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diff --git a/39873.txt b/39873.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2efd109 --- /dev/null +++ b/39873.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12510 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Formation of Christendom, Volume II by +Thomas William Allies + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Formation of Christendom, Volume II + +Author: Thomas William Allies + +Release Date: May 31, 2012 [Ebook #39873] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, VOLUME II*** + + + + + + The Formation of Christendom + + Volume II + + By + + Thomas William Allies + + London: + + Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. + + 1869 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Chapter VII. The Gods Of The Nations When Christ Appeared. +Chapter VIII. The First And The Second Man. +Chapter IX. The Second Man Verified In History. +Chapter X. The First Age Of The Martyr Church. +Chapter XI. The Second Age Of The Martyr Church. +Chapter XII. The Third Age Of The Martyr Church. +Chapter XIII. The Christian Church And The Greek Philosophy. Part I. +Chapter XIV. The Christian Church And The Greek Philosophy. Part II. +Index. +Footnotes + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In the six chapters forming the first volume of this work I was engaged in +describing the operation of Christianity, as it took the individual human +soul for its unit, purified it, and wrought in it a supernatural life. I +began with the consummation of the old world in its state of the highest +civilisation united with the utmost moral degeneracy; I proceeded thence +to the new creation of individual man; compared heathen with Christian man +in the persons of Cicero and St. Augustine; drew out certain effects upon +the world around of Christian life, as seen in those professing it, and +viewed Christian marriage as restoring the primary relation between man +and woman, and thus remaking the basis of human society, while the +Virginal Life exhibited the crown and efflorescence of the most +distinctive Christian grace in the soul. + +I had thus, beginning with the stones of which the building is formed, +reached the building itself; and the next thing was to consider the +Christian Church in its historical development as the Kingdom of Truth and +Grace: for while the soul of man is the unit with which it works, the word +"Christendom" betokens a society founded in Christ, made by Christ, +stamped with the image of Christ. It is the first great epoch of such a +Kingdom of Truth and Grace, proceeding from the Person of its Founder, +which I here attempt to delineate. + +But not merely is the volume which I now publish a part only of a +projected design; even as a part it is incomplete. It was my wish to +finish this portion of my subject in one volume, which should reach to the +great Nicene Council. But the treatment of the Greek Philosophy was too +large for my limits, and so the last two chapters serve but as an +introduction to the actual contact of that Philosophy with the Christian +Church, which remains to be considered before I can complete my view of +the Formation of Christendom in the ante-Nicene period. + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE GODS OF THE NATIONS WHEN CHRIST APPEARED. + + + "Emmanuel, Rex et Legifer noster, Expectatio gentium, et Salvator + earum, veni ad salvandum nos, Domine Deus noster." + + +Under the sceptre of the imperial unity were brought together a hundred +different lands occupied by as many different races. That rule of Rome +which had grown for many centuries with out, as it seemed, any presiding +thought, by the casual accretions of conquest, may be said to assume under +the hands of Augustus, about the year of Rome 750, certain definite and +deliberately chosen limits, and to be governed by a fixed Idea, more and +more developed in the imperial policy. The limits which the most fortunate +of Roman emperors, nay the creator of the empire itself, put to it, were +the Rhine and Danube, with the Euxine Sea, on the north; the deserts of +Africa on the south; the Euphrates on the east; the ocean on the west. The +Idea, which may indeed have been conceived by Julius, but was certainly +first embodied by Augustus, was to change the constitution of a conquering +city, ruled by an aristocratic senate, into a commonwealth governed by one +man, the representative of the whole people; and the effect of this +change, an effect no doubt unforeseen, at least in its extent, by its +framer, was gradually to absorb the manifold races inhabiting these vast +regions into the majesty of the Roman law, order, and citizenship. The +three centuries which follow Augustus are occupied in working out the +drama of this unity. During this time the provinces appear to come out +more and more as parts of one whole. Some which at its commencement had +only just entered the circle of Roman power and thought, as Gaul, become +entirely interpenetrated with the law, language, customs, and civilisation +of the sovereign city. Spain was nearly as much, and northern Africa +perhaps even more Latinised: in all, local inequalities, and the +dissimilarity arising from conflicting races, customs, and languages, are +more and more softened down, though never entirely removed; and while +throughout this period the great city continues the head, yet the body +assumes an ever-increasing importance, until at length its members engage +the equal solicitude of that central potentate to whom all equally belong. +In the times of so-called Roman liberty, the plunder of lands which +received pro-consuls for their annual rulers, served to replenish the +fortunes of nobles exhausted by the corruption requisite to gain high +office; but if the dominion of one at Rome seemed an evil exchange to a +nobility which deemed itself born to enjoy a conquered world, at least it +served as a protection to those many millions for whom the equality of law +and order, the fair administration of justice, and the undisturbed +possession of property, constituted the chief goods of life. Cicero and +his peers might grieve over the extinction of what they termed liberty, +but Gaul, Spain, Africa, and Asia exulted in deliverance from the +oppression of a Verres, a Fonteius, a Gabinius, a Piso, or a Clodius, in +the communication of citizenship, and in the peace of a common +civilisation. + +I. With a passing glance at the progress of this unity, which, great and +magnificent as it is, is yet external, let us turn to an object filling +the whole of this vast empire with its varied manifestations: for this +object leads us to the consideration of another unity, wholly internal, +without which that of government, law, and order must be apparent rather +than real, or at best, however seemingly imposing, be deprived of the +greater part of its efficacy. + +1. It has been said that the empire contained in it many lands and many +races, but these likewise worshipped their own distinct gods, which were +acknowledged and sanctioned as national divinities for the several +countries wherein they were locally established. Had Augustus ordered an +enrolment not only of the numbers, the landed property, and the wealth of +his subjects, but of their gods, his public register, or Breviarium, would +have included at least ten distinct systems of idolatrous worship. First +of all, there would be the proper gods of Rome, then those of the Hellenic +race; and these, though the most similar to each other, yet refused a +complete amalgamation. But besides these there were on the west the +Etrurian, the Iberian, the Gallic, and the Germanic gods; on the east, the +Carian and Phrygian, the Syrian, the Assyrian, the Arabian; on the south, +the Phoenician, Libyan, and Egyptian. All these different races, inasmuch +as they were subjects of the empire, enjoyed undisturbed the right of +worshipping their ancestral gods,(1) who, so long as they did not overstep +their local boundaries, were recognised; they possessed priests, rites, +temples, estates, and self-government; they held the soil, and their +worship was legal. It was a matter of Roman policy not to interfere with +them. Nay, their several worshippers could carry their rites along with +them in their various sojourns and settlements, and even in Rome build +altars, and adore Egyptian, Asiatic, African, or Gallic gods. These +various systems agreed all in one point, that they were systems of +polytheistic idolatry: they all divided the attributes of the godhead, +assigning them to more or fewer objects, and worshipping all these by +visible symbols which the power worshipped was deemed to inhabit:(2) but +they did not make the same division with a mere difference of name; on the +contrary, they ran into and across each other with the most bewildering +multiplicity, variation, and contradiction. Even in the same system, if we +may give this name to any of the various mythologies, the several +divinities were perpetually interfering with each other's province. When +the Roman made vows for the removal of his ailments, in his uncertainty to +which god the ailment belonged, or who was most proper to remove it, he +addressed his vow to several together; or in public supplications, being +often uncertain to whom exactly the prayer or offering should be made, he +cautiously expressed himself, "whether it be a god or a goddess." And the +various Hellenic, Asiatic, or Egyptian cities often possessed local gods, +whose worship was supreme there, while they exercised far less influence, +or were even scarcely known elsewhere.(3) + +Now merely as a specimen of what this worship was all over the Roman +empire, let us take the brilliant Athens, Greece's eye, the world's +university. First of all ruled in her the worship of Pallas-Athene: she +was the lady of the land, who had won it for her own after a hard contest +with Poseidon. Her chief sanctuaries were the temple of Athene, guardian +of the city, with its old statue fallen down from heaven on the Acropolis. +On the Acropolis likewise the Parthenon, built expressly for the gorgeous +Panathenaic festival; and in the lower city the Palladium with the statue +of the goddess supposed to have been brought from Troy. Yet the worship of +the "high goddesses," Demeter and Persephone, was also richly endowed with +shrines and festivals, and affected scarcely less the feelings of the +Athenians. Then Jupiter, as "supreme," was honoured with unbloody offering +before the Erechtheium, dedicated to Athene: whilst as "Olympian" he had +the colossal temple begun by Peisistratus and finished after many hundred +years by Hadrian, and as "guardian of the city" distinct festivals. Yet +more manifold was the invocation of Apollo, as the Pythian, the Delphic, +the Lycian, as the ancestral god of the Ionians. The multiform Artemis had +her temples and worshippers as the Tauric, by the name Brauronia; as the +port-goddess, by the name Munychia; as the goddess of the hunt, by the +name Agrotera, who had the credit of the victory won at Marathon; as +presiding over birth, she was called Chitone, while Themistocles had built +a temple to her as the Counsellor. Here had only a doorless and roofless +temple on the road to Phalerum; but the god of fire was worshipped in +Athens abundantly. Hermes had his peculiar statues in every street, +irreverence to which might be fatal even to an Alcibiades, the city's +darling; while Aphrodite had a crowd of temples and shrines whose unchaste +worship found but too many frequenters. Poseidon had to content himself +with a single altar in his rival's city, and with games in its harbour; +but Dionysos had three temples, with brilliant festivals; Mars was not +without one; Hestia was throned in the Prytaneum; the Earth, Kronos, and +Rhea had their temples and festivals, as also the Erinnyes, who were +worshipped only in two other places in Greece. Here alone in Greece was a +sanctuary and a rite to Prometheus; while the Asiatic mother of the gods +had a splendid temple where the archives of the state were kept. Besides, +there was the worship of the Hours and the Graces, of Eileithyia, goddess +of victory and of birth, of AEsculapius and Themis, of the Kabirian Anakes, +the Arcadian Pan, the Thracian Cotytto and Bendis, the Egyptian Serapis. +Mercy and Shame, Fame and Endeavour had their altars; and the hero-worship +numbered Theseus, Codrus, Academus, Solon, the tyrant-slayers Harmodius +and Aristogeiton; and Hercules, originally a hero, but here and elsewhere +widely honoured as a god.(4) + +Athens, if the most superstitious as well as the most intellectual of +cities, may be taken as the type of a thousand others of Hellenic race +scattered over the Roman empire from Marseilles to Antioch. Say that she +had twice as many deities and festivals as her sister cities, enough will +remain for them wherewith to occupy the soil with their temples and to +fill the year's cycle with their rites. + +The lively Grecian imagination impregnated not with stern notions of duty, +nor with reverential devotion to those whom it worshipped, but regarding +them as objects of aesthetical satisfaction,(5) and yearning for a serene +and confidential exchange of relations with them, had in process of time +spun out a complete web of idolatrous worship which encompassed heaven and +earth, the whole domain of nature, every state and act of human life. Rain +and sunshine and the weather stood under the ordering of Zeus; the +fruitfulness of the soil was Demeter's care; countless nymphs of field, of +fountain, and of river, offered to men their gifts; the vine and its juice +was under the protection of Dionysos, and Poseidon was lord of the sea. +The flocks had their defenders in Hermes and Pan; the Fates ruled the lot +of men. Kings and magistrates had in Zeus their prototype and guardian. +Athene held her shield over cities; the hearth of each private home and +the public hearth of the city were in Hestia's charge. Marriage was secure +under Here's care. Demeter was entrusted with legislation; the pains of +childbirth were recommended to Eileithyia, or Artemis. Music, archery, +divination, were Apollo's attributes; the art of healing claimed him and +his son AEsculapius as patrons. Athene and Ares swayed the issue of war; +the chase was the domain of Artemis; smiths and all workers in fire saw in +Hephaestus their patron; whilst Athene the Worker protected the gentler +trades, and Hecate watched over the roads.(6) + +Yet Rome itself, whose own Capitoline Jupiter claimed a certain +superiority over all these gods, would scarcely have yielded to any +Grecian city, even were it Athens, in the number or variety of her +deities, the frequency and solemnity of her festivals; while in the +costliness of victims offered to her gods, and in the strictness of her +ceremonies, she probably far surpassed that and all other cities. Her +sterner worship of originally shapeless gods, presiding over the labours +of a simple agricultural life, had long yielded to the seductions of her +dangerous Grecian captive. The rude block Terminus, and Jupiter the Stone, +ceased to satisfy those who had beheld the majesty of the father of gods +and men embodied by the genius of a Phidias; and she had ended by going +farther in breaking up the conception of one god, and in the +personification of particular powers, operations, physical functions, and +qualities, than any nation of antiquity.(7) But though the beautiful forms +of the Hellenic gods, as expressed by the skill of unrivalled sculptors, +had carried her away, yet the nature of her worship was in strong contrast +with that of Greece. Her religion had rested originally on two ideas, the +might of the gods friendly to Rome, and the force of ceremonial over these +gods;(8) and still when she accepted the gods of conquered nations for her +own, it was to secure the possession of their might, and to have them for +friends instead of foes; while her own worship was a matter of routine and +habit jealously guarded by unchanging ceremonies, and prosecuted not out +of affection, but for the material security of daily life, which, +according to the deeply-rooted feeling of the people, could not go on +without it. + +The individualised and humanised Latin and Hellenic gods, if they had much +in common, still could not be thoroughly amalgamated; but Rome, as the +mistress of Western Asia and Egypt, came upon Oriental religions of a very +different stamp. Instead of this wide Pantheon of gods, each of whom had +his occupation, these Asiatics generally regarded the deity in a sexual +relationship, as one male and one female god, representing the active and +passive forms of nature,(9) and worshipped with a mixture of fear and +voluptuousness. Such were Bel and Mylitta, Moloch and Astarte, and by +whatever different names the same idea was presented. The worship of the +great mother Cybele, so widely spread through Asia Minor, approached in +many respects in character to that of this female goddess. But it is +needless to go farther into the specific differences of these various +idolatries; only bear in mind that they in their several countries +occupied the domain of public and private life, as the worship of which I +have given the details did at Athens. So it was before the influence of +external conquerors reached them. After this a certain change ensues. The +Roman empire was accomplishing in the west as well as in the east what the +progress of Grecian rule and thought had commenced three hundred years +before(10) under Alexander and his successors, the bringing together and +in some sort fusing the multiform and often contradictory worship of the +nations surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Not merely in Rome, but in all +the chief cities of the Empire, the Asiatic, the Egyptian, the Libyan +deities, and many others of subject nations under the Roman sway, were +worshipped side by side. Accordingly, in the time of Augustus, and at the +year of Rome 750, where we are taking our stand, there prevailed all over +the hundred millions of men ruled by him a polytheistic idolatry +bewildering by its multiplicity, internal contradictions, fluctuations, +and mixtures, yet imposing by its universal extent and prevalence. The +only exception seems to have been the Jewish worship of one God, whether +in its chief seat, the small province of Judaea, or as it was seen in the +lives of Jewish settlers scattered throughout the empire. It must be +remarked that this Jewish worship of the true God was sanctioned as that +of a national god belonging to the Jews, and sacrifice was perpetually +offered for Augustus in the Temple at Jerusalem. But the Jews did not, as +a rule, make efforts to convert the Gentiles to their religion, nor seek +to exhibit it as antagonistic to the prevailing idolatry, and as claiming +to subdue and cast it out. They were content to keep their own worship to +themselves, and with the toleration which the Roman law thus allowed them. +Yet even so in every place where they dwelt in any numbers some of the +better heathens were found to be attracted to their worship by the +intrinsic beauty of their belief in one God. + +2. But such an exception as this hardly made a perceptible break in that +continuous mass of evil and falsehood which then surrounded young and old, +learned and ignorant, rich and poor, in its grasp. The sea stands in Holy +Writ as the well-known image of the world's disobedience to the divine +promptings, of its impetuosity and lawlessness. What image is there in +nature so striking and awful as the long waves of the Atlantic bearing +down in storm upon a helpless ship, and sweeping it upon an iron-bound +coast! So broke that wild sea of human error over the individual mind of +man. The observer looked round upon all the nations, and it was everywhere +the same--a multiplicity of gods filling up the whole circle of human life, +many-named, many-natured, but all without truth, purity, and justice; full +of violent and sensual deeds, and still viler imaginations. What stay was +there for the spirit of man against that universal flood? Its vastness was +everywhere. Who was strong enough, who wise enough, to resist what all his +fellows accepted? And the struggle of a single soul against it might seem +like that of "some strong swimmer in his agony" alone at night amid the +waste of waters. + +3. For this polytheism was no dormant, otiose power withdrawn into the +background and crouching apart from the actions and feelings of daily +life. Its presence was indicated in every home by the little images of the +Lares; homage was done to it at every table by libations; every house had +its consecrated emblems; every street its statues of Hermes and serpents; +in the forum there were feasts in honour of the gods; the shops, taverns, +and manufactories had little altars on which wine and incense were offered +to them; there were idolatrous emblems on the foreheads of the dead, on +their funeral pyre, on their tombs. The places of amusement were specially +dedicated to the gods; the theatres had representations in honour of them; +the circus had their images, chairs, carriages, robes borne in procession; +the amphitheatre was consecrated to them, and as being so Tertullian +called it "the temple of all demons." So much for private and social life. +But not only so. All political acts were bound up with a crowd of +religious formalities, and outward signs of divine concurrence; and were +carried on with a ceremonial, every part of which was prescribed as having +an exact inward meaning. Then there were continually recurring vows to the +gods made for the great, made for private individuals, made for the +emperor and his family. Three special ceremonies were used to obtain +favours from them or to deprecate calamities, feasts, the solemnly bearing +their images on cushions, processions with naked feet.(11) To this we must +add the priestly colleges, pontifices, flamines, augurs, and magistrates, +whether distinct or co-ordinated. Then, besides, consider the magical +character of the prayers, and the strict use of formularies without +mistake, omission, or addition, which were supposed to insure success +apart from the intention of those offering them. Thus the whole life of +the Romans was filled with invocations, propitiations, purifications, and +even in any small matter a whole string of gods had prayer and service +offered to them, and no one of their names might be omitted. Consider +again the great frequency of the offerings, whether propitiative or +consultatory; and, further, how particular beasts belonged to particular +gods. The mere expense of victims was felt as a great burden. It was +reckoned that on the accession of Caligula 160,000 animals, chiefly oxen +and calves, were sacrificed in the Roman Empire in token of the general +joy; and Augustus and Marcus Aurelius devoted such a multitude of beasts +to their sacrifices that what had been said of the former was repeated as +to the latter, how the white oxen had written to him, saying, "If you +conquer, we are lost." Indications of the will of the gods were to be +taken on all occasions; nothing was to be done in public or private +without consulting the auspices. Then there was the institution of the +Haruspices, in its two branches of examining the entrails of the victims, +and divining the meaning of all prodigies. One is still amazed at the +ever-untiring solicitude which the senate showed to have all these things +carefully watched--eclipses, rainbows of unusual colours, shooting stars, +misbirths human or bestial; showers of earth, stones, chalk, or ashes; +mice gnawing the golden vessels of a temple, bees swarming on a public +place, but especially a shrine touched by lightning. Such things struck +senate and people with consternation; special supplications were ordered +to appease the causers of them.(12) + +These are the external manifestations of polytheism which struck every +eye, and affected the mind by their constant recurrence. But if we go +beneath the surface and examine the root, we shall find an universal sense +in the minds of all men in that day of unseen power over and above the +material operations of nature. It was too strong as well as too general +and invariable to be called an opinion, and it so acted on the nerves and +feelings of men that I term it not so much a logical conviction as a sense +of the close contact between man and nature, or rather an unseen power +behind the veil of nature and working through it. Various as the forms of +idolatry were--Egyptian, Asiatic, Libyan, Greek, or Roman; or, again, +Iberian, Gallic, German,--all teemed with this sense. To the adherents of +these religions, one and all, the world was very far from being a mere +system of nature governed by general laws;(13) it may rather be said that +this was precisely what it was not. They looked upon nature in all its +forms as an expression of the divine will, and therefore the unusual +productions of nature became to them intimations respecting that will. And +having lost the guidance of a fixed moral and religious teaching, they +were ruled by an ever-watchful anxiety to gain acquaintance with that +will. On this sense rested the universal belief that it was in man's power +to hold intercourse by means of charms, spells, adjurations, with spirits +of greater might and knowledge than his own--that is, magic or witchcraft. +Hence the evocation of the spirits of the dead to reveal secrets of their +prison-house, or necromancy. Hence the recurrence to oracles, running +through all pagan history, of which there were many scattered through the +Roman world, and which, after a temporary discredit, rose again into name +in the time of Hadrian. Not less general was the belief that men and women +might be possessed by spirits who ruled their words and actions according +to an overmastering will. Then divination existed in endlessly various +forms; and of its force we can gather a notion by Cicero's remark that it +lay like an oppressive burden on the minds of men, so that even sleep, +which should be the refuge from anxieties, became through the meaning +attached to dreams the cause of a multitude of cares.(14) To this must be +added the use of sortileges, amulets, and talismans, in countless number +and variety; and the belief that the actions and fortune of men were +swayed by the course of the stars--that is, astrology. It was not the +vulgar and ignorant merely whose minds were filled with these things. +Scarcely a philosopher, scarcely a statesman, scarcely a ruler can be +found whose mind, even if proof against a genuine devotion to a divine +providence, was not open to one or more manifestations of the dark +mysterious power pressing upon the confines of human life, and every now +and then breaking through the veil of visible things with evidences of +malignant might. A more determined and unscrupulous conqueror than Sylla, +a more genuine philosopher than Marcus Aurelius, a more sagacious user of +religion than Augustus, we shall not easily find; yet each of these, like +their ordinary countrymen, had this sense of the supernatural and +intangible above, beneath, and around them. Sylla, on the eve of any +battle, would, in the sight of his soldiers, embrace a small statue of +Apollo, which he had taken from Delphi, and entreat it to give an early +fulfilment of its promises.(15) Marcus Aurelius, in his war with the +Marcomanni, collected priests from all quarters to Rome, and was so long +occupied in offering rites to their various foreign gods that he kept his +army waiting for him. And Augustus watched carefully the most trivial +signs, and was distressed if in the morning his left shoe was given to him +for his right. Even that Julius before whose genius all men quailed, and +whose disbelief of a future state stands recorded at a notable point of +Roman history, never mounted a chariot without uttering certain words for +good luck and preservation against calamity.(16) We shall therefore judge +most inadequately of the force which the innumerable rites, temples, +festivals, pomps, ceremonies, prayers, invocations, priesthoods, +sodalities, initiations, and mysteries of polytheism exercised upon the +minds of men, unless we take into full account that remarkable sense of +contact and sympathy between the external world and man--of invisible power +betraying itself through palpable agents, whether in reasoning or +unreasoning productions, whether in the animal or vegetable world--which +served as its basis. The line between religion and superstition in +paganism no eye can trace; but at least the foundation of true worship +plunged deep out of sight into the secret recesses of abject fear. + +4. But what was the moral influence of this multiform, universal, +all-embracing, and all-penetrating worship? + +Varro, whom Cicero calls the most acute and learned of writers, and whose +great work in forty-one books he praises as containing the names, classes, +offices, and causes of all divine and human things, divided theology into +the fabulous, the natural, and the civil. In the first, he said, are many +fictions unworthy of the nature and dignity of immortal beings: such as +that one god sprang from the head, another from the thigh, another from +drops of blood; such, again, as that gods were thieves or adulterers, or +became slaves to men. In fact, this fabulous theology attributed +everything to them which might happen not merely to a man, but to the most +contemptible of men.(17) Let us leave what he calls natural theology, +which is the discussion of philosophers concerning the physical nature of +the gods, and proceed to the third, which he calls civil, and which is +that which the citizens, and especially the priests of human communities, +are bound to know and administer. This treats of what gods are to be +worshipped, and with what rites and sacrifices. The first theology, he +says, belongs to the theatre, the second to the universe, the third to the +city. S. Augustine, commenting at length upon his division, proves that +the first and the third, the fabulous and the civil, are, in fact, +identical, since the universe is a divine work, but the theatre and the +city works of men. The theatre is indeed made for the city, and the very +same gods are ridiculed on the stage who are adored in the temple; the +same have games exhibited in their honour and victims sacrificed to them. +The images, features, ages, sexes, bearing of the gods in the one and in +the other are the same. Thus this fabulous, theatrical, and scenic +theology, full of everything vile and criminal, is actually a part of the +civil, cohering with it as limb with limb in the same body.(18) + +Conceive, then, every revolting detail of adultery, prostitution, incest, +or of dishonesty, or of violence, which the perverted invention of modern +writers has ever dressed up for the theatres of great cities in this and +other countries. They will perhaps yield in turpitude to that which the +theatres of the Roman empire exhibited. But what these theatres +represented in mimic action was the exact image, as reflected in a mirror, +of what was transacted at the solemn service of the gods in unnumbered +temples.(19) The exact image so far as it went, yet stopping short in some +respects, for our eye-witness above cited declares that gratitude was due +to the actors, inasmuch as they spared the eyes of men, and did not lay +bare upon the theatre all that was hidden within the walls of temples. It +was not enough, then, that all the many games and spectacles in which such +things were represented were dedicated to the gods, acted under their +especial sanction, even enjoined by them as means of gaining their favour +or averting their wrath, which alone would have made them answerable for +the immorality so portrayed; not enough, even, that actions of this +quality were in the theatres ascribed to the gods who presided over them; +but these acts of immorality were not the fictions of poets or the acting +of players, but the very substance of the theology itself in which the +worship of all these nations was embodied. Priapus appeared to make a +laugh on the stage exactly in the costume in which he was worshipped in +the temples, or in which he entered into the rites of marriage; a costume +of indescribable turpitude, the shame of our human nature. The players on +the stage and the statues in the temples equally exhibited Jove bearded +and Mercury beardless, Saturn in decrepitude and Apollo in youthful +beauty. In the rites of Juno, of Ceres, of Venus, of the mother of the +gods, words were uttered and scenes acted such as no decent person would +suffer to be spoken or acted before his own mother; or rather they +contained, as a portion of themselves, the worst crimes which the theatres +represented; nay, crimes which they stopped short of acting, and persons +so infamous that they were not tolerated even on the stage, where yet to +take part was a civil dishonour. What, then, was the nature of those rites +wherein those were chosen to take part whom the utmost license of the +stage banished from its boards?(20) Let us conceive--if such a conception +can be adequately represented to the mind--that the vilest drama ever acted +upon a modern theatre was being daily carried on in all the churches of +Christendom by troops of priests and priestesses, with all the +paraphernalia of costliest worship, with prayers, invocation, and +sacrifices, as a service acceptable to the Ruler of man's lot, and as an +account of what that ruler had Himself done, and of what He loved to be +imitated by others. That would be a picture of heathen worship in the time +of Augustus; that would be the moral food on which was nurtured that crowd +of nations which acknowledged Caesar's sway; that the conception of divine +things wrought into the minds of the hundred millions of men who formed +the Roman empire. + +Was it surprising that all worshippers of the gods should look for their +example rather in Jupiter's actions than in Plato's teaching or the moral +judgments of Cato?(21) A nature subject in itself to the sway of passion +was stimulated by an authority supposed to be divine to the commission of +every criminal excess; and herein lay a strong proof of the malignant and +impure character of these gods. + +On the other hand, the same eye-witness challenges the defenders of the +pagan gods to produce a single instance wherein moral precepts of living +were delivered to their worshippers upon divine authority. True, indeed, +there were here and there whispers of secret rites in which a pure and +chaste life was recommended, but where were the buildings dedicated to the +public preaching of such truths? Places there were in abundance +consecrated to the celebration of infamous games, rightly termed +"Fugalia," since they put modesty and decency to flight, but none where +the people might listen to divine commands repressing avarice, ambition, +or unchaste desire. Thus with the positive inculcation of all evil, under +cover of their own example, was united the negative absence of all moral +teaching.(22) + +For even the prayers which accompanied these sacrifices and this +ceremonial, and this lavish exhibition of every human wickedness under +divine names, were not addressed for moral goods, but for wealth, bodily +strength, temporal prosperity. Horace but expresses the general mind when +he says: + + + "Sed satis est orare Jovem quae donat et anfert; + Det vitam, det opes, aequum mi animum ipse parabo." + + (_Epist._ i. 18, 111.) + + +They were moreover viewed as carrying with them a sort of physical force, +not as prevailing through purity of intention in those who offered them. +In fact, the gods to whom they were addressed were powers of nature, or +malignant and impure powers, but in neither case beings who looked for a +moral service from rational creatures. + +One other turpitude the Asiatic idolatry added to the Greek and Roman +forms. By consecrating the sexual relations themselves in one male and one +female god, they effected this crowning connection of idolatry with +immorality that unchaste acts became themselves acts of sacrifice, and so +of worship.(23) This is the strange perversion borne witness to by +Herodotus, and corroborated by the prophet Jeremiah. A great seat of this +worship was the city of Hierapolis, in Syria, where was one of the most +magnificent temples of the ancient world, dedicated to Derketo, and rich +with the offerings of Arabians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, +Cilicians, Cappadocians, and all nations of the Semitic tongue. Nor was +this worship confined to the East, for hence, as from a centre, the +adherents of the Syrian goddess spread themselves in begging troops over +the provinces of the empire. And the worship of Venus at Eryx, and other +places in the West, with the thousands of female priestesses dedicated to +it, reproduced the same abomination. + +As the great result of all that we have said, we find the notion of +sanctifying the human will absent from the religious rites of the +polytheistic idolatry in all its forms. To this corresponded the absence +of the notion of holiness in the gods. And this leads us finally to the +remarkable character which defines it as a whole. This worship was +throughout a corruption,(24) the spoiling, that is, of something good; a +turning away from the better to the worse. The worship itself had been +originally good. The corruption lay in the alteration of the quality and +the object of the worship. Worship had been implanted in man, and +prescribed to him. It was at once the need of his nature and the command +of Him who gave that nature. It had for it, first, positive institution, +and then tradition and custom, and throughout, the conscience, the reason, +and the heart of man. The reason of man ever bore powerful witness to the +unity of the Godhead; the breaking up of that unity, as exhibited by this +idolatrous polytheism, in contradiction to the original prompting and +continued witness of the reason, is a very strong proof of that moral +corruption in the will which first generated it, which continued its +existence, and which, while multiplying, degraded its forms from age to +age. But man was free to decline from the good in which he had been +placed. The corruption which was left in his power he exerted; he changed +the quality of the service, and the person served. The productive cause of +idolatry on the part of man was the soul of man turning away from the +notion of a good and holy Creator, the contemplation of whom was its +present support and future reward, to visible things. Of these things the +chief were bodily pleasures. Thus this corruption of the soul, in process +of time, and continually becoming worse, produced this whole pantheon of +gods, originally the creation of its own lusts, and subsisting as a +perpetual food and support of those lusts. For this cause it had broken up +the one perfect idea of God the Creator and Ruler of all persons and +things into a multitude of gods, whose functions became more and more +divided, until the ether, the air, the earth, and the water swarmed with +these supposed beings, which took possession even of wood and stone, +dwelling in the statues erected to them; and every desire which the soul +in its corruption could entertain had its corresponding patron, helper, +and exemplar. In this descending course cause and effect were perpetually +reacting on each other, and as the corruption of the human soul had +generated these gods, so their multiplication and degradation intensified +its corruption from age to age.(25) + +5. But this was not all. If corrupt affection in man himself, if the charm +of representing the unseen objects of worship in visible characters of +wood or stone, if, finally, the ignorance of the true God, together with +the beauty of the creature substituted for Him,(26) were the disposing +causes within man to idolatry, there was a cause outside of him which must +not be forgotten. When we look upon this idolatry, occupying not one +country or race, but all; not merely bewildering savage or uncivilised +man, but throned in the chief seats of the world's choicest civilisation; +when we look upon its endlessly divergent forms, its palpable +contradictions, its cherished or commanded immoralities, its crowd of +debasing, irrational, heterogeneous superstitions, its cruelty, +sensuality, and fearfulness, all these being no less an insult to man's +reason than a derogation from God's majesty, who is there that does not +feel this to be the strangest and most astonishing sight which history +presents to man? And yet there is a unity which runs through it all, and +stamps it with a double mark. Not only is it a service due from man to +God, which is paid by him to the creature rather than to the Creator,(27) +but more especially it is that service paid by man to God's enemies, the +fallen angels. These it is who have assumed the mask of dead men; these it +is who within the sculptured forms of Jupiter, Juno, Mars, and Venus, of +Baal and Derketo and Mylitta, of Anubis and Serapis, of Thor and Woden, +and so many more, receive man's adoration, and rejoice above all things in +possessing his heart. These it is who have seduced him by exhibitions of +visible beauty, have lain in wait for him by fountain, forest, and field, +and filled the groves and high places with the charms which best pleased +him under the name of worship; or have promised to disclose future things +to him; or, again, have harrowed his soul with phantasms and terrors of +the unseen world. These incoherent systems; these deities, whose functions +ran into and athwart each other; these investing of human passions, and +even unnatural and monstrous vices, with immortality and terrible power; +these rivals ever quarrelling with each other, and jealous for the +possession of man's homage, all serve the purpose of those behind the +scenes, are puppets under their command, and have a common end and result +in the captivity of their victim. More even than this; while they seem +disunited and contradictory, they are really one, marshalled by the power, +directed by the mind, held in the hand of him who is called "the ruler of +this world," "the power of darkness," "the might of the enemy," who "holds +the power of death," "the ancient serpent, who leads into error the whole +world," "that malignant one in whom the whole world is lying," "the prince +of the power of the air, the spirit who now works in the children of +disobedience," who musters "the principalities, the powers, the +world-rulers of this life's darkness, the spirits of wickedness in +ethereal places," to serve him in his conflict with man's flesh and blood; +in fine, for S. Paul's language goes one point even beyond that of his +Master, and terms him not merely the ruler, but "the God of this +world;"(28) that is to say, this manifold idolatry is the establishment of +his kingdom, the enthronement of his godhead over men, the mark of their +captivity and prostration before him. + +The statements of our Lord and his apostles being so express and definite +as to the existence of this diabolic kingdom, and as to the personal sway +of a sovereign over it, let us look once more at this idolatry itself by +the light thus shed upon it. + +And first, whether we regard men as made to be members of a well-ordered +society, enjoying temporal prosperity in this life, or as further intended +for happiness in a future life, resulting from their present actions,(29) +the condition in which the heathen nations are actually found at our +Lord's coming is quite unintelligible unless we suppose the reality of a +diabolic power exercised upon them. The polytheism which we have witnessed +holding all human life in its grasp, while it did not teach and uphold the +great laws of morality, did, on the other hand, actively inculcate the +violation of those laws by continually representing to the minds and eyes +of men such a violation in the acts of the deities worshipped. It was a +perpetual incitement of men to crimes, as well against social order as +against all the sanctities of private life; it fostered the savageness of +slavery, and the utmost cruelty in carrying on war, because its deities, +being diverse for every nation, and belonging exclusively to the nation, +had obliterated the idea that all men were of one blood, and thus +delivered over the captive and the slave to the pitiless hatred or equally +pitiless luxury of their fellow-men. So much for its action on human +society as terminating with this life, while for a life to come it had no +doctrine and made no preparation, but had suffered the earlier teaching of +a future retribution to be considered as a fable fit for children and old +women. Looking at such a condition of human society from the moral point +of view, we may conclude with certainty that man would never, if left to +himself, have devised it. + +Secondly, regarding this polytheism as an object presented to the human +intellect, nothing more unreasonable and monstrous than this crowd of +deities can even be conceived. The human reason demands imperatively the +unity of the godhead, since infinite power at least enters into the +conception of the godhead, and to divide or limit infinity is an unreason. +All the great works and order of the world bore witness likewise to this +unity of the godhead, and were sufficient to prove it;(30) and even in the +worst times of paganism we find this proof exhibited with a force and +lucidity to which even now little can be added. And in the worst times, +again, we find the natural witness of the human soul breaking out in +moments of sudden trial or great anguish, and calling upon the one God for +help.(31) Yet in spite of this we see whole nations renowned for their +intellectual productions, and men among them in whom the force of reason +has rarely or never been surpassed, bowing their necks to this yoke of +polytheism, and accepting this tissue of monstrous error, paying homage to +it in their life, and dying with it on their lips; as Socrates offering +the cock to AEsculapius, and Seneca the libation to Jove the liberator. We +know not how to account for this, were man's reason left alone. We can see +an adequate ground for it only in "men having been made unreasonable, and +in the demoniacal error overshadowing the earth, and concealing the +knowledge of the true God."(32) + +Let us take a third view of it, neither the moral nor the logical, but the +view of it as an existing fact, as something which for many hundred years +occupied the earth, ruled nations, moulded the institutions and characters +of men. Here we do not speak merely of the multitude of temples, of +priests or priestesses serving in them, of sacrifices offered by these, of +prayers, vows, festivals in honour of the gods--because all these enter +into the notion of a service rendered by man to the power superior to him, +and in their utmost perversion there is nothing which may not be accounted +for by a simply human corruption stealing into and spoiling an originally +good institution; but all these in the actual condition of paganism were +mixed up with and penetrated by other elements, and accompanied by effects +not to be so accounted for. Let us take the universal persuasion that the +statues of the gods were inhabited by the deities which they represented, +as bodies by souls.(33) Here was the notion of a spiritual power taking +possession of material forms. But how was this notion introduced, +propagated, and maintained in men's minds? By certain visible and palpable +effects,(34) of which those who were eye-witnesses give us many details. +Take again the oracles which existed throughout the heathen world, and, as +dealing with the same subject-matter, divination in all its forms. However +much of deceit there might be here, was there not also, in many instances, +an exhibition of power and knowledge beyond that of man, which no mere +deceit could produce? Take again magic, the invocation, adjuration, and +compacting with spirits, which ran through heathen society in numberless +shapes; and take lastly the fact of spirits seizing upon and possessing +the bodies of men, speaking by their voice, and controlling their minds. +The four classes which we have just given comprehend in themselves an +innumerable multitude of facts which are apparent in pagan history, in all +which the corruption of the human soul is an agent or patient, but for +which that corruption by itself supplies no adequate cause. A spiritual +power is behind, laying hold of and acting upon this corruption, and by +fault of the human will making an inroad into the visible world, and +partially mastering it, bending it to an evil purpose, and making it serve +as an agent to man's captivity. Let us briefly cite as to the reality of +this spiritual power the witness of its victims and the witness of its +opponents. + +First, as to its victims. Scarcely a writer, whether poet, historian, +philosopher, or biographer, can be found among the heathens of Greece and +Rome who does not attest facts belonging to one or more of these four +classes which surpass human power, and suggest an invisible spiritual +agency. The poet who writes expressly to deny such an agency speaks of the +whole world as bowed beneath the fear of it; another poet,(35) referring +tacitly to this very passage, felicitates the man not who has a pure +conscience, but who through knowledge of natural things has trampled these +fears under his feet. Nor is such a belief confined to the vulgar; but +scarcely a man of eminence, a soldier, or a statesman can be cited who +does not in his life and actions acknowledge it, shrink from it, or cower +beneath it. It is too powerful for Alexander or even Julius to escape; and +the philosophers who affect to deny it in their systems exhibit it in +their conduct. They have all the conviction of an evil power beyond and +above nature, but taking hold of natural forms, and ever lying in wait to +burst forth from them upon human life. The Greek name for superstition is +fear of the demons; and what S. Paul said of the Athenians, that he found +them in all things too fearful of the demons, might be applied to the +whole circle of nations surrounding the midland sea. + +Secondly, as to the opponents of this power. Now they offer a triple +witness to its existence. The first of these is in the facts mentioned in +the New Testament. The strongest, most terrible, and most inexplicable +instance of this power lies in those diabolical possessions with which so +many of our Lord's miracles are concerned. Again, as to the reality of +divining powers arising from the presence of a demon in a human form, we +have the evil spirit in the girl at Philippi acknowledging in S. Paul a +servant of the most high God, and, when cast out by the Apostle in the +name of Christ, leaving his victim destitute of those powers which had +brought gain to her masters, who forthwith try to avenge themselves for +their loss by exciting a persecution against the Apostle.(36) + +A second witness is found in the rites and offices of the very power set +up to dethrone and abolish this other power. The Church called upon every +one who was received into her bosom to begin by renouncing the usurpation +of this great enemy, which was thus declared to be universal. She provided +forms for exorcising him. One of her Apostles warned those to whom he +wrote that men could not partake at once of the Christian sacrifice and +the heathen; for as truly as one was the chalice of the Lord, the other +was the chalice of devils; as one was the table of the Lord, the other was +the table of devils.(37) + +A third witness is found in the unanimous testimony of all Christian +writers as to the reality of the demoniacal powers with which they were +waging war; as to their perpetual interference with human life; as to the +open and palpable effects which they produced; as to their unwilling +retirement in the face of that Stronger One who was come upon them. It was +not merely the fervid Tertullian who offered to rest the truth of +Christianity and the life of any ordinary Christian upon his power +publicly to expel a demon. Athanasius, who weighs every word he utters, +says also, "Let him who will, try the truth of what we have said, and in +the very presence of the spectral illusion of the demons, of the deceit of +oracles and the wonders of magic, let him use the sign of the cross +derided by them, only naming the name of Christ, and he shall see how by +him the demons fly, the oracles cease, and every sort of magic and +witchcraft is annulled." No less express is S. Augustine in acknowledging +the reality of these dark powers, and the wonders worked by them.(38) + +Resuming then for a moment our view of heathenism as a whole, with regard +to the exhibition of diabolic power in it, let us bear in mind, joined to +the absence of moral teaching, its flagrantly immoral disposition; +secondly, its illogical character, by which it is an insult to human +reason while yet accepted by the human will; and thirdly, the superhuman +effects noted in it and attached to its rites, ceremonies, and practices, +attested by many generations alike of its victims as of its opponents. +These proofs have each their own separate force, but they have likewise as +to our conclusion a cumulative force; and its result is, that the +existence of a diabolic kingdom and sovereign throned in heathenism, +pervading its rites and directing its operations, which is so expressly +declared in Holy Writ, is no less strongly proved by the facts of history. + +6. Now, having sketched in four main points the substance of this +polytheism, its multiplicity, its universality, its hold upon daily life, +and its moral corruption, to all which a consummating force is added by +the indwelling of diabolic power, it remains to give a glance at certain +conditions and circumstances under which it was acting on the minds of +men. We have here taken it and examined it by itself, abstracting it from +those circumstances, but it never so appeared to those who lived under it. +The wonderful error which so enfolded these widespread nations never +exhibited itself to them bare and naked. On the contrary, it came to them +interwoven with the dearest claims of the family, the city, the country, +with the force of habit and tradition, with the dread of change, with the +past history and future hopes of their fatherland, coloured moreover with +the radiant dress of a rich and ever-advancing civilisation. + +To judge of its power, vitality, and chance of permanence, we must look at +it under these conditions. And if, when we regard this idolatrous +polytheism in itself, one is lost in wonder at its ever having arisen, at +its existence, at its continuance, so, when one regards it as throned in +the customs, feelings, convictions, and interests of society, one wonders +how any moral force could ever overthrow it. At the present time not only +are there religions outside of Christianity, but there are also sects +within it, so irrational, so devoid of the witness given by internal truth +and harmony, so unable to render any account of themselves and their +claims which will satisfy a mind looking for consistency, that, regarding +them merely as facts, one cannot account for them, yet notwithstanding +they may have existed for several hundred years, and had a large share in +forming national habits of thought, or even national character; nay, +perhaps their secret strength lies in some fold of this character itself. +And because they are never seen by themselves, their intrinsic absurdity +does not come before their adherents, and the last thing which these think +of examining is the foundation of their sect, inasmuch as in fact it has +never approached them otherwise than as a condition of their daily life. +So we shall understand paganism better by considering it as interwoven +with civilisation, polity, and national feelings. We will treat of it +briefly under these three heads. + +1. First, the whole eastern part of the Roman empire was made up of many +various nations having a long and sometimes renowned history, kingdoms, +and politics much anterior to Rome herself, of which the Romans had taken +violent possession, but wherein remained still the fruits of a rich and +undisturbed civilisation. And this word comprehends all the natural life +of man, all the discoveries gained by his invention or experience, and +accumulated by wealth descending from age to age, all the manifold ties of +social intercourse, all the pleasures of the intellect, united, moreover, +in their case with an art even now unrivalled in portraying the beauty of +the human figure, and in the elegance with which it adapted material forms +to the conveniences of life. So rich and varied an inheritance unfolded +itself in a thousand Hellenic cities studding the shores of the +Mediterranean. The culture itself since the time of Alexander might be +termed Hellenic, but it embraced Egypt, and Syria, and all Western Asia. +And so completely was idolatrous polytheism interwoven with culture, so +inextricably was it blended with the bulk, so gradually had it grown with +the growth, and wound its fibres about the tree and the branches, that the +worship might be absolutely identified with the civilisation. The gods of +Greece were the heads of the most illustrious Grecian families; their +hero-worship consecrated every city, every grove, every field. The gods of +Egypt were blended with the long renown of the Nile-land, with every +Egyptian custom, with the beginning and the end of life. Not less had the +gods of Syria and Western Asia occupied their respective lands. These +deities struck their root into the home of man, into the union of the +sexes, into the loves of parent and child, of brother and sister. They had +their mementos in every street of busy traffic; they watched over the +Acropolis; not a fountain but laid claim to their patronage, nor a field +which was fruitful but by their supposed influence. These countries had +lost their political independence, but the material ease of life under the +majesty of the Roman name they retained. There was a passionate love for +this world's goods, comforts, and enjoyments in the Greek, Syrian, +Asiatic, Egyptian, and Libyan races, all of them more or less worn, and +effete, and deeply sensualised; but their glory was this great Hellenic +civilisation, with which polytheism might be termed one and the same +thing. + +2. When we turn to the West, the seat of the sovereign city and of the +empire itself, we find that from the very beginning and through many +centuries the political constitution of the city had been indissolubly +blended with the worship of the Roman gods. The religion of Rome was much +more than national; her polity seemed only another name for her worship. +Her temples were as much a part of her political life as her forum. So far +at least she had embodied in her whole structure the legend of her +Etruscan teacher, wherein the dwarf Tages sprung from the soil to +communicate the worship claimed by the gods.(39) Her soil and her worship +were indivisible. And even after seven centuries, when the city was +embracing the world in its arms, this union practically existed. Rome +indeed admitted, as we have said, the gods of the conquered nations into +her pantheon, but it was on the same tenure as the nations themselves +shared her civic rights. Jupiter Capitolinus was a sort of suzerain not +only to the gods of the Grecian Olympus, but to the dark forms of the Nile +deities, to the Syrian, the Libyan, the Gallic, the Germanic, the +Sarmatian Valhalla. When the greatest of her poets would express unending +duration, he joins together the race of AEneas enthroned on the Capitol +with the god who dwelt there: + + + "Nulla dies unquam memori vos eximet aevo, + Dum domus AEneae Capitoli immobile saxum + Accolet, imperiumque Pater Romanus habebit." + + +The Roman father is the Capitoline Jupiter. I am not a king; the only king +of the Romans is Jupiter, said the most royal of the race, and the founder +of her empire, when, seeing all prostrate at his feet, he put away +reluctantly the diadem offered by his creature. Thus even he who had +seized the reality of power, who would have omens when he pleased, and +whose will was his law, left the crown on the head of Jupiter. In Rome, +all through her history "piety and patriotism were the same feeling."(40) +When her empire became world-wide, this sort of devotion did not cease. +Rome had long been deified; and the double import of her name(41) +expressed strength against the foe without, and nourishment to the child +within. She was at once a warrior-goddess clothed in mail to meet the +enemy, and a mother offering her bosom to her citizens clustered around +her. And so in her new constitution, adapted for the world, her emperor +too was deified, as the first of her children, her living representative, +the embodiment of her force and love, the visible wielder of her unseen +power. All that is sacred in home and country to us the Roman signified +when he swore by the genius of the emperor. Nothing could be more tolerant +than this polytheism, if the innovation extended only to the borrowing or +creating a new divinity, to reforming a rite or a ceremony,(42) or to +suchlike modifications of worship which admitted that on which it rested; +but nothing more intolerant than the same polytheism when the worship +itself was attacked. A movement against the Capitoline Jupiter would be +not only sacrilege but high treason, and the refusal to call to witness +the emperor's genius was in fact to deny his imperial authority. The +worship of the gods was as much identified with the empire of Rome in the +West as with the civilisation of Greece throughout the East. + +3. But as if these two powers were not ties sufficiently strong to hold +polytheism together, there was another feeling distinct from both, which +formed its last bulwark. The iron hand which held in its grasp these vast +countries, many of them so large that by themselves they might have been +empires, was strong enough to prevent or crush insurrection, but provided +only the majesty of the Roman peace was accepted, did not seek to disturb +a large remnant of local feeling and interest still representing the +former life and polity of the several provinces. Now whatever of national, +tribe, or race feeling existed, was grouped everywhere about the worship +of the native gods.