducal
+Shipping Line. 37 Early form of Banner, MS. British Museum. 38 Burgee,
+McIver's Shipping Line. 39, 40, 41, 42 Examples from Bayeux Tapestry. 4
+illus.
+
+PLATE V.
+
+43 The Royal Standard of King George III. 44 The Royal Standard of Queen
+Victoria.
+
+PLATE VI.
+
+45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Illustrations of perverted ingenuity and crass
+ignorance, taken from street decorations on occasions of general rejoicing.
+
+PLATE VII.
+
+52, 53 Flags from early Spanish Map in British Museum, 1502. 54, 55 Early
+Portuguese Flags, British Museum. 56 The Guinea Company. 57 East India
+Company. 58 Early form of Algerian Flag. 59 Russian-American Company. 60
+Early English War Flag. 61 Heligoland Flag during British Possession. 62
+The Flag of Savoy. 63 Flag of the Grand Seigneur. 64 Turkish Flag.
+
+PLATE VIII.
+
+{150} 65 Ship Flag, Reign of George I. 66 Early form of Red Ensign. 67
+London Train Bands: The Blue Regiment, 1643. 68 London Train Bands: The
+Yellow Regiment, 1643. 69 Flag of Warship, 16th Century. 70 Flag of H.M.S.
+_Tiger_. 71 St. George, and Tudor Livery Colours. 72 London Train Bands:
+The Green Regiment, 1643. 73 Flag of Union of England and Scotland. 74
+Pendant of H.M.S. _Lion_, 1745. 75 Scottish Blue Ensign. 76 Scottish Red
+Ensign. 77 Banner of St. Alban's Abbey. 78 Jack of Warship of the 16th
+Century. 79 Suggested forms for Union Flag, 1801.
+
+PLATE IX.
+
+80 Early Union Flag, England and Scotland. 81 Commonwealth Flag, England
+and Scotland. 82 Commonwealth Flag, England and Ireland. 83 Standard of
+Cromwell. 84 Scotch suggestion for Union Flag, 1801. 85 Flag of
+Commonwealth. 86 Commonwealth Flag of England and Ireland. 87 Early Form of
+Irish Flag, MS. in British Museum. 88, 89 Suggested Forms for second Union
+Jack.
+
+PLATE X.
+
+90 Union Flag of Great Britain and Ireland. 91 Cross of St. George of
+England. 92 Cross of St. Andrew of Scotland. 93 Cross of St. Patrick of
+Ireland. 94 Regimental Colours: 24th of the Line, the 2nd Warwickshire
+Regiment.
+
+PLATE XI.
+
+95 The White Ensign, Man-of-War. 96 The Blue Ensign, Naval Reserve. 97 The
+Red Ensign, Merchant Service. 98 Victualling Service. 99 Admiralty Flag.
+100 Ranelagh Yacht Club. 101 Yare Yacht Club. 102 Royal Thames Yacht Club.
+103 Dublin Bay Yacht Club. 104 Pilot Jack. 105 Board of Trade Flag. 106
+Flag of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 107 Customs House Flag. 108 Ordnance
+Flag.
+
+PLATE XII.
+
+109 Green's Blackwall Line. 110 Cunard Line, Liverpool. 111 Peninsular and
+Oriental Company. 112 Australasian Naval Company. 113 Devitt & Moore,
+London. 114 Canadian Pacific Company. 115 Donald Currie & Co., London. 116
+Union Steamship Company, Southampton. 117 Mediterranean and New York
+Shipping Company. 118 Houlder Brothers & Company, London. 119 White Star
+Line, Liverpool. 120 New Zealand Shipping Company. 121 _Britannia_, H.R.H.
+the Prince of Wales. 122 _Ailsa_, A. B. Walker, Esq. 123 _Valkyrie_, The
+Earl of Dunraven. 124 _Hester_, Major W. H. Gretton. 125 _Dream_, W. H.
+Jones, Esq. 126 _Carina_, Admiral Montague.
+
+PLATE XIII.
+
+127 Cape Colony, Government. 128 Queensland, Government. 129 Canada,
+Commercial. 130 Canada, Government. 131 Badge of Straits Settlements. 132
+Badge of British North Borneo. 133 Badge of Tasmania. 134 Victoria,
+Commercial. 135 Victoria, Government. 136 Badge of New Zealand. {151} 137
+Badge of Fiji. 138 Badge of New South Wales. 139 Flag of Viceroy of India.
+140 Portion of Pendant, Government Colonial vessels. 141 Governors' Flag,
+West Australia.
+
+PLATE XIV.
+
+142 American Insurgent Flag, 1775. 143 Admiral's Flag, U.S. Navy. 144 Flag
+used at Bunker's Hill. 145 American Pine-tree Flag. 146 The Stars and
+Stripes of the United States. 147 New England Navy Flag, 1776. 148
+Massachusetts Flag, 1775. 149 Pine-tree and Stripes. 150 Early American
+Flag. 151 Portion of Pendant, U.S.Navy.
+
+PLATE XV.
+
+152 Confederate States of America. 153 Confederate, the Southern Cross. 154
+Southern Cross, modified. 155 South Carolina State Flag, 1861. 156
+Louisiana State Flag. 157 Chili, portion of Pendant. 158 South Carolina,
+1775. 159 South Carolina State Flag, 1861. 160 Texas State Flag. 161 Chili,
+Commercial. 162 Guatemala, Flag of 1851. 163 Guatemala, Flag of 1858.