(43) The Nile-land had ceased to be a royal seat, and +was governed by a simple Roman knight as prefect of the emperor; but not +for this had the Nile gods abdicated their dark sway over their votaries. +In them the Egyptians still felt that they had something which was their +own. Thus, whatever force of patriotism still lurked in the several parts +of the empire was nurtured by its own form of polytheism, which it in turn +invested with the memories dearest and most ineradicable in man, of past +independence or renown. Not only the Egyptians, but the various Asiatic +and Libyan races, the Gauls and Germans under Roman sway, were thus +attached to their native gods with a feeling no doubt akin to that of the +English towards "Old England," or the Russians towards "Holy Russia." + +4. Two more conditions of society throughout the whole empire we have yet +to consider in their bearing on the maintenance of polytheism: first, the +concentration of the vast power of the state--in itself an acknowledged +omnipotence, without the restriction or reservation of individual +rights--in one hand, the hand of the emperor, the sole representative of +the people. By this it would seem that all the upper classes of society, +the classes at ease as to their maintenance, the classes who have leisure +to think and will to act in political matters, were deprived of so much of +their freedom, and such deprivation would tend to support an existing +institution. Secondly, the despotism above was met by a corresponding +despotism below. The rights of the slaveholder over the human labourer +left as little margin of freedom to daily toil as the right of the +imperial autocrat to the freedom of conscience in the rich. The servants +throughout the world of Rome being slaves, were as much in the hand of +their masters as those masters were in the hand of the prince. + +We can now take a prospect of human society in reference to the polytheism +of the empire from the standing-point of Augustus in the last twenty years +of his reign. The worship of her gods was so intertwined with the +political constitution of Rome from her birth through seven centuries and +a half, that it might be said to be one thing with it. Almost as close was +the identification of the several religious systems of the East with the +enjoyments of civilised life which they prized so highly, and which the +empire of Rome secured to them. Further in the background the national +gods of the many races included in the empire were the last inheritance of +their former independent life. Again, not only was the emperor as Pontifex +Maximus the official head of this polytheism, but as representing the +whole power of the state, he was its guardian, and whatever assailed it +was an insult to the majesty which he embodied; while the slavery in which +the masses were lying seemed to represent in human society the chances of +war which had all ended in the dominion of Rome and the subjection of the +whole pantheon of incongruous gods to the sovereignty of the Capitoline +Jupiter. These were general conditions to that multifarious whole of +nations and races. Then if Augustus sought to examine more narrowly the +society of Roman citizens spread through his empire, he would find it +divided very unequally as to numbers into two classes. The vast majority +were those who take things as they find them, and who belonged with more +or less fidelity and heartiness to the idolatrous polytheism. The worship +which came to them as part and parcel of the empire, of civilised and of +national life, they accepted without thought. To all these an indefinite +number of immoral gods was throned in possession of Olympus; to all these +the result of such worship was, as we have seen described by S. Augustine, +the utter perversion of morality, the consecration of fables equalling in +turpitude the utmost license of the theatres. But everywhere among the +educated classes were to be found a small number of sceptical minds: +philosophers they termed themselves: it was fashionable to follow some +philosophic system or sect, and these fell mainly into two. Now the +Epicureans and the Stoics, while they left the existing polytheism in +practical possession, as a matter of custom and state religion, and so +delivered themselves from any unpleasant consequences of denying the +prevailing worship, concurred entirely in this, that the one by the way of +atheism, the other by that of pantheism, destroyed all religion of the +heart and inner conduct; because they equally removed the notion of a +personal God, and its corresponding notion of a personal being in man +outliving the body and the world of sense, and meeting with a personal +retribution. Whether the power they acknowledge be nature, as in +Lucretius, or a hidden physical force running through all nature, which +might be called Jupiter, Juno, Hercules, or the name of any other god, as +in Marcus Aurelius, the notion of a personal Creator, provident and +rewarding, was equally destroyed. Nor before the preaching of the Gospel +does there appear a single individual who drew out of the existing +polytheism such a conclusion. On the contrary, in Augustus and his +successors the imperial idea of unity in religion was to make out that all +these systems of polytheism, running into and athwart each other, came +practically to the same thing, differing in name only. Their obedience to +Jupiter of the Capitol was the only bond of unity, and pledge of the +empire's duration, conceived by the Roman rulers. + +II. Thus in the time of Augustus no human eye, whether we look at the mass +of mankind or the thinking few, could see any sign either that the +dominant polytheism was about to fall, or that the lost doctrine of the +divine Unity and Personality could be extricated from the bewildering mass +of error and superstition which had grown over, disguised, and distorted +it. Darker still, if possible, became the prospect under his successor, +Tiberius, whose reign had reached the climax of moral debasement, when +Sejanus was all-powerful at Rome. Hope for the human race there appeared +none, when such an emperor devolved his omnipotence on such a prime +minister. Then in the judgment-hall of a procurator in a small and distant +eastern province, there passed the following dialogue between an accused +criminal and his judge:--"Pilate went into the praetorium again, and called +Jesus, and said to him, 'Art thou the king of the Jews?' Jesus answered +him, 'Sayest thou this thing of thyself, or have others told it thee of +me?' Pilate answered, 'Am I a Jew? Thine own nation and the chief priests +have delivered thee up to me: what hast thou done?' Jesus answered, 'My +kingdom is not of this world. If my kingdom were of this world, my +servants would strive that I should not be delivered to the Jews; but now +my kingdom is not from hence.' Pilate therefore said to him, 'Art thou a +king, then?' Jesus answered, 'Thou sayest that I am a king. For this was I +born, and for this came I into the world, that I should bear witness to +the truth. Every one that is of the truth heareth my voice.' Pilate saith +to him, 'What is truth?' " He who thus declared himself to be a king, the +cause of whose birth and advent into the world, the function of whose +royalty, was to bear witness to the truth, received from the power which +then ruled the world the punishment allotted to the slave who was worthy +of death. For many ages a false worship had overshadowed the earth, hiding +the true God from men, and setting up instead a multitude of demons for +gods. And during this time the thinkers of Greek and Roman society had +been asking, What is truth? And now the officer who asked that question of +the Truth Himself, replied to it by crucifying Him. And when the body of +that Crucified One was the same day taken down from the cross and laid in +its sepulchre, the power which reigned in polytheism and spoke by the +mouth of the judge, seemed to have given the final answer of triumphant +force to its question, What is truth? and falsehood might be thought to +reign supreme and victorious in the world. + +It was with the resurrection of that Body, in which Truth was enshrined, +that the resurrection of truth among men began. He had said to His +disciples a few hours before, not "I show the truth," but "I am the +Truth." His birth and His advent took place that His witness might be +given to it, the witness to it being that very birth and advent, His +appearance among men, and the reception He would meet with. The +crucifixion itself--the reply of triumphant force to its own unanswered +question--was the witness which, first in Him, and then in His followers, +should make itself heard over the earth, now held in captivity by +falsehood. And since Truth is His proper Name and His personal Being from +eternity, and by being the Truth He who spoke is the second Person in the +Godhead, the perfect Image of all Truth, let us consider the import of His +Name as the summing-up of the great antagonism which He then planted on +the earth. + +For He named Himself the Truth because He is the Son and the Word of the +Father. "Thus the Father, as it were uttering Himself, begot His Word, +equal to Himself in all things. For He would not fully and perfectly have +uttered Himself, if there were anything less or anything more in His Word +than in Himself.... And therefore this Word is truly the Truth; inasmuch +as whatever is in that knowledge of which He is begotten, is also in +Himself; and whatsoever is not in it, is not in Himself.... The Father and +the Son know each other, the one by generating, the other by being +generated."(44) Thus it is that He is the perfect Word, the absolute Image +of God; and being the Image of God He created man in the beginning a copy +of that Image, and according to its resemblance, in that He created him in +the indivisible unity of a soul intelligent and willing--a created copy of +the Trinity in Unity. But though by the original constitution of the soul +this copy could not be destroyed, being the very essence of the soul, yet +the resemblance might be marred, and the harmony which reigned in the +original man between the soul, its intellect, and will, through the +indwelling of God's Spirit, was broken by the act of sin; whereupon that +Spirit withdrew from him, and left the copy of the divine Image defaced +and disordered. All the heathenism we have been considering is the +sequence of that disorder, part of which is the grievous obscuration of +truth, that is, of the whole relation between God and man, of which +idolatrous polytheism is the perversion. It was the exact representation +of the soul's own disorder, being the distortion but not the extinction of +worship; the fear of many demons, instead of the fear of one God; slavish +instead of filial fear. + +But as the Truth of the Father is beheld and expressed in generating His +Son, His Word, His perfect Image, so truth to man is the resemblance of +created things to the archetypal idea of them in God; the resemblance of +the works of the divine art to the Artificer's intention. In this long act +of heathenism we see the work of the divine Artificer marred and obscured, +and the marring and obscuration seem to have gone as far as was possible +without touching the essence of the soul. Who, then, should restore, but +He who had first created? Who should give back to the copy the lost +harmony, and reimprint the defaced resemblance, save the perfect Image of +God? Thus, when the corruption had run its course, and the original +disobedience had reproduced itself all over the earth in a harvest of evil +and disorder, the time for the work of reparation was come, and the Divine +Word, the Image of the Father, took flesh. + +Magnificent as had been the dower of the First Man, and wonderful the +grace which held his soul in harmony with itself, and his bodily +affections in obedience to his soul, incomparably more magnificent was the +dower of human nature in its reparation, inconceivably grander the grace +which ruled the Soul and Body of the Restorer. For whereas the First Man's +person had been simply human, the Person of the Second Man was the Divine +Word Himself, the perfect Image of the Father; and whereas the grace of +the First Man was such that he was able not to sin, the grace which had +assumed the nature of the Second Man was a Person who could not sin, the +fountain of grace itself, measureless, absolute, and personal. The Image +of God Himself came to restore the copy of that Image in Man; his +appearance as man among men was the reconveying of the Truth to them, +because He was the Truth Himself. The Truth in all its extent; the Truth +in the whole moral order and every relation which belongs to it; the Truth +by which all the rational creation of God corresponds to the Idea of its +Creator, was the gift which He brought to man in His Incarnation. + +But this truth is not merely external to man. In order to be received and +appropriated by him, he must become capable of it. The Restorer works his +restoration by an inward act upon the soul, its intellect and will. The +Image of God sets up His seat within His work, the copy. Man is sealed by +the Holy Spirit with the likeness and resemblance of the Father's Face, +the Son; and having the Son within him, and giving a home within the soul +to the divine character, and making this his treasure, man is formed after +God.(45) The supreme likeness, which is beyond all others, is impressed on +human souls by the Spirit of the Father and the Son. As the defacing of +the likeness, the result of the original fall, caused the obscuring of the +Truth, so its restoration was itself the recovery of the Truth. + +And this restoration is itself the witness to the Truth of which He spoke +before Pilate as the object of His birth and advent. But to make the +witness operative and fruitful, the greatest wonder in this list of +wonders is required, the suffering of the Truth Himself. He said of the +corn of wheat, which was to bear fruit in unnumbered hearts, that it would +remain alone unless it fell into the ground and died. And so His +crucifixion in the nature which He had assumed was the act from which the +renewal of truth went forth; and not only in His Person, but likewise in +His chosen witnesses this special mode of vivifying the truth, and making +it fruitful, should be repeated. Not only must the absolute Truth of God +appear in our nature itself in order to be accepted, but the nature in +which it appeared should offer the sacrifice of itself; and this +particular mode of propagating the truth should be observed in that chosen +band whom He termed specially His witnesses. Their witness should be their +suffering; in them too the Truth should be crucified, and so become +fruitful. + +And as man in his original creation had been a copy, however faint, of the +eternal relations of the Godhead in itself, so his restoration springs +from those same eternal relations. In it the Father, the Son, and the Holy +Spirit are seen working.(46) It springs from the Father, in that He is the +Father of the only-begotten Son, the Original of the Image, and so the +Father of all those who are the copies of that Image. It springs from the +Son, in that He is the perfect Image of the Father, and by dwelling in a +created nature has raised it to the dignity of His Person, from which the +grace of Sonship comes. It springs from the Holy Spirit, whose work as the +Spirit of the Father and the Son is to imprint the copy of the Son on man. +He performs in every one of the redeemed by communicating to them a +participation of the divine nature, by dwelling in them, by contact and +coherence with them, a work infinitely less in degree, but yet of the same +order with that work of His whereby all the fulness of the Godhead dwelt +by personal unity in our Lord's Manhood.(47) + +But we left our Lord before Pilate, bearing witness to the truth. It +remains to see how that truth became impressed on the world. + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN. + + + "Totus Christus caput et corpus est. Caput unigenitus Dei Filius, + et corpus ejus Ecclesia, Sponsus et Sponsa, duo in carne una." S. + Aug. _de Unitate Ecc._ tom. ix. 341. + + "Totus Christus, id est, caput et membra." S. Thomas, Prolog. ad 1 + Sentent. art. 4. + + +Let us look back on the space which we have traversed, and gather up in a +few words the sight which it presents to us. We have man before us as far +as history will carry us back, as far as reasoning, planting itself on the +scanty traces of history, will penetrate into the cloudland of prehistoric +times: and the result stands before us exhibited in the manifold records +still remaining of the most renowned ancient civilisation. Here, then, we +see nations whose genius, whether in history, poetry, and literature, or +in works of art, or in civil government, we still admire, comprising men +in many of whom the powers of reason reached their utmost limit; nations +inhabiting the most varied climates and countries, and amongst them the +fairest in the world, nations formed under the most different +circumstances and pursuing the most distinct employments, some +agricultural, some commercial, some inland, some nautical, but alike in +this, that they were enthralled by systems of a false worship, of which it +is hard to say whether it was the more revolting to the reason by its +absurdity, or to the conscience of man by its foulness. And this false +worship does not lie distinct and apart from the concerns of daily civil +and domestic life, but is intertwined with all the public and private +actions of men, forming their habits and ruling their affections. +Moreover, the polytheistic idolatry described above as existing at the +time of Augustus in every province of his empire except one, in almost(48) +every country which touched upon it, or was known to it, is the result, +the summing-up, the embodiment of man's whole history up to that time, so +far as we know it: it is that into which this history had run out, its +palpable, it almost seemed its irresistible, form. And it amounts to a +complete corruption, first of the relation between man and his Creator, +secondly of the relation between man and his fellow, thirdly of the +relations of man in civil government, that is, of states and political +communities, to each other. + +Now, looking at this polytheistic idolatry simply as a fact, without for +the moment any attempt to give a solution of it from authority, looking at +it just as modern science would regard the facts of geology or astronomy, +there is one thing, we may suppose, which it proves with a superabundance +of evidence not found to belong to any other fact of history; and that is, +the intrinsic corruption of man as a moral being. That which in +theological language is called the Fall of man is, apart from all revealed +doctrine on the subject, brought in upon the mind with irresistible force +by the mere enumeration of the gods which heathendom worshipped, and of +the worship paid by it to them; a force which is indefinitely increased by +every inquiry into the moral and religious state of man as he lived under +this worship. + +Now, then, let us consider what solution the Christian faith does give of +this fact, which exists, be it remembered, independently of this solution, +and would exist with all its force undiminished, if this were rejected. + +I. The Christian faith, as a solution of this wonderful maze of +polytheistic idolatry, with all its accompaniments and consequences, +carries us back to the first father of the race, whose development we have +been following in it. This, it says, is nothing else(49) but the body of +Adam carried out through thousands of years, the body of Adam fallen under +a terrible captivity. Not only does the Christian faith set before us man +as one race descended from one, but because he is this one race, descended +from one, it represents him as having come into such a state. To +understand this we must contemplate the original creation, the fall of +man, and its consequences, in their several bearings on each other, which +will then lead us on to the nature and mode of the restoration. + +In speaking of the creation of man we may first consider the union of the +soul and body simply by themselves; that is, in order to obtain a clear +view of our subject, we may form to ourselves a purely ideal state of +simple nature. Such a state would include two things; one positive, the +other negative.(50) Positively, human nature in this condition would have +all natural faculties in their essential perfection, and the assistance +and providence of God naturally due to it: negatively, it would have +nothing superadded to nature, nothing not due to it, whether evil or good, +that is, neither sin on the one hand, and what follows sin, the guilt +which entails punishment, nor on the other hand any gifts of grace, or +perfections not due to nature. + +Human nature, if created in such a state, would have no supernatural end; +its end would be to love God with a natural love, as the Author and Ruler +of the world. + +Of such a state it is requisite for our present purpose to say only two +things further. The first, that it is not contrary to any attribute of God +to have created human nature in such a state. The gift of eternal +beatitude, arising from the vision of God, which such a creature would not +have had for its end, is simply and absolutely a gratuitous gift of the +divine bounty, which God is not bound to bestow on any creature as such. +Secondly, God did not in fact so create man. + +Going on from this state of simple nature, we may consider another state +in man, in which, beyond all his natural faculties,(51) he would have a +certain special perfection, consisting in the absence of immoderate +concupiscence, or in the perfect subjection of the sensitive to the +rational appetite, so that the inferior appetite should not be allowed to +set itself in motion against the superior, or to anticipate reason. For +human nature, regarded in itself as the union of a spirit and a body, is +as it were divided in its natural affections, which tend in diverse +directions, and thus totters, so to say, in its gait; when, therefore, it +receives an inward peace in its own proper faculties, it is said to be +supplemented, or to receive its integrity. + +Now it is much to be noted that this special gift of integrity would not +be connatural to man, that is, not given to him by force of his nature +itself. It is true indeed that as such a gift perfects nature in regard to +all natural acts, and supplies a sort of natural deficiency arising out of +the combination of a spiritual with a material substance, wherein a +conflict is engendered, in such a sense it may be called natural: but +strictly speaking it is a gift superadded to nature. + +It must further be noted that this state of nature in its integrity, +however high and beautiful, is not only entirely distinct from but of an +inferior order to the state of human nature raised to the gift of Divine +Sonship. Between human nature in this condition and human nature raised to +the gift of sonship, there would be more than the difference(52) that with +us exists between the kindly-treated servant and the adopted son: for +human nature in this integrity would still not by virtue of it possess +sanctifying grace, or, in consequence, have God and His vision for its +supernatural end. + +But, thirdly, it was not merely in this state that God created man, but in +a state which not only included this, but had grace for its basis,(53) +that is to say, every perfection which it had sprang out of this, that it +was united to God by grace. This is a state of far superior order, +absolutely gratuitous, and beyond anything which is due to nature. The +first man, Adam, then, was not only a union of soul and body, not only did +he possess this nature in its integrity, but he was created in grace, so +that there was a union of the Holy Spirit with him, whereby he was exalted +to the condition of a supernatural end and adopted Sonship, and in this +union was rooted the integrity of his nature, and the supernatural power +of so ruling all the lower faculties of his soul that the higher could +mount undisturbedly to God: and certain other gifts over and above, such +as immunity from error or deception, so long as he did not sin, immunity +from even venial fault, immunity from death, and from all pain or sorrow. +Such was the original condition which grace bestowed on human nature, +wherein man had not only a supernatural end, but the power to attain it +easily.(54) + +Now it is evident that man, by being created in grace, was raised to an +astonishing height of dignity, to which not only his nature, but any +created nature whatsoever had no claim. All that the justice and goodness +of God required him to do in creating such a being as man of two +substances, soul and body, was to bestow on the compound being so united +such perfections as made the several substances complete in their own +order. Such would be the ideal state of simple nature as delineated above. +It was a gift beyond nature, such as nature in its first beginning could +not claim, to bestow on it the integrity which in the second place we +considered. But how far beyond this, passing it by an unmeasured chasm, +was that dower of sonship rooted in sanctifying grace which God actually +bestowed on His favoured child? It is obvious at first sight that the +divine gift here intended, being in Adam's actual creation the root of all +which was over and above the natural faculties of body and soul in their +union, was bestowed absolutely by the pure goodness of God, and therefore +could be bestowed with such conditions attached to it as pleased the +Giver. In all that is beyond the mere faculties and needs of nature--in +forming which God's own being is a sort of rule to Him--He is absolutely +free to give as pleases Himself, to what degree He pleases, on what terms +He pleases. What, then, were the conditions on which He invested Adam with +the gift of Sonship, and created Him in grace as its foundation? He +created him, not only as the individual Adam, but as the Head of his race, +so that his race was summed up in him, and a unity was founded in him +attaching his whole race as members to his body, in such manner that the +supernatural gift of sonship bestowed on him was to descend from him by +virtue of natural propagation to every member of that body, which thus +became a supernatural race from a supernatural father. So absolute was +this unity that the order maintained in the case of every other creature +put under the dominion of the man so formed was not followed in his case. +For whereas they were created with the difference of sex, each a male and +a female, he was created alone, as the Head, and then she, by whose +cooeperation the race was to be continued, was formed out of him. It was +not a second man who was so formed from the first, but one made with +reference to him, in dependence on him, to be a help meet for him, not for +herself, with an independent being, but for him. This formation of Eve +from Adam, which has a meaning of unfathomable depth in the development of +the race, is an essential part of the original design. "Therefore," says +Adam, speaking in an ecstasy sent upon him by God, the words of God, "this +is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called woman, +because she was taken out of man. Therefore shall a man leave his father +and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one +flesh." First, the Eve so formed from him is one flesh with him; secondly, +the race springing from both is one flesh likewise with him. The +consequence intended by that one flesh was the transmission of that +magnificent inheritance in which Adam was standing when he so spoke. In +this he was Father and Head, for this created alone, then Eve built up +from him, from whom afterwards was to issue their joint race. On the +further condition of his personal obedience to God and fidelity to his +grace, he held the whole supernatural gift of grace conferring sonship, +both for himself and for his race: on these terms it was bestowed by the +charter of God, the original Giver. Thus, the greatness of his Headship +was visible in two things, the power of transmitting his quality of divine +sonship to his race by propagation, and the dependence of that quality, in +them as well as in himself, on his personal fidelity to God. + +But the First Man, the Father and Head of the race, did not stand in his +inheritance. He broke the divine command, and lost the gift of sonship, +and with it all the prerogatives attendant on that gift, which were above +nature and rooted in grace, and which the eminent goodness of God had +bestowed upon him: and by the terms of the original charter lost the gift, +not only for himself, but for his race. But he did not, therefore, destroy +that relation between the Head and the Race, which was part of the +original foundation of God. This continued; but whereas it had been +intended to communicate the blessing of adoption, it now served to +communicate the demerit of adoption lost, the guilt, and with it the +punishment incurred by that loss. This is the original sin, the sin of the +nature, not of the person, inherited by the members of Adam's body; and as +there can be no sin without free-will, the sin of the whole nature +included in Adam as its Root and Head, which sinned by Adam's abuse of his +free-will. + +Let us try to determine as accurately as we can the position into which +Adam and his race fell. + +Did, then, Adam simply lose with the forfeiture of sanctifying grace the +gift of sonship, the supernatural inheritance, all which God had bestowed +on him beyond that ideal state of pure nature which we described in the +first instance? God, we said, might have created man originally in this +condition, and man so created, that is, in virtue of this creation, would +not have been under any sin, nor exposed to the anger of God. Did man, by +Adam's sin, fall back into it? Not so. His state after his fall differed +from such a state of pure nature in that he had upon him the guilt of lost +adoption, of adoption lost by the first Adam's fault, and in proportion to +the greatness of the loss, and the gratuitousness of the gift originally +bestowed, was the anger with which, on the donor's part, the loss was +regarded. How would a king, a man like ourselves, regard one whom he had +raised out of the dust to be his adopted child, and who had been +unfaithful to the parent who had so chosen him with more than natural +affection? Such an anger we can indeed understand when felt against the +person sinning; but we fail to enter into it as resting on the race, +because the secret tie which binds the head and the race into one is not +discerned by us; because too the greatness of the divine majesty, the +awfulness of His sovereignty, and the wrath of that majesty slighted, are +feebly appreciated by us. But this image may at least give us some notion +of the nature of that divine anger which pressed upon Adam and his race +after the fall. Not only, therefore, was the gift of sonship and the +prerogatives attending it withdrawn, but this withdrawal was a punishment, +which their absence in the presumed case of an original state of simple +nature would not have been. Thus death was a punishment to Adam and his +race; the body's weakness and disease, the soul's sorrows and pains, the +disobedience of the inferior appetites to the reason, the resistance of +the reason to the law of God, were all punishments, and a remarkable point +of the punishment is to be seen in this. Adam, as the head of his race, +was in virtue of natural propagation to have bestowed on the children of +his flesh, the members of his body, his own supernatural inheritance. Thus +a singular honour was conferred on the fathership of Adam. But now when, +in virtue of this natural propagation, he, continuing to be the head of +his race, transmitted to it the guilt of adoption lost instead of the +blessing of adoption conferred, a peculiar shame was set by God upon this +fathership of Adam, and upon all the circumstances attending it: so that +henceforth in the disinherited race the bride veiled her head, and the act +of being a father became an act of shame. + +The condition, therefore, of Adam and his posterity after his fall +differed from the condition which would have been that of simple nature by +the whole extent of the guilt incurred by the nature in its fall from +sonship. + +And herein lies one peculiarity, and one strangely distressing condition +of his state, in that while he lost by the fall the grace in which, as an +indwelling gift, his whole supernatural state had been rooted, he yet did +not lose that condition of being formed and intended for a supernatural +end which grace alone could enable him to attain. For the supernatural +vision and love of God he had been created, and in his fall he did not +sink to be merely a natural man; but his original end was still held out +before him as that which he might reach supported by that grace the aids +of which were in a different measure promised to him in order to lead a +life of penance, and as the earnest of a future restoration. + +This, however, is far from being a complete statement of his case, and we +must go back to the circumstances of his fall in order to add that further +still more peculiar and remarkable condition which, added to the one just +described, made up the whole of his fall. + +Adam had not disobeyed the divine command, and so broken the covenant of +his sonship, by the simple promptings of his own will. Another had +intervened; had suggested to the woman doubts against her Maker and +Father. She had yielded to these doubts, and disobeyed; and then Adam had +suffered himself to be drawn with her in her disobedience. Who was this +other? He was the prince and leader of spirits created good, but fallen +into enmity with God. Thus, the favourite son of God had listened to the +persuasion of God's chief enemy, and his fall from sonship had been, by +the judgment of the offended Parent, not a simple fall from his +supernatural estate, but a fall likewise into servitude to that enemy. +This servitude also, with the guilt of the nature in which he had sinned, +Adam transmitted to the members of his body in and by their nature. Adam +with his race was the captive taken in war by the enemy of God, and the +life which he was allowed to live had the condition of this servitude +impressed on it, with this alleviation only, that the assistance of the +divine grace offered to him by the mercy of God in his state of penance +could protect those who accepted it from the effects of this servitude, +and ultimately deliver them. + +Here, then, is the condition of Adam's posterity in consequence of his +fall; members of a Head who had broken his allegiance to his Creator and +Father, and so inheriting with their nature the disinherited state into +which he had cast himself; captives, moreover, of that powerful spirit, +God's antagonist, who had tempted Adam, seduced him, and led him to his +fall. + +Now the heathenism which we have been contemplating is the carrying out in +time and space of this body of Adam in those who, by their personal fault, +fell away from the aids of grace which were accorded to man after his +fall--aids given first to Adam for the whole race, and then renewed to Noah +for the whole race; and the false worship, so blent and mingled with +heathenism, which seemed as if it were the soul of its body, is the sign +and stamp of that captivity to the evil spirit which the first man's sin +inaugurated. + +How powerful was the bond between Adam and his race, how great and +influential the headship which the Divine choice had vested in him, we see +in that mysterious transmission of guilt which passed from him to his +children. And it must be expressly noted that it was not a transmission of +punishment alone. Rather, the divine justice cannot punish where there is +no guilt; and as in this case Adam's fall, and that of his posterity with +him, was not merely a loss but a punishment, so it had the special nature +of guilt, not only in him but in his posterity, and was a sin both of the +person and of the nature in him, of the nature only in them. We see the +force and range of the divine endowment of Adam here, though it be in the +tenacity of the calamity which ensued to his race; but it must be +remembered that such in this respect as the punishment was, the blessing +would have been. Adam was created both an individual and a race. In him +were two things--the single man and the head; but of these two things the +headship was peculiar to himself, while such as the individual Adam was, +his race was to be. He had it in his power to break the covenant of his +sonship with God, but not the tie between himself and his race. + +And this sheds a light upon the darkest part of that terrible picture +which collected heathenism presents to us. Man, as a social animal, is +incessant in his action on his fellow-man; the parent and the family form +the child; the companion and the neighbourhood lead forth the child into +manhood. This work is perpetually going on in all its parts, and society +is the joint result. When, therefore, we see this society once fallen into +the possession of a false worship, which perverts the very foundations of +morality, and instils deadly error into the child with the mother's milk, +no thoughtful mind can gaze without horror upon beings involved in such a +maze,(55) yet intended for an eternal duration. Man's nature, as a race, +seems turned against him; and in addition to the guilt under which each +individual of the race is born, and the nature which each inherits, +wherein the internal harmony of peace is broken, and neither the appetites +obey the reason nor the reason is obedient to God, comes the force of +habit, of education, of culture, of companionship, of man's business and +leisure, his play and his earnest, the force of his language, the +expression of his thoughts upon himself and others, the whole force, in +fact, of man's social being when it is put under possession of an evil +power, man's adversary. But this social nature was to have been to him the +means of the greatest good. As by his natural descent from Adam unfallen +would have come the grace of sonship, so the whole brotherhood of those +who shared that gift would have helped and supported each in the +maintenance of it. The human family would have had a beauty and a unity of +its own as such; an order and a lustre would have rested on the whole +body, confirming each member in the possession of his own particular gift. +The concatenation of evil in the corrupt society is the most striking +contrast to the fellowship of good in the upright; and while it is +distinct from that guilt which descends to man as the sin of his nature, +yet springs like it from the original constitution of that nature as a +race. It is the invasion of evil upon good carried to its utmost point, +wherein we discern most plainly "the prince of this world" wielding that +"power of darkness" by which the Apostle described the whole state of the +world, out of which these nations, which made the empire of Augustus, were +a part. + +We have thus contemplated four distinct pictures. The first of these was +human nature bare and naked by itself, a merely ideal view of man, as a +being compounded of soul and body, each possessing only the faculties +which belong to them as spiritual and corporeal natures, the result of +which is a substantial union, because the spiritual substance becomes the +form of the corporeal, not by making the body, when already animated by +another principle, to participate of spiritual life, but by becoming +itself the principle first animating it. And we set forth this condition +of human nature in order to throw light upon our second picture--the first +man as he was actually created, possessing, as a gift superadded by the +purest divine bounty to this his natural constitution, a divine sonship +founded in grace; which transcendant union of the Holy Spirit with his +soul kept the soul with all its faculties in a loving obedience to God, +and the body in obedience to the soul; and added even to this state the +further gratuitous prerogatives of immunity from error, fault, pain, +distress, and death. Our third picture was man in this same state, but +constituted besides by the divine will, whose good pleasure was the sole +source of all this state of sonship, to be father of a race like to +himself, receiving from him, with its natural generation, the transmitted +gift of sonship; that is, from our view of him as an individual person we +went on to consider him as the head of a body--the root of a tree. +Fourthly, we have looked on the same man stripped by a fault, personal to +himself but natural to his race, of this divine sonship--reduced to a state +like that which the first would have been, but altered from it by two +grave conditions, one of guilt lying on himself and his race on account of +this gratuitous gift of sonship lost, another of captivity to that enemy +of his Creator and Father who had seduced him to fall. And this picture +included in it the double effect of guilt transmitted through a whole race +from its head and father, and of the personal sins of each individual of +the race: which, moreover, had a tendency to be perpetually heightened by +the social nature of man--that part of his original condition which, as it +would have supported his highest good in the state of innocence, so came +to make his corruption intense and more complicated in the state of fall. +It has not been our purpose in this sketch to dwell upon those who, like +Adam himself after his fall, accepted the divine assistance offered to +them, and the promise of a future Restorer, and who, living a life of +penance, kept their faith in God. Such an assistance was offered not only +to Adam but to his whole race, and such a line of men there always was; of +whom Abel was the type in the world before the flood; Noah after the +flood, as the second father of the whole race; Abraham, the friend of God +and father of the faithful, in whose son Isaac a people was to be formed, +which, as the nations in their apostasy fell more and more away from the +faith and knowledge of the true God, should maintain still the seed of +promise out of which the Restorer should spring. But before that Restorer +came, the heathenism--of which we have been speaking in the former chapter, +and of which we have been giving the solution above--was in possession of +all but the whole earth, and the captivity of man to his spiritual foe, on +account of which that foe is called "the Ruler" and "the God" "of this +world," which is said "to lie in the malignant one,"(56) was all but +universal. This universality denoted that the fulness of the time(57) +marked out in the providence of God was come. + +For Adam, in his first creation, and in the splendour of that robe of +sonship(58) in which he was invested, had been the figure of One to come: +his figure as an individual person, his figure as father and head of a +race; his figure likewise, when the race itself is viewed as summed up in +one, as one body. Let us take each of these in their order. + +What was the counterpart of Adam, as an individual person, in the new +creation? It was the Eternal Son Himself assuming a human soul and body, +and bearing our nature in His divine personality. Over against the +creature invested with sonship stood the uncreated Son, invested with a +created nature. For the grace of the Holy Spirit given by measure, and +depending for its continuance on the obedience of the creature, was the +Fountain of Grace Himself ruling the creature by a union indefeasible and +eternal; for grace communicated grace immanent in its source. For the son +gratuitously adopted was the Son by nature, making, by an inconceivable +grace, the created nature assumed to be that not of the adopted but of the +natural Son. In a word, the figure was man united to God; the counterpart, +the God-man. + +What, again, is Adam's counterpart as Father and Head of his race? It was +human nature itself, which the Word of God espoused in the bridal chamber +of the Virginal Womb, and so is become the Second Adam, the Father of a +new race, the Head of a mystical Body, which corresponds to Adam's +original Headship, but as far transcends it as the grace of the Incarnate +Word transcends the grace bestowed on the first man. As Adam, had he stood +in his original state of son, would have transmitted the gift of a like +sonship to his whole race--as, falling, he did actually transmit to that +race the guilt of adoption lost, so the Second Adam, out of His own +uncreated Sonship, but through the nature which He had assumed, bestowed +the dower of adopted sons and the gift of justice on his race. From the +one there was punishment generating through the flesh;(59) from the other, +grace regenerating through the Spirit. From the one, nature stripped and +wounded, yet still bound to its head by an indissoluble tie; by the other, +the Spirit of the Head, the Spirit of Truth, Charity, Unity, and Sanctity, +ruling his Body and animating it, as the natural soul animates the natural +body. Precisely where the mystery was darkest and the misery greatest, the +divine grace is most conspicuous, and the divine power most triumphant. +The very point which brings out Adam's connection with his race has an +exact counterpart in Christ's Headship of His people, and an inscrutable +judgment serves to illustrate an unspeakable gift. In exact accordance +with the doctrine that the sin of Adam is man's sin, and the guilt of Adam +man's guilt, is that boundless and unimaginable grace that the Incarnate +Word did not merely assume an individual human nature, but espoused in +that assumption the whole nature; that on the cross He paid the debt of +the whole nature, whether for original or actual sin; that His +resurrection is our collective justification; that the gift of sonship is +bestowed on men not as individual persons, but as members of His Body, +before they have personally merited anything, just as the guilt came on +them, as members of Adam, before they demerited anything personally. +Exactly where the obscurity of the fall was the deepest, the light of the +restoration is brightest; and where the sentence was most severe, the +grace most wonderful. But to deny the first Adam would entail the loss of +the Second; and he who declines the inheritance of the father stripped and +wounded cannot enter into the Body of the Word made flesh. + +But thirdly, as in that terrible corruption of heathenism, wherein +immorality was based on false worship, we saw the body of Adam run out +through time and space into the most afflicting form which evil can assume +in the individual and social life of man, so in that Body which is ruled +by the Divine Headship we see the counterpart, the triumph of grace, +individual man taken out of that state of fallen nature, and invested with +a membership answering to the dignity of the Head. The one great Christian +people, the Kingdom of Christ, stands over against that kingdom of +violence, disorder, impurity, and false worship. As there is a unity of +the fallen Adam, a force of evil which impact only gives, so much more is +there a unity of the Second Adam, which is not a collection of +individuals, but a Body with its Head. The first unity consists in the +reasonable soul, informing the flesh which was moulded once for all from +the clay and descended to the whole race; and the race so descending was +polluted by a common guilt, on which, as an ever-fertile root, grew the +whole trunk of man's personal sins, of falsehood, enmity, corruption of +morals, division, having the common quality of egotism. The second unity +consists in the Holy Spirit of the Head communicated to the soul and body +of the faithful people, both being restored by that grace of which truth +and charity, unity and sanctity, are the tokens, the full virtue being +planted in the cross of the Head, and from the cross diffusing itself to +His Body. + +II. And so we are brought again to Him who stood before Pilate to make the +good confession, and who declared that the cause of His coming into the +world was to bear witness to the truth. In what form was that witness to +be made, and how was it to be efficacious? This is that point which we +have now to illustrate. Adam's disobedience was a single act, the power of +which, springing out of his headship, extended through the whole line of +his race; through the consequences of this act the truth was obscured to +them, and human life involved in manifold error. What was that action on +the part of Christ, the purpose, as He declares, of His Incarnation, which +had an equally enduring effect? If the guilt communicated was not +transitory, then should the corresponding grace be perpetual. And how was +it so? The Son of God, as the Head of His race, does not stand at +disadvantage with Adam, but rather, we are told His grace is superabundant +in its results over the other's sin: and He Himself declared that He had +completely finished the work given Him to do.(60) But here He describes +this work to be the bearing witness to the truth. For, indeed, it was +worthy of the eternal wisdom to clothe Himself in flesh(61) in order that +truth, the good of the intellect, and the end of the whole universe, might +stand forth revealed to His rational creatures: and He who made all things +in truth would Himself restore truth, when it had been obscured by the +traducer. + +1. Let us take the character which He acknowledged and claimed before +Pilate: His character of King, and the kingdom in which it is exercised. + +The Person of Christ, as that of the eternal Word, is the Truth itself. +But He has assumed a body, and in that body He declares that He is a king, +and that the exercise of His royalty is the bearing witness to the +truth.(62) His words therefore indicate no less than the creation of a +kingdom to which the truth should be the principle of subsistence. But +what in the material or temporal kingdom is that by force of which it +subsists? Plainly power. A kingdom may be larger or smaller in population, +wealth, extent, stronger or weaker in the quality of its people; but as +long as it retains in itself that in which power culminates, sovereignty, +it will be a kingdom. If this power departs from it, if it falls into +subjection to a foreign authority, or if its own subjects successfully +rebel against its power, it ceases to be. In the kingdom, therefore, of +which Christ speaks, the maintenance of truth corresponds to what the +maintenance of power is in a material kingdom. + +But power in the material kingdom moves men to the natural end of society; +it preserves order, administers justice, allows and assists all natural +forces to develop themselves, and it must be in its supreme exercise one +and indisputable: that is, it culminates in sovereignty. So in the +spiritual kingdom truth, the corresponding power, moves men to the +supernatural end, and truth culminates in infallibility. But where is this +power seated, and how does the King wield it? + +The same who here calls Himself King and declares it to be the function of +His royalty to bear witness to the truth, in describing elsewhere the very +creation of His kingdom says to His apostles, "You shall receive power by +the Holy Ghost coming upon you," bidding them also to remain in Jerusalem +"until they were endued with power from on high."(63) But a few hours +before that scene in the hall of Pilate He had told them also that He +would send them the Spirit of Truth, who should abide with them for ever, +and should lead them into all truth. He creates therefore the kingdom of +the truth by sending down the Spirit of the Truth to dwell for ever with +those to whom He is sent; and this Spirit of the Truth is His own Spirit, +whom He Himself will send as the token of His ascension and session; the +Spirit who dwelt in the Body which He had assumed, and in which He spoke +before Pilate, should be sent by Him when that Body had taken its place at +the right hand of God, should invest with His own power those to whom He +was sent, and should never cease to be with them in His character of the +Spirit of Truth. Here, then, is that power in the kingdom of the Truth +which enables it to bear a true and a perpetual witness. It is the power +of the King, for it is His Spirit: it is the power of the kingdom, for it +remains in it, is throned in it, and makes it to be what it is. + +But to create a kingdom of the truth, and to bear perpetual witness in +that kingdom to the truth, is not only to state what is true. These +expressions mark out an organisation in and by means of which truth is +perpetuated. And further, the spirit in man is both reason and will; and +that man may act, the intellect which has truth for its object must work +on the will which has good for its object. And so the witness which our +Lord speaks of is that action of the truth upon the will which produces a +life in accordance with it: it is truth not left to itself, but supported +by grace. This power of the Spirit of Truth is therefore double, as +intended to work on the two powers of the soul, the reason and the will: +it is the double gift of Truth and Grace; as He is the Spirit of Grace no +less than the Spirit of Truth, and all grace is His immediate gift. + +Thus the Word made flesh being full of Truth and Grace from His own Person +communicated that Truth and Grace as the power which should form His +kingdom for ever, abide in it, and constitute its being a kingdom; the +gift of truth and grace being the very presence of His own Spirit, who +took possession of His kingdom on the day of Pentecost and holds it for +ever. + +This whole possession of Truth and Grace dwelling in a visible body is the +work of the eternal Word, who assumed a body for that purpose. It is the +counter-creation to the kingdom of falsehood which commenced with the sin +of the first man believing a falsehood against his Maker, and which spread +itself with his lineage into all lands.(64) And as in the natural creation +He not only created but maintained--for He did not make His creatures and +then depart from them, but from that time they exist in Him--so in the +supernatural the act of maintaining is equivalent to the act of creating, +it is a continued creation. As the guilt had a force which was fruitful, +which continued and propagated itself, and produced a widespread reign of +falsehood, how much more should that mighty and astonishing grace of a +Divine Person assuming a created nature be fruitful, continue, and +propagate itself in the maintenance of a visible kingdom, whose +distinctive character and its very life should be the possession and +communication of the truth. Should the Creator of man in His greatest work +be less powerful than His seduced creature in his fall? and if the fall, +pregnant with falsehood, bore fruit through ages in a whole race, should +not the recovery likewise have its visible dominion, and stand over +against the ruin as the kingdom of truth? + +It is as King ruling in the kingdom of truth that the Divine Word +incarnate redeems man from captivity, which began in a revolt from the +truth, and in becoming subject to falsehood. All who are outside His +kingdom lie in this captivity;(65) the life which He gave voluntarily is +the price paid for their liberation; and as age after age, so long as the +natural body of Adam lasts, the captivity endures, so age after age the +liberation takes effect by entering into His kingdom. And this is the most +general name, the name of predilection, which both in prophecy marked the +time of Messiah the King, and was announced by His precursor, and taken by +our Lord to indicate His having come. The eternal duration of this kingdom +may be said to be the substance of all prophecy, and it was precisely in +the interpretation of a vision describing under the image of a great +statue the four world-kingdoms, that is, the whole structure, course, and +issue of the heathenism which we have been contemplating, that Daniel +contrasts these kingdoms with another. "In the days of these kings shall +the God of heaven set up a kingdom which shall never be destroyed; and the +kingdom shall not be delivered to another people, but it shall break in +pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and shall stand itself for ever." +As King in this kingdom through all the generations of men from the moment +that He stood in Pilate's hall until He comes to judge the world, our Lord +bears witness to the truth, His witness and His royalty being +contemporaneous and conterminous to each other. + +2. This perpetual possession and announcement of the truth is indicated by +another image which is of constant recurrence,(66) wherein Christ is the +Inhabitant, His people the Inhabited, while both are the House or Temple, +for that in which God dwells is at once His House and Temple. Thus Moses +is said to have been "faithful in all his house as a servant, but Christ +as a Son over His own house, whose house are we." Here the King who bears +witness to the truth is the God who sanctifies the faithful people by +dwelling in them and building them in the truth. It is not merely the +individual believer, but the whole mass of the faithful which grows up to +be a holy temple; and the ever-abiding Spirit of truth, whose presence is +the guarantee of truth, is the equally abiding Spirit of sanctity, whose +presence imparts holiness. The Son dwells in His own house by His Spirit +for ever: as He ceases not to be incarnate, He ceases not to dwell in His +house, and could falsehood be worshipped in His temple, it would cease to +be His. That was the work of heathenism, when a false spirit had caused +error to be worshipped for truth; the specific victory of the Word +incarnate was to set up a temple in which the truth should be worshipped +for ever, "the inhabitation of God in the Spirit." But living stones make +up this temple, that is, individual spirits, endued with their own reason +and will, yet no less fitted in and cemented together by His grace, and so +forming a structure which has an organic unity of its own, being the House +and Temple of One. It is in virtue of this inhabitation that the Church is +termed the House of God, the pillar and ground of the truth, inasmuch as +it contains, as between walls,(67) the faith and its announcement and +proclamation, that is, the law of the King of Truth declared by His +heralds. "We speculate," says S. Augustine, "that we may attain to vision; +yet even the most studious speculation would fall into error unless the +Lord inhabited the Church herself that now is."(68) And again: "In earthly +possessions a benefit is given to the proprietor when he is given +possession; not so is the possession which is the Church. The benefit here +lies in being possessed by such a one."--"Christ's Body is both Temple and +House and City, and He who is Head of the Body is Inhabiter of the House, +and Sanctifier of the Temple, and King of the City.--What can we say more +acceptable to Him than this, Possess us?"(69) + +3. Again, to take another image, which is the greatest of realities. What +a wonderful production of divine skill is the structure of the human body! +Even its outward beauty is such as to sway our feelings with a force which +reason has at times a hard combat to overcome, so keen is the delight +which it conveys. But the inward distribution of its parts is so +marvellous that those who have spent their lives in the study of its +anatomy can find in a single member, for instance, in the hand, enough out +of which to fill a volume with the wise adaptation of means to ends which +it reveals. There are parts of it the structure of which is so minute and +subtle that the most persevering science has not yet attained fully to +unravel their use. In all this arrangement of nerves and muscles, machines +of every sort, meeting all manner of difficulties, and supplying all kinds +of uses, what an endless storehouse of wisdom and forethought! And all +these are permeated by a common life, which binds every part, whatever its +several importance, into one whole, and all these, in the state of health, +work together with so perfect an ease that the living actor, the bearer of +so marvellous a structure, is unconscious of an effort, and exults in the +life so simple and yet so manifold poured out on such a multitude of +members, a life so tender that the smallest prick is felt over the whole +body, and yet so strong that a wound may transfix the whole structure +leaving the life untouched. And, in addition to this physical marvel, the +incorporeal mind, which has its seat in this material structure, and whose +presence is itself its life, rules like an absolute monarch with +undisputed sway over his whole dominion, so that the least movement of +volition carries with it a willing obedience in the whole frame, and for +it instantaneously the eye gazes, the ear listens, the tongue speaks, the +feet walk, the hands work, and the brain feels with an incomparable unity. +The marvel of the body is that things so many and various by the rule of +the artificer impressed upon them are yet one, concur to one end, and +produce one whole, from which no part can be taken, and to which none can +be added without injury, the least and the greatest replete with one life, +which so entirely belongs to the whole body that what is severed from the +body at once dies. "Now as the body is one, and has many members, but all +the members of this one body, being many, are one body, so also," says S. +Paul, "is Christ," giving the name of the Head to the whole Body. What the +human head is to its own body, that our Lord is to His Church. Perhaps no +other image in the whole realm of nature would convey with such force the +three relations(70) which constitute spiritual headship, an inseparable +union, by which the head and the body form one whole, an unceasing +government, including every sort of provision and care, and a perpetual +influx of grace. This is on the part of the head, while as to the body +perhaps no other image but this could equally convey the conjunction of +many different members with various functions, whose union makes the +structure, and whose unity is something entirely distinct from that which +all the parts in their several state, or even in their collocation and +arrangement, make up, for it is the life which makes them one. Thus it is +an unfathomed depth of doctrine, which is conveyed in the words, "God gave +Him to be Head over all things to the Church, who is His Body, the fulness +of Him who fills all things in all." For though no language could exhaust +or duly exhibit the meaning of the kingdom or the temple in which the +abiding work of our Lord is indicated, we have in this title yet more +strikingly portrayed the intimate union and common life of His people with +Christ, and His tender affection for them, since the King of Truth who +redeems and the God of Truth who sanctifies is at the same time the Head +who by His own Spirit of the truth rules and vivifies His own Body. If it +be possible to dissociate the idea of the King from his kingdom, or that +of God from the temple of living souls in whom He is worshipped, and whose +worship of Him makes them one, yet in the human frame to dissever the head +from the body is to destroy the propriety of both terms, and it is as a +whole human body that the apostle represents Christ and His people to us. + +4. Yet, as if this was not enough, S. Paul goes on to delineate Him as the +Bridegroom, whose love after redeeming sanctifies one who shall be His +bride for ever, one who obeys Him with the fidelity of conjugal love, one +whose preservation of His faith unstained is not the dry fulfilment of a +command, but the prompting of wedded affection. The image seems chosen to +convey intensity of love, first on the part of the Bridegroom as +originating it, and then on the part of the Bride as responding to it. But +no less does the unity of person in the Bride, given by S. John as well as +by S. Paul, indicate in the Church something quite distinct from the +individuals who compose her. For she is the pattern of the faithful wife +in that she is subject to Christ; and in these words a fact is stated,(71) +a fact without limit of place or time, which therefore marks that she who +is so described can never at any time be separated from the fidelity and +love due from her to her Head and Husband. And this is not true of the +individual souls belonging to her, for they, having been once faithful +members of the body, may fall away and be finally lost. The Bride alone is +subject to Christ with a never-failing subjection. And He on His part +loves her as His own flesh, a union of the two loves of the Head for the +Body, and of the Bridegroom for the Bride, which is true with regard to +Him of the Church alone, since individuals within her He may cast off, but +her alone He cherishes and fosters for ever. It is indefectible union and +unbroken charity with Him which her quality of Bride conveys. + +5. And out of this wedded union by that great sacrament concerning Christ +and the Church, of which in the same passage S. Paul speaks, that they two +shall be one flesh, springs the whole race, in the generation of whom is +most completely verified his title of the Second Adam. From the womb of +the Church, become from a Bride the Mother of all living, the Father of +the age to come bears that chosen race, and royal priesthood, and holy +nation, and purchased people. And here we see expressed with great force +the truth that all who belong to the Father's supernatural race must come +by the Mother. Her office of parent is here set forth; as her fidelity and +intense affection shine in the title of the Bride, as her union, +submission, and unfailing reception of life in her title of Body, so in +the title of Mother all the saved are borne to Christ by her, as S. +Cyprian(72) drew the conclusion, "he cannot have God for his father who +has not the Church for his mother." + +In all this we see the five(73) great loves first shown by God to man, +then returned by man to God; the love of the Saviour, redeeming captives, +and out of these forming His kingdom; the love of the friend, who is God, +sanctifying those whom He redeems into one temple; the love which He has +implanted in man for self-preservation, since that which He so redeems and +sanctifies He has made His own body; the love which He has given to the +bridegroom for the bride, since it is the Bride of the Lamb who is so +adorned; and the love of the Father for his race, since it is his wife who +bears every child to him. Why is the whole force of human language +exhausted, and the whole strength of the several human affections +accumulated, in this manner? It is to express the super-eminent work of +God made flesh, who, when He took a human body, created in correspondence +to it that among men and out of men in which the virtue of His Incarnation +is stored up, the mystical Kingdom, Temple, Body, Bride, and Mother. No +one of these titles could convey the full riches of His work, or the +variously wrought splendour of His wisdom, which the angels desire to look +into; therefore He searched through human nature and society in all its +depth and height for images whose union might express a work so unexampled +and unique. Rather, it is truer to say that these natural affections +themselves, the gift of that most bountiful giver, were created by Him +originally to be types, foreshadowings, and partial copies of that more +excellent supernatural love which He had decreed to show to man, since +first of all things in the order of the divine design must the Incarnation +have been. The whole structure of the family, and the affections which it +contains, must spring out of this root, for nature was anticipated by +grace in man's creation, and must ever have been subordinate to it. And +now, when the full time of grace is come, these titles of things which by +His mercy have lasted through the fall, serve to illustrate the greatness +of the restoration. For this, which has many names, all precious and dear, +is but one creation, having the manifold qualities of redemption and +sanctification, of organic unity in one body, wherein many members +conspire to a corporate life, which life itself is charity, and in which +is the production of the holy race. As we gaze on the Kingdom, Temple, +Body, Spouse, and Family, one seems to melt and change into the other. The +Kingdom is deepened and enlarged by the thought that the King is the +eternal Truth who is worshipped therein; and the worship passes on into +the love of the Incarnate God for the members of His own Body, whom He +first saves, then fosters and cherishes as His own flesh: and here again +is blended that tenderest love of the Bridegroom for the bride, which +further issues into the crowning love of the Father for His race. The mode +of the salvation seems to spring from the nature of God Himself, since all +paternity in heaven and earth springs from that whereby He is Father of +the only-begotten Son, who, descending from heaven with the love of the +Bridegroom for the bride, binds together in sonship derived from his own +the members of His body, the bride of His heart, the subjects of His +kingdom, who are built up as living stones into that unimaginable temple +raised in the unity of worshipping hearts to the ever-blessed Trinity. To +this grows out, as the fulness of Him who fills all in all, that body of +the Second Adam, of which in the body of the first Adam He had Himself +deposited the germ. + +When the angel described to the Blessed Virgin herself that miracle of +miracles which was to take place in her, the assumption of human flesh by +the Son of God, he used these terms: "The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, +and the power of the Most High shall overshadow thee." When the Son of +God, at the moment of His Ascension, declared to His Apostles the creation +of His mystical body, by using similar words He referred them back to His +own conception: "You shall receive power, the Holy Ghost coming upon you:" +having already on the day of His Resurrection told them, "I send the +promise of my Father upon you; but wait you in the city until you be +indued with power from on high."(74) Our Lord Himself thus suggests to us +the remarkable parallel between the formation of His natural and His +mystical body. He who framed the one and the other is the same, the Holy +Ghost: the Head precedes, the Body follows; because of the first descent, +that Holy Thing which was to be born should be called the Son of God; +because of the second, "you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all +Judea, and Samaria, and to the farthest part of the earth;" and this is +said in answer to their question whether He would then restore the kingdom +to Israel: that is, the second descent of the Holy Ghost forms the kingdom +whose witness to Christ is perpetual; forms the body with which and in +which He will be for ever by this power of His Spirit dwelling in it to +the end of the world. We have therefore here all the various functions and +qualities which, under the five great titles of Kingdom, Temple, Body, +Spouse, and Mother, delineate His Church, gathered up into that unity +which comprehends them all, and from which, as a source, they all flow, +"The Power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men."(75) This creation is as +absolutely His, and His alone, as the forming of our Lord's own Body in +the Virginal Womb; it is the sequel of it; the fulfilment among men of +those divine purposes for which God became Incarnate; in one word, the +Body of the Head perpetually quickened by His Spirit. And here we may +remark those striking resemblances between the natural and mystical Body +which this "power of the Holy Ghost," the former of them both, indicates. +For in the first the manhood(76) cannot be severed from the Person of the +Word, nor in the second can the body of the Church be severed from Christ +the Head and His Spirit. Secondly, in the first the Person of the Word and +His manhood make one Christ, and in the second Christ the Head and the +Church the Body make one complete Body. Thirdly, in the first the manhood +has its own will, but through union with the Godhead is impeccable and +indefeasible; and in the second the Body of the Church, though possessing +its own liberty, is so ruled by Christ and guided by His Spirit, that it +cannot fail in truth or in charity. Fourthly, in the first there is an +influx of celestial gifts from the Person of the Word into the manhood, +and in the second there is a like influx from Christ the Head into His +Body the Church, so that he who hears the Church hears Christ, and he who +persecutes the Church, as Saul before the gate of Damascus, persecutes +Christ. Fifthly, in the first the Head, through the manhood as His +instrument, fulfilled all the economy of redemption, dwelt among men, +taught them, redeemed them, bestowed on them the gifts of holiness and the +friendship of God; and in the second, what He began in His manhood He +continues through the Church as His own Body,(77) and bestows on men what +He merited in His flesh, showing in and by the Church His presence among +men, teaching them holiness, preserving them from error, and leading them +to the eternal inheritance. + +It is also by this one "power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men" that we +learn how the Head and the Body make one Christ. As in the human frame the +presence of the soul gives it life and unity, binding together every +member by that secret indivisible force, from the least to the greatest, +from the heart and brain to the minutest portion of the outward skin, so +in this divine Body, which makes the whole Christ, it is the presence of +the Holy Ghost, as of the soul, which gives it unity and life. The +conclusion was drawn by a great Saint, and no less great a genius, +fourteen hundred years ago, and I prefer S. Augustine's words to any which +I can use myself: "Our spirit by which the whole race of man lives is +called the soul; our spirit, too, by which each man in particular lives is +called the soul; and you see what the soul does in the body. It quickens +all the limbs: through the eyes it sees, through the ears it hears, +through the nostrils smells, through the tongue speaks, through the hands +works, through the feet walks; it is present at once in all the limbs that +they may live; life it gives to all, their functions to each. The eye does +not hear, nor the ear nor the tongue see, nor the ear nor the eye speak, +but both live; the functions are diverse, the life common. So is the +Church of God. In some saints it works miracles; in others gives voice to +the truth; in others, again, maintains the virginal life; in others keeps +conjugal fidelity; in these one thing, in those another; each have their +proper work, but all alike live. Now, what the soul is to the human body, +that is the Holy Spirit to the body of Christ, which is the Church: what +the soul does in all the limbs of an individual body, that does the Holy +Spirit in the whole Church. But see what you have to avoid, what to +observe, and what to fear. It happens that, in the human body, or in any +other body, some member may be cut off, hand, finger, or foot. Does the +soul follow it when cut off? As long as it was in the body it lived: when +cut off, it loses life. So too the Christian man is a Catholic while he +lives in the body; when cut off, he becomes a heretic; the Spirit does not +follow the amputated limb."(78) + +But what is this "power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men"? It is the +whole treasure of truth and grace, which dwelt first in the natural body +of Christ, which He came to bestow on men, which He withdrew not when He +ascended, but of which He promised the continuance in the Person of the +Holy Ghost, and fulfils by that Person indwelling in the Church. It was +the imparting the whole treasure of truth and grace by such an indwelling +which made it expedient for Him to go, which made His bodily departure not +a loss, but a gain, which was "the promise" of which He spoke on that last +night, and which was expressly declared to be a perpetual presence, +leading, as it were, by the hand(79) into all truth--an all-powerful, +all-completing, all-compensating presence, such as that alone is or can be +which maintains the intellect of man in truth, because it maintains his +will in grace: and, instead of the two wild horses of which the great +heathen(80) spoke, guides the soul in her course as borne aloft on those +twin divine yoke-fellows,(81) faith and charity. + +Correlative, therefore, to the Person of Him who is at once King, and God, +and Head, and Bridegroom, and Father, is that singular creation of His +Spirit, by which, in the Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, and Mother, He +deposited the treasure of the truth and grace which He became man to +communicate. It was not as individual men, living a life apart, but as +common children of one race, joint members of one body, that the guilt of +the first father fell upon them; it is only on them as children of a +higher race and members of a far greater body, that the grace of the +Deliverer is bestowed. The distinctions of race and the divisions of +condition drop away as they are baptised into one body, and made to drink +of one spirit. The new and supernatural life cannot be communicated save +by this act of engrafting into a new body. As Eve from the side of Adam +sleeping, so the Church from the side of Christ suffering; as Eve bears +still to Adam the children of men, so the Church to Christ the children of +Christ. These are not two mysteries, but one, unfathomable in both its +parts, of justice and of mercy; but the whole history of the human race +bears witness to the first, and the whole history of the Christian people +to the second. It would be amply sufficient to prove what we have been +saying, that the first communication of the supernatural life is conferred +by being baptised into one body and made to drink into one spirit. But +this is not all. There is a yet dearer and more precious gift, which +maintains and increases the life so given. Our Lord stands in the midst of +His Church visibly forming from day to day and from age to age that Body +of His which reaches through the ages; He takes from Himself and gives to +us. He incorporates Himself in His children. He grows up in us, and by +visible streams from His heart maintains the life first given. Here, above +all, is the one Christ, the Head and the Body. This is but an elemental +truth of Christian faith, though it is the highest joy of the Christian +heart. It was in an instruction to catechumens that S. Augustine said, +"Would you understand the Body of Christ? Hear the Apostle saying to the +faithful, 'But you are the Body and the members of Christ.' If, then, you +are Christ's Body and His members, it is your own mystery which is placed +on the Lord's table; it is your own mystery which you receive. It is to +what you are that you reply amen, and by replying subscribe. For you are +told, 'the Body of Christ,' and you reply, amen. Be a member of the Body +of Christ, and let your amen be true. Why, then, in bread? Let us bring +here nothing of our own, but listen to the Apostle himself again and +again, for in speaking of that sacrament he says, 'We that are many are +one bread, one body.' Understand and rejoice. Here is unity, verity, +piety, charity. One bread. Who is that one bread? We being many are one +bread. Remember that the bread is not made of one, but of many grains. +When you were exorcised, it was as if you were ground; when baptised, as +if you were kneaded together with water; when you received the fire of the +Holy Ghost, it was your baking. Be what you see, and receive what you are. +This the Apostle said of the bread. Of the chalice what we should +understand is clear enough even unsaid. For as to make the visible species +of bread many grains are kneaded with water into one, as if that were +taking place which Holy Scripture records of the faithful, 'they had one +mind and one heart in God,' so also in the case of the wine. Many grapes +hang on the bunch, but their juice is poured together into one. So too +Christ the Lord signified us; willed us to belong to Himself; consecrated +on His own table the mystery of our peace and unity. He who receives the +mystery of unity and holds not the bond of peace receives not a mystery +for himself, but a witness against himself."(82) + +Thus the coherence of the natural and mystical Body of Christ was at once +exhibited and effected in the great central act of Christian worship, and +the whole fruit of the Incarnation was seen springing from the Person of +Christ, and bestowed on men as His members in the unity of one Body. Thus +were they taken out of the isolation, distraction, and enmity--that state +of mutual strife and disorder which heathendom expresses--and made into the +one divine commonwealth; and thus the Body of Christ grows to its full +stature and perfect form through all the ages of Christendom. + +And if there be one conviction which, together with the belief in the +Incarnation itself of the Word, is common to all the Fathers, Doctors, +Saints, and Martyrs of the Church--which together with that belief and as +part of it is the ground of their confidence in trouble, of their +perseverance in enduring, of their undoubting faith in times of +persecution, of their assurance of final victory, it is the sense which +encompassed their whole life, that they were members of one Body, which, +in virtue of an organic unity in itself and with its Head, was to last for +ever. The notion that this Body, as such, could fail, that it could cease +to be the treasure-house of the divine truth and grace, would have struck +them with as much horror as the notion that Christ had not become +incarnate, and was not their Redeemer. The Body which the Holy Ghost +animated on the day of Pentecost never ceased to be conscious of its +existence--conscious that the power of its Head, the Eternal Truth, was in +it, and would be in it for ever. Confidence in himself as an individual +member of the Body, the Christian had not, for he knew that through his +personal sinfulness grace might be withdrawn from him, and that he might +fall away; confidence he did not place either in his own learning, +knowledge, and sanctity, or in these gifts as belonging to any individual +Christian; his confidence lay in the King who reigned in an everlasting +Kingdom, in the Head who animated an incorruptible Body. To sever these +two would have been to decapitate Christ.(83) The thought that the Bride +of Christ could herself become an adulteress, and teach her children the +very falsehoods of that idol-worship which she was created to overthrow, +would have appeared to him the denial of all Christian belief. And such a +denial indeed it is to any mind which, receiving the Christian truth as a +divine gift, looks for it also to have a logical cohesion with itself, to +be consistent and complete, to be a body of truth, not a bundle of +opinions. Let us take once more S. Augustine as expressing, not a private +feeling, but the universal Christian sense, when he thus reprehended the +Donatist pretension, that truth had deserted the Body of the Church to +dwell in the province of Africa. "But, they say, that Church which was the +Church of all nations exists no longer. She has perished. This they say +who are not in her. O shameless word! The Church is not because thou art +not in her. See, lest therefore thou be not, for though thou be not, she +will be. This word, abominable, detestable, full of presumption and +falsehood, supported by no truth, illuminated by no wisdom, seasoned with +no sense, vain, rash, precipitate, and pernicious--this it was which the +Spirit of God foresaw, and as against these very men, when He foretold +unity in that saying, 'To announce the name of the Lord in Zion, and his +worship in Jerusalem, when the peoples and kingdoms join together in one +that they may serve the Lord.' "(84) + +Now, to suppose that anything which is false has been, or is, or can be +taught by the Church of God, is to overthrow the one idea which runs +through the titles of the Kingdom, Temple, Body, and Spouse of Christ, it +is to make the Mother of His children an adulteress, to deny that power of +the Holy Ghost coming down on the day of Pentecost, and abiding for ever, +with His special function of leading into all truth, that presence of the +Comforter in virtue of which the Apostles said for themselves and for the +Church through all time, "It has seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us." +With all men who reason, such a supposition is equivalent to the statement +that Christ has failed in what He came on earth to do, for "the Word was +made flesh that He might become the Head of the Church."(85) Next, +therefore, in atrocity to that blasphemy which assaults the blessed +Trinity in Unity upon His throne is the miserable and heartless blasphemy +which, by imputing corruption of the truth to the very Kingdom and Temple, +the very Body and Spouse of the Truth Himself, the Incarnate God, would +declare the frustration of that purpose which He became man to execute, +the falsifying of that witness of which He spoke in the hall of Pilate, +and would so annihilate that glory to God in the highest, and on earth +peace to men of good-will, which was the angelic song on the morning of +His birth, and is daily(86) in the mouth of His Bride. The truth can as +little cease out of the House and Temple of God as the Father and Son can +cease sending the Spirit to dwell in it: the truth can as little cease to +be proclaimed and taught in its own kingdom as the King can cease to reign +in it. The conjugal faith of the Bride of Christ cannot fail, because He +remains her Bridegroom. The power of the Head, the double power of truth +and grace, cannot cease to rule and vivify His Body, because He is its +Head for ever. The Mother cannot deceive her children, because she is of +one flesh with the Son of Man, in the union of an unbroken wedlock. + +It has been said above that the power of that bond which from the origin +of man united the race to its head was shown not only in the guilt which +the act of that head was able to inflict on the body, not only in the +exact transmission of the same nature, thus stained, from age to age, but +likewise in that social character of the race in virtue of which such a +thing as a man entirely independent of his fellow men, neither acting upon +them, nor acted upon by them, never has existed nor can exist. It was in +that connected mass which this social nature creates, that corporate unity +of human society, that heathenism appeared most terrible, because +corruption seemed to propagate itself, and evil by this force of cohesion +to become almost impregnable. But it was especially in creating a +corporate unity which should show the force of our social nature for good, +as the corruption had shown it for evil, that the power of the Restorer +shines forth. The true Head of our race came to redeem and sanctify not so +many individuals but His Body. Surely there is no distinction more +important to bear in mind.(87) "No single member by itself can make a +body; each of them fails in this; cooeperation is required, for when many +become one, there is one body. The being or not being a body depends on +being united or not united into one." And, again, beautiful as the +individual member, the hand or the eye, may be in itself, far higher is +the beauty which belongs to the body as the whole in which these members +coalesce and are one. Each member too has a double energy, its own proper +work, and that which it contributes to the body's unity, for this is a +higher work which the cooeperation of all produces; each a double beauty, +its beauty as a part, and that which it adds to the whole: and these two, +which seem to be separate, have the closest connection, for a maimed limb +impairs the whole body's force, and as to its beauty, as it is +incomparably finer than the beauty of any part, so is it marred by a +slight defect in one part, as the fairest face would be spoilt by the +absence of eyebrows, the fairest eyes lose their lustre, and the +countenance its light, by the want of eyelashes. It is, then, in the +beauty of the Body of Christ that the Christian mind would exult, not +merely in the several graces of those who are its members, but in that +corporate unity which they present. We see in the course of the world that +great image of the prophet, lofty in stature and terrible to behold, whose +head is of gold, whose breast and arms of silver, the thighs of brass, the +legs of iron, the toes mixed of iron and clay. This is the form of the +first Adam, seen in his race; and over against it likewise is the one man +Christ, forming through the ages, gathering His members in a mightier +unity. This is the Word made flesh, the Second Adam, "so that the whole +human race is, as it were, two men, the First and the Second."(88) + +So much, then, is the creation of the Church superior to the creation of a +single Christian as the creation of a body is superior to that of a single +bone or muscle. This superiority belongs to the nature of a body as such. +It is another thought, which we only suggest here, _whose_ body it is. And +here it appears in two very different conditions, the one as it is seen by +us now, the other as it will be seen hereafter. There is, I conceive, no +subject in all human history comparable in interest to that which the +divine commonwealth as such, when traced through the eighteen centuries +which it has hitherto run, presents. What nation can be compared to this +nation? what people to this people? what labours to its labours? what +sufferings to its sufferings? what conflicts to those which it has +endured? what triumphs to those which it has gained? what duration to that +portion only of its years which is as yet run out? what promise to its +future? what performance to its past? What is the courage and self-denial, +what is the patience and generosity, what the genius, the learning, the +sustained devotion to any work, shown by any human race, compared to those +which are to be found in this race of the Divine Mother? How do those who +are enamoured of nationalities fail to see the glories of this nation, +before which all others pale their ineffectual fires? How do those with +whom industry is a chief virtue, and stubborn perseverance the crowning +praise, not acknowledge her whose work is undying and whose endurance +never fails? These men admire greatness and worship success. Let them look +back fourteen hundred years, when that great world-statue seemed to be +breaking up into the iron and clay which ran through its feet. Then this +kingdom was already great and glorious, and crowned with victory, and +filled the earth. The toes of that statue have meanwhile run out into ten +kingdoms, and the islands which were forest and swamp when this kingdom +commenced have become the head of a dominion which can be mentioned beside +that of old Rome; but still in undiminished grandeur the great divine +republic stands over against all these kingdoms, penetrates through them, +stretches beyond them, and while they grow, mature, and decay, and power +passes from one to the other, her power ceases not, declines not, changes +not, but shows the beauty of youth upon the brow of age, and amid the +confusion of Babel her pentecostal unity. If success be worshipful, +worship it here; if power be venerable, bow before its holiest shrine. + +But if this be the Body of Christ here in its state of humiliation, during +which it repeats the passion of its Head, if these be the grains of wheat +now scattered among the chaff,(89) what is that one mass to be which these +shall make when the threshing-floor is winnowed out? We see the Body in +its preliminary state of suffering, where it has a grandeur, a duration, +and a beauty like nothing else on earth. What it shall be in its future +state S. John saw when he called it the great City invested with the glory +of God, the Bride adorned for her husband; and S. Paul hints, when he +speaks of the perfect man compacted and fitly framed together by what +every joint supplies, and grown up to full stature in the Head. There is +in the redeemed, not only the exceeding greatness of the quality of their +salvation, that is, the gift of divine sonship; nor, again, that this gift +is heightened by its being the purchase of the Son of God, so that He is +not ashamed to call those brethren whom He has first washed in His own +blood: but over and above all this, one thing more, that the whole mass of +the redeemed and adopted are not so many souls, but the Body of Christ. +Faint shadows, indeed, to our earthly senses are House and Temple, Kingdom +and City paved with precious stones of that mighty unity of all rational +natures, powers, and virtues, each with the perfection of his individual +being, each with the superadded lustre of membership in a marvellous +whole, under the Headship of Christ. The exceeding glory of this creation, +which will be the wonder of all creation through eternity, is that God the +Word made flesh, the Head and His Body, make one thing, not an inorganic, +but an organised unity, the glorified Body of a glorified Head. + +Once more let us note the consistency and unbroken evolution of the divine +plan. + +In the first creation of the human race the Body of Christ is not only +foretold but prefigured, not only prefigured but expressed in the very +words uttered by Adam in his ecstasy, the words of God delineating that +act of God, the greatest of all His acts of power, wisdom, and goodness, +whereby becoming man, and leaving His Father and His Mother,(90) He would +cleave to the wife He so took, the human nature which in redeeming He +espoused. This, and no other, was the reason why Eve was formed out of +Adam. It is the beginning of the divine plan, which is coherent +throughout, which was designed in the state of innocency, which remains +intended through the state of guilt, which is unfolded in the state of +grace, which is completed in the state of glory, when what that forming of +Eve from the side of Adam, and of the Church from the side of her Lord, +what that growth through thousands of years, through multitudinous +conflicts, through unspeakable sorrows, through immeasurable triumphs, +shall finally issue in, shall be seen by those whom the Second Adam has +made worthy of that vision, and by whom it is seen enjoyed. + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY. + + + "Magnum principium, et regni ejus non erit finis. Deus fortis, + dominator, princeps pacis." + + +In order to complete the view taken in the preceding chapter of the work +of Christ as the second Adam over against the work of the first Adam, it +is necessary to dwell at greater length upon a point of which only cursory +mention was made therein. It was our object there to bring out the +relation of Christ to the Church, but this cannot be done without fully +exhibiting the relation to the same Church of the Holy Spirit. To the +Incarnation the Fathers in general give the title of the Dispensation of +the Son, and as the equivalent, the result, the complement and crown of +this Dispensation, they put the Giving of the Spirit.(91) This Giving of +the Spirit occupies the whole region of grace, and is coextensive with the +whole action of the Incarnate God upon men whom He has taken to be His +brethren. The Holy Spirit in this Giving is He who represents the +Redeemer, and executes His will, not as an instrument, not as one +subordinate, but as the very mind of Christ between whom and Christ there +can far less enter any notion of division or separation than between a man +and his own spirit. He is that other Paraclete, abiding for ever, who +replaces to the disciples the visible absence of the first Paraclete, the +Redeemer Himself: He is the Power constituting the Kingdom of Christ; the +Godhead inhabiting His Temple; the Soul animating His mystical Body; the +Charity, kindling into a living flame the heart of His Bride; the Creator +and Father of His Race. + +This connection between the Dispensation of the Son and the Giving of the +Spirit was delineated by our Lord himself when He first appeared to His +assembled disciples after His resurrection. As they were gazing in wonder +and trembling joy on that Body which had undergone His awful passion, as +He showed them the wounds in His hands and His feet, He told them how His +sufferings were the fulfilment of all that in the Law, the Prophets, and +the Psalms had been written concerning Him. And thereupon it is said, He +opened their mind to the understanding of these Scriptures. It was thus +that the Christ was to suffer, it was thus that He was to rise again on +the third day. Hitherto He has dwelt upon His own dispensation, as the +fulfilment of all prophecy, now He proceeds to its fruit: that in the name +of this Christ repentance and remission of sins should be proclaimed to +all nations, beginning at Jerusalem. "And you," He says, "are the +witnesses of these things. And, behold, I send the promise of my Father +upon you: but stay you in the city of Jerusalem until you be endued with +power from on high." Again, at another occasion of equal solemnity, when +He was with His assembled disciples in visible form for the last time, at +the moment preceding His ascension, He uses the same emphatic words, +charging them not to depart from the city, but to await there that promise +of the Father, the baptism in the Holy Ghost, which they were to receive +in common together, which was to be the power in virtue of which they +should be His witnesses for all time unto the ends of the earth: the power +which instead of restoring a local kingdom to Israel, as was in their +thoughts when they questioned Him, was to create an universal kingdom to +Him in the hearts of men. It is then as the result of His passion, and the +token of His resurrection, that the Son sends down upon His disciples the +promise of the Father, that is, the perpetual presence of the Spirit of +the Father and the Son, the Spirit of Truth and Grace, that permanent and +immanent power from on high, who, dwelling for ever in the disciples, +makes the Church. + +But these words, so singular and so forcible, which He uses on these two +occasions, at His resurrection and His ascension, are themselves a +reference to the long discourse which He had held with His apostles on the +night of His passion. It is in this discourse, from the moment that Judas +left them to the conclusion of the divine prayer--and if we can make any +distinction in His words, surely these are the most solemn which were ever +put together in human language, since they are the prayer not of a +creature to the Creator, but the prayer of One divine Person to Another--it +is in this discourse that He describes the power from on high with which, +as the promise of the Father, He, the Son, would invest His disciples. It +is here He says that He would ask the Father, who should give them another +Paraclete, the Spirit of truth, to abide with them for ever: whom the +world would not receive, nor see, nor know, but whom they should know, +because He should abide with them and be in them. This other Paraclete, +coequal therefore with Himself, whom the Father should send in His name, +and whom He should send from the Father, the Spirit of holiness as well as +the Spirit of truth, should teach them all things and remind them of all +His teaching. And His coming, though invisible, should profit them more +than His own visible presence. For while He declared Himself to be the +Way, the Truth, and the Life,(92) He revealed to them here that it was by +that very way that the Spirit of truth should lead them by the hand into +all truth. It was in this Truth, that is, in Himself, that they should be +sanctified, and that they should be one, the glory of the Incarnation, +which had been given to Him, passing on to them as the members of His +Body, by the joint possession of the spirit of truth and holiness, whose +presence was the gage that the Father loved them, as He loved Christ, the +Body being identified with the Head. In all this He was describing to them +the work of that other Paraclete, His own Spirit, "who was to sanctify +what He had redeemed, and to guard and maintain possession of what He had +acquired."(93) This is but a small portion of that abundant revelation, +which our Lord then communicated to His apostles, concerning the Power +from on high with which they were to be invested. + +The words of our Lord to His apostles at the three great points of His +passion, His resurrection, and His ascension, stand out beyond the rest in +their appeal to our affections. The last words of a friend are the +dearest, and these are the last words of the Bridegroom, and they are +concerning His Bride. When He was Himself quitting His disciples He dwells +upon the Power which was to create and maintain His Church, upon the gift +of His Spirit, His other self, in which gift lay the formation of His +kingdom. It is thus He expresses to us the point with which we started, +that the Giving of His Spirit is the fulfilment of all that Dispensation +wherein the eternal Word took human flesh. + +It is not only then the unanimous voice of the Fathers which sets the +Giving of the Spirit over against the Incarnation of the Son. They are but +carrying on that which our Lord so markedly taught; their tradition was +but the echo of His voice, as their life was the fulfilment of it. + +But it was a double malady in man which God the Word became man to cure. +It was the whole nature which was affected with a taint, and the soul +through the whole race touched in both its powers of the intellect(94) and +the will. That false worship which we have seen spreading through the +earth, and that deep corruption of manners which was interlaced with it, +were the symptoms of this malady. The perversion of the truth concerning +the being of God, and all the duties of man which grow out of this being, +was inextricably blended with the disregard of these duties in the actual +conduct of man. It was in vain to set the truth before man's intellect +without a corresponding power to act upon his will. Therefore the apostle +described the glory of the only-begotten Son, when He dwelt as man among +us, by the double expression that He was "full of grace and truth." Viewed +as the Head of human nature, its Father and new beginning, He is the +perpetual fountain to it of these two, which no law, not even one divinely +given, could bestow. For the law could make nothing perfect, because it +could not touch the will; and the law gave the shadow, but not the very +truth of things. But when that unspeakable union of the divine nature with +the human had taken effect in the unity of one Person, Truth and Grace had +an everlasting human fountain in the created nature of the Incarnate Word. +Now was the fountain to pour forth a perpetual stream upon the race +assumed. And this it does by the descent of the Spirit. In this descent +upon the assembled Church the Grace and Truth of the divine Head, with +which His Flesh, carried by the Godhead, overstreams, find themselves a +human dwelling in the race. Such an operation belongs only to the Divine +Spirit, for God alone can so act upon the intellect and will of creatures +as to penetrate them with His gifts of Truth and Grace, while He leaves +them their free will, their full individuality, as creatures. This, then, +was the range of that power with which our Lord foretold to His apostles +that they should be invested, and for which He bade them wait. The whole +field of truth as it respects the relation of God to His creatures as +moral beings, and the whole extent of grace, as it touches the human will, +for the performance of every act which a reasonable creature can execute, +made up the extent of that divine indwelling in men which the Spirit of +Christ assumed upon the day of Pentecost. This was the power of the Holy +Ghost which then came down upon men. Through the whole divine discourse +which preceded His passion, our Lord dwells upon this double power, +referring to Himself as the Truth, to His Spirit as the Spirit of the +Truth, to Himself as the Vine, and so that root of grace which should +communicate its sap to the branches, and to His Spirit, who should take of +His and give it to them; uniting both ideas of Truth and Grace in that one +word, "Sanctify them in thy Truth," that is by incorporation with me, who +am the Truth, in my Spirit, who is the Truth. And so the eternal Word, +having assumed a human Body, when He withdraws His corporal presence, +proceeds to form that other human Body, the dwelling-place of His Spirit, +in which His Truth and Grace are to become visible. + +Thus the transfusion of Truth and Grace from the Incarnate Word to His +mystical Body is the generic character of the Giving of the Spirit. + +Two differential marks distinguish this giving from any which preceded the +coming of our Lord. + +First, the Spirit should come upon them, but should never depart from +them. "He shall give you another Comforter, to abide with you for ever, +the Spirit of Truth." This giving was not an intermittent operation, +whether extraordinary, such as had shown itself in Moses and the Prophets, +for their inspiration in writing, or their guidance in particular trials, +nor that ordinary one whereby from the beginning He had enabled all the +good and just to lead a life acceptable to Him. It was a far higher +gift,(95) wherein, as S. Augustine says, by the very presence of His +majesty no longer the mere odour of the balsam, but the substance itself +of the sacred unguent was poured into those vessels, making them His +temple, and conveying that adoption in virtue of which they should not be +left orphans, but have their Father invisibly with them for ever. No +intermittent operation, and no presence less than that of His substance, +would reach the force of the words used by our Lord, "I will ask the +Father, and He shall send you another Paraclete, the Spirit of Truth, to +abide with you for ever;" for that word "other" conveys a comparison with +Himself, from whom they had never been separated since He had called them, +in whose continuance with them alone was their strength, their unity, +their joint existence and mission, without whom they could do nothing. All +this to them that "other" Paraclete was to be, in order that the departure +of the Former Paraclete should be expedient for them. For in this +continuity of His presence was involved the further gift that the +Paraclete was to come to them as a Body, and because of this manner of +coming He replaced the Former. Had He come to them only as individuals, +they would have suffered a grievous loss, the loss of the Head who made +them one. But He came to them as the Body of Christ, and by coming made +them that Body, being the Spirit of the Head. That rushing mighty wind +filled the whole house in which they were sitting, and they all were +filled together with the presence; and as a sign that the old confusion +and separation of mankind were in them to be done away, speaking in one +tongue the one truth which was evermore to dwell with them, they were +heard in all the various languages of the nations present at the feast. +"The society by which men are made the one Body of the only Son of God +belongs to the Spirit,"(96) and He came upon all together in one House to +indicate, as He made, that one Body. "The mode of giving," says S. +Augustine, "was such as never before appeared. Nowhere do we read before +that men congregated together had by receiving the Holy Ghost spoken with +the tongues of all nations."(97) "Therefore He came upon Pentecost as upon +His birthday."(98) + +It is His presence alone which confers four gifts upon the body which He +vivifies. + +It was the will, says S. Augustine,(99) of the Father and the Son that we +should have communion with each other and with Them by means of that which +is common to Them, and by that gift to collect us into one, which, being +one, They both have; that is to say, by the Holy Ghost, who is God, and +the gift of God. For, says S. Thomas,(100) the unity of the Holy Spirit +makes unity in the Church. It is not by similarity, or by juxtaposition, +or by agreement, how much less by concessions and compromises, that unity +exists in the body of Christ, but because the Spirit is one, because all +gifts, however various, all functions, however distinct, are distributed +by this One. + +For the same reason truth dwells in this Body, because He is the Spirit of +Truth. Our Lord Himself has defined His great function in this particular, +to lead His disciples by the hand(101) into all truth, to teach all +things, and remind of all things which made up His own teaching. This +function began on the day of Pentecost, and lasts to the day of judgment, +and belongs to the Body of Christ, and to it alone, and belongs to it +because it is animated by the Spirit of Truth. And this animation is like +the Head, the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever. It is not of any past +time more or less than of the present or the future. It is the +illumination which belongs to that whole last day, through which the Body +of Christ grows, teaches, labours, and suffers, until the mortal day break +into the light of eternity. + +His third gift to the Body is that of charity, and for the same reason, +because He is this Himself. He who is not only the Unity of the Father and +the Son, but their mutual Love, coming as the gift of that Divine love +which redeemed the world by the sacrifice of its Maker, and as the Spirit +of that Love, who invested Himself with human flesh, creates in this human +dwelling-place that one charity which bears His name, and is of His +nature, and which in that one body joins the wills of men together as His +Truth joins their intellects. If the Body of Christ has one prevailing +charity, which reaches to all its members, and encompasses the least as +well as the greatest, it is because the heart is divine. + +The fourth gift which He bestows upon the Body is sanctification, and it +may be said to be the result of the other three. This, again, is His own +name and nature, and many have thought and said, His personal attribute, +to make holy; and that, as Fathership indicates the First Person, and +Sonship the Second, so the making holy names the Third, the bond of the +most blessed Trinity. But this, at least, may be said to be the final +cause of the body which He animates, the imparting of holiness. In virtue +of this gift, all the means and aids and rules of holiness are stored up +in the Body. And this does not mean that there is not a continual falling +away from the rule and practice of holiness in particular members, but it +means that while these, in spite of the Body's nurture and solicitude, +fall away from it and perish, the Body lasts for ever, the rules and aids +and means of holiness lasting for ever within it, because it is the Body +of the Spirit of holiness. + +Now these four gifts, Unity, Verity, Charity, and Sanctity, can none of +them exist in the Body without the other, and all of them exist together +there, because they have one divine root, that indwelling of the Holy +Spirit which is the fruit of the Incarnation, and whereby the mystical +Body of Christ corresponds to His natural Body. Of this Body the beginning +is Unity, the substance Truth, the bond Charity, the end Sanctity. +Countless heresies and schisms have sought to break up the coinherence of +these gifts, but in vain. The only success which the indwelling Spirit +allows them is to detach from the Body those who are unworthy to remain in +it, and to prolong for a time their maimed existence by some portion of +some of His gifts. Truth, for instance, has such a vitality that many a +heresy will live for ages on that fragment which it has detached from the +mass; unity and charity have such force that even their shadow, that is, +the joint possession of a fragmentary truth, and the good-will thence +proceeding, will prolong for a time a sort of corporate existence. +Holiness has so attractive a power, that zeal and self-denial, which +present the seeming of it, will make the fortune of a sect for a time. But +in the union and the completeness of these four gifts, the great Body of +Christ stands out through all the ages inimitable and unapproachable. +Alone it dares to claim them thus united and complete, for alone it can +present their realisation. + +These four gifts, then, dwell in the Body in a higher degree than that in +which they adorn the members of the Body, as in it, by force of the +Spirit's indwelling, they ever exist together. Let us now see the +qualities which the Spirit imparts to the members of the Body, by virtue +of their incorporation into it. + +First of all is the forgiveness of sins. The Spirit takes them out of that +state of alienation in which they are born, and unites them to His Body; +and in so doing He effaces both the birth-sin and every actual sin which +they may have committed. This is that plenary forgiveness of sins, the +pure gift of God unpreceded by any merit on man's part, which greets the +new-comer out of Adam's body of sin into the Body of Christ. It is +imparted by and from the Body, and to its members alone. + +The second quality is that illumination of the mind, irradiated by the +truth, the whole compass of which exists in the Body. This illumination is +the root of the virtue of faith, by means of which the individual mind +appropriates the divine truth presented to it. The force of the virtue +differs in the individual as the keenness of sight in the natural man, but +the visual power is the same in quality in all. By it the mind of the +believer lays hold in ever varying degree, one more and one less, of that +great harmony of truth which is held in its completeness, its manifold +applications, and all but infinite relations, only by the Body. For the +truth with which we deal is not unlocalised and scattered, the prey, as it +were, of the individual mind, which can hunt it down and take it as a +spoil, but it is a divine gift, orbed in the sphere which was created for +it, the Body of that Word who is the Truth. Hence the first question to +the applicant for baptism: What askest thou of the Church of God? and the +answer is, Faith. + +The third quality is the adoption of Sonship, which flows directly from +incorporation into the Body of Christ, and to which man has no sort of +title in himself or from his own nature, but which comes to him only by +kindred with Him who, on the morning of His resurrection, greeted that +great penitent who bore the figure of the Church with that paschal +salutation of the Second Adam, "Go to my brethren, and say, I ascend to my +Father and to your Father, to my God and to your God." And the divine +virtue of hope well corresponds to this quality, the effects of which in a +state of trial and conflict are to so great a degree future and unseen. It +seems, moreover, to be as a special link and tie between the virtue which +purifies the intellect, and that which corrects the will and makes it +obedient. Thus through it we pass on to the fourth quality of +Sanctification, which is the completion of the other three and their end, +the harmony of each individual will with the divine will, the work of +charity. That divine virtue is the special fruit of the passion of Christ, +which was to gather up into one what sin had disunited and torn away, +first from its Author, and then from the order by Him created, which was +to heal the animosities thus introduced, and to change the world from a +conflict wherein each sought to better himself at the expense of his +neighbour, into a community cemented together with mutual affection. It +was with reason, therefore, that S. Augustine would not allow the +possession of charity, save in the unity of that one Body which Christ had +created,(102) and without charity there is no sanctification. + +The four qualities thus slightly sketched, forgiveness of sins, +illumination of faith, adoption to sonship, and sanctification by charity, +which come to the individual by and with incorporation into the Body, are +not given to him irrevocably, but are conditional upon his perseverance. +They are portions and derivations of that vast treasure of Truth and Grace +which the Body holds in their entireness and for ever, because of the +perpetual indwelling of the Spirit who makes its life, but which He +dispenses as it pleases Him to the members, and which He may withdraw from +them in default of their cooeperation. Vast are the losses thereby +incurred, not to the treasure-house which remains inexhaustible, but to +those who fall out of it back into the world, or rather that body of Adam +from which they were taken. But these losses touch not the beauty and the +glory of that Body of Christ, which goes on through the ages, and takes up +its own, fulfils its appointed work, and reaches its intended end. + +Thus on the day of Pentecost a new Power, the Spirit of the Incarnate God, +descended not upon single men, but upon an assembly of men, binding it in +a unity, conveying to it a truth, kindling in it a charity, and working +through these a sanctification never before known; which Power, +thenceforth dwelling in that Body, was to collect and draw into itself out +of all nations and ranks of men those who should form the Church, that is, +the Kingdom and Temple, and House, and Body, and Family of Christ. In it +was to work and from it to go forth henceforward to all time the virtue of +Him who had assumed our flesh, not transiently, but for ever; in the Head +and the Body, through the life of His Spirit, Christ should teach and bear +for ever that witness to the truth of which He spoke in the hall of +Pilate, and concerning which He said that "this gospel of the kingdom +should be proclaimed through the whole world, for a witness to all +nations, and then that the end should come."(103) To the continuance, the +indissolubility, the purity of this power He has pledged His word in such +a way that they who deny it must in doing so deny Him. He has even made +the unity of this Body the special mark to men of the truth of His +mission, beseeching His Father in that last prayer, "Neither pray I for +these alone, but for those also who through their word shall believe in +Me, that they all may be one, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I in Thee, +that they also may be one in Us, that the world may believe that Thou hast +sent Me." + +There are three analogies(104) which illustrate this creation of our +Lord--a creation in itself as singular as His assumption of man's nature. + +First, that of the relation between the soul and body. The soul is the +life of the body; the body, as it were, the mansion and home of the soul, +its bearer. Through the body the qualities of the soul become visible and +known; its powers exercise themselves, and personal unity so binds the two +together that we love or hate, admire or despise, the one for the sake of +the other; the grief of the soul acts upon the body, the sickness of the +body depresses the soul. Through the acts of the body we learn the very +existence of the soul, and in these acts it portrays itself. Human nature +has been so made by its Creator that the qualities of soul and body, of +spirit and matter, are imputed in the individual man to each other. Now to +the Body we have been considering the Spirit of Christ is, as it were, the +soul. It is nothing strange, then, if it was His will to create such a +Body, if it be the result of His Incarnation, that the like effects which +exist in the case of every human soul and body should take place here. To +this Body also the power and virtue of its soul are communicated; and, +since Christ by His Spirit animates it, in honouring it He is honoured; in +despising it, He is despised. There is an imparting to it of the qualities +which He has; and thus it is that unity and sanctity, truth and charity +dwell in it as the operation of His mind. Thus every man contains in +himself, in the union of soul and body, an image of that tie by which +Christ and His Church are one. + +Secondly, because God has created man for society, He has implanted in him +an irrepressible instinct of communion with his brother men. This instinct +it is which, under circumstances of every possible variety, results in one +end, the State. The human commonwealth, whatever external shape it wear, +whatever division of its powers it make, springs from this. In virtue of +this original formation of man, that he is made to live together, and +gregariously, not separately, the supreme power of government, the power +of life and death, dwells in the community, and obedience to it has a +divine sanction. Thus, the commonwealth has a variety of powers which the +individual has not, and not only so, but it also has powers which do not +arise from the mere aggregation of individuals, rather which belong to it +as a community, as a whole, for instance, sovereignty in all the details +of its exercise. But now the very object for which Christ became Incarnate +was to constitute a divine commonwealth. He is the King: it is the +tenderness of a God Incarnate that He calls and makes His Kingdom His +Body. The powers, then, which belong to the earthly commonwealth belong, +with the changes which the change of subject carries, to the Divine. They +who have so great a reverence for human government, who respect in the +nation an ultimate irresponsible power, ought, if they were consistent, +when they acknowledge Christ as having come in the flesh, to acknowledge +His government in the kingdom which He has set up. All that his country is +to the patriot, the Church is to the Christian, but in so much higher a +degree, as the object for which Christ came is above the needs and cares +of this present life. Has the City of God, then, less claim upon +Christians than the City of Romulus had upon Romans? Thus, in the natural +duty of the citizen, as well as in the compound nature of man, is +contained a reminder of the Christian's relation to the Church, and a +picture and ensample of the Church's authority. + +Thirdly, there is the analogy presented by the transmission of natural +life(105) through the one flesh of Adam to all his race. As the breath of +natural life, once given to Adam, is continued on to all those sprung from +his body, the power of the Creator never starting anew, but working in and +through the trunk of human nature; so the supernatural life springing from +our Lord, as the gift of His Incarnation, is breathed on the day of +Pentecost into the whole Body of the Church to be communicated from that +Body for ever. Christ is to the one exactly what Adam is to the other. As +the Word of God, creating, joined to the inheritance of the flesh of Adam +from generation to generation the communication of a spirit such as +Adam's, by which double action we have the unity of race, so the Word of +God, redeeming, when He had taken our flesh as the first-fruits of human +nature, breathed forth from that flesh the communication of His Spirit to +the Body of the Church, by which we belong to the race of the Incarnate +God, and are become His family, and make His house. Thus that which the +body of Adam is naturally, the Body of Christ is spiritually, and the +descent of human nature in its unity a picture of the Holy Spirit's unity +working through the Body which He has chosen. And this analogy is made the +more striking by the statement so often repeated in the Greek Fathers, +that with the natural life, as first given to Adam, was conjoined the gift +of the Holy Ghost, forfeited afterwards by his sin, and withdrawn from him +and his race, and now restored as the special gift of the Incarnate +God.(106) Thus the descent of the Spirit at Pentecost is a true and real +counterpart of the creation of man in Eden; but they who share it are +become kindred of God through His flesh, and by so sharing it together, +they form that society which failed through Adam's sin. In the first +creation, the Omnipotent Creator, in His bounty towards His favourite +child, as foreseeing the assumption of that nature by Himself, attached to +the gift of natural life the Spirit of sanctification; in the second, +having assumed that nature, He gave through His own Body, first taken out +of us, then crucified, now risen and exalted, the gift of the Spirit, Who, +with all the endowments springing from Him, as the Inspirer of truth and +charity, of unity and holiness, dwells in that Body for ever. + +Thus in the union of the soul and body, in the constitution and authority +of the human commonwealth, and in the race's natural unity, God holds +before us three analogies, which each in some respect, and altogether very +largely, illustrate His finished work, to which all natural productions of +His providence are subordinate, His work of predilection, His work of +unbounded love and sovereign magnificence, the creation of that which is +at once the Body, the Kingdom, and the Family of the Incarnate Word. + +From all that has gone before we gather this conclusion, that to become a +Christian was to enter into a spiritual and physical(107) unity with +Christ by incorporation into that Body which He had created as the result +of His becoming man. This it was for the individual to become a Christian. +But Christianity itself was neither a mere system of belief, nor an +outward order representing that belief; but "the great and glorious Body +of Christ,"(108) possessing and exhibiting the whole truth of doctrine, +possessing and distributing all the means of grace, and presenting +together to God those whom it had reconciled with Him, and made one, as +the members of the Son by the indwelling of the Spirit. + +Let us now trace the exact correspondence of the historical fact with the +dogmatic statement just given. + +The Acts of the Apostles exhibit to us the creation of the divine society +by the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. When they were +all together, the sound as of a rushing mighty wind was heard, which +filled the whole house wherein they were sitting, and tongues as of fire +were seen, the tongues apportioned severally, but the fire one,(109) which +rested upon each, to kindle in all that eternal flame of charity which was +to draw into one the hearts of men, the fire of which our Lord had spoken +as being that which He was come to light upon the earth. Fire, whose +inward nature it is at once to illuminate and warm, to purify and unite, +was thus appropriately selected as the outward sign, both expressing and +conveying the fourfold office of the Comforter, who came to be "no longer +an occasional visitant, but a perpetual Consoler and eternal +Inhabitant"(110) of this His chosen home. As each in that assembly spoke +in the one tongue of the country, he was heard by those present in the +several tongues of all the nations of the earth represented at that great +feast by the Jews who dwelt in them. And this was the mark, says S. +Augustine,(111) of the Church which was to be through all nations, and +that no one should receive the Holy Spirit, save he who should be jointed +into the framework of its unity; the mark which signified that the +confusion of Babel, dividing the race into nationalities jealous of each +other and perpetual enemies, was to be reversed and overcome by the one +Power whose force to unite should be greater than the force of sin to +sever; who should gather out of all nations the City of God, fed by the +exulting and abounding river of His Spirit, the fountain proper and +peculiar to the Church of Christ: the mark of that one truth,(112) which +conveys and harmonises and works out into all its details the whole +revelation of God, and so is the utterance of one voice, the voice of +Christ; speaking to all nations, not in the broken languages of their +division, but in the Unity of His Person, carried by His Body. We have +then in the one Fire the one inward power; in the one language its outward +expression, in the assembly its receptacle, the House of God. This Body +appears at once as formed and complete. In it sits and prays in her silent +tenderness and unapproachable grandeur, as the Mother of the risen Lord +and Head, and the Mother too of His race, the most beloved, the most +lovable, and the most loving of creatures,(113) whose great function in +the Church for ever is to pray for the members of her Son, and to solicit +the graces of His Spirit, which as the Mother of the sacred race she gains +and distributes to all and each that belong to it, a Second Eve who +corresponds to the Second Adam, as the First Eve in the divine plan +corresponded to the First Adam. In it the Apostles, so long before chosen +and designated by their Lord, and having already received from Him +portions of their supernatural power on the day of His resurrection and +during the forty days of His secret instruction, teach and govern; in it +Peter at their head exercises that primacy, which, imaged out by a new +name imposed at his first calling, promised at his great confession, and +confirmed and conveyed on the sea-shore of the lake of Galilee, is +exhibited with such grandeur, as he stood with the eleven and lifted up +his voice, to describe to the men of Judea and the inhabitants of +Jerusalem the nature of the event which they were witnessing, and the +fulfilment of all the promises made through their prophets concerning that +presence of God in the pouring out of His Spirit among men in the last +days. That first discourse of his at the head of his brethren is the +summary as it were of his perpetual office of teaching and promulgating +the dispensation of the Christ in the midst of the Church. Its immediate +effect was the aggregation of three thousand persons to the Body, who were +told that this was the way in which they should receive remission of sins +and the gift of the Holy Ghost.