+
+PLATE XVI.
+
+164 Colombia (formerly New Granada), Commercial. 165 Uruguay, General
+Service. 166 Guatemala, Government. 167 Costa Rica, Commercial. 168
+Paraguay, Government. 169 Brazil, General Service. 170 Venezuela,
+Commercial. 171 Bolivia, Commercial. 172 Mexico, Government. 173 Portion of
+Pendant, Brazil. 174 Peru, Government. 175 San Salvador, General Service.
+176 Argentine, Government. 177 Ecuador, Government. 178 Hayti, Commercial.
+
+PLATE XVII.
+
+179 Oriflamme. 180, 181 Early French forms of Flag. 182 Soissonois Flag.
+183 Bourbon Flag. 184 Standard of Charles VI. 185 Standard, French. 186
+Man-of-War Pendant. 187 Standard, French. 188 Flag of French Guards, 1563.
+189 Flag of Republic, France. 190 Tricolor of 1790. 191 Modern French
+Tricolor.
+
+PLATE XVIII.
+
+192 Spain, War. 193 Spain, Commercial. 194 Royal Standard of Spain. 195
+Portugal, Royal Standard. 196 Portugal, General Service. 197 Italy,
+Commercial. 198 Papal Merchant (obsolete).
+
+PLATE XIX.
+
+199 Saxony. 200 Waldeck. 201 Saxe Weimar. 202 Pomerania. 203 Wurtemburg.
+204 Oldenburg. 205 Mecklenburg Strelitz. 206 Brunswick. 207 German Empire,
+War Ensign. 208 German Empire, Jack. 209 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 210 Schomberg
+Lippe. 211 West Prussia. 212 Hesse. 213 Austria, Government. 214
+Austro-Hungarian, Commercial. 215 Russian Jack. 216 Poland.
+
+PLATE XX.
+
+217 Russian Man-of-War. 218 Russia, Commercial. 219 Early Form of Russian
+Ensign. 220 Russia, Consul General. 221 Russia, Chargé d'Affaires. 222
+Russia, Ambassador or Minister. 223 Russia, Transport Service. 224 Danish
+Man-of-War. 225 Danish, Commercial. {152} 226 Russian Imperial Standard.
+227 Swedish, Commercial. 228 Norwegian Man-of-War. 229 Union Flag of Sweden
+and Norway. 230 Flag of Norway. 231 Flag of Sweden. 232 Switzerland.
+
+PLATE XXI.
+
+233 Greece, Commercial Flag. 234 Italian Jack. 235 Turkey, Commercial. 236
+Belgium, Commercial. 237 Holland, Royal Standard. 238 Turkey, Standard. 239
+Turkey, Government. 240 Tunis, Government.
+
+PLATE XXII.
+
+241 Bulgaria. 242 Roumania. 243 Servia. 244 Japanese Ensign. 245 Japanese
+Imperial Standard. 246 Japanese Transport Flag. 247 Chinese Merchant Flag.
+248 Japanese Guard Flag. 249 Orange Free State. 250 Liberia. 251 Congo
+State. 252 Rajah of Sarawak. 253 South African Republic.
+
+PLATE XXIII.
+
+254 to 267 Fourteen Flags from the Signal Code of the Royal Navy. 268
+Special Flag of the Coast Guard.
+
+269 to 278 Code of Sir Hope Popham, used by Nelson at Trafalgar, &c. 10
+illus.
+
+279 to 286 Special Battle Signals, code suggested in 1788. 8 illus.
+
+287 to 296 Numerical Code. Signal Code of 1788. 10 illus.
+
+297 to 306 Pilot Signals of various Nationalities. 10 illus.
+
+PLATE XXIV.
+
+307 to 324 The Flags of the International Code. 18 illus. 325 The
+Signal-hoist for the Eddystone Lighthouse, B.D.T.F. 326 Code-signal for the
+Port of London, B.D.P.Q. 327 Code-signal of SS. _Germanic_, N.V.B.Q. 328
+Code-signal of the _Hesperus_, M.N.D.L. 329 Code-signal of H.M.S.
+_Devastation_, G.R.C.T. 330 "Do you wish to be reported?" B.P.Q. 331 "All
+safe!" V.K.C. 332 "Report me to Lloyd's Agent." P.D.S. 333 "Do you want
+assistance?" H.V.F. 334 "Has any accident happened?" B.G.H.
+
+PLATE XXV.
+
+335 to 339 Signal Flags of SS. _Australia_, _Arcadia_, _Massilia_,
+_Victoria_, _Bengal_. (Are all Vessels in the P. & O.) 340 to 344 Signal
+Flags of SS. _Oroya_, _Orient_, _Ophir_, _Orotava_, _Ormuz_. (Are all
+Vessels of the Orient Line.) 345 to 349 Signal Flags of SS. _La Touraine_,
+_Lafayette_, _Ville-de-Tanger_, _Amerique_, _Saint-Germain_. (Are all
+Vessels of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique.)
+
+PLATE XXVI.
+
+350 to 354 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Victorias_ on the Shipping
+List.
+
+355 to 359 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Australias_ on the
+Shipping List.
+
+360 to 364 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Britannias_ on the
+Shipping List.