(114) The subsequent teaching of Peter and +the Apostles, accompanied with miraculous cures, produced further +aggregations among all ranks of the people. And the mode of salvation for +all time is pointedly marked out by the words, "the Lord was adding to the +Church day by day such as should be saved." + +We have only to repeat the process which is thus described as having taken +place at Jerusalem in the first months after the day of Pentecost, by +carrying it through the various cities of the Roman empire, Damascus, +Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, and between these all round the shores of the +Mediterranean, to have a just picture of the mode in which the Divine +Society grew and gathered into itself more and more of those who listened +to the truth which it announced. What is important to dwell upon is that +men uniformly became Christians in one way, by being received into the +Divine Body, through which reception forgiveness of sins and the gift of +the Holy Ghost were conveyed to them. From the whole account contained in +the sacred Scriptures, and from all that remains to us of history, the +great fact is established for us that Christianity came into the world at +its first beginning a society created by the Holy Ghost, and held together +and informed by Him as its soul, who is sent down upon it as the Promise +of the Father from the Incarnate Son. + +Further, it was in and by their reception into this society that men +received all the fruits of the Incarnation; it was in it that all the +gifts of the Holy Ghost dwelt, and through it that they were dispensed. By +hearing the truth announced by its ministry penitence was engendered in +the listeners, itself a preventing grace of the Holy Ghost, which gave +inward effect to the outward word. As a working of this penitence they +came, according to the instruction of the teachers, to be baptised. By and +in the act of baptism they were received into the divine society, and made +partakers of the full operation of the Spirit who dwelt in it. They had +the supernatural virtues of faith, hope, and charity infused into them, +each according to the measure of the grace accorded to him, and to help +the exercise of these virtues, that they might be borne as it were with +the wings of a Spirit, the seven-fold gifts of wisdom, understanding, +counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear, were added to the soul. +None of these virtues and gifts were possessed by believers as +individuals; all of them came to men as members of her who was dowered +with the blood of Christ,(115) and whose bridal quality imparted to her +children all which that blood had purchased. In her was stored up that +great, inexhaustible source of abiding life, the Body and Blood of her +Lord and Husband: in her the redeeming Word gave direct from His heart the +vivifying stream. In her was the gift of teaching which illumined the +understanding, and not only drew from without, as we have seen, those who +should be saved from the ignorance of the pagan or the carnalism of the +Jew, but which erected in the world the Chair of Truth,(116) that is, the +rule and standard of right belief, which was the continuance of the +pentecostal gift, the illuminating and kindling fire, and the speaking +tongue of unity, which the Body of Christ possesses for ever. It was by +enjoying these endowments together in her bosom, by the actions of a life +pervaded with these principles, by the joint possession and exercise of +these supernatural powers which at once opened to the intellect a new +field of knowledge and strengthened the will to acts above its inborn +force, that men were Christians. And those who remembered what they had +been as Jews, and what they had been as heathens, had no difficulty in +recognising such a life as the effect of a divine grace, and no temptation +to refer it to anything which belonged to them as individuals, since its +commencement coincided with their entrance into a divine society, its +growth depended on their membership in that Body. Their union with Christ +in this Body was something direct and palpable; to them the several +degrees of that one ministry constituted by Christ were the joints and +articulations of the structure; the teaching thence proceeding as it were +the current of life; by their being parts of the structure they were saved +from the confusion of errors which swept freely round them without, +through the craft of men and the seduction of deceit.(117) "Possessing the +truth in charity," or "sanctified in the truth," was the expression of +that divine life in common whereby they were to grow up into one, and be +called by the name of their Lord,(118) because inseparably united to Him +by the nerves and ligaments of one Body. + +And this makes manifest to us how Christians, while scattered through +every city of the great Roman empire, formed one Body. It was by virtue of +the unity of spiritual jurisdiction which directed the whole ministry of +that Body. The command of our Lord was, "Go, and make disciples all +nations," "proclaim the gospel to every creature;" the Body assembled and +empowered at Pentecost was to carry out this command. How did it do so? +The teaching and ruling power was distributed through a ministry wherein +those of a particular order were equal as holding that order: bishops as +bishops were equal, priests as priests. But not the less by the +distribution of the places where the ministry was to be fulfilled, +subordination was maintained through the whole Body. Had it been +otherwise, as each Bishop had the completeness of the priesthood in +himself, his sphere of action, that is, his diocese, would have +constituted a distinct body. But no such thing was ever imagined in the +Church of those first centuries. The Bishops were, on the contrary, joint +possessors of one power, only to be exercised in unity.(119) The unity was +provided for in the Apostolic body by the creation of the Primacy, without +which the Body never acted, the Primate being designated before the Body +was made; the Primate invested with his functions on the sea-shore of the +lake of Galilee before the Ascension, the Body on which he was to exercise +them animated on the day of Pentecost. Spiritual jurisdiction being +nothing else but the grant to exercise all spiritual powers, two +jurisdictions would make two bodies; a thousand would make a thousand; so +that the more the Church grew, the more it would be divided, were it not +that the root of all its powers in their exercise is one. A spiritual +kingdom is absolutely impossible without this unity of jurisdiction; and +in virtue of it the whole Church, from north to south and from east to +west, was and is one Body in its teaching and its rule; that is, in the +administration of all those gifts which were bestowed at the day of +Pentecost, and which have never ceased to be exercised from that day to +this, and which shall never cease to the end of the world. Thus as it is +through the Body that men are made and kept Christians, so the Primacy is +that principle of cohesion and subordination without which the Body cannot +exist. + +Let us carry on the history of the divine Body to another point. How was +the Truth transmitted in it? + +Peter and his brethren having received through the great forty days from +our Lord the complement of His teaching concerning His kingdom, were +empowered by the descent of the Holy Ghost to commence its propagation. +And for this work they use the same instrument which their Lord had +used--the living spoken word. They labour together for some time; after +several years they divide the world between them; but in both these +periods they found communities and supply them with everything needful for +complete organisation and future increase and progress by their spoken +teaching, which therefore contained the whole deposit of the truth. The +gospel of which S. Paul so repeatedly speaks was that which he +communicated by word of mouth, and S. Peter and all the rest did the same. +Communities were planted by Apostolic zeal over a great part of the Roman +empire before as yet anything was written by their founders. The whole +administration of the sacraments, and the order and matter of the divine +service, were arranged by this personal teaching of the living word. All +that concerned the Person of our Lord, all that He had taught, done, and +suffered, was so communicated. One reason of this is plain. It was not the +bare gospel, but the "gospel of the kingdom,"(120) which was to be +proclaimed to all nations. It was not a naked intellectual truth of which +they were the bearers, but a kingdom which they were to build. They were +not disseminating a sect of philosophy, but founding an empire. They were +a King's heralds, and every king has a realm. Thus the Kingdom of the Word +was proclaimed by the word spoken through many voices, but as the +outpouring of one Spirit given on the day of Pentecost. This whole body of +their teaching, therefore, was one Tradition; that is, a delivery over of +the truth to them by inspiration of the Spirit, as the Truth who had +become incarnate taught it, and a delivery of this truth from them to the +communities which they set up. The first communication of the Christian +faith to the individual was never made by writing. How, said the Apostle, +should they invoke one whom they did not believe, but how believe in one +of whom they had not heard, and how hear without a preacher, and how +preach except they were sent?(121) It did not occur to him to ask how +should they believe in one of whom they had not read. On the contrary, he +gives in these few words the whole order of the truth's transmission. He +conceived not heralds without a commission, any more than faith without +trust in the word of the heralds. But here is the great sending, at and +from the day of Pentecost, the root of perpetual mission from which the +heralds derive their commission; they are sent, they proclaim, they are +heard, they are believed, and this faith opens the door for the admission +of subjects into the kingdom, according to the law which they proclaim. +Thus are described to us at some length the acts of that wise +master-builder whose words we have just cited; but though he laboured more +abundantly than all, all acted after the same manner. The Church was +founded by personal teaching, of which the living word was the instrument, +and the whole truth which was thus communicated was termed the +Tradition(122) or Delivery. + +We now come to the second step. Before the Apostles were taken to their +reward, the same Spirit, who had instructed them that they were to found +the spiritual kingdom by means of the living word, inspired them to commit +to writing a portion of that great tradition which they had already taught +by mouth.(123) But they never delivered these writings to men not already +Christians. One evangelist expressly says that he drew up a narrative in +order that his disciple might know the certainty of what he had already +been instructed in catechetically, that is, that by that great system of +oral teaching by question and answer, that grounding of the truth in the +memory, intellect, and will, which Christianity had inaugurated, and that +he wrote after the pattern of those who had delivered over the word to us, +having been its original eyewitnesses and servants.(124) A second +evangelist declares that what he was putting into writing was a very small +portion indeed of what his Lord had done.(125) Another very remarkable +thing is that the Apostles are not recorded to have put together what they +had written themselves, or others by their direction, so as to make it one +whole; far less that they ever declared what was so written to contain the +complete tradition of what they had received. But what they did was to +leave these writings in the hands of particular churches, having in every +case addressed them to those who were already instructed as Christians, +and not having left among them any document whatever intended to impart +the Christian faith to those who were ignorant of it. These writings were +in the strictest sense Scriptures of the Church, which sometimes stated, +and always in their form and construction showed that they were adapted to +those who had been taught the Christian faith by word of mouth. Moreover, +it was left to the Church to gather them together, and make them into one +book, which thenceforward should be _the Book_; it was left to the Church +to determine which were to be received as inspired writings, and in +accordance with the teaching already diffused in her, and which were not. +And this collection of the several writings from the particular Churches +to which they were addressed into one mass would seem not to have taken +place until at least three or four generations after the whole order and +institutions of the Church had been established by oral teaching, which +filled as with a flood the whole Christian people. Then, finally, the +authority of the Church alone established the canon of Scripture, and +separated it off from all other writings. + +Now as the planting of the Church by oral teaching was a direction of the +Holy Spirit, from whom the whole work of mission proceeded, so all these +particulars concerning the degree in which writing was to be employed, and +the manner in which that writing was to be attested, and the persons to +whom it was to be addressed, were a direction of the same Spirit. That a +spiritual kingdom could not have been established save by oral teaching +Christians may infer with certainty, because, in fact, that method was +pursued. That a portion of the great Tradition should be committed to +writing they may for the same reason infer to have been necessary for the +maintenance of the truth, because it was so done. That these writings were +the property of the Church--her Scriptures--may be inferred with no less +truth, because they were addressed only to her children, and presupposed a +system of instruction already received by those who were to read them. +And, finally, that they were to be understood in their right sense only by +the aid of the Spirit who dictated them, is, their being given in this +manner once admitted, an inference of just reasoning. It is plain, when +once these things are stated, that these writings were not intended to +stand alone, as ordinary books, and to be understood by themselves. Not +only were they part of a great body of teaching, but a portion of a great +institution, to which they incessantly alluded and bore witness. They +would speak very differently to those without and to those within the +kingdom of which they were documents. They would remind the instructed at +every turn of doctrines which they had been taught, corroborating these +and themselves explained by them. Some of them indeed were letters, and we +all know how different is the meaning of letters to those who know the +writer and his allusions, and to those who do not. A word of reference in +these documents to a great practice of Christian life would kindle into a +flame the affection of those who possessed that practice, while it would +pass as a dead letter to those who had it not.(126) Such word, therefore, +would be absolute proof of the practice to the former, while it would seem +vague and indeterminate and no proof at all to the latter. + +From what has been said we may determine the relation of the Church to the +Scriptures. She having been planted everywhere by the personal oral +teaching of the apostles and their disciples, being in full possession of +her worship and her sacraments, filled by that word which they had spoken +to her, and ruled by that Spirit in whom they had spoken, accepted these +writings which they left as conformable to that teaching which they had +delivered by word of mouth, esteemed them, moreover, as sacred, because +proceeding from the dictation of the one Spirit, and finally put them +together and severed them off from all other books, as forming, in +conjunction with that unwritten word in possession of which she passed +this judgment upon them, her own canon or rule of faith. Thenceforth they +were to be for all ages a necessary portion of the divine Tradition which +was her inheritance from the Incarnate Word, distributed by His Spirit. +They were to be in her and of her. To her belonged, first, the +understanding of them; secondly, the interpreting them to her children, +out of the fund of that whole Tradition lodged in her, and by virtue of +that indwelling Spirit, who, as He had created, maintained her; as part +and parcel, moreover, of that whole kingdom, of that body of worship and +sacraments, which she is. + +And this brings us to a further point of the utmost importance. For the +Truth, which is the subject matter of all this divine Tradition or +Delivery from the Incarnate Word, in order to be efficacious and +permanent, approached men in the shape of a society invested with +grace.(127) It was not proposed as a theory which is presented simply to +the reason, and accepted or rejected by it. True, it was addressed to the +reason, but only when illuminated by faith could the reason accept it. +Here, again, it showed itself manifestly as "the gospel _of the kingdom_." +It was the good tidings proclaimed, not simply and nakedly to man's +intellect, but as the gift and at the same time the law of that kingdom +which accompanied its publication by the bestowal of power to accept it, +and to make it the rule of conduct. There were many whom the word, though +proclaimed to them as to others, did not help, because it was not mixed +with faith in those who heard it. S. Paul preached to many when the heart +of one Lydia was opened to receive what he announced.(128) Thus with the +first hearing of the message coincided the beginning of grace to accept +it. But so likewise the Church supplied a storehouse of grace for the +continuance of the truth in those who had once received it. Truth and +grace, as they come together in her, so they remain together inseparable. +Wisdom, understanding, counsel, and knowledge, which perfect the +intellect, are linked in her with fortitude, piety, and fear, which +perfect the will. And this which is true of the individual is true of the +mass. In the Body, as well as in each single member of it, and the more +because the Body is an incomparably grander creation, it is the sanctified +intellect which must receive, harmonise, and develope the truth. If the +sevenfold fountain of the Spirit's gifts is one in the individual, much +more is it one in that Body out of whose plenitude the individual +receives. Thus wherever the Apostles preached the word, if faith made it +fruitful, they bestowed the sacraments. + +We shall see, if we observe it closely, that it is a triple cord through +which the Holy Spirit conveys His life perpetually to the Body; and in His +life is the Truth. + +First, there is the succession of men. As the Word Incarnate taught, so +men bear on His teaching. Personal labours, intercourse from mouth to +mouth, the action of men on men, the suffering of men for men, this was +from the beginning, this is to be for ever, the mode of spreading His +kingdom. It is not a paper kingdom, it cannot be printed off and +disseminated by the post. But from His own Person it passed to Peter and +the Apostles, and from them to a perpetual succession of men, whose +special work it is to continue on this line by a chain never to be broken. +These are the messengers, or heralds, or stewards, or ministers, or +teachers, or shepherds. They are all and each of these according to the +manifoldness of the gift which they carry. Through the unbrokenness of +this line the continuity of the gift is secured. Through it the Redeemer, +King, and Head touches, as it were, each point of time and space, and with +a personal ministry lays hold of each individual through the vast extent +of His kingdom in time and space. And the gift is as living and as near to +Him now as it was when S. Paul spoke of it as communicated by the +imposition of his hands to his disciple; nay, as it was when He himself +breathed on His Apostles together assembled, and said, "Receive the Holy +Ghost;" and will be equally living and direct from Him to the last who +shall receive it to the end of time. And all this because these men who +are taken up into this succession are the nerves of His mystical Body, +through which runs the supply to all the members. This is the +indestructible framework which He has wrought for carrying on to men His +own teaching, until the whole mass grow up to that fulness of the perfect +stature which He has foreseen and determined. + +The second succession is that of the Truth itself committed to these men. +For that plenitude of teaching which the Apostles delivered orally to the +Church has never ceased to rest in her, and out of it she dispenses to all +the ages her divine message. But part of this teaching by the further +ordering of the Spirit of Truth has been incorporated in writing. And no +one can doubt that this incorporation has given a firmness and stability +to the teaching which we do not see how it could otherwise have possessed. +Thus the great Tradition of the Truth poured out upon the Church has been +partly written and partly unwritten; not as if there were two teachings +separable from each other, but one and the same which runs in a perpetual +blending. Through the written teaching we receive the very words +consecrated by our Lord's use: we have the priceless privilege of knowing +how he spoke; of catching the accents of His voice, and the look of His +eyes, and the gestures of His body, portrayed in that narrative. The words +of Him who spake as never man spake live and sound for ever in our ears; +and we recognise in the structure of His sentences, which convey in a +clause principles of endless application, forces on which a universe can +be built, the Father's Word, and the world's Creator, and the Church's +Head. Parable and apophthegm and answer, metaphor and plain speech, when +used by Him, are all impregnated with this power. And now that we possess +this peculiar language of the Word Incarnate, embodied and fixed for ever +to our senses as well as our affections, it seems as if we could not have +done without it. Then the mode in which His own Apostles apply and +illustrate His doctrines, and exhibit to us the formation of the society +which He came to institute, possesses a value only subordinate to His own +words. The written word, it has been said,(129) gives to the whole Church +through all times a sense of the truth and consistency of her teaching +like that which the sense of personal identity gives to the individual +respecting his own being. And again, what memory is to the single man, +such is the whole tradition of the Truth in the bosom of the Church. But +it is through the unwritten teaching deposited in her by the Apostles that +she possesses the key to the true understanding of that which is written. +The one in her practice has never been severed from the other. So dear has +the written word been to her that almost the blackest epithet in language, +"traitor," is derived from the name which she gave to those who, under +fear of persecution, surrendered to the heathen her sacred books. With +these in her hand, or rather in her heart, she has directed and carried +out that great system of instruction which the Apostles laid down and +established by their acts. For to her what they did was as sacred as what +they said, or what they wrote; and numberless acts of theirs constituted +her teaching originally, and have prolonged and continued it on since. + +For, besides the succession of men and the succession of doctrine, there +is in her likewise the succession of institutions. As chief of these, but +involving a number of subordinate rites, the Apostles with their first +oral teaching delivered likewise to the Church sacraments, instituted, not +by them, but by their Lord Himself, which at once embodied the truth +taught by them, and conveyed the grace by which that truth was to find a +home in men's heart and mind. No sooner was the first teaching of Peter at +the head of the Apostles uttered, and the gift of forgiveness of sins and +of adoption disclosed, than three thousand persons received the double +gift by the baptism which followed. Thus they established in the Church +seven great rites, encompassing the whole of human life. The regenerating +power which was the beginning of the whole change that they sought to work +in man was stored up in one; the confirming and developing it in a second; +the feeding and increasing it in a third; the removal of obstacles to it +in a fourth; the supporting and restoring the human nature so elevated, +when under pressure of sickness and in fear of death, in a fifth; the +blessing and consecrating the union of the species in a sixth; and, +finally, the conferring that distinctive power which transmitted through +all ages her Lord's gift to the Church in a seventh. This is that great +and marvellous sacramental system by which the Church, dowered, as we have +said, in her quality of Bride with her Lord's blood, applies that blood to +His members, according to their needs. This is the perpetual consecration +of matter to a supernatural end, of which the highest example is found in +the Body of the Head Himself, and so it is an enfolding of human nature +with the Incarnation, and a transforming it into the image of its Head. +But such, likewise, is the summary of the whole written and unwritten +teaching of the Church; such also, in few and brief words, the perpetual +work of the succession of men whom we have described. + +Thus the three successions, of men, of doctrines, and of institutions, are +woven by the Holy Spirit together as three strands of a rope which cannot +be broken: in the union of these three His perpetual presence dwells; and +this is the spinal cord whereby He joins the Body with the Head. + +Let us take instances wherein the force of this union is seen. + +The first gift He bestowed upon men when the gospel of the kingdom +approached them was the forgiveness of sins. This is a power belonging to +God alone, as sin is an offence against His majesty. The conferring of +this power upon the Apostles by our Lord Himself is explicitly recorded. +But then two sacraments exhibit the application of this power, first that +of baptism, where it is given plenarily; secondly that of penance, where +it is given under restriction. And further, an order of men is instituted +for this perpetual application. Here, then, we see the force of the triple +cord carrying on through all ages this great truth of the forgiveness of +sins in and by the Church of God. The very definite mention of the grant +of this power in the written tradition is not left exposed by itself to +the action of unbelieving reason. It has a double bulwark in the two +institutions which assert its perpetual exercise as a matter of history, +and in the order of men established to carry it out. + +Take again the doctrine of the Real Presence, upon which infidelity falls +as being a proof charge of human credulity,(130) on which faith and love +rest as the sovereign gift of God. The recorded words of our Lord Himself +express it distinctly and emphatically; further words of His in the sixth +chapter of S. John allude to it with equal force, and S. Paul repeatedly +refers to it. But this is not enough for the solicitude with which the +Holy Spirit has guarded it against all attack. As the great central rite +of Christian worship it is presented day after day, in myriads of +churches, from age to age, to the eyes and hearts of men. The act in which +Christians assemble, in which they offer up at once their repentance and +their requests, their thanksgivings and their praises, to Him who has +formed them into one Body, lives upon this truth. And further, the order +of men which is the backbone of the Church, the great Christian +priesthood, made by our Lord in instituting the rite and conferring the +gift, exists for its continuance. Against such a truth, defended with such +bulwarks, both infidelity and heresy dash themselves with impotent rage in +vain. + +Thirdly, we have in the epistles of S. Paul a mention of the bishop's +office and the duties belonging to it. The mention is incidental, and the +words not so determinate as in the former instances given. Those who are +outside the Body, in their attack upon the necessity of episcopacy, +thought that they could cut through these words so as to make it doubtful +whether the office of bishop, as distinguished from that of priest, was of +original institution. But then history disclosed the fact that when the +last apostle was taken from the earth not a church existed which was not +under episcopal jurisdiction, and through the whole world, by the +institution of bishops, was fulfilled the prediction,--Instead of thy +fathers thou shalt have children, whom thou mayest make princes in all +lands. Thus, while the written record was interpreted, the unwritten +teaching of the Church found a plain and unanswerable proof in her +invariable practice. All through her long history she is seen to be +governed by bishops; and the words of S. Paul, flanked by the institution +and the practice, are more than sufficient to maintain the truth. + +Once more let us take the primacy of S. Peter's see in the Church. This, +as is well known, rests in the written word mainly on three great passages +of S. Matthew, S. Luke, and S. John. These, indeed, are so specific and +definite that they convey the dignity intended as clearly as the passages +above referred to convey the forgiveness of sins or the Real Presence. But +over and above these, what an overwhelming proof in the unbroken +succession of those who exercised the primacy from the beginning, and are +referred to from age to age by the doctors, fathers, and historians of the +Church. Beside the charter of institution stands the long record of the +work wrought in virtue of it, the witness of the Church to it in councils, +the obedience to it in fact. As the priesthood exists in attestation of +the Real Presence, so the primacy stands beside our Lord's words, first +promising and then conferring it, like the comment of eighteen hundred +years, uniform and consistent. + +What we have here applied in the case of the forgiveness of sins, the Real +Presence, episcopacy, and the primacy of the Church, might be carried out +in the case of many more doctrines forming a part of the great deposit. +But it may be well to cite one instance of a truth not contained in the +written word at all, which through the unwritten teaching of the Church +has passed into universal practice. This is not the abolition only of the +Jewish Sabbath, constituted as it was by the most express divine command, +for to that abolition there is a passing reference in an epistle of S. +Paul, but the further substitution of the day of the resurrection, the +first day of the week for the seventh, with a modified observance. This +rests solely upon the deposit of the Church's unwritten teaching, +corroborated by universal practice from the apostolic times. + +Viewing, then, the transmission of the Truth as a whole, and the creation +of the mystical Body of Christ as its home, and the Holy Spirit as the +perpetual Indweller who fills that treasure-house of Truth and Grace, we +may consider its maintenance as secured by the triple succession or +tradition of men, of doctrine, and of institutions which are inseparably +joined together in that its home. But there are some words of our Lord so +distinctly and translucently expressing all this statement respecting the +mode in which His Truth was first and is ever to be transmitted, and the +conditions to which His perpetual presence is attached, that we cannot +forbear to adduce them. + +His parting instructions to His Apostles on the Mountain of Galilee given +by S. Matthew run thus: "Jesus approached them and said unto them, All +power has been given unto Me in heaven and on earth. Go therefore, and +make disciples all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and +of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things +whatsoever I have commanded you; and behold I am with you all days even to +the end of the world." We shall here note six things. First, there is the +root and foundation of all mission, the power bestowed upon Christ as man, +in virtue of the Incarnation: "all power has been given to Me in heaven +and on earth;" secondly, there is the derivation of this power from Christ +to His Apostles, in virtue of which sent by Him, as He by His Father, they +were to go forth: "Go ye therefore;" thirdly, there is the creation of the +perpetual teaching power, the authority by which truth was to be imparted: +"make disciples all nations." He placed it in them as in one Body, here +fulfilling what S. Augustine afterwards expressed, that He "seated the +doctrine of Verity in the Chair of Unity." They, invested with one Spirit, +His own Spirit of Truth, should go forth and make disciples all nations to +one Body of Truth. It is the creation of a power new as the Incarnation, +as it unique, because springing from it, founded and continued in it. He +Himself is the one Teacher whose voice they express: He who came on earth +for three and thirty years speaks for evermore in those whom He sends as +one Body, which calls no man teacher, because it is the Body of Christ, +_the_ Teacher: so that this function of magisterial teaching is the great +distinctive office of His Church, coming from above, and invested with the +authority of the God-man, by which it draws to it disciples, whose consent +is not the ground but the result of its authority. Fourthly, there is the +creation of the sacraments, as containing the grace which is needed for +the reception of this Truth, and they are summed up in the first, which is +the beginning of the new life, illumination, and perfection, and which is +given in the covenant name of God, as the Christian God, and is the mark +of the triune Creator, Redeemer, and Sanctifier, impressed on his own +people of acquisition. Thus Grace is for ever associated with Truth as the +means whereby alone on earth Truth shall prevail and be received, and that +only as the teaching of that Body whose Head is full of Grace and Truth. +Fifthly, there is marked the manner of the teaching, the nature of the +magisterial office created as that of a living body of men: "teaching them +to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you." The fund from +which this teaching is drawn is that whole communication of truth from the +Incarnate Word Himself, given to them by word of mouth, of which we have +spoken above as the great Tradition or Delivery; and out of which a part +is incorporated in the written word, while the whole dwells ever in the +Body created to receive it, from which it is to be imparted by perpetual +oral teaching. The teaching, therefore, rests upon the perpetual presence +of the Body representing Christ, and as in the days of His flesh He +teaches through it, and has fixed part of His tradition in it by writing, +not to the exclusion of the rest, but as the charter of a sovereign, the +title-deeds of an empire, to be perpetually applied, interpreted, and +developed in that whole system of institutions, by that whole race of +teachers, in the life of that one Body, which He was creating. And lastly, +to this perpetual living line of teachers, to this perpetual living +doctrine, to this perpetual living framework of grace, He has promised His +own presence without fail to the end. In this triple succession He is +seen, lives, and rules, and this is His Kingdom, His Temple, His Body, His +Bride, His Family, to whom He says, Behold, I am with you all days, even +to the end of the world. + +From these words of our Lord, as from the whole previous argument, we +gather that while the Truth which Christ imparted to His Apostles was one +and complete, its development in its various relations was designedly left +as the proper work of such a Body as He created. He Himself spoke as God +in human flesh, uttering, that is, creative words, which gathered up in a +sentence a germ of truth capable of a long series of applications, and +requiring them in order to be understood. And the aptitude to make these +applications, so that the truth proclaimed by Him and committed to His +Apostles should penetrate through and leaven the whole human society, He +gave to His mystical Body. Let us take an instance of this. The Pharisees +approached Him one day to entangle Him by their words, and proposed to Him +a dilemma from which they thought that He could not escape save by ruining +His influence with one great party, or by encountering the danger of being +charged with seditious teaching by another. They put to Him the question +whether it was lawful to give tribute to Caesar or not. Whereupon He asked +them to show Him the tribute-money, and pointing to the image of the +emperor upon it, uttered those famous words, "Render therefore to Caesar +the things which are Caesar's, and to God the things which are God's." Now +these words were laid up in the treasury of His Church, and by them she +has had to determine the relation between the civil and the spiritual +powers in the society created by Him who spake them. Here is a vast +development from a small seed: but it is a seed cast by the world's +Creator and the Body's Head. And His teaching is full of such seeds, as +the history of His Church is one great process of developing and +harmonising and conveying to man the truth thus cast into the fallows of +her soil. It is not new truth, for He gave the germ, and no power in man +could have developed it without the germ, any more than it could produce +the oak without the acorn. It is the same truth, as He taught it, but with +that process passed upon it which He intended when He gave it in such a +form, and when He made a living Body, to be called by His name, to +propagate His teaching, to collect His members into one, and to fill the +earth with the knowledge which He brought. + +Such a work, therefore, the root and authorisation of which we have been +attempting to delineate in this chapter, stretches over the whole field +which Truth and Grace occupy, and over all the relations of men which are +summed up in what they are to believe and what they are to do. These +ramifications are all but endless. But to all these extends that giving of +the Holy Ghost in His fourfold character of the Spirit of Unity, Verity, +Charity, and Sanctity, which is the result of the Incarnation, and which +makes the Church. What we have said here has a special relation to Truth, +and to Christian morals as resting upon Christian dogma. But it is +impossible to separate Truth from Grace, in their actual operation as +powers: faith and charity in the Christian are linked together, as the +intellect and the will are one soul. What we have said is but an +introduction to a sketch of the great evolution of dogmatic truth through +eighteen centuries: but in recording its rise, the secret of its growth, +and the source of its strength, it was impossible not to bring out the +great fact that Christianity was nothing less than a divine life produced +in the world over against the existing heathenism, and laying hold of the +whole soul of man, in which, as we have just said, intellect and will are +inseparable. It did not consist in anything which individuals believed, +however true; but in a society of which Truth and Grace were the joint +spring, and it was produced in the midst of a world which had to a great +extent forfeited both Truth and Grace, while both returned to it as the +gift of Christ assuming man's nature. This error and distraction of +heathenism, and this great unity of Christian life grounded in faith and +charity which rose up against it, were profoundly felt by all the Fathers, +being eye-witnesses of the old world and the new. Their writings express +it again and again, with the vividness which only eye-witnesses, who are +likewise actors and sufferers, feel. In nothing, perhaps, do they so +differ from modern writers as in the energy with which they appreciate the +supernatural character of the Christian, and the wonderful being and +endowment of that Christian Body which impressed this character on its +members. One cause, we may suppose, of this was the sight of heathenism +before them with all its impurities and its impotence to produce good. So +they were not even tempted to that naturalism which is the besetting sin +of our age and these countries. It would have seemed to them not only an +ingratitude but an absurdity to refer to the inborn force of humanity a +change equally of the intellect and of the will which they saw to belong +only to the power of Christ revealed in His Church. We will cite one such +passage as a conclusion to this discussion, and because it represents the +whole train of thought which we have been drawing out.(131) + +"Of this sacrament, this sacrifice, this priest, this God, before, having +been made of a woman, He entered on His mission, all sacred and mystical, +angelic and miraculous appearances to our fathers, as well as their own +deeds, were resemblances, in order that every creature might in a manner +by its acts speak of that One destined to come, in whom should be the +salvation of all that were to be restored from death. For as we had +started away from the one true supreme God by the injustice of impiety, +and fallen out of harmony with Him, and become unstable as water, and +wasted ourselves on a multitude of vanities, rent in pieces, and hanging +in tatters to every piece, need was there that by the will and command of +a compassionating God this multitude of objects itself should utter a cry +in unison, calling for One to come; and that thus called upon this One +should come, and that the multitude should attest together that the One +had come: and so we, discharged from the burden of this multitude, should +come to One; and dead in our soul by many sins, and from our sin doomed to +death in the flesh, should love that One, who, being without sin, died for +us in the flesh: and believing on Him when risen, and with Him rising +again in the Spirit through faith, should be justified, being in the One +Just made one: and should not despair of rising again in our very flesh, +beholding our Head being One going before His many members; in whom now, +cleansed by faith, and hereafter restored by vision, and reconciled by the +Mediator to God, we might inhere in the One, enjoy the One, and continue +One for ever. + +"Thus the Son of God, Himself at once the Word of God and Son of man, +Mediator of God and men, equal to the Father by the unity of the godhead, +and partaker of us through the assumption of the manhood, interceding with +the Father for us through that which was man, yet not concealing that as +God He was One with the Father, thus speaks: 'Neither pray I for these +alone, but for those also who shall believe through their word on Me; that +all may be one, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I in Thee, that they also +may be One in Us, that the world may believe that Thou hast sent Me. And +the glory which Thou gavest Me, I have given them, that they may be One as +we also are One.' He said not, that I and they may be One thing, although +in that He is the Head of the Church, and the Church His Body, He might +say, I and they not One thing, but One person, because the Head and the +Body is One Christ. But marking His Godhead as consubstantial with the +Father (whence in another place He says, I and the Father are One thing), +He wills that His own should be One thing in their own kind, that is, in +the consubstantial parity of the same nature, but in Him, because in +themselves they could not, as severed from each other by diversity of +pleasures, desires, and impurities of sin. From these they are cleansed +through the Mediator, so as to be One Thing in Him, not merely by the same +nature in which all from mortal men become equal to the angels, but +likewise by the same will breathing in perfect harmony together into the +same beatitude, welded, as it were, by the fire of charity into One +Spirit. For this is the force of His words, That they may be One, as We +also are One: that as the Father and the Son are One not only in equality +of substance, but also in will, so these also between whom and God the Son +is Mediator, may be One Thing not merely by being of the same nature, but +also by the same society of affection. And the very point that He is +Mediator, by whom we are reconciled to God, He indicates in the words, 'I +in them and Thou in Me, that they may be consummated into One.' Thus as +through the mediator of death we had receded from our Creator, stained and +alienated, so through the Mediator of life we might be purified and +reconciled, wherein consist our true peace and stable union with Him." + + + + + +CHAPTER X. THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. + + + "Magnum haereditatis mysterium! Templum Dei factus est uterus + nescientis virum. Non est pollutus ex ea carnem assumens. Omnes + gentes venient dicentes, Gloria tibi, Domine." + + _Antiphon on Vespers of Circumcision._ + + +The world which Augustus and Tiberius ruled was not conscious of the fact +that there was an order of truth, and of morality based upon that truth, +the maintenance of which was to be purchased, and cheaply purchased, with +the loss of life, or of all that made life valuable. This world was indeed +familiar with the thought and with the practice of sacrificing life for +one object--an object which collected all the natural affections and +interests of a man together, and presented them to him in the most +attractive form, his country. Greek and Roman history, and indeed the +history of all nations up to that time, had been full of instances in +which privations and sufferings were endured, and, if necessary, life +itself given up for wife and children, for the dear affections of house +and home, for friends, for freedom, for fatherland. Man, civilised and +uncivilised, was alike capable of this, and capable of it in profusion. +Rome had many a Regulus and Sparta many a Leonidas in the humblest ranks +of their citizens: Gaul had thousands as noble as Vercingetorex, and Spain +not one but many Numantias. Human nature had never been wanting in the +courage to die for the visible goods of human life. But to labour, to +combat, to endure pain, sorrow, privations, to suffer in every form for +the invisible goods of a future life, to recognise, that is, an inviolable +order of religion and morality, so far superior to all that a man can +grasp and hold in his possession, to wife, children, goods, friends, +freedom, and fatherland, and to life adorned and crowned with these, that +any or all of these, and life itself, are to be sacrificed for its +preservation; this may be said to be a thought of which the whole heathen +world ruled by Augustus and Tiberius was unconscious.(132) For other +reasons also it was familiar enough with the sacrifice of life, since the +continual practice of war and the permanent institution of slavery had +made human life the cheapest of all things in its eyes. And further, to +die rather than to live dishonoured was still the rule of the nobler among +the millions who yielded to the sway of Augustus. But to die for the +maintenance of moral truth, that is, for faith,--this was known indeed to +the Jews, who had already their "cloud of witnesses" to it; but it was +unknown to heathendom, which has in all its ranks and times but one +man(133) to offer whose death approaches to such a sacrifice, and +therefore shines with incomparable lustre among all deeds of purely human +heroism. But the death of Socrates found in this no imitators, he created +here no line of followers; and he stands alone in this greatness, an +exception to an otherwise invariable rule. + +However, in our two preceding chapters we have been describing something +much more than the exhibition of this order of truth; that is, we have set +forth the union of it with a Person, who both exhibits it in Himself, and +is the source of it to others. And the difference between these two things +is very great. Many at different times have said, "I teach the truth." One +only has said, "I am the Truth:" and to say it is the most emphatic +indirect assumption of Godhead which can be conceived. And with it that +One also joined a similar expression, containing the same assumption of +Godhead, and which equally was never approached by any other teacher, "I +am the Life." The union of the Truth at once and of the Life with His +Person, which is thus become the root of both to human nature, was the +subject of the last two chapters. Now, as we have said, that there was an +order of truth sacred and inviolable above all things, was borne witness +to by the Hebrew martyrs, and therefore was not new to the chosen race of +Israel, though it was new to heathendom, at the time at which our Lord +appeared. But the union of the Truth and of the Life with the Person of +One appearing visibly in the world as man, was as new to the Hebrews as to +the heathen, was an absolute novelty to human nature. And so the Christian +Faith also, as a system of belief and action, that is, as embracing the +mind and the will of man, as giving both Truth and Life, is entirely new +in this respect; that in this double action it is in its origin and in its +whole course and maintenance bound up with a Person. Thus all which it +teaches is not naked truth, unlocalised as it were, and impersonal, but is +the development of relations in which the disciples of Christ stand to +Him; for instance, as King, as God, as Head, as Bridegroom, as Father. As +these, He is at once The Truth and the Life. Thus it is that the Christian +Faith flows out of the Person of Christ the God-man; and, as its Truth is +centered in that Person, so also its continuous Life depends on Him. + +And further, as the connection of doctrine, or truth, and of life, that +is, action, with a Person is the point from which all this movement +springs, in which respect we have said it was absolutely new, so the term +to which it reaches is the creation of something in both these things +correlative to that Person, the creation of a Kingdom, a Temple, a Body, a +Mother, a Race, in which respect also the term is as new as that from +which it springs. That He is the Truth and the Life is shown in this +creation, which has a distinctive character, as He has, an unique +existence, and an organic unity with Him. + +The subject on which we are now employed is to describe as an historic +fact how the duty of maintaining, propagating, and dying for the truth and +conduct thus identified with the Person of Christ, was carried out through +many generations and under difficulties which seemed to preclude the +possibility of its success; and to show the means by which this great +creation, starting from the day of Pentecost, made a home and established +itself in the Roman empire, by which, after a conflict of nearly three +hundred years, it was finally recognised. + +The worship of the one true God had been fixed in the children of Abraham, +Isaac, and Jacob, as the faith which made them a nation, that is, as the +dogma on which their national existence was so based, that through +maintaining it they were to continue a people. The Jewish polity lived in +and by this belief, and, as a nation, was its prophet. Certainly, this was +the noblest form which nationalism has ever assumed. Yet it was +nationalism still; and the proselyte who would enter into the full worship +of the God of Abraham and all its privileges had to become a Jew. But now, +instead of this bond another was substituted, signifying that the King of +the Jews who had appeared was come as the saviour of _man_, not of this or +of that nation. The bond is therefore placed at the point which +constituted the salvation of the whole race, that is in the Person of the +God-man, and by this the corporation was put beyond the bounds of a +nationality, and made coextensive with the world. The Christian creed was +formed round the Person, the actions, and the sufferings of Christ. Now +here, precisely in what constituted the character, the greatness, and the +glory of the Christian faith, was seated the principle and the beginning +of the persecution which it encountered from the Roman empire. In that +empire every species of idolatry(134) had a right of homestead as the +national or tribe religion of any one of its constituent parts; and the +worship of even one God, exclusive as that Jewish worship was of the whole +heathen pantheon, was allowed by the laws of Rome to the Jews, because he +was considered their national god. But the Christians had no such +justification in Roman eyes for their exclusive worship. They were not a +nation nor a province of the empire; they had not, therefore, that title +for their worship which constituted the charter of toleration to all +besides, including the Jew, who worshipped the same God. For the +Christians worshipped Him, not as their ancestral God, but as the Father +of that Son who had taken human flesh, and become the Saviour of men. +Their worship of the one true God was not only exclusive, but in and +through the fact of the Incarnation claimed the homage of all men to it. +It knew of no bond of brotherhood but in Him who had deigned to call men +His brethren. Thus its special character and preeminent glory were the +cause of its persecution, and from the moment that it came before the +notice of the Roman governor not as a Jewish sect but as a distinct +belief, it was considered as not a lawful religion. Thus too it was that +the selfsame point which kindled Jewish hatred entailed Roman persecution. +The Christian faith was a mortal offence to the Jew because it extended +what had been his special privileges to all the Gentiles. He abhorred the +substitution of the Person of the God-man for the race of Abraham after +the flesh; as the Roman at once despised and hated a worship which not +only adhered to one God, but dethroned from his political supremacy the +capitoline Jupiter, and whose title rested not on tradition and national +inheritance, but on a fact touching the whole race of man, and therefore +claiming the allegiance of the whole race--the assumption of human nature +by a divine Person. Thus the doctrine in which lay the whole creative +force, the truth and the life of Christianity, was that which from the +first caused the dislike of the Jew and the persecution of the Gentile--the +kingship of Christ, involving the headship of a universal religion, and a +power which was not that of Caesar. + +We have, then, now to treat of a period of 280 years, homogeneous in its +character from the beginning to the end, which is, that it is the carrying +out by a people ever increasing in number and strength of that good +confession made before Pontius Pilate--that witness at its proper time of +which S. Paul(135) in its first stage said that he was the herald and +apostle. The course and life of Christians during these ten generations is +to be the prolongation of this testimony, the embodiment of this +confession. It is as soldiers, imitators, followers of one Chief, that all +appear on the scene in their respective order.(136) It is by a direct +virtue drawn from the cross of that Chief that they move onward to their +own passion. They endure and they conquer simply as under His command, and +because He endured and conquered before them. Their oath of military +fidelity is the bond of their discipline; they prevail because they are +His, and because they are one in Him: + + + "And they stand in glittering ring + Round their warrior God and King-- + Who before and for them bled-- + With their robes of ruby red, + And their swords of cherub flame." + + +The whole process and cause of Christians during this long period, the +ground of their accusation, the conduct and principles of the judges, and +their judgment, are summed up as in a parable in that scene which passed +before Pilate, while the subsequent day of Pentecost is in the same manner +an image of the final result won in these three hundred years. For as the +crucifixion of the Truth in the Person of Christ is followed by the +descent of the Holy Ghost forming the Church, so the persecution and +crucifixion of the truth in ten generations of His people is followed by +the empire's public recognition of His eternal kingdom--of that Body of +Christ seen visibly in a council of its prelates assembling freely from +all lands. + +Take first the seventy years which form the Apostolic age. What do we find +as the result when S. John, the last apostle, is taken away? In a large +number of cities throughout the Roman empire a community has been planted +after the pattern of that which we have described as arising at Jerusalem, +and by the same means, the power of oral teaching. Every such community +has at its head its bishop, or angel, who sums up and represents in his +own person the people over which he presides. This is exactly the picture +presented to us at the close of this period by S. John in the Apocalypse, +when he is directed by our Lord personally appearing to him to write seven +letters to as many bishops of cities on the seaboard of the province of +Asia. Each, with his people, is addressed as a unit. One, "I know thy +works, and thy labour, and thy endurance, and how thou canst not bear +those which are evil;" a second, "Fear not what thou art about to suffer; +behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison;" a third, "I have +against thee some few things, that thou hast there some who hold the +doctrine of Balaam."(137) Each has around him his council of priests, his +ministering deacons, his faithful people. The last apostle is still +living; but in all these communities many exist, both of teachers and +taught, who have learned Christian doctrine, either from the mouth of an +apostle or the comrade of an apostle--a Mark, a Luke, a Silvanus, a +Clemens. Thus they live mainly upon oral teaching: the voice which went +forth from the day of Pentecost is sounding freshly in their ears. +Doctrine is in the stage of simple tradition and authority. The writings +of the New Testament are completed, but being addressed to various parts +of the Church, are best known to those for whom they were written. They +are not yet collected and made the common patrimony of the whole Church. +S. John leaves the earth without performing any such function; without +setting the seal of his apostolical authority upon the New Testament as a +whole; nay, the authorship of some of his own writings, as we now receive +them, will be partially contested after his death before their final +reception. Of the absolute number of these Christian communities, and of +the multitude they severally embrace, we have no account; we can form no +estimate, save to infer that the whole number of the faithful, at the end +of this period, was very small in comparison with the mass out of which +they had been drawn. Still it was a germ with a living force of expansion, +planted in every considerable spot of the empire; and wherever it was +planted, a Christian people, in the full sense of the word, existed, +having a complete spiritual life of its own, possessing the sacraments +which insured the beginning and the continuance of that life, an order of +worship based on the great central fact which made them a people, and a +ministry charged with the power to teach and to convey on to their +successors the doctrines delivered to them. + +But in the mean time how had the empire treated it? In these seventy years +it has traversed the seven last years of the Emperor Tiberius, and the +whole principates of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero; the revolutionary +crisis in which Galba, Otho, and Vitellius reigned for an instant, and +then the settled time of Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva. Now, +during this period its treatment by the empire has been a singular +reproduction of what passed in the hall of Pilate. For the Jewish religion +was one allowed by Roman law. The profession of it entailed no penalty. +Now the first heralds of the Gospel, as Jews, preached their message +boldly and publicly, and in doing so it does not seem that Roman law would +have interfered with them.(138) At this stage it looked upon Christians as +a sect of Jews. As no authority of the empire had interfered with the +public ministry of our Lord, so it would seem to have left the ministry of +His disciples in the first instance free. It is from another quarter that +opposition arises. The Jew in his jealous anger at the promulgation of a +Messiah and a spiritual kingdom which is not after Jewish taste, both +because it is a kingdom not of this world, and because it raises the +Gentile to coinheritance with the race of Abraham, drags the Christian +missionary before the tribunal of the Roman magistrate and imputes to him +"sedition." Then many a Gallio, many a Felix, many a Festus have as it +were unwillingly to enter into and decide these questions of the Jewish +law. It would seem that converts to the Christian faith in these its +earliest days might long have escaped the notice of the magistrate, as +belonging to a Jewish sect, but for this enmity of the Jews themselves. +But as the teachers of the new faith everywhere addressed themselves first +to their countrymen, so everywhere they found these countrymen alive to +their progress and bitterly set against it.(139) This state of things is +pretty well expressed by that answer of the Roman Jews to S. Paul when he +excuses himself before them for having been compelled to appeal to the +Emperor Nero: "as concerning this sect, we know that it is spoken against +everywhere."(140) This, however, was Jewish, not Roman, contradiction. So +far as everywhere Jewish hatred and jealousy could malign and counterwork +the progress of the Christian Faith, and bring suffering on its teachers, +it had been done. But nevertheless with this exception it would seem that +for thirty-five years after the day of Pentecost that Faith had been +freely and publicly taught throughout the empire. It was through the +malignity of his own countrymen, stirring up a dangerous conspiracy +against him, that S. Paul felt himself compelled to appeal to the emperor, +and the result of his appeal was that he was set free. But in the year 64 +another state of things had arisen. The ruin of a large part of Rome by +fire had brought a great odium upon Nero. Now his wife Poppaea is said to +have been a Jewish proselyte, he himself to have been surrounded by Jewish +influences, and nothing is more probable than that Jewish hatred, which +had tracked the Christians everywhere, pursued them especially here, and +suggested them to him both as authors of the conflagration, and as +convenient scapegoats whereon to divert the odium against himself which +had arisen from it. Thus he took the opportunity of exposing to shame and +torment, as victims of the popular dislike, and in popular opinion guilty +of "hatred of the human race," or of being hated by them, "a vast +multitude"(141) of Christians, who, says the heathen historian, were put +to the most exquisite suffering, being wrapt in the skins of wild beasts, +and torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or clothed in garments of pitch +and set on fire to illuminate the night. Thus it is, as decorations of +Nero's games, in his gardens of the Vatican, where the obelisk from +Heliopolis, once the ornament of his circus, now bears witness to the +victory of Christ, that Christians first come before us in the pages of +Roman historians, just at the middle of the period we are now describing, +thirty-five years after the Ascension. + +It may be considered part of this first persecution that the two great +Apostles--Peter, who had founded the Roman Church, and Paul, who after its +first foundation had helped to build it up--were condemned in the last year +of Nero, and by his deputies(142) during his absence, to suffer as +Christians, the one the death of a Roman citizen by the sword, and the +other that of a slave by crucifixion. Thus the two great brethren by +enduring together the martyr's death, the highest mark of Christian +charity, sealed their joint foundation of Christian Rome, that like as the +Rome which had gained the conquest of the world by the strong hand of +violence, had been planted in the blood of one brother shed by another, so +the Rome which was to be the centre of Christ's kingdom, and in the words +of S. Ignatius "preside over charity," should have for her founders +brethren in supernatural love, pouring forth their blood together for the +seat of that Christian unity which binds the earth in one. + +But this persecution by Nero is not transitory in its consequences. The +emperor had judged that Christians as such professed a religion not +allowed by the Roman laws, and were guilty therein of a capital crime. +This crime, if technically expressed, would amount to sacrilege and +treason;(143) for they could not acknowledge the Roman gods as gods, nor +the emperor as Pontifex Maximus; nor could they swear by his genius, which +was the oath expressing fidelity to the Roman constitution in its civil +and religious aspect. This was that "hatred of the human race," that is, +in other words, of the Roman empire, of which in the eyes of Tacitus and +Pliny, of Nero now and of Trajan afterwards, they were guilty as +Christians. But the singular thing is this, that the Jew, who was the +first to drag them before the Roman tribunal, who was their omnipresent, +ever-ready antagonist and traducer, though he worshipped one only God, +though he abhorred the whole Roman polytheism, though he swore not by the +genius of the emperor, was exempt from punishment: his religion was +recognised by Roman law and the senate its interpreter, because it was the +national and time-honoured religion of a constituent part of the empire. +On the same ground the vilest Egyptian, Asiatic, African idol was allowed +the worship of those who claimed it as their ancestral god. The Christian +Faith was the sole exception to this universal tolerance, because it was +not the religion of a subject nation, because it was new, because, in +fine, it rested on principles which, if carried out, would sweep away the +whole fabric of polytheism on which the Roman State rested. And the act of +Nero had its great importance in that it formally distinguished the +Christian from the Jewish religion, and took away from it by a legal +decision of the State's highest authority the claim to be considered +"licit." + +Nero then bestows the crown of martyrdom on S. Peter and S. Paul, and on +what Tacitus calls, even within Rome alone, a vast multitude. But he does +more than this. On the first appearance of Christians before the supreme +authority he so applies an existing law to their case as to establish +their liability under it to capital punishment, and this liability rests +upon them henceforth down to the time of Constantine. It is by no means +always carried out; it is often suspended, sometimes for many years +together, according to the character of the ruling prince, or the maxims +of his government, or the state itself of the empire. But it is henceforth +the legal position of Christians. It is a danger which besets their +condition, and may be called into action at any moment, in any city of the +empire, from any motive of private enmity, cupidity, or passion. It is the +legal Roman equivalent and interpretation of their Master's words, "You +shall be hated of all men for my name's sake."