+
+_The Botolph Printing Works, Crosskey Square, Little Britain, E.C._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] "Every Isle differs from each other in their Fancy of making Plads, as
+to the Stripes in Breadth and Colours. This Humour is as different through
+the main Land of the Highlands in so far that they who have seen those
+Places are able at the first View of a man's Plad to guess the Place of his
+Residence."--Martin's "Description of the Western Islands," 1703. See also
+"Old and Rare Scottish Tartans," by Donald Stewart, all illustrated by
+actual pieces woven in silk to a reduced scale. The latest tartan, that of
+Balmoral, was devised by Prince Albert in the year 1848.
+
+[2] In mediæval days the pastoral staff or crook of the bishop often had a
+small scarf attached to it. This was known as the vexillum, and was
+supposed to be derived from the Labarum, or standard of the first Christian
+emperor, Constantine the Great.
+
+[3] In Favyn's book, "Le Théâtre d'honneur et de Chevalerie," published in
+Paris some two hundred and fifty years ago, we read of "Le grand estendard
+de satin bleu celeste double en riche broderie de fleurs de lys d'or de
+Chypre à une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui est la croix de France.
+
+"Le grand estendard Saint Michel ange gardien de la France, de satin bleu
+celeste de riche broderie d'or de Chypre, semé d'estoiles d'or.
+
+"Le grand estendard de l'ordre du benoist Saint-Esprit, faict de double
+satin verd à une columbe d'argent, rayonné d'or de riche broderie, le rest
+semé de flammes d'or."
+
+Joan of Arc had a white standard powdered over with gold fleurs-de-lys, and
+in the centre a figure of Christ sitting on a rainbow, and holding a globe.
+On either side an angel in the posture of adoration, and, underneath, the
+words "Jhesu, Maria." On another she had the Annunciation, and the words
+"Ave Maria." These were painted at Tours "par James Power, Ecossais,
+Peintre du Roi."
+
+[4] Thus the Cross of St. George would be normally represented as in Fig.
+91, but we find it much elongated in Figs. 12 and 14, much widened out in
+Figs 27 and 56, and yet more so on the shield of the arms of the Dominion
+of Canada in Fig. 129.
+
+[5] We do not pause to explain the meaning of any heraldic terms that we
+are obliged to employ. Such terms may be readily found in any technical
+book on blazonry, and we have ourselves, in "The History, Principles and
+Practice of Heraldry," gone very thoroughly into the meaning and use of the
+various forms that enter into the blazonry of shield or banner, and do not,
+therefore, repeat these matters here.
+
+[6] _i.e._, badges.
+
+[7] "Lord Gordon has arrived at Nauplia. He has brought the Greeks a number
+of ensigns, embroidered by Scotch ladies, and sent by them."--_Salisbury
+and Winchester Journal_, December 27th, 1824.
+
+[8] This crowned key may be seen as early as 1359 on the seal of Sir
+Michael de Poynings.
+
+[9] The bugle horn appears as the crest of Sir William de Bryan on his
+brass, 1375.
+
+[10] In an old pedigree of the family is inscribed the lines:--
+
+ "Esperance en Dieu,
+  Trust in hym, he is most true.
+  En Dieu Esperance,
+  In hym put thyne affiaunce.
+  Esperance in the worlde? Nay,
+  The worlde variethe every day.
+  Esperance in riches? Nay, not so;
+  Riches slidethe, and some will go.
+  Esperance in exaltacion of honour?
+  Nay, it widderethe away, lyke a flowre.
+  Esperance en Dieu, in hym is all,
+  Which is above Fortune's fall."
+
+[11] The modern flag, known as the burgee, largely used in flag signalling,
+is like a shortened pennon. It is sometimes also called a cornet.
+
+[12] "Now the often changing fortune beganne also to channge the law of the
+battels. For at the first, though it were terrible, yet Terror was deckt
+and broachie with rich furniture, guilt swords, shining armours, pleasant
+pensils, that the eye with delight had scarce time to be afraide; but now
+all defiled with dust, blood, broken armour, mangled bodies, tooke away the
+maske, and set forth Horror in his own horrible manner."--SIR PHILIP
+SYDNEY.
+
+[13] "A streamer shall stand in the toppe of a shippe, or in the
+forecastle, and therein be putt no armes, but a man's conceit or device,
+and may be of the lengthe of twenty, forty, or sixty yards."--Harleian MS.,
+No. 2,358, dealing with "the Syze of Banners, Standardes, Pennons,
+Guydhomes, Pencels, and Streamers."
+
+[14] While thus severe in our judgment on misguided foreigners it is only
+just to point out that England itself is responsible for a combination as
+horrible as any in the green, red, white, of the special flag that she
+bestowed on Heligoland, while it was yet a British possession. It may be
+seen in Fig. 61.
+
+[15] The famous banner of the Knights Templars, called the Beau-seant, had
+its upper half black and lower white. The black symbolised the terror it
+should be to the foe, and the white amity and goodwill to friends.
+
+[16] The "house-flags" of the various shipping companies make a great use
+of letters: thus the flag of the Orient Steam Navigation Company is white
+and divided into four portions by a blue cross. In these four portions are
+placed in red the letters O.S.N.C. In Fig. 120 we have the flag of the New
+Zealand Shipping Company, where the N.Z.S. Co. are equally conspicuous. Any
+reference to a good list of house-flags, such as that published by Griffin,
+would reveal scores of illustrations of this feature.
+
+[17] The map is freely embellished with illustrations. In South America,
+for instance four immense crimson parrots about fill up Brazil, while in
+Africa the parrots are green. Many of these figured details are very
+quaint.
+
+[18]
+
+                 "The dazzling field,
+  Where in proud Scotland's royal shield,
+  The ruddy lion ramped in gold."--_Scott._
+
+[19] With only one exception the Sovereigns of Scotland never quartered the
+arms of any other kingdom with their own. The only exception was when Mary
+Stuart claimed the arms of England and placed them upon her standard, and
+thus gave irreparable provocation to Queen Elizabeth.
+
+[20] Brian Boru, who was killed in battle with the Danes, did much to
+civilise Ireland; and, amongst other things, introduced the harp. The
+ancient Irish harp at Trinity College, Dublin, was long claimed as the
+identical instrument of Boru, but it has been proved by the ornament upon
+it that it cannot be later than the fourteenth century. The most primitive
+representation of the harp in Ireland is in a rude sculpture in a church
+near Kilkeny. This is known to date from the ninth century. Though the harp
+has ever shone in the poetry of the Irish people, they have but little
+claim to it. It has been by no means such a national instrument with the
+Irish as with the Welsh. It is one of the most ancient of instruments,
+figuring in the mural paintings of Egypt centuries before the Christian
+era.
+
+[21] As may be seen beautifully enamelled on his tomb in Westminster Abbey.
+
+[22] Another flag was a plain scarlet one, having this inscription: "For
+the Protestant Religion and the Liberty of England" in white upon it.
+
+[23] The following summary may be taken as correct in its broad
+facts:--From about 1195 to 1340, the Standard had the lions of England
+alone on it. From 1340 to 1377, England and France together. 1377 to 1399,
+England, France, and the arms of Edward the Confessor. 1399 to 1603,
+England and France. 1603 to 1649, England, France, Scotland and Ireland.
+1649 to 1659, Interregnum: a period of change and uncertainty, when divers
+changes in the Standard were made that are scarcely worth detailing. 1659
+to 1688, England, France, Scotland, and Ireland. 1688 to 1701, England,
+France, Scotland, Ireland, and Nassau. 1701 to 1714, England, France,
+Scotland, and Ireland. 1714 to 1801, England, France, Scotland, Ireland,
+and Hanover. 1801 to 1837, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Hanover. From
+1837, England, Scotland, and Ireland.
+
+[24] Spenser.
+
+[25] In the same way, we find the Scottish clansmen rushing to the fray to
+the cry of "St. Andrew and our Right." In the ballad of Otterbourne we read
+that the Scots
+
+ "Uppon Sent Andrewe loude they crye,
+  And thrysse they showte on hyght."
+
+[26] One interesting exception to this is that, on St. George's Day, the
+5th regiment (Northumberland Fusiliers) holds full-dress parade, all
+wearing the rose, the national emblem, in their headgear, and the officers
+on their sword-knots also. The colours, too, are festooned with roses.
+
+[27] "The x day of January hevy news came to London that the French had won
+Cales (Calais), the whyche was the hevest tydyngs to England that ever was
+herd of.
+
+"The xj day of January the Cete of London took up a thousand men, and mad
+them whytt cotes and red crosses, and every ward of London found men.
+
+"The xxj day of January came a new commandement to my Lord Mayre that he
+shuld make men redy in harnes with whyt cotes weltyd with green, and red
+crosses, by the xxiij day of the same moneythe to be at Leydenhalle to go
+forward.
+
+"The xviij day of May there was sent to the shyppes men in whyt cotes and
+red crosses, and gones, to the Queen's shyppes."--MACHYN'S DIARY.
+
+[28] Thus we have the white, the blue, the white and orange, the green and
+red, the purple, the blue and white, the orange and green, the red and
+yellow, the red and blue, the red and white, and divers others. The orange
+company always took the lead. These companies were for a long time in
+abeyance, and were superseded in 1798 by the formation of the Royal
+Edinburgh Volunteers, but each year the Magistrates and Council still
+appoint one of their number to be captain of the orange colours. His duty
+is to take charge of the old colours and preserve them as an interesting
+relic of a bygone institution.
+
+[29] It is remarkable that none of the flags extant bear the motto which
+the Parliament on July 5th, 1650, ordered "to be upoun haill culloris and
+standardis," _i.e._, "For Covenant, Religion, King, and Kingdom." It is
+characteristic that each body claimed independence even in this matter.
+Thus the Fenwick flag bore "Phinegh for God, Country, and Covenanted work
+of Reformations." Another flag has, "For Reformation in Church and State,
+according to the Word of God and our Covenant," while yet another bears the
+inscription, "For Christ and His truths, no quarters to ye active enemies
+of ye Covenant."
+
+[30] St. Andrew's day is November 30th.
+
+[31] The question of the Union between England and Scotland was often
+mooted. In the year 1291 Edward I., being victorious in the north, declared
+the two countries united, but this did not last long. In 1363 Edward III.
+opened negotiations for a union of the two crowns if King David of Scotland
+died without issue. In the reign of Edward VI. the matter was again to the
+fore, but it was left to Queen Elizabeth to take the decisive step.
+
+[32] April 12th, 1605.
+
+[33] Thus in the Royal Standard of Spain, Fig. 194, the arms of Leon and
+Castile being In the upper corner next the staff take precedence of honour
+over Arragon and all the other States therein introduced.
+
+[34] In a picture in the collection at Hampton Court, representing the
+embarkation of Charles II. from Holland, the ship has a large red flag
+charged with the Stuart arms in the centre, but so soon as his position in
+England was assured he reverted to the royal standard of his Stuart
+predecessors and to the original form of the union flag, a form that during
+the Protectorate was widely departed from.