(144) + +How often, and in how many instances, it was carried out in this period of +seventy years we have no means of telling; but another emperor is named as +a persecutor. Domitian not only put to death as Christian his cousin, the +Consul Flavius Clemens, but, as it would seem, a great many others at +Rome, in the latter years of his principate.(145) Domitian and Nero are +mentioned as persecutors by Melito when addressing Marcus Aurelius, and by +Tertullian,(146) in the time of Severus, though it was the object of both +to make the emperors appear to have been not unfavourable to Christians. +But, independent of any general act which would constitute an emperor a +persecutor,(147) this liability to punishment,(148) in virtue of which the +confessor or martyr was brought before the local magistrates, was that +under which individual Christians, in most peaceful times, and in the +reign of emperors generally just and moderate, endured their sufferings. +The Emperor Tiberius is said by Tertullian to have brought before the +senate a proposition to allow the Christian Faith as a lawful religion. +Had this been done, the whole course of Christian history in these three +centuries would have been changed. As it was, every one, in becoming a +Christian, accepted the chance that he might thereby be called upon to +forfeit the possession of wife, children, goods, every civil right, and +life itself. + +The end of the reign of the first Antonine, in the year 161, furnishes us +with a second fitting epoch at which we may estimate the growth and +position in the empire of the Christian Faith. + +During the sixty years which elapse from the death of S. John to the +accession of Marcus, the Roman empire is ruled by three sovereigns, who +have each left a fair name and a considerable renown behind them, and who, +compared with most of those who preceded or who followed them, may almost +be termed great. Trajan by his military successes raised to the highest +point the credit of the Roman arms, by his moderation in civil government +effaced the remembrance of Domitian's cruelties, and gave the Romans +perhaps as much liberty as they could bear. His successor Hadrian, joining +great energy, administrative ability, and moderation of his own to the +fear and respect for the Roman name, which the powerful arm of Trajan had +spread around, was able at once to exercise his army with unwearied +discipline, and to maintain the empire at its full tide of power in +honourable peace, while Antoninus crowned the forty years of equable and +generally just government--bestowed on the Roman world by Trajan and +Hadrian--with a further happy period of more than half that length, wherein +the glory of the empire may be said to have culminated. Imperial Rome +never saw again such a day of power, or such a prospect of security, as +when Antoninus celebrated the secular games at the completion of nine +hundred years; and for ages afterwards his name carried respect, and men +looked back on his reign as on an ideal period of happiness for those whom +he ruled. + +One of the most competent observers of our time has marked the last ten +years of the reign of Pius as the period at which the independent +development of Graeco-Roman heathenism terminated, when it had exhausted +all the forms of its own inward life, since the Neoplatonic philosophy +which is the only striking product of intelligence that arises afterwards, +is manifestly due to the antagonism with Christianity, and is no pure +offspring of the heathen spirit.(149) From this time forth Christian +influences become unmistakable in their action upon heathen thought and +society. This, then, affords another reason why we should endeavour to +trace the progress and extension which the Church had reached at this +point. + +Now a contemporary of Antoninus declares that in his time, that is, about +the year 150, there was no race of men, either barbarians or Greeks, none +even of Scythian nomads roaming in waggons, or of pastoral tribes dwelling +in tents, among whom prayers and thanksgivings were not offered to the +Father and Creator of the universe in the name of the crucified +Jesus.(150) Thus, in a hundred and twenty years the Church had outstripped +the limits of the empire. The germ which in the time of S. John was rooted +in the chief cities, had spread out thence and increased, taking more and +more possession of the soil in all directions. Still we must consider the +Christian Church in each place of its occupation as a small minority of +the people: nor is there any reason to doubt the statement made by Celsus, +that at the period when he wrote, the middle of the second century, the +Christian Faith counted few of the educated, distinguished, and rich among +its adherents;(151) for Origen, in replying to him, alleges no specific +example to the contrary. Yet, here too we must consider the justice of +Origen's remark,(152) that these classes are everywhere few in proportion +to the poor and ignorant, and that Christianity being the day-star arising +on every soul took of all classes alike. So much, then, as to the Church's +material extension: now as to its internal growth. + +As this period opens, comrades of the Apostles still abound in the +churches. We know of several instances wherein such persons hold eminent +rank. At Rome, S. Clement is the third successor of S. Peter; and S. +Irenaeus,(153) recording him as such eighty years afterwards, specially +notes that he had seen and lived with Apostles, and had their preaching +still sounding in his ears, and their tradition before his eyes; at +Antioch, S. Ignatius, second after the same S. Peter; in the See of +Jerusalem, S. Simeon, the brother of James, still survives; at Smyrna, S. +John's disciple Polykarp is bishop. Many more such S. Irenaeus declares +that there were. This would prepare us for the strength with which the +principle of authority and tradition was held, and show how completely the +sense of a spiritual government, of cohesion, and continuity of moral +life, and of a common doctrine and teaching, the foundation of these, +prevailed. But we are not left to inferences, we have the clearest +statements on this point about fifteen years after S. John's death. It has +been remarked above how in the Apocalypse our Lord himself, addressing the +seven churches, gathers them up in their bishops, and speaks of them each +collectively as of one person. In the year 116, as is supposed, Ignatius +still after forty-eight years bishop of one of the three great mother +churches, all of them Sees of Peter, and types and models of church +government, whence missions went forth, and the layers of apostolic +teaching were propagated, in his seven extant epistles conveys the same +idea as that presented by those divine words which S. John had heard in +vision, and was commanded to record, but with much greater detail. As he +is being led to martyrdom, in the long transit between Antioch and Rome, +he pours forth the earnestness of one under sentence of death, glowing at +the prospect of shedding his blood for Christ, and being for ever united +with Him. These letters remain as a sample of numberless conversations +held with the deputations which came to meet him on his way, mingling +their tears at his approaching passion with their exultation in his +triumph. They are of one tissue throughout. Ignatius dwells with incessant +repetition upon union with God and with Christ through obedience to the +hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons, by maintenance of one faith, +in one body of the Church, which is wherever Christ is.(154) Let us take +one instance from his letter to the Ephesians. After saying that he had +"received their whole multitude in the person of Onesimus, their bishop," +he continues: "It is, then, fitting that you should by all means glorify +Jesus Christ who has glorified you; that by a uniform obedience you may be +perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment, and +may all speak alike concerning everything, and that being subject to the +bishop and the presbytery, you may be altogether sanctified. I am not +giving you commands, as if I were any one; for, though I am in bonds for +His name, I am not yet perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I begin to +learn, and I speak to you as my fellow-disciples, for I had need to be +encouraged by you in faith, exhortation, endurance, long-suffering. But +since charity suffers me not to be silent to you, I have taken on me to +exhort you to run together all with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, +your inseparable life, is the mind of the Father, as also the bishops, +placed in their several limits, are the mind of Jesus Christ. Therefore +you should run together with the bishop's mind, as indeed you do. So then +in your concord and harmonious charity Jesus Christ is sung. And each +several one of you makes up the chorus; so that all being harmonious in +concord, you take up the melody in unity, and sing with one voice through +Jesus Christ to the Father, that He may hear you, and perceive by your +good works that you are members of His Son. It is good for you then to be +in blameless unity, that you may always have fellowship with God." And +then he adds: "For if I in a short time have had such familiarity with +your bishop, and that not human, but spiritual, how much more should I +think you happy, who are so fused with him as the Church with Jesus +Christ, and as Jesus Christ with the Father, that all things may be +accordant in unity."(155) + +This is an incidental passage out of a very short letter, in which the +speaker is addressing practical exhortations to the people of a great +church, founded by S. Paul about sixty years before, dwelt in by S. John +up to about fifteen years of the time at which he was speaking. We should +not in such a writing expect S. Ignatius to speak with the scientific +correctness of a theologian, nor is he completely exhibiting his subject +in a treatise; yet here, as it were at the first moment after the Apostles +have left the earth, we have a picture of the Church as a world-wide +institution, held together by a divine unity, which has its seat in the +Person of Christ as the mind of the Father. It is a composite unity which +is contemplated in the image of a harp with its strings pouring forth one +song--the song of Christ--to the Father. It is a unity wide as the earth; +for the bishops, placed in their several limits, constitute the mind of +Christ, who is Himself the Father's mind. It is the unity of the diocese, +for it is summed up in the bishop: but it is the unity likewise of the +whole Church, for the bishops are linked together in One whose mind they +collectively represent, and that One is He from whose Person their +authority radiates; in whom, as he says in this same letter, "the old +kingdom was being destroyed, God appearing in the form of a man, unto the +newness of eternal life."(156) Again, it is not merely an outward unity of +government, but an inward unity of the truth held in common, and also held +as given by authority: not truth, as a result of the curiosity of the +human intellect, rather truth, as a participation in the mind of Christ. +Thus the Catholic unity of government is at the same time a unity of +belief, which two unities are not, in fact, separable, for their principle +is one in the Person of Christ, in respect of whom submission to the Ruler +is one and the same thing with belief in the truth revealed by Him, who is +King no less than Word, Word no less than King. + +We have, then, here the principle of authority and tradition as seated in +the hierarchy, and at the same time the whole order and unity of the +Church as girdling the world by its chain of the Episcopate, and as +possessing the truth and exhibiting it in its quality of an institution. +It is before us and at work in its succession of men, in its sacraments +which they administer,(157) in its truth which is imparted by the one and +delivered by the other. It is no vague congeries of opinions held by +individuals with the diversity of individuals, but a body strongly +organised, and possessing an imperishable life, the life of its Author. +And we have all this mentioned as fulfilled at the distance of one life +from our Lord's ascension, while indeed his kinsman and elder in age, S. +Simeon, is still bishop of Jerusalem, and mentioned by one of whom a +beautiful though insufficiently grounded legend says that he was that +child whom our Lord had called and placed before His disciples as the +model of those who should enter into His kingdom. He was at least so near +in time to Christ that this could be said of him. He is the bishop of +Antioch; he is on his way to be thrown to the beasts in the Colosseum at +Rome;(158) he is welcomed on his way by church after church, and he sees +and describes the bishops, in their several boundaries through the earth, +as each maintaining the mind of Christ in the unity of his Body. + +Such is the Church merely stated as a fact towards the beginning of the +second century. + +And the trial which in these sixty years the Church was going through was +well calculated to test her constitution. It is against the spread of +false doctrine that S. Ignatius in these epistles so constantly appeals, +to the unity of the faithful among each other.(159) He warns them to use +only Christian nourishment, and to abstain from strange food, which is +heresy.(160) The Church was then continually receiving into her bosom +converts at all ages of life, some from the Jews, many more from the +Gentiles; among these, therefore, minds brought up in Jewish prejudices, +and others which had run havoc in eastern superstitions and systems of +philosophy. In the course of these sixty years she probably multiplied +many times over in number; and the multiplication was rather by the +accession of adults than by the education of children born of Christian +parents. The Church was composed of a small minority of the general +population scattered at wide intervals over an immense empire; and, so far +from being assisted by the civil power, was under constant persecution +from it. Whatever force her spiritual government possessed could be +exercised only by the voluntary submission of her members. Let us weigh +the fact that, under these circumstances, a number of heresies arose. Some +were of Jewish, some of Gentile parentage. But we are not here concerned +either with their cause or with their matter: we dwell at present only on +the fact of their existence. In number they were many; in character most +diverse; they arose and flourished in different places. Hardly anywhere +was the Church free from them. Let us ask only one question here: by what +power were they resisted? The human mind had then the fullest liberty of +action in Christians. It was by a free choice--a choice accompanied with +danger, and persisted in through suffering--that men became Christians. The +liberty which men exercised in becoming Christians they could use further +against Christian doctrine, by innovating; by mixing it up with other +doctrines, with which, perhaps, their minds had been familiar before their +conversion; by developing it after their own fashion. The desire of fame, +the self-will of genius, the mere luxury of thought, would offer a +continual temptation to such a course. Many, from one motive or another, +fell into it. The question which we repeat is, what power prevented the +one Church from breaking up under this process of free thought into +fragments? These heresies began even while the Apostles were teaching. S. +Peter, S. Paul, and S. John speak strongly against them. They swarm in the +two generations succeeding the death of S. John. How is it that, at the +accession of Marcus Aurelius, Christians having passed the limits of the +empire, and being found so far as the wandering tribes of the north, there +is still one Church, surrounded, indeed, by a multitude of sects, +differing from her and from each other, but herself distinguished and +unmistakable among them all? We think the epistles of S. Ignatius furnish +us with a reply to this question. As we have seen above, he views the +Church in each place as a community closely bound together under a +spiritual government which is summed up in the bishop, while the bishops +in their several dioceses are as closely linked to each other, and all +form one society, wherein is Jesus Christ. And these two truths are not +separated from each other, but the unity of the part is deduced from the +unity of the whole, and is subordinate to it. See, first, with what force +he states the unity of the diocese.(161) "Avoid divisions, as the +beginning of evils. Follow all of you the bishop as Jesus Christ the +Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles, and reverence the deacons as +God's command. Let no one without the bishop do aught of what appertains +to the Church. Let that be deemed a sure Eucharist which is under the +bishop, or under him who has the bishop's authority for it. Wherever the +bishop appears, there let the multitude (of the faithful) be." But this +strict unity of the diocese is derived from that of the whole Church; for +he adds as the reason of the foregoing, "just as wherever Jesus Christ is, +there is the Catholic Church."(162) This is the first time when the word +"catholic" is known to be used, and it is applied to the Church as its +distinctive character, to convey the two attributes of unity and +universality, in connection with the Person of Christ, exactly as it has +been used, an unique term for an unique object, from that day to this. S. +Ignatius further views the Church in each place as having one faith; and +not only so, but the same faith in every place; one faith at Antioch, one +at Rome, one at every city between them, beyond them, around them. Here, +then, is a double unity, inward and outward. As the double unity of body +and spirit makes the man, so the double unity of government and of faith +makes the Church. As neither mind nor body alone make the man, so neither +faith nor government alone make the Church, but the coherence of both. The +Incarnation is the joining a human soul and body with the Person of the +Divine Word; after which pattern the Church, which is His special +creation, is the joining of one faith and one government in a moral unity. +It is by this force, by the same hierarchy everywhere guarding the same +faith, by the principle of authority and tradition planted in this one +living organisation throughout the earth, that the attacks of heresy are +everywhere resisted. What S. Paul(163) lays down in dogma, history +exhibits in fact. A hundred years after his words are written, the Church +has stretched her limits beyond the empire, has multiplied incessantly, +has been attacked by a crowd of heresies striving to adulterate her +doctrine, and has cast them out of her by this double unity of her faith +and her government, and so is one Body and one Spirit. Her victory lies +not in being without heresies, but in standing among them as a contrast +and a condemnation. + +The solidity of internal organisation, and the definiteness of the One +Faith which animated it, kept pace with the material increase of numbers. +At the expiration of this period it is probable that among all the +contemporaries and immediate disciples of the Apostles one only of high +rank remained, that Polykarp, joint-hearer with Ignatius of S. John, and +to whom in his passage the martyr addressed a letter as well as to his +Church; whose own letter written at the time of the martyr's combat, and +commemorating the wonderful patience therein shown forth, is yet extant. +But in the mean time in every Church the transmission of authoritative +teaching passed to those who had grown up themselves in the bishop's +council--his presbytery, which Ignatius loved to represent as being to each +bishop what the Council of Apostles was to their Lord. And as the death of +Apostles themselves had caused no break in this living chain, so the +gradual departure of their immediate disciples was made up by the careful +handing-on of the same deposit, lodged securely in its receptacle, the +succession of men, which carried on the teaching office of the +Church.(164) + +In the mean time, what was the attitude of the empire to the Christian +Faith under Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius? Domitian's reign had +ended in active persecution, to which Nerva had put a stop on his +accession.(165) But though Domitian's edicts had been reversed, like those +of Nero, one of the most ancient laws of the Roman empire forbad the +worship of any god not approved by the Senate.(166) This, as we have said +above, was the sword perpetually suspended over the heads of Christians, +without any fresh action on the part of the emperors. By virtue of this, +even when it was forbidden to accuse them, yet if they were brought before +justice it was forbidden to absolve them.(167) And even senators,(168) if +accused, were not exempt from this severity. We find Trajan acting upon +this law in the year 111, when Pliny, being governor of Bithynia, brings +expressly the case of the Christians before him. And the terms in which he +does this show at once the temper of the Roman magistrate in such cases +and the state of the law. + +"I have never been present," he says, "at the trials of Christians, and +therefore do not know either the nature of their crime, or the degree of +the punishment, or how far examination should go. And I have been in great +hesitation whether age made any difference, or the tender should not be +distinguished from the strong; whether they should be pardoned upon +repentance, or, when once a man had been a Christian, ceasing to be so +should not profit him; or whether the mere profession without any crime, +or whether the crimes involved in the profession should be punished. In +the mean time, with regard to those brought before me as Christians, my +practice has been this: I asked them if they were Christians. If they +admitted it, I put the question a second and a third time, threatening +them with death. If they persevered, I ordered them to be led away to +execution.(169) For whatever it was which they were confessing, I had no +doubt that stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy deserved punishment. +There were others of a like infatuation, but as being Roman citizens I +directed them to be sent to the city. Presently the crime spreading, from +being under prosecution, as is usual, several incidents happened. An +anonymous delation was sent in to me, containing the names of many who say +that they are not Christians, nor ever were. As at my instance they +invoked the gods, and made supplication with frankincense and wine to your +image, which I had ordered for that purpose to be brought, together with +the statues of the gods, and as moreover they reviled Christ, none of +which things, it is said, real Christians can be induced to do, I thought +they might be let go. Others, being accused by a witness, admitted that +they were Christians, and presently said that they had been, some three +years before, some many years, and some even twenty, but were no longer. +All venerated your image and the statues of the gods, and reviled Christ. +But they alleged that the utmost of their fault or error was this: They +were accustomed to meet before dawn on a stated day, and addressed +themselves in a certain form to Christ as to a god, binding themselves by +oath not to any crime, but not to commit theft, robbery, adultery, the +breaking of their word, or the refusal to restore a deposit. After this +they were wont to separate, and then reassemble to take a common and +harmless meal. This, however, they had ceased to do from the publication +of my edict forbidding, according to your command, private assemblies. I +therefore thought it the more necessary to examine into the truth by +putting to the torture two female slaves, who were said to be deaconesses +among them. I found, however, nothing but a perverse and immoderate +superstition, and so, adjourning the inquiry, I took refuge in consulting +you. For the matter seemed to me worthy of consultation, specially on +account of the number of those involved in danger. For many of every age, +every rank, both sexes, have been already, and will be endangered, since +the contagion of this superstition has spread not only through cities but +through villages and country. And it seems capable of being arrested and +corrected. At all events there is proof that the almost deserted temples +have begun to be frequented, and the long intermitted rites renewed, and +victims for sacrifice are found ready, whereof hitherto there were very +few purchasers. Hence it is easy to form an opinion what a number of +persons may be reclaimed if pardon be allowed."(170) + +To which the emperor replies: "You have pursued the right course, my dear +Secundus, in examining the causes of those delated to you as Christians. +For no universal rule can be laid down in a certain formula. They are not +to be searched after; but if brought before you and convicted, they must +be punished. Yet with this condition, that whoever denies himself to be a +Christian, and makes it plain in fact, that is, by supplicating our gods, +though he has been in past time suspected, shall obtain pardon for his +repentance. But anonymous delations must not be admitted for any +accusation. This is at once the very worst precedent, and unworthy of our +time." + +A great difficulty in tracing the progress of the Christian Faith in these +three centuries is that we possess nothing like a consecutive secular or +religious history of them. We only catch glimpses of what passes at +intervals. Incidents are recorded which, like a flash of lightning, +suddenly reveal the landscape and the actors. Such an incident is this +letter of Pliny to Trajan, and his reply. We have here the governor of a +province before whom Christians are brought as criminals. We find that if +they acknowledge their faith and persist in professing it, he sentences +them to death. But embarrassed by their numbers, and perplexed also by the +fact, that, save the profession of their faith, there appeared nothing +criminal in their conduct, he refers the matter to the emperor. The +emperor, no Nero or Domitian, but one renowned for his justice and +moderation, praises what the governor has done; pronounces that Christians +as such are guilty of a capital crime, and that Pliny was right in so +interpreting the existing law; that, however, it is not desirable to seek +them out; that even when brought before justice they are to be released if +they deny their faith, but that if they persist in it, they are to be +punished with death. + +Here, then, is the law--an original law of Rome before the Christian Faith +began--under which the martyrs suffered at different times, throughout +every province and city, without anything which could be called a general +persecution on the part of the emperor directed to the destruction of the +whole religion. This perpetual liability to punishment might be called +into action anywhere in the empire for various causes. The first in time, +and one of the most constant, was the enmity of the Jews; then the dislike +of the heathens to Christians and their ways, which was further sharpened +by local calamities or distress irritating the mind of the population, or +by the jealousy of the heathen priests and worshippers at the desertion of +their temples. Then, again, there was the ascription to Christian +godlessness, as it was called, that is their refusal to acknowledge the +Roman gods, of famines, pestilences, and whatever troubled the popular +mind. To these we must add a copious harvest of private grudges, and a +host of calumnies, which seem now almost grotesque, but then found wide +belief. But it was the existence of such a law as this, acted on by Pliny +before he referred to the emperor, and confirmed by Trajan, that gave +force and effect to all these causes of persecution. And it would appear +that when Christians were brought before the magistrates, as guilty of the +Christian Faith, it was not in the magistrates' power to decline hearing +the case, any more than any other accusation of sacrilege or treason, for +it had been determined that Christians were not a mere Jewish sect, and +therefore could not in security worship one God, as the Jews did. It was a +ruled point that their worship was unauthorised. + +The practice of Trajan himself was in accordance with his answer to Pliny. + +The very ancient and genuine acts of the martyrdom of S. Ignatius state +that having struggled with difficulty through the persecution of Domitian, +he had carefully governed his church of Antioch, grieving only that he had +not yet reached the rank of a perfect disciple by the sacrifice of his +life, for he considered that the confession which is made by martyrdom +brings into closer union with the Lord. Trajan then having come to the +East, full of exultation at the victories which he had gained, and +considering that the subjugation of the Christians was all that was +wanting to the perfect obedience of his empire, began to threaten them +with the alternative of sacrifice or death. Then Ignatius fearing for his +church caused himself to be brought before the emperor, and being in the +presence was thus addressed by him. "Who are you, evil spirit, who are +zealous to transgress our commands, besides persuading others to come to +an evil end?" Ignatius replied, "No one calls the bearer of God an evil +spirit, for the demons fly away from the servants of God. But if you mean +that I am a trouble to these, and so call me evil to them, I admit it, for +having Christ my Heavenly King, I continually dissolve their plots." +Trajan said, "Who is a bearer of God?" Ignatius replied, "He who has +Christ in his breast." Trajan said, "We then appear to you not to have +gods in our minds, whom we use to help us against our enemies." Ignatius +answered, "You in your error call gods the demons of the nations, for +there is one God who made the heaven, the earth, and the sea, and all that +is in them; and one Christ Jesus, the only-begotten Son of God, of whose +friendship may I partake." Trajan said, "You mean him who was crucified +under Pontius Pilate?" Ignatius answered, "Him who crucifies my sin, with +its inventor, and condemns all the error and the malice of the demons +under the feet of those who carry him in their heart." Trajan said, "You +then carry the Crucified in your heart?" Ignatius replied, "Yes; for it is +written, I will dwell in them, and walk in them." Trajan gave sentence: +"It is our command that Ignatius, who says that he carries the crucified +one about in him, be taken in chains by soldiers to the great Rome to +become the food of wild beasts, for the pleasure of the people." The holy +martyr, when he heard this sentence, cried out with joy, "I thank Thee, O +Lord, who hast thought me worthy to be honoured with perfect charity +towards Thee, and to be bound in iron chains together with Thy Apostle +Paul."(171) + +So, with great eagerness and joy, through desire of his passion, having +commended his church to God, he set out on that long journey, "fighting, +as he says, with wild beasts all the way from Syria to Rome, over land and +sea, by day and by night," a captive under sentence of death, in the hands +of soldiers, but receiving at each city a deputation from the bishop and +people, who came forth to honour him as their champion. And he has but one +anxiety, expressed again and again in that fervent letter to the Roman +Christians, that they should not by their prayers intercept his martyrdom. +"I entreat you not to be untimely kind to me. Suffer me to be the food of +the beasts, since by them I may enjoy God. I am God's grain: let me be +ground by their teeth, that I may be found the pure bread of Christ:"(172) +and then, presently, "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul;" thus +giving an incidental but most powerful witness of the special relation +which those Apostles bore to the Roman Church. + +And it may be remarked that while he has words of honour, praise, and +affection for the other five churches which he addresses, yet in speaking +of Rome his heart overflows with emotion. Upon this church he pours out +epithet upon epithet, as "the beloved and enlightened in the will of Him +who has willed all things which are according to the charity of Jesus +Christ our God," whose people are "united to every command of His in flesh +and spirit, filled undividedly with the grace of God, and thoroughly +cleansed from every spot of foreign doctrine." She is not only the Church +"which presides in the fortress of Roman power," but likewise, "worthy of +God, and of all honour and blessing and praise, worthy to receive that +which she wishes, chaste, bearing the name of Christ and the name of the +Father, and presiding over charity." What is the meaning of this last +phrase? As she presides in the fortress of Roman power, so she presides +over charity. May we thus interpret the mind of the martyr? God in His +Triune Being is Charity; the Holy Spirit, the ineffable embrace of the +Father and His Image, their Love, or Delight, or Joy, or Blessedness, or +whatever human name we may dare to give to what is most divine, is +charity: by charity God became man; charity is the individual Christian's +state; charity makes men one in the Body of the God-man; charity is the +condition of angels and men in the great kingdom to come, the God-formed +kingdom. Thus charity is the distinctive mark of the Christian religion, +that from which it springs, that which it is, that which it points to, and +in which it will be consummated. When, then, S. Ignatius said of the Roman +Church, using the same word in one sentence,(173) that as she presided +over the country of the Romans, so she presided over charity, does he not +with equal delicacy and emphasis indicate her primacy? she presides over +that in which the Unity of the Church consists, in which its truth, its +grace, and its holiness coinhere. + +The desire of the martyr was accomplished: he reached Rome on the last day +of the great games, and was thrown in the Colosseum before the beasts, +which, according to his repeated prayers, so entirely devoured him that +only the greater bones remained. These, says the contemporary account, "a +priceless treasure," were carried back to Antioch. Somewhat less than +three hundred years afterwards S. Chrysostom, preaching on his day in his +city, thus speaks of him: "It was a divine benefaction to bring him back +again to us, and to distribute the martyr to the cities:--Rome received his +dripping blood, but you are honoured with his relics.--From that time he +enriches your city, and like a perpetual treasure, drawn upon every day +and never failing, gives his bounty to all. So this happy Ignatius, +blessing all that come to him, sends them home full of confidence, bold +resolution, and fortitude. Not, then, to-day only but every day go to him, +reaping spiritual fruits from him. For, indeed, he who comes hither with +faith may reap great goods. Not the bodies only, but the very coffins of +the saints are full of spiritual grace. For if in the case of Eliseus this +happened, and the dead man who touched his bier broke through the bonds of +death, how much more now, when grace is more abundant, and the energy of +the Spirit fuller?--So, I beseech you, if any one be in despondency, in +sickness, in the depth of sin, in any circumstance of life, to come here +with faith, and he will put off all these."(174) + +Before S. Ignatius reached that completion of his faith to which he +aspired, he was cheered with the account that his sacrifice had produced +its effect, and peace had been restored to his church, with the +completeness of its body.(175) + +Now in all this--in Pliny's conduct as governor, in his reference to +Trajan, in the emperor's reply, in his treatment of S. Ignatius, and in +the restoration of peace afterwards--there is, we conceive, a very exact +sample of what the position of Christians was in Trajan's time. His answer +ruled the question of Roman law for the following two hundred years. It +declared the profession of Christianity to be illicit and a capital +offence; but to call this law into action, or to leave it suspended as a +threat over the heads of Christians, was a matter of expedience. When the +latter took place, the churches were said to be at peace; when the former, +a persecution was said to rage; but at any time and place an individual +might suffer; while on the other hand a persecution directed to root out +the whole Christian name was not yet thought of. + +And this state of things seems to continue through Hadrian's principate. +In his first year, Alexander, fifth successor of S. Peter at Rome, having +been imprisoned under Trajan, suffers martyrdom; It would seem as if the +same hand had struck down about the same time the heads of the two great +churches of Rome and Antioch, the first and the third in rank, and perhaps +ordered the execution of the bishop of Antioch at Rome, with that of the +Roman bishop, in order to give greater force to the example.(176) Many +other martyrs at Rome and in the north of Italy are found at this time. It +is not at all necessary to suppose the personal action of Hadrian in +these. + +After this he was engaged during fifteen years in those splendid +progresses, in which he examined personally every part of his vast empire, +from its northern frontier between Carlisle and Newcastle to the +Euphrates. While he was so engaged, the governors of the various provinces +would apply the existing law in the cases brought before them. He would +have had to interfere, and that with the whole weight of the imperial arm, +if he wished to check the course of the law. We have, however, recorded +the most interesting fact that when he was at Athens in the year 126, +Christians for the first time approached a Roman emperor with a public +defence of their doctrines, and a persecution is said to have been stopped +by the apologies which Quadratus and Aristides presented to him. Perhaps +the rescript to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of the province of Asia, +which Justin has preserved, was a result of this. It runs thus: "I have +received the letter written to me by your predecessor, the noble Serenius +Granianus. And indeed it seems to me that that affair should not be passed +by without a diligent examination, in order that Christians may not be +disturbed, nor an occasion of false accusation be opened to informers. If, +then, the provincials can present themselves openly with their petitions +against Christians, so as to answer before the tribunal, let them do that, +and not betake themselves to mere requests and outcries. It would be much +more just that you should take cognisance of the matter, if any one be +willing to accuse. If, then, any one denounce them, and prove that they +are doing anything illegal, sentence them according to the gravity of the +crime. But, by Hercules, if it be a mere false accusation, punish the +informer according to its importance." + +Here would seem to be a considerable modification of Trajan's rescript. +The profession of Christianity is not taken by itself as a capital +offence. Proof must be given that something illegal has been committed. So +far it approaches to an act of toleration. It plainly discourages +anonymous and malicious attacks. But on the other hand it was not +difficult to show that Christians did commit something illegal. Any real +accuser bringing them before the tribunal could prove by their own +testimony that they declared the gods worshipped by the Romans to be +demons, while they refused to swear by the emperor's genius. Thus, +favourable as this decree was to them, it fell far short of declaring +their religion to be allowable. + +And the same emperor who could thus write, whose curiosity made him +acquainted with all the religious sects of his empire, whose temper, as an +exceedingly accomplished man, having the widest experience of men and +things, and ruling an empire of the most diverse races with the most +various religions, led him to an eclectic indifference, and so far +toleration of all, yet showed by his personal conduct at a later period of +his life how he would treat the profession of the Christian Faith if it +thwarted a ruling desire. When, after fifteen years of incessant travel, +study, and observation, he returned to Rome, and had enclosed at Tivoli a +space of eight miles in circumference, adorned with copies of the most +beautiful temples in his wide dominion, he offered sacrifices and +consulted the gods as to the duration of his work; but he received for +answer that the gods who inhabited their images were tormented by the +prayers which the widow Symphorosa and her seven sons offered daily to +their God.(177) If she and her children would sacrifice, they promised to +grant all his demands. Upon this Hadrian ordered Symphorosa and her seven +sons to be brought before him, and endeavoured by kind words to bring them +to sacrifice. She replied, "It was for not consenting to what you ask that +my husband Gaetulius and his brother Amantius, both tribunes in your army, +suffered various tortures, and, like generous champions, overcame your +demons by a glorious death. If their death was shameful before men, it was +honourable in the sight of the angels, and now they are crowned with +immortal light. They live in heaven, and follow everywhere the King who +reigns there, covered with glory by the trophies they have gained in dying +for Him." Hadrian, stung by this reply, could not contain himself, but +said: "Either sacrifice this instant to the immortal gods, or I will +myself sacrifice you with your children to these gods whom you despise." +"And how should I be so happy," said Symphorosa, "as to be worthy with my +children to be sacrificed to my God?" "I tell you," said Hadrian, "I will +have you sacrificed to my gods." "Your gods," replied she, "cannot receive +me in sacrifice. I am not a victim for them; but if you order me to be +burnt for the name of Christ my God, know that the fire which consumes me +will only increase their punishment." "Choose, I tell you," said the +emperor; "sacrifice or die." "You think, doubtless, to frighten me," +rejoined Symphorosa; "but I desire to be at rest with my husband, whom you +put to death for the name of Christ." Then the emperor ordered her to be +taken before the temple of Hercules, to be struck in the face, and hung up +by her hair. But finding that these torments only served to strengthen her +in the faith, he had her thrown into the Anio. Her brother Eugenius, being +one of the chief men at Tibur, drew her body from the water, and buried +her in the suburbs of the town. + +The next day Hadrian ordered the seven sons of Symphorosa to be brought +before him. And, seeing that neither his threats nor his promises, nor the +exhibition of the most fearful punishments, could shake their constancy, +nor induce them to sacrifice to idols, he caused seven poles to be planted +round the temple of Hercules, on which they were raised by pulleys. Then +Crescentius, the eldest, had his throat cut; Julian, the second, was run +through the breast; Nemesius was struck in the heart; Primitivus in the +stomach; Justin in the back; Stactaeus in the side; while the youngest, +Eugenius, was cleft to the middle. + +The day following the death of these brethren Hadrian came to the temple +and ordered their bodies to be removed, and to be cast into a deep hole. +The priests and sacrificers of the temple called this spot the place of +the Seven Executed. Their blood stopped the persecution, which was only +rekindled eighteen months afterwards.(178) + +As the rescript to Minucius Fundanus did not prevent the emperor from thus +acting, neither was it an obstacle to such an incident as this occurring +in any part of the empire. + +That it was so likewise in the principate of his successor, of all down to +this period the most tranquil and the least persecuting, we have strong +and clear evidence in the earliest of the extant apologies, that of Justin +Martyr, presented to the emperor Antoninus Pius about the year 150. He who +would breathe the atmosphere in which the early Christians lived will find +it in this work of a distinguished convert from heathen philosophy, which +is the more interesting as being composed at a moment when the empire +seems to have reached its highest point, and the ruler of it was its most +moderate spirit. We may cite a few passages bearing on the condition of +Christians. + +"To the Emperor Titus AElius Adrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Caesar, and to +his son Verissimus the Philosopher, and to Lucius the Philosopher, son of +Caesar by birth, and of Pius by adoption, the lover of learning, and to the +sacred Senate, and to all the Roman people, in behalf of those out of +every race of men who are unjustly hated and persecuted, I, that am one of +such myself, Justin, son of Priscus, and grandson of Baccheius, natives of +Flavia Neapolis, of Palestine, in Syria, offer this address and +supplication. + +"Reason dictates that those who are really pious and philosophers should +love and honour truth alone, declining to follow the opinions of the +ancients if they be corrupt. For right reason not only forbids us to +assent to those who are unjust either in practice or in principle, but +commands the lover of truth to choose that which is just in word and deed +in every way, even before his own life, and with death threatening him. +Now you hear yourselves called on all sides Pious, Philosophers, Guardians +of Justice, and Lovers of Learning; but, whether you be such in truth, the +event will show. For we have come before you, not to flatter you in this +address, nor to gain your favour, but to demand of you to pass judgment +according to strict and well-weighed reason, not influenced by prejudice, +nor by the desire of pleasing superstitious men, nor by inconsiderate +passion, nor by the long prevalence of an evil report, in giving a +sentence which would turn against yourselves. For, as to us, we are fully +persuaded that we can suffer no injury from anyone, unless we be found +guilty of some wickedness, or proved to be bad men; and, as to you, kill +us you may, but hurt us you cannot.(179) + +"We ask, then, that the actions of those who are accused before you may be +examined, that he who is convicted may be punished as an evildoer, but not +as a Christian. And, if anyone appears to be innocent, that he may be +dismissed as a Christian who has done no evil. For we do not require you +to punish our accusers: they are sufficiently recompensed by their own +malice, and their ignorance of what is good. Moreover, bear in mind that +it is for your sakes that we thus speak, since it is in our power to deny +when we are questioned. But we choose not to live by falsehood.(180) + +"And you, when you hear that we are expecting a kingdom, rashly conceive +that we mean a human one, whereas we speak of that with God, as is evident +even from those who are under examination by you confessing that they are +Christians, whilst they know that death is the penalty of the confession. +For if we expected a human kingdom, we should deny in order to obtain our +expectations; but, since our hopes are not of the present, we do not +regard those who kill us, knowing that death is an inevitable debt to +all.(181) + +"We adore God only, but in all other matters joyfully serve you, +confessing that you are kings and rulers, and praying that you may be +found to possess, together with your royal power, a sound and discerning +mind. If, however, notwithstanding that we thus pray and openly lay +everything before you, you treat us with contempt, we shall receive no +injury; believing, or rather, being convinced, that every one, if his +deeds shall so deserve, shall receive the punishment of eternal fire, and +that an account will be required of him in proportion to the powers which +he has received from God, as Christ has declared in those words, 'To +whomsoever God has given much, of him shall be much required.'(182) + +"Though death be the penalty to those who teach or even who confess the +name of Christ, we everywhere accept it, and teach it. And if you as +enemies meet these words, you can do no more, as we have already said, +than kill us, which brings no hurt to us, but to you, and to all who hate +unjustly, and do not repent, the chastisement of eternal fire."(183) + +And his concluding words are: "If now what we have said appears to be +reasonable and true, honour it accordingly; but if folly, despise it as +foolish; yet pass not sentence of death against those as enemies, who have +done no evil. For we tell you beforehand that you will not escape the +future judgment of God, if you continue in injustice, and we shall cry, +Let the will of God be done."(184) + +Such then is the testimony of a Christian as to the way in which the +confessors of his religion were treated; and it is corroborated by that of +the heathen philosopher Celsus, who writes his books against Christianity +about this time, and imputes the secrecy practised by Christians in their +teaching and their actions to their attempts to escape the punishment of +death hanging over their heads.(185) And again having put into the mouth +of Christians the remark, that if they blaspheme or strike a statue of +Jupiter or Apollo, these gods cannot defend themselves, he subjoins: "Do +you not, then, see that your own demon is not merely blasphemed but +expelled from every land and sea, while you, his consecrated image,(186) +are chained, and led away to prison, and crucified; and the demon, or as +you call him, the Son of God, gives you no protection." And in another +place, comparing Christians with Jews, to whom God had made so many +promises: "See," he says, "what good has He done to them and to you? To +them, instead of being lords of all the earth, not a clod of soil or a +hearth remains;(187) while of you, if any one still wanders about in +hiding, yet justice pursues him with the doom of death." + +However, we know that at this time at least the bold words of Justin drew +down no punishment from Antoninus, and a rescript of this emperor, dated +about two years after the presentation of this first apology, has been +preserved, which is more favourable to Christians than that of Hadrian. It +is addressed to that province of Asia which contained so many flourishing +Christian churches, and which accordingly was so bitter against them. They +had written to complain of the Christians, and to accuse them as the cause +of the earthquakes which had happened. The emperor replies: "It was my +belief that the gods would take care that such men as you describe should +not escape. For much rather would they, if they could, punish such as will +not worship them. Now these men you are annoying, and accusing their +opinion as atheistical, and charging them with sundry other things which +we cannot prove. Yet it would be serviceable to them to seem to meet their +death for such an accusation; and they surpass you in giving up their +lives rather than comply with what you call upon them to do. But as to the +earthquakes which have happened or are happening now, it is not reasonable +that you should mention them, you who lose heart when they take place, +comparing your conduct with theirs, who have more confidence than you +towards God. And you indeed in such a time seem to have no knowledge of +the gods, and neglect the temples, and know nothing of worshipping God; +whence it is that you are jealous of those who do worship him, and that +you persecute them to death. Respecting such men various other rulers of +provinces wrote to my divine father, and his reply was, not to trouble +such men, except they appear to be contriving something against the Roman +empire. Many too have referred to me about such, and my reply was in +agreement to my father's decision. Now if anyone has an accusation to +bring against such a one as such, let the accused be released from the +charge, even though he appear to be such, and let the accuser be +punished."(188) + +Here we reach the highest point of toleration which Christians received in +the first 130 years. Instead of Trajan's somewhat reluctant order to +punish Christians as Christians, when once convicted, instead of Hadrian's +decision that something contrary to Roman law must be proved against them, +Antoninus, while quoting the latter, goes far beyond it, and lays down +that as Christians they were blameless, and were only to be punished in +case some hostility to the Roman empire could be proved in their conduct. +Moreover, their accuser was to be punished. And this rescript being +repeated to several places, amounted to an assurance that Christians +should be left in tranquillity during the principate of Pius. + +Putting ourselves into the position of a Roman emperor at this middle of +the second century, let us endeavour to form a notion of what Christianity +would appear to him. In the first place, he who had all the threads of +Roman organisation gathered in his hand, would certainly recognise it as a +sect spread throughout the empire, the Jewish origin of which was known to +him, and the author as one crucified by order of a Roman governor under +Tiberius.(189) Yet he would hardly distinguish accurately the Church from +the different heresies which everywhere sprang up around it, holding more +or less of its doctrines and mixing them up with corruptions and +abuses.(190) And it would scarcely appear to him as a power in the State, +either from its numbers or the influence of the people belonging to it; +yet on the other hand it would appear as something not inconsiderable in +either of these respects. Moreover, we may suppose it would come before +him as a _belief_, and not as an _institution_. It had as yet no public +churches.(191) A heathen would say of Christians at this time that they +had no temples, altars, or statues;(192) no ceremonial worship, for he +could not, as a heathen, get admittance to Christian rites, which moreover +were carried on in private houses, and carefully concealed. The emperor +would be well aware that Christians had rulers of their own;(193) it was +as such that Trajan had fixed upon the bishop third in rank among +Christian communities for punishment the most severe and degrading, to be +thrown as food for wild beasts, for the pleasure of the people. But +nevertheless, the internal constitution of the Church would lie hidden +from him: the link which bound together the bishops of the various local +communities, and so formed the Catholicism of the Church, would be quite +invisible to all outside. Jealous as Trajan was of secret societies, so +that he could hardly tolerate a guild of firemen in a provincial town, he +had no suspicion of a society which had become even in his time +conterminous with his empire, and was bound together not only by the +profession of one faith, but by the living links of one government. Nor, +fifty years later, could Antoninus have had any such knowledge. The +persecution which we have seen arose from simpler causes; the faith of +Christians in one God who had made heaven and earth, and in one Son of God +who had become Man and redeemed them, and with this, and indeed as part of +this, their summary rejection, their utter intolerance of all the heathen +gods; this it was that had drawn down the Roman sword upon them in answer +to the popular cry,(194) Away with the godless! And again, their standing +aloof from heathen life, their refusal to take part in heathen festivals, +their withdrawal as far as possible from all public concerns: this was +part of the hatred of the human race imputed to them, which made them +objects of suspicion first, and then, when any special excitement arose, +of persecution. These peculiarities also, and the secrecy with which their +worship was necessarily conducted because it was not allowed, had led to +calumnies concerning them, imputing the grossest immorality as well as +cruelty. + +The apologies of Quadratus, Aristides, and Justin, were probably the first +connected revelation of the Christian doctrines which the emperor could +have; but these would be very far from conveying to him the character of +the Church as an institution. They were intended to obviate the +persecutions arising from the causes above described, to show the purity +of Christian morality, the reasonableness of Christian belief, the +fidelity of Christian sentiment to the imperial rule as established by a +divine providence. They were not in the least intended to lay before him +the Christian Church as a whole. Thus Justin, replying to the accusation +that they were expecting a kingdom, says, "You rashly conceive that we +mean a human one, whereas we speak of that with God." We may then, it +seems, conclude with certainty that Antoninus was only partially aware of +what Christianity was. That discipline of the secret, which was itself the +result of persecution--of the Christian Faith having to make itself a place +in a world utterly opposed to it,--became at once its protection, and the +cause of further persecution; of persecution, in so far as it put +Christians under general suspicion, but of protection, inasmuch as it +covered with a veil that complete moral revolution to which the Christian +Faith was tending from the first, and towards which it was continually +advancing. Could Trajan have foreseen what was apparent under Constantine, +his treatment of Christians would have had no forbearance or hesitation in +it, his blows no intermission or doubtfulness. As it is, up to the time we +are now considering, there are no traces of a general persecution against +the Christian name organised by the emperor as head of the State. There +are numberless local and individual persecutions starting up in this city +and in that, and arising from the fundamental contrariety of Christian +belief to the existing heathen worship and the ordinary heathen life. Such +we have and no more. And so a great host of martyrs in single combat won +their crown. But the emperor did not set himself to destroy a unity which +he did not see. + +Now as to the character in Christians which their condition in these +hundred and thirty years tended to produce, we can form a clear +conclusion. Of the relative proportion of actual martyrs to the whole mass +of believers, we can indeed have no accurate notion; but it is plain that +all were liable to suffering as Christians in every various degree up to +that ultimate point of witnessing by death. Thus the acceptance of the +Christian Faith itself involved at least the spirit of confession, if not +that of martyrdom. A man lived for years, perhaps a whole generation, with +the prospect of suffering, which it may be never came, or came as the +crown of a long period in which heroic virtues had been called forth. Thus +S. Ignatius had been more than forty years bishop of Antioch, and had +carried his church hardly through the bad times of Domitian, when he +gained at last what he deemed perfect union with his Lord, by being ground +under the teeth of lions, as "the pure bread of God." What is here +expressed with so sublime a confidence by one actual martyr, must have +made the tissue of Christian life in general. Those early disciples of the +cross put in the cross their victory. The habitual danger which hung about +their life must have scared away the timid, the insincere, the +half-hearted. Yet alternations of peace rapidly succeeded times of +suffering. Throughout these hundred and thirty years there is no +long-continued even local persecution. Breathing-times of comparative +tranquillity come, wherein Christians can grow, propagate, and mature for +the conflict which may at any time arise. Thus while the opposition made +to the infant faith is quite sufficient to have destroyed an untrue +religion, born of earth or human device, to have scattered and eradicated +its professors, it was precisely what would favour the real advance of a +faith rooted upon a suffering God, and in which suffering with Him was +made the means of union with Him. + +And here we halt at the accession of Marcus Aurelius, as a middle point +between the day of Pentecost and the time of Constantine. + + + + + +CHAPTER XI. THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. + + + "Magnus ab integro saeclorum nascitur ordo. + Jam nova progenies coelo demittitur alto. + Ingredere, O magnos, aderit jam tempus, honores, + Cara Dei soboles, magnum Jovis incrementum." + + +There is a moment in the history of the Roman empire when it comes before +us with the most imposing grandeur. The imperial rule has been +definitively accepted by that proud old aristocracy under which the city +of the seven hills was built up from a robber fortress to be the centre of +a world-wide confederation; while on their side the nations all round the +Mediterranean bow with an almost voluntary homage before the sceptre of +their queen. If the north be still untameable, it has learnt to dread the +talons of the Roman eagle, and cowers murmuring in its forests and +morasses; if the Parthian still shoot as he flies from the western Caesar's +hosts, he has at least expiated in the ruin of Ctesiphon the capture of +Crassus and the dishonour of Mark Antony. But far more than this. On the +Caesar in his undisputed greatness has dawned the real sublimity of the +task which Providence had assigned to him; to mould, that is, under one +rule of equal beneficence the many tongues and many nations which a course +of conquest often the most unjust had brought to own his sway. And this +point of time is when after the great warrior Trajan comes Hadrian the man +of culture; in whom seems implanted the most restless curiosity, carrying +him with the speed of a soldier and the power of a prince over every +climate from Carlisle to Alexandria, from Morocco to Armenia, in order +that he may see in each the good of which so many varying races of men are +capable, and use them all for his grand design. To him Rome is still the +head; but he has learnt to esteem at their due value the members of her +great body. The first fifteen years of his reign are almost entirely spent +away from Rome, in those truly imperial progresses wherein the master of +this mighty realm, when he would relieve himself of his helmet, walks like +the simple legionary,(195) bareheaded in front of his soldiers, under the +suns of the south, examining, wherever he comes, the whole civil and +military organisation, promoting the capable and censuring the unworthy, +scattering benefits with unsparing hand. York has known him as a +protecting genius; Athens blends his name with that of her own Theseus as +a second founder; wayward Alexandria exalts him, at least for the time, as +a granter of privileges; the extreme north and utmost south acknowledge +alike the unsparing zeal and majestic presence of their ruler. At that +moment Rome is still Roman. While the Augustan discipline still animates +her legions, the sense of the subordination of the military power to the +civil spirit of a free state is not wholly lost; her proconsuls and +praefects have passed out of those plundering magnates, who replenished in +the tyranny of a year or two from a drained province the treasures they +had squandered in a life of corruption at Rome, into the orderly and yet +dignified magistrates accountable to the Republic's life-president(196) +for their high delegated power. Perhaps the world had never yet seen +anything at once so great and so beneficent as the government of Hadrian. +But one thing was wanting to the many-tongued and many-tempered peoples +ruled by him, that they should of their own will accept the worship of one +God, and so the matchless empire receive the only true principle of +coherence and permanence in the common possession of one religion. And the +thoughtful student of history can hardly restrain himself from indulging +his fancy as to what might then have been the result, and into how great a +structure provinces worthy of being kingdoms might then have grown by the +process of an unbroken civilisation instinct with the principles of the +pure Christian Faith. Then the northern flood of barbarism and the eastern +tempest of a false religion, which together were to break up the fabric of +a thousand years, might have been beaten back from its boundaries, and +from them the messengers of light have so penetrated the world in all +directions that the advance of the truth should not have been impeded by +any great civil destruction, but the nations of Europe have developed +themselves from their Roman cradle by a continuous growth, in which there +had been no ages of conquest, violence, and confusion, no relapse into +chaos, no struggle back into an intricate and yet imperfect order, but the +serene advance from dawn to day. + +So, however, it was not to be. The time of probation in the reigns of +Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, wherein a sort of toleration had seemed to be +allowed to Christians, passed away, and the beginning of a far different +destiny broke upon the empire. With the accession of Marcus Aurelius the +great old enemies, the North and the East, awoke from their trance in +fresh vigour. A Parthian war of four years, a German war of twelve, with +pestilence, earthquakes, and famines through a large part of the empire, +try to the utmost the vigour and temper of one of the most upright +sovereigns known to heathenism. Marcus Aurelius meets both enemies with +equal courage and ability, but he dies prematurely, and leaves the rule +carried so temperately by four great sovereigns successively adopted to +empire at mature age, in the untried hands of the heir of his blood, a +youth of nineteen, born in the purple. In this at least the great Roman +was wanting both to Stoic greatness and to Roman duty. And it was a fatal +error. During thirteen years this son of the most virtuous heathen shows +himself the most vicious of tyrants. At a single bound Rome passes from a +ruler more just than Trajan to a ruler more abandoned than Nero; and in +the palace of Marcus Aurelius endures an emperor who has a double harem of +three hundred victims;(197) who spares the blood of no senator, and +respects the worth of no officer. + +When a revolution, similar to that which swept away Domitian, has removed +Commodus, the Roman world is not so fortunate as to find a second Trajan +to take his place. Three great officers who command in Syria, Illyricum, +and Britain, contend for the prize, and when victory has determined in +favour of Septimius Severus, he rules for eighteen years with a force and +capacity which may indeed be compared with Trajan's, but with a deceit and +remorseless severity all his own. At one time forty senators are +slaughtered for the crime of having looked with favour upon that pretender +to the empire who did not succeed. Nor is this a passing cruelty, but the +fixed spirit of his reign. The sway of the sword is openly proclaimed. +That the army is everything is not only acted on, but laid down as a +guiding principle of state to his children. The unbroken discipline of her +legionaries had hitherto indeed proved the salvation of the state; but +this Septimius fatally tampers with, and in so doing sows the seeds of +future anarchy and dissolution. + +His death in 211 places the empire in the hands of a youth of +twenty-three, all but born in the purple, like Commodus, and his rival in +tyranny and dissoluteness of every kind. Caracalla is endured for six +years, and being killed by a plot in the camp, is succeeded by his +murderer Macrinus. He again, after a year, gives place to a Syrian boy of +fourteen, who took at his accession the honoured name of Marcus Aurelius +Antoninus, but is known to posterity as Heliogabalus. Once more during a +space of four years the crimes of Commodus and Caracalla are repeated, or +even exceeded. Indeed in these years from 218 to 222 the story of shame +and degradation reaches its lowest point. But the soldiers of the +praetorian camp themselves rise against Heliogabalus, massacre him with his +mother, and place on the throne his cousin Alexander Severus, at the age +of fourteen. Now Alexander has for his mother Mammaea, if not a Christian, +at least a hearer of Origen, who gives her son from his earliest youth a +virtuous education, who surrounds him on the perilous height of the Roman +throne with the arms of her affection and her practical wisdom. Alexander +rules for thirteen years, a period equal to that of Commodus, and little +less than that of Nero. Younger than both at his accession and his death, +his reign offers the most striking contrast to theirs. Of all heathen +rulers he stands forth as the most blameless. It is a reign which, after +the obscene domination of Commodus, Caracalla, and Heliogabalus, with the +savagery between them of Septimius Severus immediately preceding it, seems +like a romance of goodness. Simple and admirable in his private life, he +rivals Marcus Aurelius in his zeal for the administration of justice, for +the choice of good governors, for devotion to the public service; and, +happier than Marcus Aurelius, on his name rests no stain of persecution. +"He suffered the Christians to be,"(198) are the emphatic words of his +biographer; concerning which it has been well remarked that little as this +seems to say, it had been said of no one of his predecessors, though +several had not persecuted the Church.