+
+[35] "Jaque, espece de petite casaque militaire qu'on portait au moyen age
+sur les armes et sur la cuirasse."--BOUILLET, "Dict. Universel."
+
+[36] A contemporary representation of this Long Parliament flag may be seen
+on the medals bestowed on the victorious naval commanders, where the
+principal ship in the sea-fight represented on the reverse of the medal
+flies this flag at her masthead.
+
+[37] Andrew Marvell on the victory of Blake at Santa Cruz.
+
+[38] As the year of his birth is scarcely known within a century or so, it
+is too much to expect the month or the day, but the day that is assigned to
+St. Patrick in the calendar is March 17th.
+
+[39] In the year 1816, in consequence of the Electorate of Hanover being
+raised to the rank of a Kingdom, the Hanoverian Royal Crown was substituted
+for the Electoral headgear in the royal arms on the shield and standard.
+
+[40] A writer in the _Retrospective Review_ in the year 1847, thus relieves
+his feelings:--"The banner of St. George, argent, and cross gules is still
+borne as part of the English flag, though, from the disgraceful manner in
+which it has been amalgamated with the Crosses of St. Andrew and St.
+Patrick, it has not only lost all its purity, but presents a melancholy
+example of the ignorance of heraldry and total want of patriotism and taste
+which must have characterised those to whom we unfortunately owe its
+arrangement."
+
+[41] "All Her Majesty's Ships of War in Commission shall bear a white
+ensign with the Red St. George Cross, and the Union in the upper Canton,
+and when it shall be thought proper to do so, they may display the Union
+Jack at the bowsprit end."--_Queen's Regulations._
+
+[42] We read, for instance, in the Diary of Pepys that in the expedition of
+the Duke of Buckingham, in the year 1627, against the Isle de Rhé that "the
+Duke divided his fleet into squadrons. Himself, ye Admirall, and General in
+chiefe, went in ye Triumphe, bearing the Standard of England in ye maine
+topp, and Admirall particular of the bloody colours. The Earl of Lindsay
+was Vice-Admirall to the Fleete in the Rainbowe, bearing the King's usual
+colours in his foretopp, and a blew flag in his maine topp, and was
+admirall of the blew colours. The Lord Harvey was Rear Admirall in ye
+Repulse, bearing the King's usual colours in his mizen, and a white flag in
+the main topp, and was Admirall of ye squadron of white colours."
+
+[43] On the hoisting of the Ensign all work stops, and all ranks muster on
+deck, standing with hand raised to the cap in salute, while the ship's band
+plays the opening bars of the National Anthem.
+
+[44] Charles Mackay.
+
+[45] Other regiments with green facings are the 5th, 11th, 19th, 36th,
+39th, 46th, 49th, 73rd, etc. Regiments with blue facings are the 1st, 4th,
+6th, 7th, 13th, 18th, 21st, 23rd, 25th, etc., while buff is found in the
+2nd, 3rd, 14th, 22nd, 27th, 31st, 40th, etc. Amongst the regiments with
+yellow facings are the 9th, 10th, 12th, 15th, 16th, 20th, 26th, 28th, 29th,
+30th, 34th, 37th, 38th, etc. White is met with in the 17th, 32nd, 41st,
+43rd, 47th, 59th, 65th. Red is not so common, since the colour is that of
+the tunic ordinarily, but we see it in the 33rd, 48th, and 76th. Black is
+also less commonly used, but we find it in the facings of the 58th, 64th,
+70th, and 89th Regiments.
+
+[46] The "Black Watch," the gallant 42nd, and other regiments also bear the
+Sphinx for their services in Egypt in 1801, where Napoleon received his
+first serious check from British troops.
+
+[47] When a regiment consists of two battalions the distinctions won by
+each are common to both, and are, quite justly, the property of the whole
+regiment.
+
+[48] In like manner we find the Royal Marines bearing on their colours an
+anchor, first granted to the corps as a badge in the year 1775. The lion
+and crown was added to this in 1795. In 1802, in honour of the gallant
+share taken by the Marines in the capture of Bellisle, a laurel wreath was
+added to the other badges of honour, and in 1827 the motto "_Per Mare per
+Terram_" and a globe, surmounted by the word "Gibraltar," was also placed
+on their colours, as a testimony to the services of the Marines all over
+the world, and notably at the taking of Gibraltar.
+
+[49] Blenheim, August 2nd, 1704; Ramilies, May 23rd, 1706; Oudenarde, June
+30th, 1708; Malplaquet, September 11th, 1709; Dettingen, June 16th, 1743;
+Minden, August 1st, 1759.
+
+[50] This, with many other interesting trophies of war, may be seen in the
+Chapel of Chelsea College. The Blenheim Colours are now nearly all consumed
+away with age: of one but the staff remains, and many others are now as
+tender as tinder. French, Russian, American, Chinese, and many other flags
+of former foes may there be seen quietly fading away, as the old national
+animosities have likewise done.
+
+[51] Amongst the various devices seen on the flags of the Parliamentarians,
+was one of a skull surrounded by a laurel crown, accompanied by the words
+"_Mors vel Victoria_."
+
+[52] There are the colours of other regiments as well. Those that we
+specially refer to above will be found in what is known as the Warriors'
+Chapel. We deal with these especially, because, as being the flags of the
+territorial regiment, they find, with particular appropriateness, their
+resting place in Canterbury Cathedral.
+
+[53] There is now no Lord High Admiral of Great Britain; his functions are
+analogous to those of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army; the last Lord
+High Admiral was William IV., who received this appointment when Prince of
+Wales. The office is now said to be "in commission"--its functions are
+performed by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, a board uniting the
+dual control which is exercised over the land Forces by the War Office and
+the Horse Guards. Commissions of Naval Officers are not signed by the
+Queen, they are headed "By the Commissioners for executing the office of
+Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom," etc.; and they are signed by two
+of the Lords.
+
+[54] We find the Royal Yacht Club, in 1815, and the Royal Thames Yacht
+Club, in 1835, flying what would be a white ensign if it had but the great
+Cross of St. George upon it; an entirely white flag having the Union in the
+corner next the staff. One may get a fair notion of its effect by looking
+at Fig. 154, but imagining the Union in the place of the device there seen.
+The Royal Yacht Club burgee at this period was plain white, without any
+device whatever. The burgee of the other Club we have named has undergone
+many changes. In 1823 it is scarlet, with the letters T.Y.C. in white; in
+1831 the prefix Royal has been gained, and the flag, still red, has the
+crown and the R.T.Y.C. in white upon it; while in 1834 we still find the
+crown and the same letters, but now, not white on red, but red on white.
+
+[55] "BY THE COMMISSIONERS for executing the office of Lord High Admiral of
+the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, &c.
+
+"WHEREAS, we deem it expedient that Canadian registered vessels shall be
+permitted to wear the Red Ensign of Her Majesty's Fleet, with the Canadian
+Coat of Arms in the Fly thereof.
+
+"We do therefore, by virtue of the power and authority vested in us, hereby
+warrant and authorize the Red Ensign of Her Majesty's Fleet, with the
+Canadian Coat of Arms in the Fly, to be used on board vessels registered in
+the Dominion.
+
+"Given under our hands and the seal of the Office of Admiralty, this second
+day of February, 1892."
+
+[56] The Maple is to Canada what the Rose is to England, or the Shamrock to
+Ireland. Hence, we find it on the coinage, etc. In the Canadian Militia
+List before us we find it on the accoutrements of many of the regiments,
+enwreathing the motto or device; sometimes alone, and often in association
+with the rose, thistle, and shamrock.
+
+[57] Thus in a French book on flags (La Haye's), published in 1737, we see
+a "pavillon de Nouvelle Angleterre en Amerique." This is a blue flag,
+having on a white canton the Cross of St. George, and in the first quarter
+of this canton a globe, in allusion to America, the new world.
+
+[58] In September, 1775, Moultrie, the heroic defender of the fort which
+still bears his name, devised this the first flag of the State of South
+Carolina, the uniform of the South Carolina men being blue, and some of the
+regiments having a silver crescent in their caps; but why they had the
+silver crescent as a badge no record seems to inform us.
+
+[59] It may be somewhat of an assistance to our readers if we give a few
+chronological details: The obnoxious duty on tea and other articles imposed
+by the British Parliament, June, 1767. Tea thrown overboard in Boston
+harbour by the discontented populace, November, 1773. The Boston Port Bill,
+by which that port was to be shut up until compensation made to the East
+India Company for the tea destroyed, passed March, 1774. General Congress
+of the colonists at Philadelphia, September, 1774. Revolution, first blood
+shed at Lexington, April, 1775. Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief of
+the American Armies, June, 1775. Thirteen colonies declare themselves
+independent, July 4th, 1776. Independence of Colonies recognised by France
+in March, 1778, by Holland in April, 1782, and by Great Britain in
+September, 1783. John Adams received as ambassador from America by George
+III. in June, 1785, and first ambassador sent from Great Britain to the
+United States, in 1791.
+
+[60] In an old print before us of the fight between the _Shannon_ and the
+_Chesapeake_, we see that the latter hoists three American flags, all
+having the top and bottom stripes white, and at the foremast a white flag
+inscribed with the enigmatical motto, "Free Trade and Sailors' rights."
+
+[61]
+
+ "Forty flags with their silver stars,
+  Forty flags with their crimson bars."
+              WHITTIER, "Barbara Frietchie."
+
+[62] At a banquet at the Mansion House, when many leading Englishmen and
+eminent Colonists gathered together to celebrate St. George's Day, the
+American Ambassador, an honoured guest, said that he was very conscious
+that he was there at a gathering of the clans. "There was a tradition that
+the mischievous boy was generally the favourite of the household. His
+mother might confess it openly, his father secretly, but the rest of the
+family said nothing about it. Now there was a mischievous boy who broke
+away from home something more than a century ago, but let them not suppose
+that because he left the home he or his descendants ever came back without
+a strong feeling that it is the home." He went on to say that he never met
+a body of representative Englishmen, British men, speaking the same
+language that he did, without a sense of grave joy and pleasure: the sense
+that they were his brethren in a great cause, and that he joined with them,
+he and his people, in sustaining the best hopes and aspirations of the
+world's civilization. Blood is thicker than water, and all right-minded
+Englishmen will read his kindly words with pleasure, and give them
+heartiest reciprocation.
+
+[63] To the Germans, in their campaign against France, this and the "Watch
+upon the Rhine" were worth many battalions as a spur and stimulus to heroic
+deeds. During the American War both Federals and Confederates owed much to
+the influence of stirring patriotic songs. There can be no doubt that the
+songs of Dibdin contributed not a little to our own naval victories, and
+every cause that is worth fighting for evokes like stirring strains.