(199) And therefore this expression +must mean that he left them in an entire liberty as to religion. It is +indeed the exact contradiction of what, thirty years before, Tertullian +had stated respecting the law in the time of Septimius Severus; for one of +his complaints in pleading for Christians was, "your harsh sentence 'that +we are not allowed to exist,' is an open appeal to brute force."(200) + +Alexander Severus, the darling of his people, perished by the hands of +some treacherous soldiers suborned by his successor Maximin; and with him +ends this period of seventy-four years, which we will consider together, +in order to estimate the progress of the Christian Faith. A time of more +remarkable contrasts in rulers cannot be found. It begins with Marcus +Aurelius, and it ends with Alexander Severus, the two most virtuous of +heathen princes; between them it contains Commodus, Caracalla, and +Heliogabalus, the three generally reputed the most vicious; while the +definitive course which the history of the empire took is given to it by +another, Septimius Severus, of great abilities and mixed character, who +gained the empire as a successful soldier, and was true to his origin in +that he established the ultimate victory of pure force over every +restriction of a civil constitution: an African unsparing of blood, who +sat on the throne of Augustus, and worked out the problem of government +which the founder of the empire had started by preparing the result of +Diocletian. + +The rule of Commodus and his successors fully revealed the fatal truth, +that the five princes who from the accession of Nerva had governed as if +they were really responsible to the senate, had only been a fortunate +chance; that this time of prosperity rested upon no legal limitation of +rights between those things wont to exist only in severance,(201) the +sovereign's power and the subject's freedom; that it was no result of a +constitution which had grown up under a mutual sense of benefit arising +from authority exercised conscientiously, and obedience cordially +rendered. The age which Tacitus(202) at its commencement had called "most +blessed" was indeed over, and as soon as the second Antonine left the +scene, a state of things ensued in which tyranny and cruelty were as +unchecked as under Nero or Domitian at their worst. It became evident that +all had depended on the sovereign's personal character. From Marcus to +Commodus the leap was instantaneous; and so, again, afterwards the +short-lived serenity and order of Alexander's rule passed at his death +into a confusion lasting for more than forty years, which threatened to +break up the very existence of the empire. + +But in Rome from the accession of Commodus in 180 to the death of +Heliogabalus in 222 we find a profound corruption of morals, an excess of +cruelty, and a disregard of civil rights, which could scarcely be +exceeded. Tacitus, at the beginning of Trajan's reign, burst forth into +indignation at the thought that it had cost Rusticus and Senecio their +lives, in Domitian's time, to have praised Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus, +and that their very writings had been publicly burned, as if that fire +could extinguish the voice of the Roman people, the liberty of the senate, +and the conscience of mankind. "Truly great," he cried, "was the specimen +of patient endurance which we exhibited."(203) What words, then, would he +have found to express the degradation of servile spirit in that selfsame +city a hundred years later, when Plautianus, the favourite minister of +Septimius Severus, at the marriage of his daughter with Caracalla, caused +a hundred persons of good family, some of them already fathers, secretly +to be made eunuchs, in order that they might serve as chamberlains to the +imperial bride.(204) Or to take another example; as Quintillus, one of the +chiefs of the senate, both by birth and by the employments which he had +held, a man of advanced years and living retired in the country, was +seized in order to be put to death, he declared that his only surprise was +that he had been suffered to live so long, and that he had made every +preparation for his burial. A third incident will show both the sort of +crimes for which men were punished, the protection given by the law to the +individual, and the spirit and temper of the senate. It had condemned +Apronianus, proconsul of Asia, without giving him a hearing, because his +nurse had dreamt that he was one day to reign, concerning which he was +reported to have consulted a magician. Now, in reading the informations +laid against him, it was found that a witness deposed that during the +consultation some senator who was bald had stretched out his head to +listen. Upon this all the bald senators, even those who had never gone to +the house of Apronianus, began to tremble, while the rest put their hands +to their heads to make sure that they had still their hair. However, a +certain Marcellinus fell under special suspicion, whereupon he demanded +that the witness should be brought in, who could not fail to recognise him +if guilty. The witness looked round upon them all for a long time without +saying a word, until upon a sign that a certain senator made him, he +declared it was Marcellinus, who forthwith was hurried out of the senate +to be beheaded, before Severus was even informed of it. As he went to +execution he met four of his children, to whom he said that his greatest +grief was to leave them living after him in so miserable a time.(205) It +was not without reason that Tertullian at this very moment encouraged the +martyrs to be constant, with the reflection that there was no one who +might not, for the cause of man, be made to suffer whatever nature would +most shrink from suffering in the cause of God. "The times we live in are +proofs," he cried, "of this. How many and how great are the instances we +have seen, in which no height of birth, no degree of rank, no personal +dignity, no time of life, have saved men from coming to the most +unexpected end, for some man's cause, either at his own hands, if they +stood against him, or if for him, by the hands of his adversaries."(206) + +It was a time at which the extremes of reckless cruelty, of profuse +luxury, of shameless dissoluteness, met together; in which women were +forbidden by an express law to expose themselves on the arena as +gladiators; in which, when the emperor Severus would legislate against +adultery, a memorial was handed to him with the names of three thousand +persons whom his law would touch.(207) Such was the character of the time +which followed at once on the empire's golden age; the time in which the +Church of God was lengthening her cords and strengthening her stakes, and +building up her divine polity amid the worthlessness of the world's +greatest empire, and the instability of all earthly things. + +II. In the last review which we took of her material progress we said that +to the eye of Pius Antoninus she would not yet appear from her multitude +as a power in the state. But before the end of the seventy-four years +which we are here considering as one period, it was otherwise. Already in +the reign of Commodus, Eusebius states that the word of salvation was +bringing to the worship of the one God men out of every race, so that in +Rome itself many distinguished for wealth and rank embraced it with their +whole families.(208) A few years later, when Tertullian writes his +apology, he makes the heathen complain "that the state is overrun with us, +that Christians are found in the country, in forts, in islands; that every +sex and age and condition and rank come over to them."(209) And again; "we +are of yesterday, and have already filled every place you have, your +cities, islands, forts, boroughs, councils, your very camps, tribes, +corporations, the palace, senate, and forum. Your temples only we leave +you. For what war should we not be equal, we who are so ready to be +slaughtered, if our religion did not command us rather to suffer death +than to inflict it." Elsewhere he speaks of Christians as "so great a +multitude of men as to be almost the majority in every city." Now make +whatsoever allowance we will for Tertullian's vehemence, such statements, +laid before adversaries, if they had not a great amount of truth in them, +would bring ridicule on his cause rather than strengthen it. Tertullian +besides wrote at the time of the general persecution set on foot by +Septimius Severus against the Christian Faith, which itself was a proof of +what importance it had assumed. We may perhaps put the first twenty years +of the third century as the point at which, having passed through the +period when it was embraced by individuals with a several choice, it was +become the faith of families, and one step only remained, that it should +become the faith of nations.(210) + +Let us consider a moment the mode of its increase. It was twofold. The +plant of which a root was fixed by the Apostles and their successors in +each of the cities of the empire grew, gathering to itself in every place +the better minds of heathenism, and exercising from the beginning a marked +attraction upon the more religious sex and upon the most down-trodden +portion of society; women were ever won to it by the purity which its +doctrines inculcated, slaves by its tender charity: it gave a moral +emancipation to both. If we possessed a continuous and detailed history of +the Christian Faith in any one city, say Rome, or Alexandria, or Antioch, +or Ephesus, or Carthage, or Corinth, for the first three centuries, what a +wonderful exhibition of spiritual power and material weakness it would +offer. By fixing the mind on Christianity as merely one object, as an +abstraction, we lose in large part the sense of the moral force to which +its propagation bears witness. It was in each city a community,(211) which +had its centre and representative in its Bishop, which had its worship, +discipline, and rule of life presided over by him; its presbytery, +diaconate, and deaconesses; its sisterhoods and works of charity, +spiritual and temporal: a complete government and a complete society held +together by purely spiritual bonds, which the state sometimes ignored, not +unfrequently persecuted, but never favoured. Such was the grain of +mustard-seed, from north to south, from east to west, in presence of the +political Roman, the sensitive and lettered Greek, the sensuous African, +the volatile and disputatious Alexandrian, the corrupt Antiochene. It had +one sort of population to deal with at Rome, quite another in the capital +of Egypt, a third at Ephesus, which belonged to the great goddess Diana, +and the statue which had fallen down from heaven, a fourth at Carthage, +where the hot Numidian blood came in contact with the civilisation of +Rome, a fifth at Corinth, the mistress of all art and luxury. And so on. +Now in each and all of these cities and a hundred others the divine plant +met with various soils and temperatures; but in them all it grew. It had +its distinct experiences, encountering many a withering heat and many a +stormy blast, and watered full oft with blood, but in them all the seed, +dropped so imperceptibly that the mightiest and most jealous of empires +was unconscious of what was cast into its bosom, became a tree. It was an +organic growth of vital power. Christianity, during the ten ages of +persecution, is the upspringing of several hundred such communities, +distinct as we see here, and as described above by S. Ignatius, but at the +same time coinherent, as we saw in the beginning, and as we shall find +presently. As, then, all the cities of the Roman empire had a secular +political and social life, and a municipal government of their own, so had +the Christian Faith in each of them a corresponding life of spiritual +government and inward thought; and if we had the materials to construct +the history of this Faith in any one, it would give us a wonderful insight +into the course of that prodigious victory over the world which the whole +result presents. We cannot do so. The data for it do not exist, and +because they do not, we allude here to this first mode of growth made by +the Christian Faith. + +Its second mode was thus. The Apostolical Churches, as they severally +grew, scattered from their bosoms a seed as prolific as their own. They +sent out those who founded communities such as their own. Thus the +Christian plant was communicated from Rome to all the west. With every +decade of years it crept silently over the vast regions of Gaul and Spain, +advancing further west and north. This extension was not a chance +springing up of Christians in different localities. It always took place +by the founding(212) of sees, with the apostolic authority, after the +apostolic model. If the Roman colonia had its rites of inauguration, and +was a transcript of the great city, its senate and its forum, so much more +the Christian city had its prototype and derived its authority from the +great citadel of the Faith, wherein Peter's prerogative was stored +up,(213) and whence it had a derivation wider in extent and more ample in +character than that of Rome the natural city. But we will take from +another quarter what is as perfect a specimen of this extension as any +that can be found. In the great city of Alexandria, the centre of +intellectual and commercial life to all the East and the whole Greek name, +S. Peter set up the chair of his disciple Mark. There the evangelist +taught and there in due time suffered. Dragged by an infuriated populace +through the streets he thus gave up his soul. But the plant which he so +watered with his blood was of extraordinary vigour. It not only grew amid +the intensest intellectual rivalry of Greek and Jew in the capital, but +likewise in course of time occupied the whole civil government which +obeyed the praefect of Egypt. From Alexandria, Egypt and the Pentapolis of +Cyrene derived their Christian faith and government; and so powerful was +this bond that the bishop of the capital exercised control over all the +bishops of the civil diocese, as it was then termed. He was in power a +patriarch long before he had that name, or even the name of archbishop. +How great and strict this rule was we may judge from an incident preserved +by Photius,(214) which occurred in the very last year of the period we are +considering, in 235. Heraclas, bishop of Alexandria, a former pupil of +Origen, had inflicted upon that great writer a second expulsion from the +Church for his erroneous teaching. Origen on his way to Syria came to the +city of Thmuis, where bishop Ammonius allowed him, in spite of the +above-mentioned censure of Heraclas, to preach. When Heraclas heard this, +he came to Thmuis and deposed Ammonius, and appointed in his stead +Philippus as bishop. Afterwards, on the earnest request of the people of +the city, he restored Ammonius to the office of bishop, and ordained that +he and Philippus should be bishops together. The latter, however, +voluntarily gave way to Ammonius, and succeeded him at his death. Such, +ninety years before the Nicene Council, which recognised and approved +these powers of the bishop of Alexandria, as being after the model of +those exercised by the bishop of Rome,(215) was his authority by the +natural force of the hierarchic principle which built up the Church. And +so little were these Christian communities, which we have seen so complete +in their own organic growth, independent of the bond which held the whole +Church together, and of which the authority of the Egyptian primate was +itself a derivation. + +These, then, were the two modes in which the Christian Faith pursued and +attained its orderly increase; as a seed it grew to a plant in each city, +and as a plant it ramified, or as Tertullian says, carried "the vine-layer +of the faith"(216) from city to city, from province to province. In the +meantime the last disciples of the Apostles, those who from the especial +veneration with which they were regarded as teachers of the Faith and +"second links in the chain of tradition," were termed Presbyters,(217) had +died out. S. Polycarp, at the time of his martyrdom in 167, was probably +the sole remaining one, though his pupil S. Irenaeus had known others. When +the latter, upon the martyrdom of S. Pothinus in 177, is raised to the +government of the See of Lyons, we may consider that no one survived in +possession of that great personal authority which belonged to those who +had themselves been taught by Apostles; and so at the third generation +from the last of these the Church throughout the world stood without any +such support, simply upon that basis of the tradition and teaching of the +truth, and of the succession of rulers, on which the Apostles had placed +it, to last for ever. Now in this position it had already, throughout the +whole course of the second century, been violently assaulted by a family +of heresies, which growing upon one root--a natural philosophy confusing +the being of God with the world--burst forth into an astonishing variety of +outward forms. Gnosticism completely altered and defaced Christian +doctrine under each of the four great heads, the Being of God, the Person +of Christ, the nature of man, the office and function of the Church. Into +the Godhead it introduced a dualism, recognising with the absolute good an +absolute evil represented by matter: it denied the reality of the +Incarnation; it made the body a principle of evil in man's nature: but we +will here limit ourselves to the characteristic and formal principle of +the system from which it derived its name, to Gnosis as the means of +acquiring divine truth. Now the Christian religion taught that revealed +truth was to be attained by the individual through receiving, upon the +ground of the divine veracity, those mysterious doctrines superior but not +contrary to reason which it unfolded; and that the communication of such +doctrines might continue unimpaired and unchanging, it taught that our +Lord had established a never-failing authority charged with the execution +of this office, and assisted by the perpetual presence of His Spirit with +it to the end. But the Gnostics admitted only in the case of the imperfect +or natural man that faith was the means for acquiring religious truth; to +the spiritual, the proper gnostic, gnosis should take the place of faith: +for to many a heathen, accustomed to unlimited philosophical speculation, +the absolute subjection of the intellect to divine authority, required by +the principle of faith, was repugnant. Now this Gnosis was in their mind +not knowledge grounded upon faith, but either philosophic science, or a +supposed intuition of truth, which was not only to replace faith, but the +whole moral life, inasmuch as the completion and sanctification of man +were to be wrought by it. And thus instead of an external authority the +individual reason was set up as the highest standard of religious truth, +the issue of which could only be rationalism in belief and sectarianism in +practice. + +This formal principle of Gnosticism when duly carried out would deny the +idea of the Church, its divine institution, its properties and +prerogatives. For the gnostic mode of attaining divine truth, as above +stated, contains in it such a denial. Besides this, the gnostic doctrine +that matter was the seat of evil, destroyed the belief that Christ had +assumed a body: the gnostic doctrine that the supreme God could enter into +no communion with man made their AEon Christ no member of human society, +but a phantom which had enlightened the man Jesus, and then returned back +to the "Light-realm." Not being really the Son of God, he could have no +Church which was his body: not really redeeming, for sin to the gnostic +had only a physical, not a moral cause, he was but a teacher, and +therefore had created no institution to convey grace; which, moreover, was +superfluous, for whatever elements of good human nature had were derived +from creation and not from redemption. Nor was such an universal +institution wanted, since not all men but only the spiritual were capable +of being drawn up to the Light-realm. The Gnostic therefore required +neither hierarchy nor priesthood, since the soul of this system was the +gnosis of the individual. For this a body enjoying infallibility through +the assistance of the Holy Ghost was not needed. It was enough for +enthusiasts and dreamers to pursue their speculations without any limit to +free inquiry, save what themselves chose to impose as the interpretation +of such scriptures as they acknowledged, or as the exhibition of a private +tradition with which they held themselves to be favoured. + +Lastly, the idea of Sacraments, as conveying grace under a covering of +sense, would be superfluous to the gnostic, inasmuch as the spiritual +elements in man belong to him by nature, and are not communicated by a +Redeemer, and would be repulsive to him because matter is a product of the +evil principle, and cannot be the channel of grace from out the +Light-realm.(218) + +My purpose here has only been to say just so much of Gnosticism as may +show how the whole Christian truth was attacked by it, and especially the +existence and functions of the Church. + +And this may indeed be termed the first heresy in that it struck its roots +right up into Apostolic times. Irenaeus, Eusebius, and Epiphanius account +Simon Magus to be its father, and the father of all heresy. As such it is +not without significance that he encountered the first of the Apostles in +Samaria, endeavouring to purchase from him the gifts of grace and +miraculous power, and that he likewise afterwards encountered him at Rome. +To this the first manifestation of Gnosticism succeed heretical doctrines +concerning the Person of our Lord, which sprung out of Judaism; but no +sooner are these overcome than Gnosticism in its later forms spreads from +Syria and Alexandria over the whole empire, everywhere confronting the +Church, seducing her members, and tempting especially speculative minds +within her. A mixture itself of Platonic, Philonic, Pythagorean, and +Parsic philosophy, affecting to gather the best out of all philosophies +and religions, in which it exactly represented the eclectic spirit of its +age, arraying itself in the most fantastic garb of imagination, but at the +bottom no dubious product of the old heathen pantheism, it set itself to +the work, while it assumed Christian names, of confusing and distracting +Christian truth. From the beginning of the second century it was the great +enemy which beset the Church. It may, then, well represent to us the +principle of heresy itself, and as such let us consider on what principles +it was met by the Church's teachers. + +Now to form a correct notion of the danger to which the Christian people +at this time was exposed, we must have before us that it was contained in +several hundred communities, each of them forming a complete spiritual +society and government. These had arisen under the pressure of such +hostility on the part of the empire that it is only in the time of the +last emperor during this period, Alexander Severus, that churches are +known to have publicly existed at Rome.(219) For a very long time all +meetings of Christians and all celebration of their worship was secret. It +is obvious what an absolute freedom of choice on the part of all those who +became Christians this fact involved. Nor did that freedom cease when they +had been initiated into the new religion. Their fidelity to the Christian +faith was all through their subsequent life solicited by the danger in +which as Christians they stood. Only a continuous freedom of choice on +their part could maintain it. And not only did every temporal interest +turn against it, but in the case at least of the more intellectual +converts the activity of thought implied in their voluntary acceptance of +a new belief served as a material on which the seductions of false +teachers might afterwards act, unless it was controlled by an everliving +faith, and penetrated by an active charity. The more these Christian +communities multiplied, the more it was to be expected that some of them +would yield to the assaults of false teachers. It is in just such a state +of things that a great dogmatic treatise was written against Gnosticism by +one who stood at only a single remove from the Apostle John, being the +disciple of his disciple Polycarp. Irenaeus, by birth a native of lesser +Asia, enjoyed when young the instructions and intimate friendship of the +bishop of Smyrna. In his old age he delighted to remember how Polycarp had +described his intercourse with John, and with those who had seen the Lord: +how he repeated their discourse, and what he had heard from them +respecting the teaching and the miracles of that Word of life whom they +had seen with their own eyes. "These things," says Irenaeus, "through the +mercy of God I then diligently listened to, writing them down not on +paper, but on my heart, and by His grace I ruminate upon them +perpetually."(220) Later in life he left Smyrna, and settled in Lyons, of +which Church he was a presbyter when the terrible persecution of 177 broke +out there. Elected thereupon to succeed a martyr as bishop, he crowned an +episcopate of twenty-five years with a similar martyrdom. He wrote, as he +says, during the episcopate of Eleutherius, who was the twelfth bishop of +Rome from Peter, and sat from 177 to 192. After describing at length the +Gnostic errors concerning the divine nature, he sets forth in contrast the +unity of the truth as declared by the Church in the following words: + +"The Church, though she be spread abroad through the whole world unto the +ends of the earth, has received from the Apostles and their disciples +faith in one God;" and he proceeds to recite her creed, in substance the +same as that now held: then he adds, dwelling with emphasis on the very +point which I have been noting, the sprinkling about, that is, of distinct +communities so widely dispersed, which yet are one in their belief. + +"This proclamation and this faith the Church having received, though she +be disseminated through the whole world, carefully guards, as the +inhabitant of one house, and equally believes these things as having one +soul and the same heart, and in exact agreement these things she proclaims +and teaches and hands down, as having one mouth. For, though the languages +through the world be dissimilar, the power of the tradition is one and the +same. Nor have the churches founded in Germany otherwise believed or +otherwise handed down, nor those in Spain, nor in Gaul, nor in the East, +nor in Egypt, nor those in the middle of the world. But as the sun, God's +creature, in all the world is one and the same, so too the proclamation of +the truth shines everywhere, and lights all men that are willing to come +to the knowledge of the truth. Nor will he among the Church's rulers who +is most powerful in word say other than this, for no one is above his +teacher;(221) nor will he that is weak in word diminish the tradition, for +the Faith being one and the same, neither he that can say much on it has +gathered too much, nor he that can say little is deficient." + +Against the gnostic claim to possess a private tradition, in virtue of +which each of them "depraving the rule of the truth was not ashamed to +preach himself," he sets forth the one original tradition which the +Apostles,(222) only "when they had first been invested with the power of +the Holy Ghost coming down on them, and endued with perfect knowledge," +delivered to the churches founded by them. "And this tradition of the +Apostles, manifested in the whole world, may be seen in every church by +all who have the will to see what is true, and we can give the chain of +those who by the Apostles were appointed bishops in the churches, and +their successors down to our time, who have neither taught nor known any +such delirious dream as these imagine. For, had the Apostles known any +reserved mysteries, which they taught to the perfect separately and +secretly from the rest, assuredly they would have delivered them to those +especially to whom they intrusted the churches themselves. For very +perfect and irreprehensible in all respects did they wish those to be whom +they left for their own successors,(223) delivering over to them their own +office of teaching, by correct conduct on whose part great advantage would +accrue, as from their fall the utmost calamity. But since it were very +long, in a volume like this, to enumerate the succession of all the +churches, we take the church the greatest, the most ancient, and known to +all, founded and established at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles +Peter and Paul, and pointing out the tradition which it has received from +the Apostles, and the faith which it has announced to men, reaching down +to us by the succession of its bishops, we confound all those who form +societies other than they ought, in any way, whether for the sake of +self-fancied doctrines, or through blindness and an evil mind. For, with +this church, on account of its superior principate, it is necessary that +every church agree, that is, the faithful everywhere (every church) in +which by the (faithful) everywhere, the apostolic tradition is preserved. + +"The blessed Apostles, then, having founded and built up the church, +committed to Linus the administration of its episcopate.... Anencletus +succeeds him, from whom in the third place from the Apostles Clemens +inherits the episcopate.... He is succeeded by Evaristus; Evaristus by +Alexander, who is followed by Xystus sixth from the Apostles. Then +Telesphorus, who was gloriously martyred; next Hyginus; then Pius; after +whom Anicetus. Soter followed Anicetus; and now in the twelfth degree from +the Apostles Eleutherius holds the place of bishop. By this order and +succession the tradition from the Apostles in the Church and the teaching +of the truth have come down to us. And this proof is most complete that it +is one and the same life-giving Faith which has been preserved in the +Church from the Apostles up to this time, and handed down in truth.... +With such proofs, then, before us, we ought not still to search among +others for the truth, which it is easy to take from the Church, since the +Apostles most fully committed unto this, as unto a rich storehouse, all +which is of the truth, so that everyone, whoever will, may draw from it +the draught of life. For this is the gate of life: all the rest are +thieves and robbers. They must therefore be avoided; but whatever is of +the Church we must love with the utmost diligence, and lay hold of the +tradition of the truth. For how? if on any small matter question arose, +ought we not to recur to the most ancient churches in which the Apostles +lived, and take from them on the matter in hand what is certain and plain. +And suppose the Apostles had not even left us writings, ought we not to +follow that order of tradition which they delivered to those to whom they +intrusted the churches? To this order many barbarous nations of believers +in Christ assent, having salvation written upon their hearts by the Holy +Spirit without paper and ink, and diligently guarding the old +tradition."(224) + +This capital point of the ever-living teaching office he further dwells +on: + +"The Faith received in the Church we guard in it, which being always from +the Spirit of God, like an admirable deposit in a good vessel, is young +itself, and makes young the vessel in which it is. For this office on the +part of God(225) is intrusted to the Church, as the breath of life was +given to the body, in order that all the members receiving may be +quickened, and in this is placed the communication of Christ, that is, the +Holy Spirit, the earnest of incorruption, the confirmation of our faith, +and the ladder by which we ascend to God. For, says he, in the Church God +has placed Apostles, Prophets, Teachers, and all the remaining operation +of the Spirit; of whom all those are not partakers who do not run to the +Church, but deprive themselves of life by an evil opinion and a still +worse conduct. For where the Church is, there also is the Spirit of God: +and where the Spirit of God is, there is the Church and all grace: but the +Spirit is Truth. Wherefore they who are not partakers of Him are neither +nourished unto life from the breasts of the mother, nor receive that most +pure fountain which proceeds from the Body of Christ, but dig out for +themselves broken cisterns from earthly ditches, and from the filth drink +foul water, avoiding the Faith of the Church lest they be brought back, +and rejecting the Spirit that they may not be taught. So estranged from +the truth they deservedly wallow in every error, tossed about by it, +having different opinions on the same subjects at different times, and +never holding one firm mind, choosing rather to be sophists of words than +disciples of the truth; for they are not founded upon the one rock, but on +the sand, which has in it a multitude of pebbles."(226) + +And he elsewhere contrasts the certainty within, and the uncertainty +without, this teaching power: + +"The said heretics, then, being blind to the truth, cannot help walking +out of the track into one path after another, and hence it is that the +vestiges of their doctrine are scattered about without any rule or +sequence. Whereas the road of those who are of the Church goes round the +whole world, because it possesses a firm tradition from the Apostles, and +gives us to see that all have one and the same faith, where all enjoin one +and the same God the Father, believe one disposition of the Son of God's +incarnation, know the same gift of the Spirit, meditate on the same +precepts, guard the same regimen of ecclesiastical rule, await the same +advent of the Lord, and support the same salvation of the whole man, body +and soul alike. Now the Church's preaching is true and firm, in whom one +and the same way of salvation is shown through the whole world. For to her +is intrusted the light of God; and hence the wisdom of God, by which He +saves all men, 'is sung at her entrance, acts with confidence in her +streets, is proclaimed on her walls, and speaks ever in the gates of the +city.' For everywhere the Church proclaims the truth: she is the +seven-branched candlestick bearing Christ's light."(227) + +It has been necessary to give at considerable length the very words of S. +Irenaeus, because they are stronger and more perspicuous than any summary +of them can be, and because they exhibit a complete answer not to this +particular heresy only, but to all heresy for ever. Such an answer, coming +from one who stood at the second generation from S. John, is of the +highest value. Thus he meets the gnostic principle that divine truth is +acquired by the individual through some process of his own mind, which in +this particular case is termed gnosis, but which may bear many other +names, by appealing to an external standard, the Rule of Faith in the +Church from the beginning, which by its unity points to its origin and +lineage from the apostles and Christ. And this serves to bring out the +central idea which rules his whole mind, that "where the Church is, there +also is the Spirit of God; and where the Spirit of God is, there is the +Church and all grace: but the Spirit is Truth." The deposit of which he +spoke is not a dead mass, or lump of ore, requiring only safe custody, but +a living Spirit dwelling in the Church, the source within her of unity, +truth, and grace, using her teaching office, which is set up in her +episcopate, for the drawing out and propagation of the deposit from the +double fountain of Tradition and Scripture, for these her teachers as such +have a divine gift of truth.(228) It is thus that he expands without +altering the doctrine of his teacher Polycarp's fellow-disciple, "Where +Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."(229) And from it he +proceeds to what follows necessarily on such a conception, that this +Church must have a visible point of unity. As then he appeals to the +churches founded by Apostles as the principal centres of living tradition, +so before yet one of these churches had fallen into possession of +heretics,(230) before yet there was any disagreement between them, he +singles out one for its superior principate, on account of which it was +necessary for every church to agree with it, which he grounds on its +descent from S. Peter and S. Paul, giving every link in the chain of +succession during the hundred and ten years which had elapsed between +their martyrdom and his own episcopate. He sees an especial prerogative +lodged in that church as the means of securing the whole Church's organic +unity; and this prerogative is, that it is among churches what S. Peter +and S. Paul were among Apostles;(231) as the first general western council +expressed it, "in it the Apostles sit daily, and their blood without +intermission bears witness to the glory of God."(232) + +Thus the conception expressed by Irenaeus, with the greatest emphasis and +continual repetition, in order to refute heresy, is that all truth and +grace are stored up in the one body of the Church; to which his doctrine +of the Roman Primacy is as the keystone to the arch. For everything in his +view depends on the unity, the intrinsic harmony, of the truth which he is +describing as lodged in the episcopate: the means therefore of securing +that unity are part of its conception. Accordingly, to see in its due +force his statement that every church must agree with the Roman Church, it +must not be severed from the context and taken by itself, but viewed in +connexion with the argument as part of which it stands. If the Church is +to speak one truth with one mouth, which is his main idea, she must have +an organic provision for such a result, which he places in the necessary +agreement of all churches with one: and this is his second idea, +subsidiary to the first, and completing it. + +Irenaeus by birth and education represents in all this the witness of the +Asiatic churches; as bishop of Lyons, the churches of Gaul. + +A few years after Irenaeus, Tertullian in a professed treatise against +heresy lays down exactly the same principles. With him, too, the main idea +is the possession of all truth and grace by the one Body which Christ +formed and the Apostles established. This he thus exhibits: + +"We must not appeal to the Scriptures, nor try the issue on points on +which the victory is either none, or doubtful, or too little doubtful. For +though the debate on the Scriptures should not so turn out as to place +each party on an equal footing, the order of things requires that that +question should be first proposed which is the only one now to be +discussed, To whom does the Faith itself belong? Whose are the Scriptures? +From whom and through whom, when and to whom, was that discipline by which +men become Christians delivered? For wherever the truth of that which is +the Christian discipline at once and faith be shown to be, there will be +the truth of the Scriptures, of their exposition, and of all Christian +traditions. Our Lord Jesus Christ (may He suffer me so to speak for the +present), whoever He is, of whatever God the Son, of whatever substance +God and Man, of whatever reward the promiser, Himself declared so long as +He was on earth, whether to the people openly, or to the disciples apart, +what He was, what He had been, what will of the Father He administered, +what duty of man He laid down. Of whom He had attached to his own side +twelve in chief, the destined teachers of the nations. One of these having +fallen off from Him, He bade the other eleven, on his departure to the +Father after the resurrection, go and teach the nations, who were to be +baptised into the Father, into the Son, and into the Holy Ghost. The +Apostles then forthwith, the meaning of their title being the Sent, +assuming by lot Matthias as a twelfth into the place of Judas, by the +authority of the prophecy in the psalm of David, when they had obtained +the promised power of the Holy Ghost for miracles and utterance, first +through Judea bore witness to the Faith in Christ Jesus, and established +churches, thence proceeding into the world promulgated the same doctrine +of the same Faith to the nations, and thereupon founded churches in every +city, from which the other churches thenceforth borrowed the vine-layer of +the Faith and the seeds of the doctrine, and are daily borrowing them that +they may become churches. And for this cause they are themselves also +counted apostolical, as being the offspring of apostolical churches. The +whole kind must be classed under its original. And thus these churches so +many and so great are that one first from the Apostles, whence they all +spring. Thus all are the first, and all apostolical, while all being the +one prove unity: whilst there is between them communication of peace, and +the title of brotherhood, and the token of hospitality.(233) And no other +principle rules these rights than the one tradition of the same +sacrament."(234) + +Here is the summing up of what Irenaeus had said with the force, brevity, +and incisiveness which characterise Tertullian. Further on he rejects any +appeal on the part of heretics to scripture: + +"If the truth be in our possession, as many as walk by the rule which the +Church has handed down from the Apostles, the Apostles from Christ, and +Christ from God, the reasonableness of our proposition is manifest, which +lays down that heretics are not to be allowed to enter an appeal to +scriptures, since without scriptures we prove them to have no concern with +scriptures. For if they are heretics, they cannot be Christians, inasmuch +as they do not hold from Christ what they follow by their own choice, and +in consequence admit the name of heretics.(235) Therefore not being +Christians, they have no right to Christian writings. To whom we may well +say, Who are you? when did you come? and whence? What are you, who are not +mine, doing in my property? By what right dost thou, Marcion, cut down my +wood? By what license dost thou, Valentinus, turn the course of my waters? +By what power remove my landmarks? This is my possession: how are you +sowing it and feeding on it at your pleasure? It is mine, I repeat: I had +it of old; I had it first: I have the unquestioned title-deeds from the +first proprietors. I am the heir of the Apostles. According to their will, +according to their trust, according to the oath I took from them, I hold +it. You, assuredly, they have ever disinherited and renounced, as aliens, +as enemies. But why are heretics aliens and enemies to Apostles, save from +difference of doctrine, which each at his own pleasure has either brought +forward or received against Apostles?"(236) + +Thus Tertullian adds the witness of the African church to that of the +Asiatic and Gallic churches in Irenaeus. + +We have noted the great church of Alexandria as a most complete instance +of the growth whereby from the mother see the hierarchy took possession of +a land. But the principle of such growth was the ecclesiastical rule, and +its strength the energy with which that rule was preserved. This rule was +twofold: the rule of discipline, or outward regimen, what we now call a +constitution; and the rule of Faith. What the church of Alexandria was in +discipline has been seen above: and now just at this time we have in the +first great teacher of this church, who has come down to us, the most +decisive exhibition of this rule as a defence against this same gnostic +heresy. "As," says Clement, "a man like those under the enchantment of +Circe should become a beast, so whoever has kicked against the tradition +of the Church, and started aside into the opinions of human heresies, has +ceased to be a man of God, and faithful to the Lord." ... "There are three +states of the soul, ignorance, opinion, knowledge. Those who are in +ignorance, are the Gentiles; those in knowledge, the true Church; those in +opinion, the adherents of heresies." ... "We have learnt that bodily +pleasure is one thing, which we give to the Gentiles; strife a second, +which we adjudge to heresies; joy a third, which is the property of the +Church." Again, he speaks of those who "not using the divine words well, +but perversely, neither enter themselves into the kingdom of heaven, nor +suffer those whom they have deceived to attain the truth. They have not +indeed the key to the entrance, but rather a false key, whereby they do +not enter as we do through the Lord's tradition, drawing back the veil, +but cutting out a side way, and secretly digging through the Church's +wall, they transgress the truth, and initiate into rites of error the soul +of the irreligious. For that they have made their human associations later +than the Catholic Church, it needs not many words to show." Then, after +referring to the origin and propagation "of the Lord's teaching,"(237) +exactly after the mode of Irenaeus and Tertullian, he concludes, "So it is +clear from the most ancient and true Church, that these heresies coming in +subsequently to it, and others still later, are innovations from it, as +coins of adulterate stamp. From what has been said, then, I consider it +manifest that the true Church, the really ancient Church, is one, in which +are enrolled all who are just according to (God's) purpose. For inasmuch +as there is one God and one Lord, therefore that which is most highly +precious is praised for being alone, since it is an imitation of the one +Principle. The one Church, then, which they try by force to cut up into +many heresies, falls under the same category as the nature of the One. So +then we assert that the ancient and Catholic Church is one alone in its +foundation, in its idea, in its origin, and in its excellence, collecting +by the will of the one God, through the one Lord, into the unity of one +Faith, according to the peculiar covenants, or rather to the one covenant +at different times, the preordained whom God predestined, having known +before the foundation of the world that they would be just. But the +excellence of the Church, as the principle of the whole construction, is +in unity, surpassing all other things, and having nothing similar or equal +to itself."(238) + +One other writer remains, the larger part of whose life falls within this +period, greater in renown than either of the foregoing; and into whatever +particular errors Origen may have fallen, he did not swerve from their +doctrine as to the mode of meeting error itself. "Since," says he, "there +are many who think that they hold the tenets of Christ, while some of them +hold different tenets from those who went before them, let the +ecclesiastical preaching as handed down by the order of succession from +the Apostles, and maintained even to the present time in the churches, be +preserved: that alone is to be believed as truth which in nothing is +discordant from the ecclesiastical and apostolical tradition."(239) And +the ground for such a principle he has given elsewhere: + +"The divine words assert that the whole Church of God is the Body of +Christ, animated by the Son of God, while the limbs of this Body as a +whole are particular believers: since as the soul quickens and moves the +body, whose nature it is not to have the movement of life from itself, so +the Word moving to what is fitting, and working in, the whole body, the +Church, moves likewise each member of the Church, who does nothing without +the Word."(240) + +The four great writers, then, of this period, Irenaeus, Tertullian, +Clement, and Origen, none of them indeed from Rome, but representing the +churches of Asia, Gaul, Africa, and Egypt, exactly concur in the principle +by which they refuted heresy, the propagation, that is, of the rule of +Faith in its purity and integrity, by those who possessed the succession +of the Apostles and their office of teaching, in which lay a divine gift +of the truth. + +But to those who proceeded from this basis it was a further labour to set +forth the true knowledge against the false. And we may trace the following +results of heresy, quite unintended by itself, in its operation on the +Church. + +1. In the first place, S. Augustine continually remarks that the more +accurate enucleation of true doctrine usually proceeded from the attacks +of heresy; and this happened so continually that it seems to him a special +instance of that law of divine Providence which educes good from evil. "If +the truth," says he, "had not lying adversaries, it would be examined with +less carefulness," and so "a question started by an opponent becomes to +the disciple an occasion of learning."(241) And he observes that "we have +found by experience that every heresy has brought into the Church its own +questions, against which the divine Scripture was defended with greater +care than if no such necessity had existed."(242) Thus the doctrine of the +Trinity owed its perfect treatment to the Arian assault on it; the +doctrine of penance to that of Novatian; the doctrine of baptism to those +who wished to introduce the practice of rebaptising; even the unity of +Christ was brought out with greater clearness by the attempt to rend it, +and the doctrine of one Catholic Church diffused through the whole world +cleared from its objectors by showing that the mixture of evil men in it +does not prejudice the good.(243) And he illustrates his meaning by a very +picturesque image: "When heretics calumniate, the young of the flock are +disturbed; in their disturbance they inquire; so the young lamb butts its +mother's udder till it gets sufficient nutriment for its thirst."(244) For +the doctors of the Church being called upon for an answer supply the truth +which before was latent. And there is no more signal instance of the great +writer's remark than himself; for the attacks of the most various heresies +led him during forty years of unwearied mental activity into almost every +question of theology. + +The gnostic heresy, then, presents us with the first instance of a law +which will run all through the Church's history. Peter, the first Apostle, +meets and refutes Simon Magus, the first propagator of falsehood, who +receives divine sacraments and then claims against the giver to be "the +great power of God." This fact is likewise the symbol of a long line of +action, wherein it is part of the divine plan to make the perpetual +restlessness of error subserve the complete exhibition of truth. The +Gnostics denied the divine monarchy; at once mutilated and misinterpreted +Scripture; claimed to themselves a secret tradition of truth. We owe to +them in consequence the treatises of Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement, and +a written exhibition of the Church's divine order, succession, and unity, +as well as a specific mention of the tie which held that unity together; +and the mention of this tie at so early a period might otherwise have been +wanting to us. But these three writers do but represent to us partially an +universal result. The danger which from gnostic influence beset all the +chief centres of ecclesiastical teaching marks the transition from the +first state of simple faith to that of human learning, inquiry, and +thought, turned upon the objects of Christian belief. The Gnostics had a +merit which they little imagined for themselves. They formed the first +doctors of post-apostolic times. Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement are a +great advance upon the more simple and external exhibition of Christianity +which we find in the apologists. In them the Church is preparing to +encounter the deepest questions moved against her by Greek philosophy. +They are her first champions in that contest with Hellenic culture which +was a real combat of mind, not a mere massacre of unresisting victims, and +which lasted for five hundred years. + +2. Secondly, when the gnostic attack began, the canon of the New Testament +was still unfixed. Nothing can be more certain than that the Apostles did +not set forth any official collection of their writings, and that no such +collection existed shortly after their death. This fact most plainly shows +that the Christian religion at their departure did not rest for its +maintenance upon writings. Not only had our Lord written no word Himself, +but He left no command to His Apostles to write. His command was to +propagate His Gospel and to found His kingdom by oral teaching; and His +promise was that the Holy Ghost should accompany, follow upon, and +continue with, this their action. What we find is, that they did this, and +that the writings which besides they left, being from the first kept and +venerated by the several churches to which they were addressed, gradually +became known through the whole body of the Church. With the lapse of time +they would become more and more valuable. Moreover, when the Gnostics set +themselves to interpolate and corrupt them, and to fabricate false +writings, the need of a genuine collection became more and more urgent. It +is from the three writers above mentioned, towards the end of the second +century, that we learn that such a collection existed, in forming which +these principles were followed: only to admit writings which tradition +attested to spring from an Apostle or a witness of our Lord's life,(245) +among whom Paul was specially counted: secondly, only such writings as +were attested by some church of apostolical foundation: and thirdly, only +such writings the doctrine contained in which did not differ from the rule +of faith orally handed down in the churches of apostolic origin, or in the +one Catholic Church, excluding all such as were at variance with the +doctrine hitherto received. Thus in the settlement of the Canon authority +as well as tradition intervened; an authority which felt itself in secure +possession of the same Holy Spirit who had inspired the Apostles, and of +the same doctrine which they had taught.(246) + +With the reception of a book into the Canon of Scripture was joined a +belief in its inspiration, which rested on what was a part of oral +tradition, that is, that the Apostles as well in their oral as in their +written teaching had enjoyed the infallible guidance of the Holy Spirit. +It is evident that such a tradition reposes, in the last instance, upon +the authority of the Church.(247) + +If by means of the gnostic attacks the Canon of the New Testament, as we +now possess it, was not absolutely completed, it had at least advanced a +very great way towards that completion, which we have finally attested as +of long standing in a Council held at Carthage in 397.(248) + +3. Another result of the gnostic attack was the setting forth the +tradition of the Faith, seated and maintained in the apostolic churches, +as the rule for interpreting Scripture. The Gnostics in two ways impeached +this rule, by claiming a private tradition of their own, and by +interpreting such scripture as they chose to acknowledge after their own +pleasure. Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement found an adequate answer to +both errors by showing that the Faith which the Apostles had set forth in +their writings could not contradict the Faith which they had established +in the Church. These were two sources of the same doctrine; but it is by +the permanent connection and interpenetration of the two that the truth is +maintained; and that which holds both together, that which utters and +propagates the truth which they jointly contain, is the Teaching office, +the mouth of the Church. Hence the force of the appeal in Irenaeus to the +succession of the episcopate, and to the divine gift of truth which the +Apostles had handed down therein with their teaching office. Hence +Tertullian's exclusion of heretics from the right to possess scriptures +which belong only to the Church. Hence Clement's description of the only +true Gnostic, as "one who has grown old in the study of the Scriptures, +while he preserves the apostolic and ecclesiastical standard of +doctrine."(249) For neither in founding churches, nor in teaching orally, +nor in writing, did the Apostles exhaust or resign the authority committed +to them.(250) The authority itself, which was the source of all this their +action, after all that they had founded, taught, or written, continued +complete and entire in them, and was transmitted on to their successors, +for the maintenance of the work assigned to it. It is this perpetual +living power which Irenaeus so strongly testifies,(251) to which he +attaches the gift of the Spirit, not scripture, nor tradition, but that +which carries both scripture and tradition through the ages, which is "as +the breath of life to the body, which is always from the Spirit of God, +wherein is placed the communication of Christ, which is always young, and +makes young the vessel in which it is."(252) The writings which the Holy +Ghost has inspired, and the tradition of the Faith which He has +established, would be subject, the one to misinterpretation, the other to +alteration and corruption, without that particular presence of His, in +which consists the divine gift of truth, the teaching office, "the making +disciples all nations." + +4. And the action of heresy, which was so effective in bringing out the +function of the teaching church, was not without force in extending and +corroborating the function of the ruling church. The first synods of which +we have mention are those assembled in Asia Minor towards the end of the +second century against the diffusion of Montanism.