+Perhaps one of the most marked illustrations of this is the birth of that
+grand war-song known as the "Marseillaise." Rouget de l'Isle, its author,
+was a captain of French Engineers stationed in Strassbourg on the opening
+of the campaign against Austria and Prussia in 1792. On the eve of the day
+that the contingent from that city was going to join the main army of the
+Rhine, a question arose as to what air should be played at their departure.
+Several were suggested and rejected, and Rouget de l'Isle left the meeting
+and retired to his own quarters, and before the gathering broke up had
+written both words and music of "Le Chant de l'Armee du Rhin." On returning
+to the meeting, still in consultation on the various details of the morrow,
+he sang his composition, and it was at once welcomed with delight. It flew
+like wildfire throughout France, and, owing to the Marseillaise troops
+singing it on entering Paris, it derived the name by which it has ever
+since been known. Its stirring words and the grand roll of the music
+aroused the enthusiasm of the country, and at once made it the battle-song
+of France, to be at times proscribed, but never forgotten.
+
+[64] The book on German costume by Köbel, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Main
+in 1545, should be referred to, if possible, by the reader. It is,
+unfortunately, a very rare book. The first edition of this splendid volume
+contains 144 large illustrations of standard-bearers; the figures are
+admirably drawn and very varied in attitude, while the flags they carry are
+replete with interest, many of course being now quite obsolete, while
+others there represented have come down to us through the three centuries
+intact.
+
+[65] The _Pamiot Azof_, one of the most powerful ironclads of the Russian
+Navy, flies at her mast-head the Cross of St. George (white on red), in
+memory of the gallant service at Navarino in 1527 of her predecessor of
+that name. The Czar Nicholas decreed that all future _Pamiot Azofs_ in the
+navy should bear this distinguishing mark of honour. Peter the Great built
+the first _Pamiot Azof_ as a memorial of the great siege of Azof, and the
+name has been handed down ever since. The influence of that piece of
+scarlet and white bunting will doubtless be such that no _Pamiot Azof_ will
+ever fall short of the highest expectations that this exceptional honour
+would suggest.
+
+[66] "Clisson, assura sa Majesté du gain de la bataille, le roi lui
+répondit: 'Connestable, Dieu le veeulte, nous irons donc avant au nom de
+Dieu et de Sainct Denis.'"--_Vulson de la Colombière._
+
+[67] In a miniature of Charles II., A.D. 869, in a book of prayers, the
+royal sceptre terminates in a fleur-de-lys. The crown of Hugh Capet, A.D.
+957, in St. Denis, is formed of fleur-de-lys, as is that of his successor,
+Robert le Sage, A.D. 996, Henry I., 1031, and many others. To make the
+matter more complicated, we find on the crown of Uffa, first king of the
+East Angles, A. D. 575, true fleurs-de-lys.
+
+[68] One old writer asserts that Louis VII., on setting out in the year
+1137 for the Crusade chose the purple iris flower as his emblem.
+
+[69] "Recherches sur les Drapeaux Français, Oriflamme, bannière de France,
+Marques nationales, Couleurs du roi, drapeaux de l'armée, pavilions de la
+Marine."--GUSTAVE DESJARDINS, Paris, 1874.
+
+Another good book to see is the "Histoire du drapeau de la Monarchie
+Française," by M. Rey.
+
+[70] It may be helpful here to append for reference the chronology of the
+earlier sovereigns of the House of Bourbon:--Henry IV., "the Great,"
+ascended the throne in 1589; Louis XIII., "the Just," 1610; Louis XIV.,
+"the Great," 1643; Louis XV., "the Well-beloved," 1715; Louis XVI., 1774,
+guillotined in January, 1793.
+
+[71] Thus, at a grand military _fête_, on May 10th, 1852, in the Champ de
+Mars, on restoring this symbol, we find the Emperor addressing the
+troops:--"The Roman eagle, adopted by the Emperor Napoleon at the
+commencement of this century, was a brilliant symbol of the grandeur of
+France. It disappeared amongst our calamities. It ought to return when
+France, raised up again, should no more repudiate her high position.
+Soldiers! Take again the eagles which have so often led our fathers to
+glory." In 1855, in addressing a detachment of the Imperial Guard prior to
+its departure for the Crimea, he exclaimed, "The Imperial Guard, the heroic
+representative of military glory and honour, is here before me. Receive
+then these eagles, which will lead you on to glory. Soon will you have
+planted them on the walls of Sebastopol!"
+
+[72] First Republic, 1792 to 1799. The Consulate, 1799 to 1804. The first
+Empire, 1804 to 1814. The Restoration, Bourbon and Orleanist, 1814 to 1848,
+the second Republic, 1848 to 1853, the second Empire, 1853 to 1870, the
+third Republic from 1870.
+
+[73] The diary of Henry Machyn, "Citizen and Merchant Tayler of London,"
+from which we have already quoted, tells us how the writer saw the "Kyng's
+grace and dyvers Spaneards," the said King being Philip of Spain, riding
+through the city attired in red and yellow, the colours of Spain. In the
+cavalcade, Machyn tells us, were "men with thrumpets in the same colors,
+and drumes made of ketylles, and baners in the same colors."