(253) But what through +the loss of records has been mentioned only in this one case must have +taken place generally, since it is obvious that as soon as erroneous +doctrines spread from one diocese to another, they would call forth joint +action against them. Since then heresies have been the frequent, almost +the exclusive, cause of councils. The parallel is fruitful in thought, +which is suggested between the action of error in eliciting the more +precise expression of the truth which it abhors, and its action in +strengthening the governing power of the body which it assaults. In the +one case and in the other the result is that which it least desires and +intends; heresy, disbelieving and disobeying, is made to perfect the faith +and build up the hierarchy. + +Now to sum up our sketch of the internal history of the Christian Faith in +the seventy-four years which elapse from the accession of Marcus Aurelius +to the death of Alexander Severus. At the first-named date we find that it +had spread beyond the confines of the Roman empire, and taken incipient +possession of all the great centres of human intercourse by founding its +hierarchy in them. At the second date it has subdued the powerful and +widespread family of heresies which threatened to distort and corrupt its +doctrines, and has done this by the vigour of its teaching office, which +combined in one expression the yet fresh apostolic tradition stored up in +its churches, and the doctrine of its sacred scriptures; while it has +well-nigh determined the number and genuineness of these, severing them +off from all other writings. The episcopate in which its teaching office +resides appears not as a number of bishops, each independent and severed, +and merely governing his diocese upon a similar rule, but with a bond +recognised among them, the superior principate of the Roman See. That is, +as the teaching office itself is in them all the voice of living teachers, +so its highest expression is the voice of the living Peter in his see. And +this bond as discerned and recognised by the Asiatic disciple of S. +Polycarp, the bishop of the chief city of Gaul, is so strong that he uses +for it rather the term denoting physical necessity than moral +fitness:(254) as if he would say: As Christ has made the Church, it must +agree from one end to the other in doctrine and communion with the +doctrine and communion of the Church in which Peter, to whom He has +committed His sheep, speaks and rules. And so powerful is the derivation +of this authority that he who sits in the place of Mark, whom Peter sent, +punishes by degradation a bishop who disregards his sentence in the case +of a great writer, the brightest genius of the Church in that day. And +when we look at the spiritual state of the world at the commencement of +the third century, we find that Christianity, having formed and made its +place in human society, is penetrating through it more and more in every +direction. It is then that we discern the first beginnings of that great +spiritual creation, in which Reason has been applied to Faith under the +guidance of Authority, which the Christian Church, alone being in +possession of these three constituents, could alone produce, and has +carried on from that day to this. Alexandria was at this time the seat of +a Jewish religious philosophy; it had just become the seat likewise of a +heathen religious philosophy; there was within its church a great +catechetical school, in which the Faith as taught by the apostolical and +ecclesiastical tradition according to the scriptures was communicated. It +was to be expected that its teachers, such men as Pantaenus, Clement, and +Origen, would be led on from the more elementary work of imparting the +rudiments of the Faith to the scientific consideration of its deeper +mysteries; and even the sight of what was going on around them among Jews +and Greeks would invite them to attempt the construction of a Christian +religious philosophy. + +Moreover Gnosticism, of which Alexandria was the chief focus, had raised +the question of the unity and nature of the Godhead, and professed a false +gnosis as the perfection of religion. By this also thoughtful minds were +led to consider the true relation of knowledge to faith, and hence to +attempt the first rudiments of a Theology, the Science of Faith. + +To refute heathenism both as a Philosophy and as a Religion, and to set +forth Christianity as the absolute truth, was the very function of such +men as Clement and Origen; and the former in his work entitled _The +Pedagogue_ exhibits the conduct of life according to the principles and +doctrines of Christianity; while his Stromata, or Tapestries, exhibit the +building up of science on the foundation of faith.(255) We can hardly +realise now the difficulties which beset his great pupil Origen, when, +carrying on the master's thought, he endeavoured to found a theology. The +fact that he was among the first to venture on such a deep, is the best +excuse that can be made for those speculative errors into which he fell. + +III. And now we turn to the conduct of the empire towards this religion +which has grown up in its bosom. + +At once with the accession of Marcus Aurelius a temper of greater severity +to Christians is shown. The sort of toleration expressed in the rescript +of Pius to the province of Asia is withdrawn. No new law about them is +enacted, for none is needed, but the old law is let loose. The almost +sublime clemency of Marcus towards his revolted general Cassius, his reign +of nineteen years unstained with senatorial blood, and the campaigns +prolonged from year to year of one who loved his philosophic studies above +all things, and yet at the call of imperial duty gave up night and day to +the rudest toils of a weary conflict with barbarous tribes on the +frontier, have won for him immortal honour: his regard for his subjects in +general has sometimes given him in Christian estimation the place of +predilection among all princes ancient and modern.(256) It is well, then, +to consider his bearing towards Christians. Now among his teachers was +that Junius Rusticus, grandson of the man who perished for the sake of +liberty in Domitian's time, and in his day no doubt a perfect specimen of +the Roman gentleman and noble, a blending of all that was best in Cicero, +Laelius, and Cato, whom Marcus made Prefect of Rome, and to whom when +bearing that office he addressed a rescript containing the words, "to +Junius Rusticus, Prefect of the city, our friend." And what this friend of +Marcus thought on the most important subjects we may judge from the +sentiments of another friend and fellow-teacher of the emperor, Maximus of +Tyre, who has left written, "how God rules a mighty and stable kingdom +having for its limits not river or lake or shore or ocean, but the heaven +above and the earth beneath, in which He, impassive as law, bestows on +those who obey him the security of which He is the fountain: and the gods +his children need not images any more than good men statues. But just as +our vocal speech requires not in itself any particular characters, yet +human weakness has invented the alphabetical signs whereby to give +expression to its remembrance, so the nature of the gods needs not images, +but man, removed from them as far as heaven from earth, has devised these +signs, by which to give them names. There may be those strong enough to do +without these helps, but they are rare, and as schoolmasters guide their +scholars to write by first pencilling letters for them, so legislators +have invented these images as signs of the divine honour, and helps to +human memory. But God is the father and framer of all things, older than +heaven, superior to time and all fleeting nature, legislator ineffable, +unexpressed by voice, unseen by eye; and we who cannot grasp his essence +rest upon words and names, and forms of gold, ivory, and silver, in our +longing to conceive Him, giving to His nature what is fair among +ourselves. But fix Him only in the mind; I care not whether the Greek is +kindled into remembrance of Him by the art of Phidias, or the Egyptian by +the worship of animals, that fire is his symbol to these, and water to +those; only let them understand, let them love, let them remember Him +alone."(257) + +I doubt not that Junius Rusticus was familiar with such thoughts as these, +and as a matter of philosophic reflection assented to them. And now let us +study the scene which was enacted in his presence and by his command.(258) + +"At a time when the defenders of idolatry had proposed edicts in every +city and region to compel Christians to sacrifice, Justin and his +companions were seized and brought before the Prefect of Rome, Rusticus. +When they stood before his tribunal, the Prefect Rusticus said: Well, be +obedient to the gods and the emperor's edicts. Justin answered: No man can +ever be blamed or condemned who obeys the precepts of our Saviour Jesus +Christ. Then the Prefect Rusticus asked: In what sect's learning or +discipline are you versed? Justin replied: I endeavoured to learn every +sort of sect, and tried every kind of instruction; but at last I adhered +to the Christian discipline, though that is not acceptable to those who +are led by the error of a false opinion. Rusticus said: Wretch, is that +the sect in which you take delight? Assuredly, said Justin; since together +with a right belief I follow the example of Christians. What belief is +that, I pray? said the Prefect. Justin replied: The right belief which we +as Christians join with piety is this, to hold that there is one God, the +Maker and Creator of all things which are seen and which are not seen by +the body's eyes, and to confess one Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God, +foretold of old by the prophets, who will also come to judge the human +race, and who is the herald of salvation and the teacher of those who +learn of Him well. I indeed as a man am feeble, and far too little to say +anything great of His infinite Godhead: this I confess to be the office of +prophets, who many ages ago by inspiration foretold the advent upon earth +of the same whom I have called the Son of God. + +"The Prefect inquired where the Christians met. Justin answered: Each +where he will and can. Do you suppose that we are accustomed all to meet +in the same place? By no means, since the God of the Christians is not +circumscribed by place, but being invisible fills heaven and earth, and is +everywhere adored, and His glory praised by the faithful. The Prefect +said: Come, tell me where you meet and assemble your disciples. Justin +answered: For myself I have hitherto lodged near the house of a certain +Martin, by the Timiotine bath. It is the second time I have come to Rome, +and I know no other place than the one mentioned. And if anyone chose to +come to me, I communicated to him the doctrine of truth. You are, then, a +Christian, said Rusticus. Assuredly, said Justin, I am. + +"Then the Prefect asked Charito: Are you too a Christian? Charito replied: +By God's help I am a Christian. The Prefect asked the woman Charitana +whether she too followed the Faith of Christ. She replied: I also by the +gift of God am a Christian. Then Rusticus said to Evelpistus: And who are +you? He replied: I am Caesar's slave, but a Christian to whom Christ has +given liberty, and by His favour and grace made partaker of the same hope +with those whom you see. The Prefect then asked Hierax whether he too was +a Christian; and he replied: Certainly I am a Christian, since I worship +and adore the same God. The Prefect inquired: Was it Justin who made you +Christians? I, said Hierax, both was and will be a Christian. Paeon +likewise stood before him and said: I too am a Christian. Who taught you? +said the Prefect. He replied: I received this good confession from my +parents. Then Evelpistus said: I also was accustomed to hear with great +delight Justin's discourses, but it was from my parents that I learnt to +be a Christian. Then the Prefect: And where are your parents? In +Cappadocia, said Evelpistus. The Prefect likewise asked Hierax where his +parents were, and Hierax replied: Our true Father is Christ, and our +mother the Faith, by which we believe on Him. But my earthly parents are +dead. It was, however, from Iconium in Phrygia that I was brought hither. +The Prefect asked Liberianus whether he too was a Christian and without +piety towards the gods. He said: I also am a Christian, for I worship and +adore the only true God. + +"Then the Prefect turned to Justin and said: You fellow, who are said to +be eloquent, and think you hold the true discipline. If you are beaten +from head to foot, is it your persuasion that you will go up to heaven? +Justin answered: I hope if I suffer what you say, that I shall have what +those have who have kept the commands of Christ. For I know that to all +who live thus the divine grace is preserved until the whole world have its +consummation. The Prefect Rusticus replied: It is, then, your opinion that +you will go up to heaven to receive some reward? I do not opine, said +Justin, but I know, and am so certain of this that I am incapable of +doubt. Rusticus said: Let us come at length to what is before us and +urgent. Agree together and with one mind sacrifice to the gods. Justin +replied: No one of right mind deserts piety to fall into error and +impiety. The Prefect Rusticus said: Unless you be willing to obey our +commands, you will suffer torments without mercy. Justin answered: What we +most desire is to suffer torments for our Lord Jesus Christ and to be +saved: for this will procure for us salvation and confidence before that +terrible tribunal of the same our Lord and Saviour, at which by divine +command the whole world shall attend. The same likewise said all the other +martyrs, adding: What thou wilt do, do quickly; for we are Christians and +sacrifice not to idols. + +"The Prefect hearing this pronounced the following sentence: Let those who +have refused to sacrifice to the gods, and to obey the emperor's edict, be +beaten with rods, and led away to capital punishment, as the laws enjoin. +And so the holy martyrs praising God were led to the accustomed place, and +after being beaten were struck with the axe, and consummated their +martyrdom in the confession of the Saviour. After which certain of the +faithful took away their bodies, and laid them in a suitable place, by the +help of the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom be glory for ever and +ever." + +As the pillars of Trajan and Antonine faithfully record the deeds of those +whose names they bear, and stand before posterity as a visible history, +so, I conceive, the judgment of Ignatius by Trajan, and that of Justin by +Rusticus, under the eye as it were of Marcus Aurelius and in his name, +embody to us perfectly the mind and conduct of those great emperors +towards Christians. The marble of Phidias could present no more perfect +sculpture, the pencil of Apelles no more breathing picture, than the +simple transcription of the judicial record given above. In the mind of +Marcus the jealousy of the old Roman for his country's worship joined with +the philosopher's dislike of Christian principles to move him from that +more equable temper which dictated the later moderation of his immediate +predecessor. It scarcely needed the spirit which ruled at Rome to kindle +passionate outbreaks against Christians in the various cities of the +empire. We have just seen the impassive majesty of Roman law declaring at +the chief seat of power that to be a Christian is a capital crime. If we +go at the same time to Smyrna, there the voices of a furious populace are +demanding that an aged man venerable through the whole region for his +innocent life and his virtues, be cast to the lions, because he is "the +teacher of impiety, the father of the Christians, the destroyer of our +gods, who has instructed many not to sacrifice to them or adore them." No +grander scene among all the deeds of men is preserved to us, as described +by his own church at the time, than the martyrdom of Polycarp, as after +eighty-six years of Christian service he stood bound at the stake before +the raging multitude in the theatre, and uttered his last prayer: "I thank +thee, O God of angels and powers, and all the generation of the just who +live before thee, that thou hast thought me worthy of this day and hour to +receive a portion in the number of thy martyrs, in the chalice of thy +Christ." Ten years later, in the great city of Lyons a similar spectacle +was offered on a far larger scale. The Bishop Pothinus, more than ninety +years old, is carried before the tribunal, "the magistrates of the city +following him, and all the multitude pursuing him with cries as if he were +Christ." But the triumph of the bishop is accompanied by that of many +among his flock, of whom while all were admirable, yet the slave Blandina, +poor and contemptible in appearance, surpassed the rest. "She was exposed +to the beasts raised as it were upon a cross, and so praying most +contentedly to God, she inspired the utmost ardour in her fellow +combatants, who with the eyes of the body saw in this their sister's +person Him who had been crucified for them in order to persuade those who +should believe in Him that whoever suffers for the glory of Christ shall +obtain companionship with the living God."(259) Since the wild beasts +refused to touch her, Blandina and the survivors among her +fellow-sufferers were remanded to prison, in order that the pleasure of +the emperor might be taken, one of them being a Roman citizen. For this +persecution had arisen without any command of his, and the punishments +were inflicted in virtue of the ordinary law. After an interval, as it +would seem, of two months, a rescript was received from Marcus Aurelius +which ordered that those who confessed should be punished ignominiously, +those who denied, be dismissed. "And so at the time of our great fair, +when a vast multitude from the various provinces flock thither, the +governor ordered the most blessed martyrs to be brought before his +tribunal, exhibiting them to the people as in theatric pomp; and after a +last interrogation those who were Roman citizens were beheaded, and the +rest given to the wild beasts."(260) But Blandina, after being every day +brought to behold the sufferings of her companions, "the last of all, like +a noble mother who had kindled her children to the combat, and sent them +forward as conquerors to the king,--was eager to follow them, rejoicing and +exulting over her departure, as if invited to a nuptial banquet, not cast +before wild beasts. At length, after scourging and tearing and burning, +she was put in a net and exposed to the bull. Tossed again and again by +him, yet feeling now nothing which was done to her, both from the +intensity of hope with which she grasped the rewards of faith, and from +her intimate intercourse in prayer with Christ, in the end she had her +throat cut, as a victim, while the heathen themselves confessed that never +had they seen a woman who had borne so much and so long."(261) + +These three scenes of martyrdom at Rome, at Smyrna, and at Lyons, will +give a notion of the grounds upon which Eusebius asserts that in the reign +of Marcus Aurelius innumerable martyrs suffered(262) throughout the world +through popular persecutions. Respecting the following reign of Commodus +he says, on the contrary, that the Church enjoyed peace, for while the law +which considered Christianity an illicit religion had not been revoked, it +was made capital to inform against any one as Christian; and yet if the +information took place, and the crime was proved, the punishment of death +ensued, as in the case of the senator Apollonius recorded by him.(263) +This state of things would seem to have lasted about seventeen years, +until the year 197, when Severus, some time after his accession, became +unfavourable to Christians. And it brings us to Tertullian, whose writings +are full of testimonies to the sufferings endured by Christians for their +Faith. For some time these sufferings would seem to fall under the same +sort of intermittent popular persecution, which we have seen prevailing in +the time of Marcus: but in the year 202 Severus published an edict +forbidding any to become Jews or Christians. And forthwith a persecution +broke out so severe and terrible, that many thought the time of Antichrist +was come. It was no longer the mere action of an original law against all +unauthorised religions, but an assault led on by the emperor himself, who +turned directly the imperial power against Christianity as a whole. It +raged especially at Alexandria, where the master of the catechetical +school writes: "we have before our eyes every day abundant instances of +martyrs, tortured by fire, impaled, beheaded: they are superior to +pleasure; they conquer suffering; they overcome the world."(264) Then it +was that Origen, a youth of seventeen, desired to share the martyrdom of +his father Leonides, and that seven whom he had himself instructed, gained +this crown. Then it was that the slave Potamiaena, in the bloom of youth +and beauty, not only rejected every blandishment of corruption, but +suffered the extremest torture of fire to preserve her innocence and +faith, and gained at Alexandria such a name as St. Lawrence afterwards +gained at Rome. So at Carthage Perpetua and Felicitas, young mothers, with +their companions repeated the example of those whom we have seen suffering +at Lyons; in which city a second persecution as vehement as the first +breaking out numbered Irenaeus with his predecessor Pothinus, his people in +this case as in the other accompanying the pastor's sacrifice with their +own. + +This state of suffering continued during the life of Severus for nine +years: and splendid examples of Christian championship were shown in all +the churches.(265) It is only with the accession of Caracalla that peace +is restored, and then ensues a period of comparative repose: that is, +while the ordinary law against the Christian Faith as an illicit religion +still continues, it is understood that the emperor does not wish it to be +put in action. In such intervals that Faith, strengthened by the conflicts +it had undergone, and admired by those before whose eyes it had enabled +its adherents to brave and endure every sort of suffering, sprung up and +shot out with redoubled vigour, and the seed which the blood of the +martyrs had shed abroad found time to grow. + +The summary of the seventy-four years is this. From 161 to 180 there are +nineteen years of irregular but severe persecution, followed by seventeen, +from 180 to 197, wherein the denouncing of Christians is forbidden, though +if brought to trial, they are punishable with death. Five years succeed, +from 197 to 202, in which the favour of Severus seems lost, and the state +of intermittent persecution takes effect. Then breaks out a general +persecution, set on foot by the emperor himself, and we may judge if he +who slaughtered his senate spared Christians. This lasts for nine years +until his death in 211, whereon a time of peace returns, which is most +complete during the reign of Alexander, but continues more or less from +211 to the end of his reign in 235. + +On a review of the whole period it is evident that the Church has passed +from its state of concealment into almost full light. The fiery trial +which it met at the beginning of the third century from the hand of +Severus is the best proof that can be given how greatly it had increased, +how it could no longer be ignored or despised; how its organisation which +was hidden from Trajan was at least partially revealed to Severus, and how +he saw and attempted to meet the danger which the earlier emperor would +have tried to stamp out, had he divined it. But it is evident also that in +proportion as the Christian Faith had grown, the heathen empire had been +shaken in its foundations. Its period of just government was over; its +imperial power was to fall henceforth into the hands of adventurers, with +whom it would be more and more the symbol of force alone, and not of law: +henceforth they would seldom even in blood be Roman, and more seldom still +in principles. Marcus was well nigh the last zealot for the Jupiter of the +Capitol: within a generation after him Heliogabalus will think of a fusion +of all religions in his god the sun, and Alexander Severus of a religious +syncretism wherein Orpheus, Abraham, and Christ testify together to the +divine unity.(266) Nor is this a fancy of the prince alone. All the +thinking minds of his time have become ashamed of Olympus and its gods. +The cross has wounded them to death. A new philosophy--the last fortress +into which retreating heathenism throws itself--while it breaks up Roman +life, prepares the way for the Christian Faith which it strenuously +combats. The Emperor Severus, fixing the eye of a statesman and a soldier +on that Faith, contemplates its grasp upon society, and decrees from the +height of the throne a general assault upon it; while his wife encourages +a writer(267) to draw an ideal heathen portrait as a counterpart to the +character of Christ, tacitly subtracting from the gospels an imitation +which is to supply the place of the reality. The time was not far distant +when Origen would already discern and prophesy the complete triumph of the +religion thus assailed; and if Celsus had objected, that were all to do as +Christians did, the emperor would be deserted, and his power fall into the +hands of the most savage and lawless barbarians, would reply: "If all did +as I do, men would honour the emperor as a divine command, and the +barbarians drawing nigh to the word of God would become most law-loving +and most civilised; their worship would be dissolved, and that of the +Christians alone prevail, as one day it will alone prevail, by means of +that Word gathering to itself more and more souls."(268) + +But before such a goal be reached, many a martyr's crown has yet to be +won, and more than barbarian lawlessness and cruelty have to be overcome. + + + + + +CHAPTER XII. THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. + + + "Rex pacificus magnificatus est, cujus vultum desiderat universa + terra." + + +The third century is that during which the Christian Church was making its +way into every relation of life, and taking possession of human society. +During this period it advances into full light, and becomes a manifest +power. In the second century Celsus had attacked it as disclosed only to +the yearning hearts of slaves, and fostered by the devotion of the weaker +sex. At the distance of three generations Origen answered him, but the +religion which he defended already stood avowed alike before the inquiring +gaze of philosophers, the corrupt crowds of cities, and the jealous fear +of rulers. Even in Rome, the sceptered head of idolatry, whose nobles the +great political traditions of their city, and whose populace their sensual +life, having its root in a false worship, made the most difficult to +convert, the hated faith is known to have had public churches by the time +of Alexander Severus, two hundred years after its first rise.(269) And +much more everywhere else it had planted its foot openly on the soil of +the empire. It is time, then, to view the Church as an institution +offering the strongest contrast to the empire itself, to the barbarism +which surrounded the empire, and to the sectarianism which was everywhere +aspiring to counter-work and supplant that entire body of truth on some +portion of which nevertheless it was all the time feeding. + +1. And first the empire during this century presents itself to us in a +most unwonted aspect. + +Septimius Severus having destroyed the rivals who competed with him for +what was now become the great object of a successful general's ambition, +based his power avowedly on the sword. The secret of empire which he +transmitted to his children was to foster and indulge the army, and to +disregard all else. The senate, the representative of legal power, he +despised and decimated. He died in 211, not before his eldest son had +already lifted his hand against him, and the four princes of his house all +perished by the sword, one by the hand of a brother, the other three by +revolted soldiers. In the seventy-three years which elapse from his death +to the accession of Diocletian twenty-five emperors are acknowledged at +Rome, of whom twenty-three come to an end by violent deaths, almost always +by insurrections of soldiers, under instigation of ambitious officers. +Besides these, eight associates of the empire, and nineteen generals who +during the reign of Gallienus assume the purple in various provinces, are +all slain. During eighty-two years Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus, +all at a mature time of life, adopted by the actual ruler to succeed, had +governed a stable empire: but now it passes within a shorter period of +time, the term of a single human life, nay a term in one case embraced by +a single reign,(270) into twenty-five different hands. And indeed it +seemed after the capture of the Emperor Valerian by the Persians, as if +that great confederacy, which had just celebrated the thousandth +anniversary of the imperial city's foundation, was about to break up and +be resolved into its component parts. At one moment two great princesses, +Victoria and Zenobia, worthy even by the avowal of Romans to wear the +Roman diadem, were on the point of establishing the one an empire of the +Gauls in the West, the other an empire of the East embracing just those +countries which Antony had ruled with Cleopatra at his side. A succession +of great generals, all from the province of Illyricum, at last saves the +empire and reasserts its unity. But the forty-nine years following the +murder of Alexander Severus are filled by the struggles of twenty +sovereigns and nineteen pretenders to sovereignty, scarcely any of whom +reign so much as five years. Many of them are rulers of great ability and +remarkable energy. Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, and Carus, and perhaps +Decius, required but happier circumstances to be emperors whose fame would +have matched that of Trajan or Hadrian: but their short tenure of power, +occupied with the vast effort to restore unity and beat back the +barbarian, prevented their doing more than preserve the imperial power and +the empire itself. This whole time, then, in civil society was one of +fluctuation, anxiety, disaster, alarms from beyond the frontiers and +anarchy within them. The Roman peace seemed departing, and the majesty of +the empire irreparably violated. Men could not tell what the morrow would +bring forth. The fairest cities of the Roman world, Alexandria and +Antioch, narrowly escaped perishing through internal discord or hostile +surprise. Greece and Asia Minor, after reposing for centuries under the +safeguard of the Roman name, found themselves swept through and desolated +by barbarian hordes. Italy itself was in imminent danger of the same lot. +Towards the end of this period the senate by the election of Tacitus seems +to make what may be termed its final effort to assert itself as the +depository of legitimate power, the representative of civil society: and +this time of confusion issues in a rejection of any such claim, and the +establishment of unlimited despotism in the empire as reconstituted by +Diocletian. To these straits, then, the first great and haughty enemy of +the Christian Church was reduced, so that the power which a century before +could look down with proud indifference on the sufferings of Christians +now seemed to tremble for its own existence. And in such a condition of +human society the great advance of the Church was carried on. + +2. But beyond the empire to the north, advancing upon it like the +multitudinous waves of the ocean on an exposed coast, lay the +ever-battling legions of the northern tribes in their three great +divisions of the Teutonic, Slavic, and Finnish races. If Roman society +suffered throes of distress, its condition was peace compared with the +instability which may be said to have been the very life of these tribes. +Once at least in every century they gather themselves up for a +concentrated effort against the empire whose rich civilisation lies +stretched out before them as a continual prey. After the failure of +Arminius to construct a German kingdom, and of Marobod to construct a +Suevian, in the time of Augustus, Decebalus, in the time of Trajan, makes +another effort in behalf of his Dacians. But here the great Roman general +forces barbarism to retreat, and plants a fresh citadel in its very +stronghold by establishing a province north of the Danube. Then there is +comparative tranquillity for sixty years. It seems as if these two +generations were offered by divine Providence to the empire yet in its +unbroken strength as a time for its pacific conversion, which if it had +accepted, the eruption of the northern nations might for ever have been +kept back by the unity which religious conviction would have bestowed on +civilisation, and the fresh and living force which it would have imparted +to society not yet exhausted by despotic power. But with Marcus Aurelius +the empire turns definitively away. A new religious revolution under Odin +in Scandinavia had wakened up with redoubled force the destroying energy +of barbarism. The Goths had migrated from Sweden to the Black Sea; all the +tribes in the interval had been displaced and dashed upon each other by +this removal. The war of the Marcomans occupied during eighteen years, +from 162 to 180, the whole forces of the empire; Rome was obliged even to +arm its slaves, and Italy feared an invasion more terrible than that of +the Cimbri, which it cost Marcus Aurelius his life to avert. + +Again, during the captivity of Valerian, another grand assault of the +northern tribes takes place. The Franks attack western, the Alamans +eastern Gaul; they pass the Alps and advance to Ravenna, while Alamans and +Sarmatians throw themselves upon Pannonia, and the Goths seize upon Thrace +and Greece. The emperors Claudius, Aurelian, and Probus are the saviours +of Rome from this new flood. Of the last of these it is recorded that he +dealt successively with Franks, Burgundians, Alamans, Vandals, the +Bastarnae, and the whole barbarian brood: and seventy cities raised from +their ruins, and fortifications repaired upon a line of fifteen hundred +miles, were the fruits of his victories.(271) + +So much for the north: while on the east the Persian empire, hereditary +foe of the Roman name, had found a new and more vigorous master in the +race of the Sassanidae, who took the religion of Zoroaster to reanimate the +national spirit. Ardeschir claimed once more the whole realm which Cyrus +and Darius had ruled. Henceforth the Romans had a neighbour more than ever +threatening their eastern frontier, and never to be wholly subdued, until +the empire of Mohammed arose to detach a great part of their dominion, and +to move with redoubled force upon what remained. + +To the south of the Roman provinces in Africa were tribes at least as +savage as those of the north. Thus the whole empire was enringed with +enemies: on the east an opposing civilisation and religion; on the north +and south barbarian tribes in perpetual confusion and conflict with each +other. Such was the great realm of disorder which surged and heaved to the +north and south of the empire; and such the second great enemy which in +future times was to occupy the Christian Church, and at present offered +the strongest contrast to that moral polity of peace and goodwill, of +loyal submission, patient endurance, and heroic fortitude, which was +spreading daily in the empire. + +3. But there was yet another enemy within the empire itself, which from +the beginning tracked the footsteps of the Church, grew with its increase, +and everywhere attempted to dissolve its organisation and weaken its +influence. The whole second century is occupied with the rise and tangled +growth of the Gnostic sects. But these were not alone. From the very time +of the Apostles we find the evidence of a number of sects, rising and +falling, preying on and devouring each other, none without some portion of +Christian truth, on which it feeds, blended with Jewish, Greek, Oriental, +Egyptian, Libyan notions, prejudices, and errors; domiciled in various +parts of the empire in accordance with the national or local character +which they represent. They reproduce with a Christian colour the sects and +the sect-life of the Greek schools of philosophy. As the wheat has its +proper weed, which springs up in the midst of it and counterfeits it, so +error, everywhere gathering round some portion of truth, forms itself into +an antagonistic life. The force and truth of the Christian Church were +shown not in the absence of these rivals, but in its triumph over their +variety, in its remaining one whilst they diverged endlessly from that +unchanging original type, in its continuous and uniform growth whilst they +rose and fell, domineered in certain times and places, and then +disappeared. In this its course the Church had to master very great +difficulties, which were inherent in the manner of its rise. It had to +remain one society in spite of the isolation and self-government of its +local portions. It possessed in each place but a feeble minority of +members compared with the mass of unbelievers. Against its assimilating +power was ranged the force of national feelings which underlay the Roman +authority throughout the whole empire. It had to deal entirely by moral +means with the full liberty of error to which its adherents were exposed. +Lastly, it had to do all this amid the continual strain of threatened or +actual persecution, a state which at its best was one of insecurity, and +which any local trouble, the ill-will of a mob, the greed or ambition or +fear of provincial rulers, not to speak of the imperial state-policy, +might turn into the pressure of severe suffering. + +In the face of such difficulties, if the Christian Church continued one in +its doctrine, organisation, and manner of life, such unity was assuredly +the proof of a divine power residing it. + +I shall now proceed to show by the testimony of eye-witnesses that such +unity was its distinguishing characteristic. + +Now there was not a race or a religion in all this Roman empire, endless +as the races and religions comprehended in it were, out of which +individuals were not drawn into the bosom of the one great Christian +society; and yet within this there was a perfect union of all hearts and +minds in the conviction that the multitude so collected was one people +apart from all other peoples. And this conviction is itself the great +marvel. How was it wrought? For it was an utterly new thing upon the +earth. The union of race, language, and locality, with which sameness of +religion was usually interwoven, had been hitherto the bond of such +nations as had as yet existed. The great city itself had sprung up and +flourished by the strict union of these four things. After its career of +foreign conquest had substituted for the government of a city the great +Roman confederation, it had indeed, like the preceding world-empires, in +fact disregarded all these, being supported by a force independent of them +all. But that force was material power. The great statue was of iron. It +was a novelty unheard of as yet among the gentiles and unimagined by poet +or philosopher, to create a polity which, disregarding sameness of race, +of language, and of locality, should exist and maintain itself throughout +the whole earth solely by the force of faith and charity. + +Such was the idea of Christians about themselves from the beginning. The +idea preceded the fact. The prophets foretold it; the Apostles proclaimed +it:(272) let us observe the fulfilment of the prophecy and the +proclamation. We will take our stand in the middle of the third century, +when seven full generations have passed since the day of Pentecost. In +this time a people has been formed. Already a hundred and fifty years +before an eyewitness among themselves had observed the nature of this +people. "Christians are not distinguished from other men either by +country, or by language, or by customs: for they have no cities peculiar +to themselves, nor any language different from others, nor singularity in +their mode of life.... But they dwell both in Greek and in barbarous +cities, as the lot of each may be, following local customs as to raiment +and food, and the rest of their life, but exhibiting withal a polity of +their own, marvellous and truly incredible. They dwell in their own +country, but it is as sojourners; they share in everything as citizens, +yet suffer everything as strangers. Every foreign land is to them a +country, and every country a foreign land.... In a word, what the soul is +in the body, that Christians are in the world. The soul is diffused +through all the limbs of the body, and Christians through all the cities +of the world.... The soul is shut within the body, of which it is the +bond, and Christians are like a garrison in the world, which they hold +together."(273) + +Here a writer, calling himself a disciple of Apostles, describes to us, at +the beginning of the second century, what the apostolic age of seventy +years had wrought. He puts his finger just upon the marvel which we are +contemplating. Fifty years later, at the moment the empire was culminating +under the serene rule of Antoninus, a convert from heathenism, a +philosopher who had spent his life in examining all the sects and races of +the empire, and who afterwards became a martyr, said of Christians that +being "quarried out of the side of Christ, they were the true Israelitic +race," "altogether being called the body, for both people and church, +being many in number, are called by one name as one thing;" they are in +fact "as one man before the Maker of all things, through the name of His +first-born Son," the High-priest gathering up first in the prophetical +vision and then in the real fact "the true high-priestly race"(274) in His +own Person. Thus Justin pointed out this conception of the Christian +people to the Jew of his time as both foretold in prophecy and exhibited +in fact. The longer that such a people as this endured, the greater would +be the marvel. + +A hundred years after this, Origen uses the same language and points to +the same marvel. He had in the year 249, at the entreaty of a friend and +pupil, set himself in the maturity of life, and of a renown which filled +the Church as no man's before had filled it, to answer the attack of a +heathen philosopher, Celsus, upon Christianity. He was writing just at the +end of the longest period of peace which is found during those three +centuries. From the death of the Emperor Septimius Severus in 211 to that +of the Emperor Philip in this year 249, there had been, with the exception +of a short attack from Maximin, to which his death put a stop, no general +persecution of Christians. Thus thirty-eight years had passed of such +tranquillity as it was ever in those times the lot of Christians to +obtain. The mother of one emperor had been Origen's disciple, and the +emperor actually reigning was a Christian, however unworthy of such a +profession. Now in this work Origen speaks of the superiority of the +Christian churches in each several place, as, for instance, at Athens, +Corinth, Alexandria, to the heathen assemblies, and of the Christian +rulers to the heathen. He puts it as a mark of divine power that God +sending His Son, "a God come in human soul and body,"(275) should have +established everywhere churches offering the contrast of their polity to +the assemblies of the superstitious, the impure, and the unjust. He +considers that Christians do a greater benefit to their country than all +other men by teaching them piety to the one God, and "gathering up into a +certain divine and heavenly city those who have lived well in the smallest +cities."(276) "We," he says, "knowing that there is in each city another +fabric of a country, founded by the word of God, call those who are +powerful in word and of a virtuous life to the government of churches: we +do not accept the covetous to such a place, but force it against their +will upon those who in their moderation would decline taking on them this +general care of the Church of God."(277) And the compulsion thus exercised +is that "of the great King, whom we are persuaded to be the Son of God, +God the Word." But this other form of country which he saw in each city is +"the whole Church of God, which the divine scriptures assert to be the +Body of Christ, animated by the Son of God, while the limbs of this Body +are particular believers; for as the soul quickens and moves the body, +whose nature it is not to have the movement of life from itself, so the +Word moving to what is fitting, and energising in the whole Body, the +Church, moves likewise each member of it, who does nothing without the +Word."(278) And he completes this view in another beautiful passage +wherein he describes Christ as the high-priest Aaron, who has received +upon his single body the whole chrism, from whom it flows down upon his +beard, the symbol of the complete man, and on to the utmost skirt of his +raiment. Every one who partakes of Him, partakes likewise of his chrism, +because Christ is the head of the Church, and the Church and Christ one +Body.(279) We have here in Origen's thought one and the same divine power, +proceeding forth from the Incarnation, which forms first the Body of the +Lord, and then gathers into this Body every individual as a copy of the +Christ. The heathen scoffer had objected: why send forth one spirit into +one corner of the earth? It was needed to breathe that spirit into many +bodies, and to send them forth into all the world. Nay, replied Origen, +"the whole Church of God--animated by the Son of God as the soul quickens +and moves the body--was enough. It needed not that there should be many +bodies and many souls, like that of Jesus, in the way you suppose, for the +one Word as the sun of righteousness rising from Judea was sufficient to +send forth rays that should reach every soul that would receive him." He +has done far more than you suggest: every member of that one Body has +received according to his measure a due portion of anointment: after the +model of the Christ, they too are Christs; "so that beginning in the body +He should dawn in power and in spirit upon the universe of souls which +would no longer be destitute of God." + +In Origen's mind, then, the greatness of the King lies specifically in +this, that out of confusion He draws unity, out of those who were no +people He forms a people, out of nations and tribes at enmity He moulds an +indivisible kingdom, and from His own Body a Body which shall embrace a +universe of souls, instinct with one life, and that His own. This was +Origen's view of the work and triumph of Christ, as he saw it before him, +at the eve of the great Decian persecution in 249. + +Origen was writing this at a moment of great interest. It was the last +year which preceded those two generations, in the course of which five +great persecutions should be directed by the emperors against the Church. +He was then a man of sixty-four. The son of a martyr, he had when a youth +of eighteen beheld his father imprisoned for the faith, and had encouraged +him to suffer the loss of all his goods, and death itself, without +regarding that large family which must be left in penury, of whom Origen +was the eldest. He was burning himself to share his father's sufferings. +In the persecution of which this was the opening Eusebius tells us that +seven of his disciples were martyrs: and, lastly, he was to undergo such +cruelties himself in the persecution of Decius, then on the eve of +breaking out, that he is believed to have died of their results. Now it is +in this work that he speaks of the remarkable providence of God in +preserving Christians, who by their religion were bound not to defend +themselves, against the attacks of their enemies, for God, he says, had +fought for them, and from time to time had stopped those who had risen up +with the purpose of destroying them. Few and easily numbered were those +who hitherto had suffered death for the Christian Faith, samples chosen by +God as champions to encourage the rest, while He prevented their whole +nation from being rooted out: for it was His purpose that this nation +should be firmly rooted and consolidated, and the whole world be filled +with its saving doctrine and discipline.(280) Thus it was by His will +alone that He scattered every plot directed against them, so that neither +emperors, nor local governors, nor the people should be able to indulge +their wrath beyond a certain point. Origen, when he thus wrote, could look +back on a period of thirty-eight years, during which, with the exception +of the severe but passing storm raised by the Emperor Maximin, peace had +reigned: years which he had himself employed in unwearied labours of +teaching, writing, and converting; in which he had directed and advised an +emperor's mother, and seen a Christian emperor; in which he had witnessed +a wonderful increase of the Christian people, and indeed of this increase +his words above cited convey a faithful picture. He knew not the fearful +trials which were to be encountered before that triumph of the truth which +he already anticipated should be attained: or that God was about to accept +from the grayhaired man the sacrifice which the impetuous youth had +affronted without success. For scarcely has he written this book when he +has to fly for his life before the edict of Decius, who will attempt to +destroy the Christian religion, and to whose anger Pope S. Fabian falls a +victim. Amid great peril after long delay the next Pope Cornelius is +chosen. And now for the first time a new danger from within assaults the +Church. Novatian, a Roman presbyter of great repute, attempts after the +due election and consecration of Cornelius to usurp his place, and to +divide the one flock of Christ. Under circumstances so wholly altered from +those in which Origen above was writing, we come to our next witness, the +man in all the Western Church the most renowned, as Origen was in the +Eastern. + +For it was on occasion of the first antipope, an effort, that is, within +the See of Peter itself to arm the episcopal power at its very source +against itself, to set an altar up against the legitimate altar, and to +divide the sacraments of the Church from the Bride whose dowry they are, +that S. Cyprian wrote his treatise on the Unity of the Church. "It was for +the purpose of reminding his brethren that unity is the first element of +the Christian state, and that those who break off from the principle of +unity, which is lodged in the episcopate, even though they be confessors +and martyrs, have no portion in the hopes of the gospel."(281) This +definite purpose, so unlike that state of leisure and tranquillity in +which Origen answered by thought and learning a speculative attack, will +account for the very remarkable precision and force of S. Cyprian's +language. + +"The enemy," he says, "detected and down-fallen by the advent of Christ, +now that light is come to the nations--seeing his idols left--has made +heresies and schisms, wherewith to subvert faith, to corrupt truth, and to +rend unity." But this will all be in vain if men will look to the Head, +and keep to the doctrine of the Master. For the truth may be quickly +stated.(282) "The Lord saith unto Peter: I say unto thee that thou art +Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell +shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the +kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound +also in heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed +in heaven. To him again, after His resurrection, He says: Feed my sheep. +Upon him, being one, He builds His Church; and though He gives to all the +Apostles an equal power, and says: As my Father sent Me, even so send I +you; receive ye the Holy Ghost: whosesoever sins ye remit, they shall be +remitted to him, and whosesoever sins ye retain, they shall be +retained;--yet in order to manifest unity, He has by His own authority so +placed the source of the same unity as to begin from one. Certainly the +other Apostles also were what Peter was, endued with an equal fellowship +both of honour and power; but a commencement is made from unity, that the +Church may be set before us as one: which one Church in the Canticle of +Canticles doth the Holy Spirit design and name in the Person of our Lord: +My dove, my spotless one is but one; she is the only one of her mother, +elect of her that bare her. + +"He who holds not this unity of the Church, does he think that he holds +the faith? He who strives against and resists the Church, is he assured +that he is in the Church? For the blessed Apostle Paul teaches this same +thing, and manifests the sacrament of unity thus speaking: There is one +Body and one Spirit, even as ye are called in one Hope of your calling; +one Lord, one Faith, one Baptism, one God. This unity firmly should we +hold and maintain, especially we bishops, presiding in the Church, in +order that we may approve the Episcopate itself to be one and undivided. +Let no one deceive the brotherhood by falsehood; no one corrupt the truth +of our faith by a faithless treachery. The Episcopate is one, of which a +part is held by each without division of the whole. The Church is likewise +one, though she be spread abroad, and multiplies with the increase of her +progeny: even as the sun has rays many, yet one light, and the tree boughs +many, yet its strength is one, seated in the deep-lodged root; and as, +when many streams flow down from one source, though a multiplicity of +waters seems to be diffused from the bountifulness of the overflowing +abundance, unity is preserved in the source itself. Part a ray of the sun +from its orb, and its unity forbids this division of light; break a branch +from the tree, once broken it can bud no more; cut the stream from its +fountain, the remnant will be dried up. Thus the Church, flooded with the +light of the Lord, puts forth her rays through the whole world, with yet +one light, which is spread upon all places, while its unity of body is not +infringed. She stretches forth her branches over the universal earth, in +the riches of plenty, and pours abroad her bountiful and onward streams; +yet is there one head, one source, one mother, abundant in the results of +her fruitfulness. + +"It is of her womb that we are born; our nourishing is from her milk, our +quickening from her breath. The Spouse of Christ cannot become adulterate; +she is undefiled and chaste; owning but one home, and guarding with +virtuous modesty the sanctity of one chamber. She it is who keeps us for +God, and appoints unto the kingdom the sons she has borne. Whosoever parts +company with the Church and joins himself to an adulteress, is estranged +from the promises of the Church. He who leaves the Church of Christ, +attains not to Christ's rewards. He is an alien, an outcast, an enemy. He +can no longer have God for a Father who has not the Church for a mother. +If any man was able to escape who remained without the ark of Noah, then +will that man escape who is out of doors beyond the Church. The Lord warns +us and says: He who is not with Me is against Me, and he who gathereth not +with Me, scattereth. He who breaks the peace and concord of Christ, sets +himself against Christ. He who gathers elsewhere but in the Church, +scatters the Church of Christ. The Lord says: I and the Father are one; +and again of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost it is written: And +these three are one. And does anyone think that oneness, thus proceeding +from the divine immutability, and cohering in heavenly sacraments, admits +of being sundered in the Church, and split by the divorce of antagonist +wills? He who holds not this unity holds not the law of God, holds not the +faith of Father and Son, holds not the truth unto salvation. + +"This sacrament of unity, this bond of concord inseparably cohering, is +signified in the place in the Gospel where the coat of our Lord Jesus +Christ is in nowise parted or cut, but is received a whole garment, by +them who cast lots who should rather wear it, and is possessed as an +inviolate and individual robe. The divine scripture thus speaks: But for +the coat, because it was not sewed, but woven from the top throughout, +they said one to another, Let us not rend it, but cast lots whose it shall +be. It has with it a unity descending from above, as coming, that is, from +heaven and from the Father; which it was not for the receiver and owner in +anywise to sunder, but which he received once for all and indivisibly as +one unbroken whole. He cannot own Christ's garment who splits and divides +Christ's Church. On the other hand, when on Solomon's death his kingdom +and people were split in parts, Ahijah the prophet, meeting King Jeroboam +in the field, rent his garment into twelve pieces, saying: Take thee ten +pieces; for thus saith the Lord: Behold, I will rend the kingdom out of +the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to thee; and two tribes +shall be to him for my servant David's sake, and for Jerusalem, the city +which I have chosen, to place my name there. When the twelve tribes of +Israel were torn asunder, the prophet Ahijah rent his garment. But because +Christ's people cannot be rent, His coat, woven and conjoined throughout, +was not divided by those to whom it fell. Individual, conjoined, +coentwined, it shows the coherent concord of our people who put on Christ. +In the sacrament and sign of His garment, He has declared the unity of His +Church. + +"Who, then, is the criminal and traitor, who so inflamed by the madness of +discord, as to think aught can rend, or to venture on rending God's unity, +the Lord's garment, Christ's Church? He Himself warns us in His Gospel and +teaches, saying: And there shall be one Fold and one Shepherd.... Think +you that any can stand and live who withdraws from the Church, and forms +for himself new homes and different domiciles?... Believers have no house +but the Church only. This house, this hostelry of unanimity, the Holy +Spirit designs and betokens in the Psalms, thus speaking: God who makes +men to dwell with one mind in a house. In the house of God, in the Church +of Christ, men dwell with one mind, and persevere in concord and +simplicity." To this he adds: "There is one God, and one Christ, and His +Church one, and the Faith one, and one the people joined into the solid +unity of a body by the cement of concord. Unity cannot be sundered, nor +can one body be divided by a dissolution of its structure, nor be severed +into pieces with torn and lacerated vitals. Parted from the womb nothing +can live and breathe in its separated state: it loses its principle of +health;" for "charity will ever exist in the kingdom; she will abide +evermore in the unity of a brotherhood which entwines itself around her." + +And he is more specific still; for this "one Church is founded by the Lord +Christ upon Peter, having its source and its principle in unity," "on +whose person He built the Church, and in whom He began and exhibited the +source of unity."(283) + +Certainly if any idea has ever been put forth clearly and definitely, it +would seem to be the idea of organic unity here delineated by Cyprian, as +necessary not merely to the well-being but to the essence of the Church. +Nor does one see what words he could have found more expressly to reject +the notion that the individual bishop in his diocese was the unit on the +aggregation of which the Church was built, and to assert in contradiction +that the Church was built on the Primacy of Peter as its generative, +formative, controlling, and unifying power. According to him the whole +order and government of the Church are bound up in the Lord's words to +Peter: while as to the Church herself three ideas are in his mind so +compacted together, so running into and pervading each other, that they +cannot be severed; and these ideas are Unity, Grace, and Truth. The +symbols of the Sun, the Tree, and the Fountain, the Lord's Coat, the one +Flock tethered in one Fold under one Shepherd, the one House as opposed to +sundry self-chosen domiciles, the Mother embracing her whole progeny in +her womb, illustrate and enforce each other, and all contain the three +ideas, of which Grace and Truth are as the warp and woof in which the +substance of the one web consists. For Unity, Truth, and Grace, viewed as +attributes of the Church, are blended together in the light and warmth of +the sun, in the sap which vivifies every branch of the tree, and gives it +fruitfulness from the root, in the fountain of water, under which image +our Lord has so often summed up His whole gift to man, in the flock which +the Shepherd has chosen, and for which He cares, in the house where the +master dwells and collects his family, in the one robe which encompassed +and contained the virtue of the Wearer, in the prolific womb which gives +birth to the whole sacred race. The force of all these images lies in +their unicity: plurality would not modify, but destroy them. Yet even +these symbols are surpassed by that argument from the divine Unity which +he sets forth as the type and cause of the Church's unity. From created +likenesses--the fairest and choicest which the world presents--he passes to +the uncreated nature, and from the divine immutability, wherewith these +three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, the divine Exemplar of +Unity, Truth, and Grace, are one, deduces the Unity of the Church their +dwelling-place. + +Cyprian, then, cannot sever the Church of his heart, the Church for which +he lived and died, from Unity, or from Truth, or from Grace: and this +Church is to him founded on the Primacy of Peter, and developed from his +person. The one Episcopate, whose golden chain he looks upon as +surrounding the earth in its embrace, "of which a part is held by each +without division of the whole," wherein therefore joint possession is +dependent on unity, would have no existence without the bond of the +Primacy, from which it was developed and which keeps it one. Take away +this, and the office of each bishop is crystallised into a separate mass, +having no coherence or impact with its like: bishops so conceived would +hold indeed a similar office, but being detached from each other would not +hold joint possession of one Episcopate. Separate crystals do not make one +body; nor a heap of pebbles a rock. But it was a Rock on which Christ +built and builds His Church, that Rock being His own Person, from which He +communicated this virtue, wherein the cohesion and impact of the whole +Episcopate lies, to the See of him whom He constituted His Vicar. Finally, +Cyprian contrasts pointedly the people of Christ _which cannot be rent_ +with the twelve tribes of Israel, which were torn asunder: as if he would +beforehand repudiate that parallel between the Synagogue and the Church, +in the question of unity, which has before now been resorted to as a +refuge by minds in distress, who failed to see the tokens of the Bride of +Christ in the community to which they belonged. + +In Origen and in Cyprian we put ourselves back into the middle of the +third century. In the words of the latter we see portrayed to the life +that idea which had filled the hearts of Christians through seven +generations of labours and sorrows from the day of Pentecost down to his +time. But whence arose this perfect union of all hearts and minds in the +early Christians, who were penetrated with the conviction that the Church +was the home of truth and grace? We may answer this question thus: No +catechumen was received into the fold without a clear and distinct belief +in that article of the earliest creed, and part of the baptismal +profession, "the Holy Catholic Church." A new word was made to express a +new idea, the glorious and unique work of that ever-blessed Trinity whom +the creed recited: the Home and House in which the Triune God, whom the +Christian glorified, by indwelling made the fountain of that grace and +that truth which God had become Man in order to communicate. The +catechumen's baptism into the one Body was the foundation of all the hope +in which his life consisted;(284) the integrity, duration, sanctity of +that Body being component parts of the hope. And with regard at least to +all gentile converts this precise and definite catechetical instruction +was reinforced by the new sense which at their conversion was impressed on +them of the heathenism out of which they were then taken. In how many of +them was the remembrance of their past life connected with the guilt of +deeds and habits which their new Christian conscience taught them to +regard as fearful sins. Nay, the notion of sin itself--as a transgression +of the eternal law and an offence against the personal Majesty of God--was +a Christian acquisition to the corrupted heathen. Thus the passage into +the one Body and the divine Kingdom was contemporaneous in their case with +a total change of the moral life. It is Cyprian, again, who has given us a +vivid account of this change, which took place at a time of mature manhood +in his own life, and which will serve as a graphic sketch of what had +happened to the great mass of adult converts besides himself. + +Let us suppose a man forty-five years of age speaking: "For me, while I +yet lay in darkness and bewildering night, and was tossed to and fro on +the billows of this troublesome world, ignorant of my true life, an +outcast from light and truth, I used to think that second birth, which +divine mercy promised for my salvation, a hard saying according to the +life I then led: as if a man could be so quickened to a new life in the +laver of healing water as to put off his natural self, and keep his former +tabernacle, yet be changed in heart and soul. How is it possible, said I, +for so great a conversion to be accomplished, so that both the obstinate +defilement of our natural substance, and old and ingrained habits, should +suddenly and rapidly be put off; evils whose roots are deeply seated +within? When does he learn frugality, to whom fine feasts and rich +banquets have become a habit? Or he who in gay sumptuous robes glisters +with gold and purple, when does he reduce himself to ordinary and simple +raiment? Another whose bent is to public distinctions and honours cannot +bear to become a private and unnoticed man; while one who is thronged by a +phalanx of dependents, and retinued by the overflowing attendance of an +obsequious host, thinks it punishment to be alone. The temptation still +unrelaxed, need is it that, as before, wine should entice, pride inflate, +anger inflame, covetousness disquiet, cruelty stimulate, ambition delight, +and lust lead headlong. + +"Such were my frequent musings; for whereas I was encumbered with the many +sins of my past life, which it seemed impossible to be rid of, so I had +used myself to give way to my clinging infirmities, and, from despair of +better things, to humour the evils of my heart, as slaves born in my house +and my proper offspring. But after that life-giving water succoured me, +washing away the stain of former years, and pouring into my cleansed and +hallowed breast the light which comes from heaven, after that I drank in +the heavenly Spirit, and was created into a new man by a second birth, +then marvellously what before was doubtful became plain to me, what was +hidden was revealed, what was dark began to shine, what was difficult now +had a way and means, what had seemed impossible now could be achieved, +what was in me of the guilty flesh now confessed that it was earthy, what +was quickened in me by the Holy Ghost now had a growth according to God. +Thou knowest well, thou canst recollect as well as I, what was then taken +from me, and what was given by that death of sin, that quickening power of +holiness. Thou knowest, I name it not; over my own praises it were +unwelcome to boast, though that is ground never for boasting but for +gratitude, which is not ascribed to man's virtue but is confessed to be +God's bounty; so that to sin no more has come of faith, as heretofore to +sin had come of human error. From God, I say, from God is all we can be; +from Him we live, from Him we grow, and by that strength which is from Him +accepted and ingathered we learn beforehand, even in this present state, +the foretokens of what is yet to be. Let only fear be a guard upon +innocency, that that Lord who by the influence of His heavenly mercy has +graciously shone into our hearts, may be detained by righteous obedience +in the hostelry of a mind that pleases Him; that the security imparted to +us may not beget slothfulness, nor the former enemy steal upon us +anew."