+
+[74] This quarter of the flag, the arms of Leon and Castile, was the entire
+flag of the time of Columbus. Isabella gave the great explorer a personal
+flag, a white swallow-tailed ensign having in its centre a green cross and
+the letters F.Y. The quartered arms of Leon and Castile are sculptured upon
+the monument in Westminster Abbey of Alianore, the daughter of Ferdinand
+III., King of Leon and Castile, and the wife of Edward I. of England. The
+date of the tomb is 1290.
+
+[75] The following chronological items may prove of assistance. Crown of
+Navarre passes to France, 1276. Ferdinand of Arragon re-conquers Navarre,
+1512. Accession of House of Austria to throne of Spain, 1516. Spain annexed
+Netherlands, 1556, and, shortly after Philip II., husband of our Queen
+Mary, annexed Burgundy. Portugal united to Spain, 1580. Portugal lost,
+1640. Philip V. invades Naples, 1714. Charles III., King of the Two
+Sicilies, succeeds to Spanish crown, 1759.
+
+[76] The various heralds and pursuivants in their tabards blazoned with the
+lions of England, the fleurs-de-lys of France, or the castles of Portugal.
+
+[77] Az. three crosses in pale or.
+
+[78] The Turks, originally an Asiatic people, overran the provinces of the
+Eastern, or Greek Empire, about the year 1300, but did not capture
+Constantinople until 1453. Thirty years afterwards they obtained a footing
+in Italy, and in 1516 Egypt was added to the Empire. The invading hosts
+spread terror throughout Europe, and in 1529 and in 1683 we find them
+besieging Vienna. Rhodes was captured from the Knights of St. John, Greece
+subdued, Cyprus taken from the Venetians: but later on the tide of war
+turned against them, and frequent hostilities with England, France, and
+Russia led to the gradual weakening of the Turkish power.
+
+[79] There is such a general impression that officials are so very much
+bound up in highly-starched red tape that we gladly take this opportunity
+of acknowledging the extreme consideration with which all our enquiries
+have been met. The libraries of the Admiralty, the Royal United Service
+Museum, the Guildhall, South Kensington, etc., have been placed
+unreservedly at our service. The authorities of the Board of Trade, of
+Lloyds, of the Royal Chelsea Hospital, of the Royal Naval Exhibition, the
+Agents-General of the Colonies, have all most willingly given every
+possible information, and we have received from all to whom we have applied
+for information the greatest readiness to afford it, and the most courteous
+responses.
+
+[80] The position of Sultan, though one of great dignity, has its serious
+drawbacks. This all-conquering Murad was, after all, assassinated; his son
+and successor, Bajuzet, died in prison. Isa Belis the next holder of the
+throne, Solyman who succeeded him, and Musa, who succeeded Solyman, were
+all in turn murdered by their brothers or other relatives.
+
+[81] "Order and progress." Not a very happily chosen motto, since, as a
+Brazilian said to us, such a sentiment might equally be placed on the flags
+of all civilized nations, order and progress not being features to take any
+special credit for, but to be entirely taken for granted, and as a matter
+of course.
+
+[82] Our English name, Japan, for this land of the Far East, is a
+corruption of the Chinese name for it, _Zipangn_, a word of the same
+meaning, Land of the Rising Sun.
+
+[83] There are four Orders of Distinction in Japan; the first is the Order
+of the Chrysanthemum, and the second that of the Rising Sun.
+
+[84] Each spring and summer our Volunteers have long-distance practices.
+From the account of one of these now before us, we see that the line
+extended from Reculvers on the north coast of Kent, to Aldershot, a
+distance of over one hundred miles, messages from one point to the other
+being rapidly and accurately transmitted by signalling parties on the
+various eminences, such as Beacon Hill, Gravelly Hill, Box Hill, and St.
+Martha's Hill, between the two extremities of the line.
+
+[85] One may see here, too, the signal book of James, Duke of York, dating
+about 1665, by means of which most of our sea-fights with the Dutch were
+conducted, and also the code introduced by Kempenfeldt.
+
+[86] The _Victory_ at this time was somewhat less than a mile and a half
+from the enemy's line.
+
+[87] The signal for "close action" was flags 1 and 6. All flag signals are
+always read from above downwards; 6 and 1 would mean something entirely
+different to 1 and 6.
+
+[88] "Expects," it will be seen, is expressed by one hoist of flags, while
+"confides" would have necessitated the pulling up and hauling down of eight
+distinct sets.
+
+[89] Special hoists are also used for special purposes, thus the display of
+the yellow flag, with a black ball on it, is an intimation that torpedo
+practice is going on.
+
+[90] June 1st, 1813.
+
+[91] This system was introduced by Captain Columb in 1862. On one occasion,
+during heavy weather, from a steamer fifteen miles off shore he sent a
+message through a station on the Isle of Wight across to Portsmouth, and
+received his answer back in thirteen minutes! This was altogether too good
+to be gainsaid or shelved, and the system was speedily adopted.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The following corrections were made to the printed original:
+
+Table of Contents, Chapter V:--"England expects" printed as "Englands
+expects" in original.
+
+Page 5:--In "a priest of Beverley for carrying": "carrying" printed as
+"carring" in original.
+
+Page 10:--In "we find these charges represented": "charges" printed as
+"changes" in original.
+
+Page 126:--In "their thoughts turn to the dear homeland": "turn" printed as
+"turns" in original.
+
+Page 136:--In "thirteen then existing codes": "thirteen" printed as
+"thirteeen" in original.
+
+Page 138:--In "Our readers will see": "Our" printed as "Ours" in original.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40113 ***