(285) + +Add to this that Christians were marked out as one Body by the Jewish and +heathen persecution which tracked them everywhere. But the sects were not +persecuted. The various schools of the Gnostics all agreed in this, that +it was not necessary or desirable to suffer martyrdom for the faith. Their +view was, that they could believe with their minds whatever they pleased, +though an enemy might force them by threats of suffering to utter with the +mouth what they abhorred; and with this convenient distinction they +escaped imprisonment, poverty, bereavement, and death. But the Christian +was bound--when the fitting circumstances came--to repeat the confession of +his Lord before Pilate. Joined therefore to his baptismal belief, and to +the utter change of life involved in his conversion, was the bond of +common suffering which held together Christians as one Body throughout the +world: whence an old martyr bishop said: "The Church, for that love which +she bears to God, in every place and at every time sends forward a +multitude of martyrs to the Father, whereas all the rest not only have no +such thing among themselves to show, but deem not even such a witness +necessary."(286) + +Moreover, as a fourth cause, the historic origin of their name and belief +led them up to that day of Pentecost when the descent of the Spirit of God +constituted the formation of that body in belonging to which was all their +hope and trust; with the existence of which their faith was identified; in +the communion of which their charity was engendered. As the birth and the +life and the passion of Christ were that subject-matter on which their +whole faith grew, so the creation of their existence as a people was a +definite act in which the Redeemer showed Himself the Father of His Race, +creating them as His children and generating them by His Spirit. The +loving thought of Christians in every age ran along this line to its +source. Nature herself presents us with an image of what this idea of the +Church was to them. As the great river whose water is the symbol of +blessing and the bearer of fertility leaps down a giant birth from its +parent lake, ever blazing under the splendour of a tropical sun, yet ever +fed by sources springing from snow-crowned mountains, and changes in its +course the desert into earth's fruitfulest region, so the river of God, +welling forth on the day of Pentecost from the central abyss of the divine +love, bore down to all the nations the one water of salvation, and +wheresoever it spread, the desert retreated, and the earth brought forth +corn and wine in abundance. And the idea of this divine stream was from +the beginning as deep as it was clear in every Christian heart. It is one +of a very few doctrines, such as the unity of the Godhead, whereof indeed +it is the image and the result, of which there is not only an implicit +belief but a definite consciousness from the first. For the thought of the +kingdom is inseparable from that of the king: and he could be no divine +Sovereign whose realm was not one and indivisible: and that this realm +should break in pieces and consume all other kingdoms,(287) but itself +stand for ever, was the trust on which the whole Christian life of +endurance and hope was built. + +The Christian society through its whole structure was marked with the seal +of that great act on which it grew, the assumption of human nature by a +divine Person. Its whole government, its whole worship, and the whole +moral and spiritual being of its people radiate from that Person as King, +as Priest, and as Prophet. Take first the character of the individual +Christian. It is in all its gradations, in that marvellous range of the +same being which stretches from the highest saint matured in acting and +suffering to the most imperfect penitent received into the bosom of the +one mother, a copy, more or less resembling, of our Lord Himself. He, the +divine Image, is the original from which every Christian lineament is +traced, and every one of His race repeats Him in some degree. Every virtue +is such as a transcript of some portion of His character; and the whole +life of the individual resolves itself into an imitation of Him. Thus He +is the Prophet not only declaring the whole divine will to men, but +leading them in it by His own example. The divine Painter is but +representing in every one of His children a copy in some sort of that +life, which He set forth in full in the thirty-three years: a thought +which we have seen Origen expressing in the chrism which descended from +the head of Aaron to the utmost skirt of his raiment. + +But likewise in His Priesthood a parallel derivation ensues. First He +multiplies Himself in His Apostles: they again in the Bishops whom they +create; while each of these communicates himself in his priests. A triple +transfusion suffices to form the whole hierarchical order. Nothing can be +conceived more simple, yet nothing more efficient supposing that He is +what He proclaimed Himself to be. The victim which He appoints to be +offered by this priesthood is Himself, and His Body so offered is the +food, the life, and the bond of the whole spiritual Body thus created. +That Person with which He took the manhood is the centre of all this +worship, of which the manhood so taken is the instrument. Thus it is that +His second office of Priest, bound up so entirely with Himself, is yet +communicated through His divine manhood to the whole Body which He forms. +And this order remains through all ages, as intimately connected with his +Person now, as eighteen centuries ago, and as it will be when all the +centuries to come are evolved. + +One office remains; His office of King. And here, again, the jurisdiction +which He created for His kingdom springs from His Person, and that not +only in its origin but in its perpetual derivation. He was Himself(288) +the Apostle: as such He first multiplied Himself in the Twelve, whom from +Himself He named Apostles. His public life on earth is an image of the +whole mission or government which He would set up after His ascension. He +lives with the Twelve: He teaches them: He is their Instructor, Father, +and Friend. When His Apostles afterwards created Bishops, this form of our +Lord's life on earth was exactly reproduced in the earliest dioceses. Thus +S. Mark went forth from the side of Peter, and the mode of his living, and +the family which he drew around him at Alexandria was after this pattern. +He, the Bishop, is the image of Christ, and his twelve presbyters of the +Apostles. This model is continually set forth by S. Ignatius as a divine +command and institution, he being himself the occupant of the great Mother +See of the East, the third See of Peter, and that wherein he first +sat.(289) Thus the canonical life was formed by the exactest imitation of +our Lord's public life, and its reproduction throughout the various +dioceses formed the Church. Such was the life which S. Augustine +afterwards practised and reduced to rule; and those who planted the +Christian Faith throughout the north, Apostles to new and barbarous races, +had this model before them. The diocese was first a family, in which the +Bishop as a father presided over his priests, and sent them forth to their +work. The Eucharist which he consecrated was from the beginning dispensed +from his church to all his flock. The diocese, then, in its earliest form +was an image of our Lord's intercourse with the Twelve, wherein the Bishop +represents Him, and the priesthood His Apostles. + +But the whole Church in its episcopate or mass of dioceses no less +represented that His public life. For as He was the Head, the Living +Teacher and Guide of His Apostles, and as He came to establish one +Kingdom, and one only,(290) wherein the Twelve represented the whole +Episcopate, and contained in themselves its powers, so the Primacy which +He visibly exercised among them, He delegated, when He left them, to one +of their number. Peter, when he received that commission to feed His +sheep, took the place on earth of the great Shepherd, and in him the flock +remains one. + +Thus the double power which expresses the divinely-established government +of the Church, the Primacy and the Episcopate, is as close a transcript of +the Lord's life on earth with His Apostles as the diocese taken by itself. +In His intercourse with His Apostles He is the germ of the Bishop with his +priests; in His Vicariate bestowed upon Peter He repeats or rather +continues His visible Headship on earth. + +But spiritual jurisdiction is the expression of Christ's sovereignty on +earth, and in the order just described it is linked with His Person as +strictly as the worship exercised by means of His Priesthood, and the +spiritual character which every one of His children bears. Surely no +kingdom has ever been so contained in its king, no family in its father, +no worship in its object, as the Christian kingdom, family, and worship, +which together is the Church. Is it, then, any wonder that all Christian +hearts from the first were filled with the blessing of belonging to such a +creation as this, in which to them their Redeemer lived and reigned, +penetrated them with His own life, and gathered them in His kingdom? Are +not the words of S. Cyprian just what we should expect those to utter who +overflowed with this conviction? At the same time that Cyprian was so +writing, Dionysius, the Archbishop of Alexandria, addressed Novatian the +antipope in these words: "It was better to suffer any extremity in order +not to divide the Church of God. And martyrdom endured to prevent schism +were not less glorious than that endured to refuse idolatry, but in my +opinion more so. For in the one case a man suffers martyrdom for his own +single soul, but in the other for the whole Church."(291) + +But let us trace the chronological sequence in history of that great +institution, the real as well as logical coherence of which has just been +set forth. The Church was a fact long before its theory became the subject +of reflection. It came forth from the mind of the divine Architect and +established itself among men through His power; and it is only when this +was done that the creative thought according to which it grew could be +delineated. + +The fact, then, exactly agrees with the theory, and history here +interprets dogma. + +It is during the great forty days that our Lord founded the Primacy, when +He made S. John and the rest of the Apostles sheep of Peter's fold. The +period of thirty-eight years which follows is the carrying into effect His +design in the first stage. The Church grows around Peter. First in +Jerusalem he forms a mass of disciples; then for a certain number of years +at Antioch. In the second year of Claudius, the thirteenth after the +Ascension, he lays the foundations of the Roman Church. In the sixtieth +year of our era he sends forth S. Mark to found the Christian society in +Alexandria. Thus he takes possession of the three great cities of the +empire, of east, west, and south. In the mean time the labours of S. Paul +and the other Apostles, in conjunction with those of Peter and in +subordination to them, plant the Christian root in a great number of +cities. As S. Paul toils all round the northern circuit of the empire, +through Asia Minor, Macedonia, Illyricum, to Spain, his work has a +manifest reference to the work of Peter in the metropolis of the east, of +the south, and of the west. In the latter he joins his elder brother, and +the two Princes of the Apostles offer up their lives together on the same +day in that city which was to be the perpetual citadel of the Christian +Faith, the immovable Rock of a divine Capitol. Thus was it Peter, "from +whom the very Episcopate, and all the authority of this title +sprung,"(292) and what Pope Boniface wrote in 422 is a simple fact of +history: that "the formation of the universal Church at its birth took its +beginning from the honour of blessed Peter, in whose person its regimen +and sum consists. For from his fountain the stream of ecclesiastical +discipline flowed forth into all churches, as the culture of religion +progressively advanced."(293) Thus the whole initial movement was from +above downwards, and S. Cyprian was not only enunciating dogma but +speaking history when he wrote that the Lord built the Church upon Peter. +In one generation the structure rose above the ground, and during all that +time S. Peter's hand directed the work. + +Just at the end of this time, on the point of being thrown into prison, +whence he only emerged to martyrdom, Paul was at Rome with Peter, and he +describes in imperishable words the work which had been already +accomplished. Again it is not only dogma but history, not only that which +was always to be but that which already was, which he set forth as it were +with his dying voice: the one Body, and the one Spirit, the one Lord, one +Faith, and one Baptism, as there is one God. That Body in which Apostles, +Prophets, Evangelists, Pastors and Teachers were fixed, that the visible +structure might grow up to its final stature, in whose accordant unity was +the perpetual safeguard against error. When Paul so wrote,(294) the Body +was formed, and its headship was incontestably with Peter. He had no need +to remind them of the man with whom he was labouring, of whose work the +whole Church from Rome to Antioch and Alexandria was the fruit. But he +places the maintenance of truth, and the perpetual fountain of grace, in +the unity of the Church, which was before those to whom he wrote an +accomplished fact. + +Two generations pass and the aged S. Ignatius, on his way to martyrdom, +attests the same fact. "Where is Jesus Christ," he says, "there is the +Catholic Church." The King is in His Kingdom; the Master in His House; the +Lord in His Temple. The bishops throughout the world inseparably linked +together are His mind: and the presidency of charity, which is the inner +life of all this spiritual empire, is at Rome. S. Ignatius and the author +of the letter to Diognetus write just after the expiration of the +apostolic period; and they both regard Christians as one mass throughout +the world, living under a divine form of spiritual government. No one who +studies their words can doubt that the one Body and the one Spirit were as +visible to their eyes and as dear to their heart as to S. Paul. + +We pass two generations further and S. Irenaeus repeats the same testimony. +The interval has been filled by incessant attacks of heresies, and the +Bishop of Lyons dwells upon the fact that the Church speaks with one voice +through all the regions of the earth as being one House of God, and that +the seat of this its unity is in the great See founded by the Princes of +the Apostles at Rome. He reproduces at great length the statements of S. +Paul that the safeguard of truth lies in the one apostolic ministry, for +which he runs up to the fountain-head in Rome. It is in the living voice +and the teaching office of the Church that he sees a perpetual +preservative against whatever error may arise. Thus it has been up to his +time, and thus it will ever be. + +Another period of seventy years runs on, and we come to the just-cited +testimony of Cyprian, who therefore said nothing new, nor anything +exaggerated; but when the truth was assailed in its very citadel, he spoke +out and described wherein its strength lay. He gathers up and gives +expression to the two hundred and twenty years between the day of +Pentecost and his own time. Here are the creative words of our Apostle and +High-priest explained and attested and exhibited as having passed into +fact by four witnesses, first S. Paul, then S. Ignatius, thirdly S. +Irenaeus, fourthly S. Cyprian. Between all the five there is no shadow of +divergence, between the Master who designed the building and the servants +who described its erection; between the Prophet who foretold and the +historians who recorded. The one said, Upon this rock I will build my +Church; the others pointed out that the work was accomplished. + +The original and fundamental conception of all this work is expressed by +S. Matthew and S. Mark when they speak of our Lord at His first going +forth as "proclaiming the gospel of the kingdom." His three years' +ministry is the germ and type of the perpetual mission which He founded. +It was to be from first to last a work of personal ministry, beginning +from above, not spreading from below; its power and virtue descending from +Him through those whom He chose, the people being the work of the Prince, +their government a delegation from Him, as their moral condition lay in +following Him, and their life and support in feeding on Him. And He +declared that the original conception should be carried out to the end, +and that "the gospel of the kingdom" should be proclaimed through the +whole world as a witness to all nations, until the consummation should +come.(295) + +The chief events of the third century brought out more and more the unity +of the Church and the Primacy of S. Peter's See as the power within the +Church by which that unity is produced and maintained. + +With this century the great persecutions begin. That of Septimius Severus +arose in the year 202. Now a persecution which assaulted the mass of +Christians was the occasion of fall and apostasy to some, of martyrdom to +others. Hence the question became urgent how those should be treated by +the Christian society who through fear of suffering had failed to maintain +the confession of their faith. It was necessary to lay down more +distinctly rules as to what crimes should be admitted to penance, and what +that penance should be. The practice here involved doctrine; it raised +immediately the question of the power which the society itself had to +grant pardon, and to receive the guilty back into its bosom. And here the +authority of the chief Bishop was at once called out. We find as a matter +of fact Pope Zephyrinus in the first years of this century determining the +rules of penance, and a small party of rigid disciplinarians, among whom +Tertullian was conspicuous, who considered his rules as too indulgent. It +is in the vehement pamphlet with which Tertullian assails the Pope that we +have one of the earliest expressions of the great authority claimed by +him. "I hear," he exclaims, "that an edict has been set forth, and a +peremptory one. The Pontifex Maximus, in sooth, that is, the Bishop of +Bishops, issues his edict: I pardon to those who have discharged their +penance the sins both of adultery and of fornication."(296) Twenty years +later Pope Callistus carried the indulgence yet further, receiving to +penance those who had committed murder or idolatry.(297) Once more, after +a period of thirty years, the breaking out of the Decian persecution +raised afresh the question of admitting great sinners to penance, and the +actual discipline of the Roman Church, as established under Zephyrinus and +Callistus, is set forth in a letter to Cyprian by Novatian, then one of +the most esteemed presbyters of that church. By the discipline which these +facts attest it is determined that the Church has lodged in her the power +of pardoning any sin whatsoever according to the rules of the penance +which she imposes. And it is the Roman Church which herein takes the +guidance. She maintained the ancient faith, severity, and discipline, yet +tempered with that consideration which the full possession of the truth +alone bestows.(298) Thus she received back without hesitation those who +returned from heresy or schism, as well as those who had fallen in the +conflict with persecution. + +For another question of great importance which her guidance determined was +that concerning the rebaptisation of heretics; and in this she went +against the judgment of Cyprian with his council, of Firmilian, and of +other bishops. It had been the custom that those who had received baptism +among heretics, provided it was with the proper rite, should, when they +sought admission into the Church, be received only by an imposition of +hands, not by the iteration of baptism. And though Cyprian and a great +majority of African bishops, through their horror of schism and heresy, +wished to modify this rule, and to insist that baptism given outside the +Church was invalid, Pope Stephen resisted, and maintained the ancient +rule, with the decision that nothing save what had been handed down should +be done. + +It is evident that the question of penance and that of rebaptisation +touched the whole Christian society, and here accordingly we find the +superior Principate of the Roman Church exert itself. In fact, the right +decision as to both these questions involved the right conception of the +Church herself, her constitution, power, and prerogatives. The +rigorism(299) with which some had endeavoured to exclude certain sinners +from the faculty of receiving penance, and the view which led them to +confine the validity itself of baptism to its reception within the one +Church, led when fully developed in the following century to the obstinate +schism and heresy of the Donatists. These dangerous tendencies were +resisted, when they first appeared, by the Roman See, and we owe to such +resistance the application by Tertullian to the Pope of the title of +"Pontifex Maximus" and "Bishop of Bishops," about the year 202, as the +expression of the power which he then claimed and exercised. + +Another question likewise touching the whole Christian society, which the +Roman Pontiff had already decided against the practice of the influential +and ancient churches of Asia Minor, was the time of holding Easter. Pope +Victor insisted that the practice of the Roman Church must be followed, +which kept the day of the Crucifixion invariably on the Friday, and that +of the Resurrection on the Sunday, and not the Jewish practice of the +Asiatics, which took the 14th and the 16th days of the month Nisan, on +whatever days of the week they might fall, for that purpose. And here in +the peremptory tone of Pope Victor, and in the threat of excommunication +which he issued, the consciousness was shown that the right to determine +lay with him, while subsequent times justified his judgment and followed +it. Nor was it of little importance that the greatest festival of the +Church should be celebrated by all her children both on the same day and +in the same spirit. + +We have then now traced up to the end of the third century the inner +growth and constituent principles of that great institution, which out of +every language, tribe, and religion in the empire or beyond it had formed +and welded together one people, the bearer of that Truth and that Grace +which the Son of God in assuming manhood had conveyed to the world. It +remains rapidly to review the relations of the empire with this people +during seventy-eight years, from the death of Alexander Severus in 235 to +the edict of toleration in 313. + +II. The seizure of the empire by Maximin was accompanied by a violent +attack upon Christians, whom Alexander was held to have favoured. It is on +this occasion that we learn from Origen(300) that churches were burnt, and +thus their existence as public buildings is attested. The clergy were +especially threatened, and amongst them Ambrosius, the friend of Origen, +and Origen himself. But Maximin after reigning three years with +extraordinary cruelty was slain by his own soldiers. And then during +eleven years a period of comparative tranquillity for Christians ensued. + +It is with the accession of Decius that the severest trials of the Church +commence. In the sixty-four years which elapse from this to the edict of +toleration, the force of the empire is five times directed by its rulers +against the Christian name. The cause of this is disclosed to us by S. +Cyprian mentioning incidentally the very words of that emperor whose name +is associated with the bitterest hatred to Christians. He praises Pope +Cornelius,(301) who when Pope "Fabian's place, that is," he says, "the +place of Peter and the rank of the sacerdotal chair was vacant," "sat +fearless in that chair at Rome at the moment when the tyrant who hated +God's priests uttered every horrible threat, and with much more patience +and endurance heard the rise of a rival prince than the appointment of +God's priest at Rome." But why should Decius regard with such dislike the +nomination of a Roman Bishop? Why, but that the emperors had now come +clearly to discern the organisation of the Church as a visible kingdom of +Christ, at the head of which the Roman Bishop stood. That kingdom, the +whole moral and religious doctrine of which, together with the life +founded upon it, they felt to be in contradiction with the heathen life +and the maxims of polity on which from time immemorial the empire had been +based, that kingdom Decius saw to be summed up and represented in him who +held, to use the words of Cyprian, "Peter's place." With that religious +association which Decius saw extending round him on every side, and +gradually drawing into its bosom the best of the two sexes, there was no +way of dealing but either to yield to those new maxims which it set forth, +or to destroy it. In proportion as the emperors were zealous for the +worship of the Roman gods, and instinct with the old discipline of the +state, they inclined to the latter alternative, and none more decisively +than Decius, who prided himself on following the spirit of Trajan. The +persecution which he set on foot reached and slew Pope Fabian, and caused +the election of a successor to be deferred for sixteen months. When at the +end of that time Cornelius was chosen, Cyprian praises him "as to be +reckoned among the glorious confessors and martyrs, who sat so long +awaiting his butchers, ready either to slay him with the sword, or crucify +him, or burn him, or tear open and maim his body with any unheard-of kind +of punishment."(302) Decius indeed was slain by the Goths in battle after +less than two years' reign, but the persecution was renewed by Gallus, and +again by Valerian, so that in ten years no less than five Pontiffs, +holding that place of Peter, Fabian, Cornelius, Lucius, Stephen, and +Sistus, offered up their lives for the faith. Then it was that the ten +years' noble episcopate of S. Cyprian after many minor sufferings ended in +martyrdom: and then too the deacon Laurence wore out in the agony of fire +all the malignity of the enemy, and gained his almost matchless +crown.(303) + +The state of things which immediately preceded this grand attack of the +empire on the Church is thus described by Cyprian in the interval which +followed the persecution of Decius and preceded that of Gallus; and the +words of one who not only taught but died for his teaching carry with them +no common force. "As long repose had corrupted the discipline which had +come down to us from God, the divine judgment awakened our faith from a +declining, and if I may so speak an almost slumbering state; and whereas +we deserved yet more for our sins, the most merciful Lord has so moderated +all, that what has passed has seemed rather a trial of what we were than +an actual infliction. Everyone was applying himself to the increase of +wealth, and forgetting both what was the conduct of believers under the +Apostles, and what ought to be their conduct in every age, they with +insatiable eagerness for gain devoted themselves to the multiplying of +possessions. The priests were wanting in religious devotedness; the +ministers in entireness of faith; there was no mercy in works, no +discipline in manners. Men wore their beards disfigured, and women stained +their complexion with a dye. The eyes were changed from what God made +them, and a lying colour was passed upon the hair. The hearts of the +simple were misled by treacherous artifices, and brethren became entangled +in seductive snares; ties of marriage were formed with unbelievers; +members of Christ abandoned to the heathen. Not only rash swearing was +heard, but even false; persons in high place were swollen with +contemptuousness; poisoned reproaches fell from their mouths; and men were +sundered by unabating quarrels. Numerous bishops, who ought to be an +encouragement and example to others, despising their sacred calling, +engaged themselves in secular vocations, relinquished their chair, +deserted their people, strayed among foreign provinces, hunted the markets +for mercantile profits, tried to amass large sums of money, while they had +brethren starving within the Church, took possession of estates by +fraudulent proceedings, and multiplied their gains by accumulated +usuries."(304) + +Such was the end of the long peace which succeeded the persecution of +Septimius Severus, and yet it was followed at once by that ten years' +conflict which if stained with apostasies at first, soon became rife in +martyrdoms. And as the former relaxation seems to prove that the third +century among Christians was no ideal time in which moral corruptions and +abuses did not largely exist, so the improvement which trial and suffering +at once produced, calling forth some of the greatest triumphs which the +Faith has ever known, seems to indicate that the divine power of the +Church lies not in forming a community free from imperfections, or even +secured from scandals, but in building up a portion of her children to +sanctity. At all times the wheat and the chaff lie together on her +threshing-floor, and the flail of suffering winnows them. But those who +seek for a time when all professing believers were saints, will find it +neither when the Apostles taught nor afterwards. + +The Emperor Valerian, after being during four years more kindly disposed +to Christians than any preceding emperor, and after filling his palace +with them, was instigated by an Egyptian magician into becoming a most +bitter persecutor.(305) This was ended in less than three years through +his capture by the Persian monarch, when his son Gallienus restored the +sacred places to the Christians, and ordered the bishops not to be +disturbed.(306) The empire during the following eight years seemed through +the supineness of Gallienus to be on the point of dissolution; it is the +time when nineteen commanders in various provinces assume the purple, and +successively perish. At last Gallienus is put out of the way by a council +of officers, and the empire is restored by Claudius and by Aurelian. The +latter, after being for some years fair to Christians, ends by persecuting +them. But he too is speedily removed by death. It is remarkable that all +these persecutions, by Maximin, by Decius, by Gallus, by Valerian, and by +Aurelian, are of short duration: none of them continue more than three +years. After Aurelian's death in 275 a whole generation ensues in which +Christians by the ordinary operation of the empire's laws, according to +which their religion was illicit, were liable to suffer much in individual +cases. Thus it is in a time not reckoned persecuting, shortly after +Maximianus had been made his colleague in the empire by Diocletian, that +one of the most merciless acts of tyrannical cruelty took place, which +gave an occasion for several thousand men at once to offer up their lives. +Unresisting victims, yet brave soldiers with arms in their hands, they +endured two decimations, and when remonstrance had proved in vain, piled +their arms, and let themselves be massacred to the last man rather than +violate their conscience. The place where they suffered took the name of +their heroic captain, Maurice; the churches of that Alpine valley to this +day bear witness by his figure over their altars to that most illustrious +act of Christian sacrifice: and beside the place of their repose rises +still a monastery which for thirteen hundred and fifty years has guarded +the sepulture of a legion of martyrs, and is become one of the most +ancient Christian houses of prayer. + +It cannot be doubted that in the last twenty-five years of the third +century the number of Christians was being largely increased, and moreover +they were daily gaining the higher ranks of society. Diocletian had +reigned for eighteen years, and seemed effectually to have stopped that +incessant succession of soldiers gaining the throne by assassination and +yielding it in turn to their assassins, which for fifty years threatened +to destroy the state. At such a moment it was that Diocletian, belying all +the past conduct of his life, let loose against the Christian Church the +last, the fiercest, and the longest of the heathen persecutions. + +It was in truth scarcely less than the rending in pieces the whole social +framework when a proclamation of the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian, in +the year 303, declared that the Christian Faith should cease to exist. How +entirely that faith had now penetrated all ranks was shown in Diocletian's +own household, wherein his most trusted(307) chamberlains, beloved as his +children, were cruelly tortured because they refused to worship the +heathen gods, while his wife Prisca and his daughter Valeria purchased +immunity for the present by compliance. We have the emperor described by +an eye-witness of those times as himself sitting in judgment,(308) and +putting men to the torture of fire. The same power was delegated to the +governors throughout the provinces. "It was," says Eusebius, "the +nineteenth year of Diocletian's reign, in the month of March, when the +festival of the Lord's Passion was drawing near, that imperial edicts were +everywhere published, ordering the churches to be levelled, the scriptures +to be burnt, those of rank to be deprived of it, the common people, if +they remained faithful, to be reduced to slavery. This was the first edict +against us; another soon came enjoining that all those who ruled the +churches should first be imprisoned, and then by every means compelled to +sacrifice."(309) Lactantius adds that every action at law was to proceed +against Christians, while they should not be allowed to claim the law for +any wrong inflicted, or spoliation suffered, or dishonour done to their +wives.(310) Many in consequence of these edicts suffered willingly +terrible torments: many others at first gave way. What these torments were +Eusebius describes: some were beaten; some torn with hooks.(311) "It is +impossible to say how many and how great martyrs of Christ might be seen +in every city and country." A man of the highest rank in Nicomedia from an +impulse of zeal when the edict first appeared tore it down: he was seized, +and not merely tortured but slowly roasted alive,(312) which he bore with +unflinching patience, preserving joyousness and tranquillity to his last +breath. The emperors polluted the provinces subject to them, by the +slaughter of men and women who worshipped God, as if it had been in a +civil war, with the exception of Constantius,(313) who ruled the Gauls and +Britain, and preserved his soul pure from this stain. But it was so much +worse than a war in which the conquered have only to suffer servitude or +at most death, whereas in this case what was committed against those who +refused to do wrong passes all description. They used against them every +imaginable torture, and thought it little to slay those whom they hated, +unless by cruelty having first exposed their bodies to mockery. If they +could persuade, by terror, any to violate the faith to which they were +bound, and to agree to the fatal sacrifice, these they praised and with +their honours destroyed, but on the others they exhausted the whole +ingenuity of their butchery, calling them desperate as disregarding their +own body.(314) For two years the whole Roman world ruled by Diocletian, +Maximian, and Galerius was exposed to this misery: when on the retirement +of Diocletian and Maximian in 305 Galerius became the chief emperor, the +persecution continued in all its intensity, save in the territory subject +to Constantius. "It is impossible to describe the individual scenes which +took place throughout the world. The several governors having received +their commission carried it out according to their own ferocity. Some +through excess of fear did more than their orders; some were inspired by +personal enmity; some by natural cruelty; some sought to advance +themselves; some were precipitate in the work of destruction, as one in +Phrygia,"(315) where, says Eusebius, the soldiers surrounded a Christian +town and burnt it with all its inhabitants, "men, women, and children +calling upon the name of Christ, the God of all."(316) "And in devising +various kinds of tortures they aim at gaining a victory. They are well +aware that it is a struggle between champions. I myself saw in Bithynia a +governor beside himself in joy, as if he had subdued some barbarous +nation, because one who for two years had with great virtue resisted was +seen to fail. They inflict therefore exquisite pains, only avoiding to put +the tortured to death, as if it were only death that made them blessed, +and not likewise those torments which in proportion to their severity +produce a greater glory by the virtue which they exhibit."(317) + +Eusebius declares that such cruelties were perpetrated not for a short +time, but during several years; that ten, twenty, thirty, sixty, and as +many as a hundred men, women, and children would be slain in a day by +various tortures. "When I was in Egypt myself I saw a crowd in one day, +some beheaded, some burnt; with my own eyes I beheld the marvellous +ardour, the truly divine virtue and alacrity of those who believed in +Christ. Scarcely was sentence passed against the first, when a fresh +number hastened before the tribunal, professing themselves Christians: +with joy, gaiety, and smiles they received the award of death, singing +hymns, and returning thanks to their last breath."(318) + +Among those distinguished for their learning in all Grecian studies, and +for the universal honour in which they had been held, Eusebius mentions +especially a bishop of Thmuis named Phileas. While he lay in prison under +sentence of death, which was afterwards executed by beheading, he wrote a +letter to his people, detailing the scenes in which he bore a part. This +letter the historian has happily preserved for us. "Inasmuch," he says, +"as the holy scriptures presented us with so many fair ensamples and +lessons, the blessed martyrs who are with me felt no hesitation. They +fixed their mind's eye steadily upon the God of all, formed the conception +of death suffered for piety's sake, and clung firmly to that to which they +were called. For they knew that our Lord Jesus Christ had become man for +our sakes in order to cut up all sin by the root, and to supply us with +food on that journey by which we enter into eternal life. For He thought +it not robbery to be equal with God, but emptied Himself by taking the +form of a slave, and being found in fashion as a man humbled Himself to +death, and that death the cross. Hence it was that the martyrs, bearing +Christ within them, in their zeal for the greater gifts endured every +suffering and all the various inventions of torture not once, but some of +them a second time, and all the threats of their guards, which did not +stop with words in their zeal to overcome them, without their resolution +being broken, because perfect charity casts out fear. What words can I +find to enumerate their virtue and their endurance in each particular +trial? Since they were left exposed to anyone's outrage, some being struck +with clubs, others with rods, others with scourges, some with lashes, some +with ropes. The sight of the tortures presented every variety, but great +suffering throughout. These with hands bound behind them were distended on +the wood, and had every limb stretched by machinery; and thus their +tormentors by command attacked the whole body, tearing them not on the +sides alone as murderers are treated, but on the stomach, the knees, and +the cheeks. Others were hung by one hand from the portico, and this +tension of the sinews and limbs caused a more terrible pain than any. +Others were bound to pillars face to face, the feet not reaching the +ground, but the weight of the body tightening the bonds, and this they +suffered not during the time of examination only, or while the governor +was engaged with them, but almost the whole day. For when he went to +others, he left his officers watching over these, to see if the extremity +of torture should cause any to give way: and he charged them to be bound +without mercy, but when at their last gasp to be let down and dragged +along the ground. For he said that no account at all was to be taken of +us, but we were to be both reputed and treated as non-existent. This last +was a second torture which they superadded to their blows. There were +those also who after their tortures were put in the stocks with their feet +distended to the fourth hole, where they must needs lie down, not being +able to hold themselves up through their wounds gaping over the whole +body. Others flung on the pavement lay there through the repeated violence +of their racking, the many signs of suffering over their body presenting a +more fearful spectacle to those who looked on than the racking itself. +Thus treated, some died under the torture, putting their adversary to +shame by their endurance; some shut up in prison half-dead, after a few +days expired through the extremity of their pains; the rest having +treatment applied became still more resolute through the time spent in +prison. And so when the choice was presented to them either to touch the +abominable sacrifice, and depart unmolested, gaining by this course an +execrable deliverance, or, not sacrificing, to receive sentence of death, +without any doubt they joyfully went to death. For they knew what the +sacred writings enjoin: 'he that sacrifices to other gods shall be rooted +out,' and 'thou shalt have no other gods but me.' "(319) + +This may suffice as a specimen of what was done during a course of years +throughout the dominion of Galerius, Maximin, and Maxentius. It is in this +persecution especially that the virgin martyrs suffered the extremity of +the heathen malignity in the threatened loss of that purity which they +valued more than life. And here a fellow-Christian at Alexandria +disguising himself as a soldier was to S. Theodora the guardian which her +angel himself became to S. Agnes at Rome. In this persecution also S. +Vincent repeats in Spain the trial and the triumph of S. Laurence at Rome. +The authentic account of his martyrdom shows the utmost point to which the +most ingenious and the most ferocious cruelty could reach on the one side, +and the most enduring patience on the other. But the numberless details +concerning the sufferings of this time preserved to us show that it was +indeed a conflict prolonged during eight years, in which the Roman state +put forth the utmost strength which unlimited power guided by unhesitating +cruelty could exert to destroy the Christian Church and name. + +At the end of this time the conflict was terminated by the Emperor +Galerius, the chief mover of the whole persecution, being struck by a +mortal disease, in which reduced to impotence by his sufferings he +withdrew his edicts against the Christian Faith. One after another the +persecuting emperors are taken away by death. Constantine inheriting his +father's justice towards Christians, and preserving them in his own +territory from these outrages, gradually appears as their champion. It is +when advancing to Rome against Maxentius that he sees in the Cross the +token of victory over all enemies: enrolling it on his banner he rules +with Licinius the Roman world, and by a decree issued at Milan in 313 +assures to all Christians the free exercise of their religion. + +In the year 64 Nero had declared by initiating a persecution against +Christians that their religion was illicit, and fell under the ban of the +old Roman laws which forbade the exercise of any worship not approved by +the senate. From that time down to the edict of Constantine no Christian +could stand before a Roman tribunal plainly avowing his faith in one God +and one Christ without incurring the liability of capital punishment. In +this period of two hundred and forty-eight years it is true that there +were intervals of comparative peace when the emperors did not themselves +call into action the laws against Christians. During the whole second +century there would seem to be no emperor who set himself to destroy the +Christian name and people as a whole. In the time of Commodus it was even +forbidden to accuse a Christian of his religion; yet even then, if the +accusation was made and proved, it was a capital offence, followed, and +that too in the case of a senator after defence before the senate, by the +infliction of the penalty. Alexander Severus is the first of whom it is +said that "he suffered the Christians to be;" Philip also favoured them; +so again Valerian at first; Gallienus gave back their churches; Diocletian +trusted them and filled his palace with them: but no one of these emperors +ventured to declare the Christian religion to be according to the laws of +Rome a "licit" religion, and no one therefore enabled Christians to avow +it without danger of suffering. The most favourable suspended the action +of the laws either by positive edict, or by letting it be understood that +they did not wish Christians to be disturbed. A change either of the +ruler, or of the ruler's inclination, as was seen in the cases of +Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian, induced at once that full state of +penality under which Christianity was as much forbidden as homicide or +treason, and in virtue of which Roman magistrates could as little refuse +to judge the crime of being a Christian as those other crimes. Thus it is +that we find martyrdoms assigned to times at which there is not known to +have been any general persecution: and in unnumbered cases Christians won +their crown through private enmity or local tumults, when any one of the +thousand motives which awaken ill-will was sufficient to cause an appeal +to that great and unchanged enemy, the Law of Rome, which proscribed them. +To Constantine belongs the glory of having removed this enemy. He made the +profession of Christianity no longer a crime. He accomplished that which +Justin and Tertullian and every Christian apologist had asked for in vain, +that every Christian in the Roman empire might profess and practise the +Christian Faith without suffering punishment for it. + + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY. PART I. + + + _Socrates._ It is, then, necessary to wait until we learn how we + ought to be disposed towards gods and men. + + _Alcibiades._ But when, Socrates, will that time arrive? and who + shall teach us it? For it seems to me that I should with the + greatest pleasure see that man. + + _Socrates._ It is he who cares for thee.(320) + + _Second Alcib._ § 22. + + +In the three preceding chapters we have witnessed a great spectacle, a +spectacle in all history unique and without a rival, the encounter, that +is, with the forces of the great world-empire of a voluntary society which +bears in its bosom and propagates a body of truth, and this encounter +carried on without respite during ten generations of men. The elements of +this conflict are, on the one side, power, throned in civilisation, and +defended by that sword before which nothing hitherto had stood; on the +other, a belief testified by suffering and patience, but which moreover +appears only as the possession of a society which is itself dropped as a +seed into the earth's bosom and silently fills its expanse. Attention must +now be called to another aspect of the same encounter. Rome, as we have +said, preeminently wielded power; not the power of her legions only, +immense as that was, but the power of her laws, and the power of that +many-sided and as it seemed triumphant all-embracing civilisation, of +which she was the golden head. The mind however, the thought of the world +which she ruled, belonged to the great Hellenic race: and it remains to +consider what contest this mind waged with the truth which the Christian +Church sustained and suffered for. The sword hews away limbs; the fire +destroys bodies; and the martyrs offered freely their limbs and their +bodies to sword and flame. But the martyrs were inspired with a mind; they +carried Christ in them; and a mind too was opposed to theirs; the mind +which animated that ancient civilisation; the mind which had erected such +shrines as Diana of Ephesus and the Parthenon at Athens; the mind which +dictated the laws of Solon and Lycurgus; the mind which taught in the +Academus, the Lyceum, the Portico, and the Garden; the mind which built +Alexandria for the world's emporium and university, and raised Antioch to +be the gorgeous throne of eastern magnificence. We have to consider how +this heathen mind encountered the Christian; in short, how, "after that in +the wisdom of God the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased Him through +the folly of Christian preaching to save those that believed."(321) Let us +trace the encounter of heathen wisdom--that is, Philosophy--with Christian +wisdom, that is, the truth of a God incarnate and crucified, with all its +consequences, as upborne by the Christian Church and planted among men. + +Now the system of polytheistic worship which was then in possession of the +Graeco-Roman world had been subjected for many ages to all the analytic +power of human reason as exercised by the most gifted of races which have +hitherto embodied their genius in a corresponding civilisation. The +philosophy of Greece is in fact such an analysis, and the rise of this +philosophy is carried back by the ablest inquirers to the time of Thales +and Pythagoras in the sixth century before Christ, In the beautiful +climate of Ionia and Southern Italy there arose at this time men who +attempted by the efforts of their own reason to form a physical and a +moral theory of the world which surrounded them. Philosophy is not merely +thought, but methodical thinking, thinking consciously directed upon the +knowledge of things in their connection with each other. Nor is it content +merely with the collecting of observations and the knowledge so derived, +but proceeds to gather the individual instances into a whole, to draw to a +centre what was scattered, and to form a view of the world resting upon +clear conceptions and at unity with itself.(322) This was the nature of +that work which Thales and Pythagoras commenced. Let us give a glance at +the race which bore them, and of which they were representative men. + +This race had dwelt for some ages in Greece, and from thence occupied by +emigration the shores of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, with a +part of Africa. Pythagoras, the father of Italian philosophy, had migrated +from Samos to Crotona, having visited Egypt, examined and gathered from +all the stores of its knowledge. A century later Herodotus, the father of +Greek history, migrated likewise from his country Halicarnassus, and after +spending many years in extensive travels through Egypt and Western Asia +settled at Thurii. In the succeeding century Plato travelled in like +manner with similar purposes. He was familiar with Sicily as with his own +Attica, not to speak of Egypt or Phoenicia. These three great men, +Pythagoras, Herodotus, and Plato, are specimens herein of the cultured +Greek, the gentleman, as we should call him. Thus though Greece proper was +a very small country, the whole region from middle Italy, including +Sicily, and the rich coast-land of Northern Africa from Carthage to Egypt, +with again Phoenicia and Syria, and the continent to the depth of perhaps a +hundred miles round the three sides of Asia Minor watered by the sea, were +in a larger sense the Greek's country, a field of Grecian thought, and +enterprise, and observation, a sphere in which his mind was enlarged, and +his judgment of men and things matured.(323) Generally speaking these +regions were singularly favoured as to richness of soil and convenience of +situation. Herodotus himself has marked the climate of Ionia as the most +beautiful and best-tempered of the earth; and with a far wider knowledge +of its regions we should not venture to dispute the justness of his +remark. Some modern writers are wont to dwell on the effect which climate +exercises upon man's mind. However this may be, it is certain that the +race whose energies were diffused over this region was most highly gifted +with natural endowments. When out of the world which Christianity has +mainly formed, and from the bosom of nations which have grown through the +struggle of a thousand years, and with perpetual competition among each +other, into a rich civilisation, we look back on that ancient and simpler +world, we find in Hellenism the most perfect expression of the natural +man, as a plastic, artistic, poetical, philosophical, and generally +intellectual race, wherein matter was most completely permeated by mind. +The language which they used even yet presents a very perfect image of +such a race, as not being formed from the corruption of other idioms, but +a mother tongue, the most brilliant of the Aryan sisters. In its union of +strength with beauty, of pleasing sound with accurate sense, in its power +to convey the most subtle distinctions of philosophic thought, or the most +radiant images of sensuous loveliness, the gravest enunciations of law, or +the tenderest dreams of romance, it was well calculated to be the organ of +a people wherein bodily form and immaterial intellect alike culminated. +The language which we use ourselves is full of nerve and vigor, with a +certain northern force and a habit of appropriating the material stores of +other languages by incorporating their words, which suits well the +descendants of sea-kings, who have provinces all over the world; but it is +without inflexions, deprived of cases and genders, defective in marking +time, whereas the Greek in all these is most rich and flexible: the one +resembles the torso of a Hercules without its limbs, the other an Apollo +as he touches the earth in his perfect symmetry. Then compare its sound +with that of the old Hellenic tongue, and we seem to hear the poet's +"stridor ferri tractaeque catenae," beside the voice of a lute; while as to +texture, it is like the train of a railway matched with the golden +network, fine as the spider's web, indissoluble as adamant, which the poet +feigns to have been wrought by Vulcan: the English imprisons thought in a +rude and cumbrous iron, while the Greek exhibits it in a rich and ductile +gold. As was the language, so was the people. Fond of society and +intercourse, skilful, crafty, commercial, enterprising, with a most human +and genial intellect, with a keen and critical judgment, and a vivid +imagination. When such a race turned itself to a scientific consideration +of the world, it might well produce what we are now to pass in review, the +Greek philosophy. + +And here it is well to lay down first the standing-point of the Greek +mind. The Hellenic religion was a natural religion, inasmuch as according +to it man had no need to raise himself above the surrounding world and his +own nature in order to connect himself with the Deity. As he was +originally constituted, he felt himself related to it: no inward change in +his mode of thought, no struggle with his natural impulses and +inclinations, was required of him for this purpose. All that to him was +humanly natural seemed to him to have its justification in regard to the +Deity likewise; and so the most godlike man was he who worked out most +completely his powers as man, and the essence of religious duty consisted +in that man should do for the honour of the Deity what is in accordance +with his own nature.(324) + +But this natural religion of the Greeks differed from that of others in +that neither outward nature as such, nor the sensuous being of man as +such, but human nature in its beauty, as illumined by mind, is its point +of excellence. The Greek did not, like the Eastern, lose his independence +before the powers of nature, nor revel like the northern savage in +boundless liberty, but in the full consciousness of his freedom saw its +highest fulfilment in obedience to the general order as the law of his own +nature. And as the purely Grecian deities are the ideals of human +activity, he thus stands to them in a calm and free relation, such as no +other nation of antiquity felt, because they are the mirror of his own +being, but his being exalted, so that he is drawn to them without +purchasing this at the cost of the pain and toil of an inward +struggle.(325) + +How the features of his own land served to image out to his fancy the +Greek's religious attitude a poet has told us in exquisite verses, worthy +of the beauty which they describe; the apotheosis of nature. + + + "Where are the Islands of the Blest? + They stud the AEgean sea; + And where the deep Elysian rest? + It haunts the vale where Peneus strong + Pours his incessant stream along, + While craggy ridge and mountain bare + Cut keenly through the liquid air, + And in their own pure tints arrayed, + Scorn earth's green robes which change and fade, + And stand in beauty undecayed, + Guards of the bold and free."(326) + + +It seems to me essential to bear in mind throughout our whole inquiry this +standing-point of the Greek mind, because through all the succession of +schools and the fluctuation of doctrines, it remains, so to say, the +ground-work on which they are embroidered. It is the very texture of +Hellenic thought upon which first Pythagoras, then Plato, Aristotle, +Epicurus, Zeno, Cleanthes, Panaetius, and even Plotinus and Porphyrius spin +their web. They vary the decoration, but the substance remains unaltered. +This standing-point rules the conception of virtue, and therefore of the +whole moral world. It reaches also to the final end of man, and determines +it. + +Moreover as the intellectual power of man seems to have culminated in the +Hellenic race, so it would seem that a state of things existed among that +people which left the human reason practically more to its own unaided +resources than we find to have been the case elsewhere. No doubt the Greek +mind had lived and brooded for ages upon the remains of original +revelation, nor can any learning now completely unravel the interwoven +threads of tradition and reason so as to distinguish their separate work. +However, it is certain that in the sixth century before Christ the Greeks +were without a hierarchy, and without a definite theology: not indeed +without individual priesthoods, traditionary rites, and an existing +worship, as well as certain mysteries which professed to communicate a +higher and more recondite doctrine than that exposed to the vulgar gaze. +But in the absence of any hierarchy holding this priesthood together, and +teaching anything like a specific doctrine about divine and human things, +a very large range indeed was given to the mind, acting upon this shadowy +religious belief, and reacted upon by it, to form their philosophy. The +Greeks did not, any more than antiquity in general, use the acts of +religious service for instruction by religious discourse.(327) In other +words, there was no such thing as preaching among them. A domain therefore +was open to the philosopher on which he might stand without directly +impeaching the ancestral worship, while he examined its grounds, and +perhaps sapped its foundations. He was therein taking up a position which +their priests, the civil functionaries of religious rites scarcely any +longer retaining a spiritual meaning or a moral cogency, had not occupied. + +Thus it was that in the midst of a people who worshipped traditionally a +multitude of gods and goddesses, such as we have them exhibited in the +Homeric and Hesiodic poems, the chief, perhaps the only, and the yet +unwritten literature of that day, beings with a personal character and +will, who were supposed to divide the government of the world between +them, with a more or less recognised sovereignty of one chief, arose men +who set themselves by the light of reason to think steadily and +continuously how that world in which they were living had become what it +was. Such a movement of mind indicated in itself dissatisfaction with the +existing religion, wherein the gods were considered the causes of things, +and their wills the rulers of them, though in the background even here +loomed the idea of fate, the representative, as it were, of brute matter, +from which the Greek mind could never disengage itself. Yet we do not find +that these philosophers set themselves openly to attack the existing +religion; rather leaving it in possession, and themselves usually +complying with its forms, they pursued their own train of thought, as it +were by its side, not choosing to look whither it would lead them. + +Such very much appears the position of inquirers in the first period of +Greek philosophy, which is generally made to extend from its rise under +Thales to the time of the Sophists and Socrates. Their thoughts were +mainly occupied with the appearances of the physical world: they +speculated how it could have arisen. Thus Thales, we are told, imagined +its first principle to be water; Anaximander, boundless matter; +Anaximenes, air; the Pythagoreans said, all is number; the Eleatic school, +all is the one unchangeable being.(328) On the contrary Heracleitus +conceived the one Being as ever in motion, involved in perpetual change: +in accordance with which he nowhere finds true knowledge, and thinks the +mass of men have no understanding for eternal truth.(329) Empedocles of +Agrigentum sets forth the four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, as +the material principles or roots of things, attaching to these two ideal +principles as moving forces, Love as the unitive, and Hatred as the +severing.(330) Anaxagoras, over and above mechanical causes, to which he +limited himself in the explanation of everything in particular, recognises +a divine spirit, which as the finest of all things is simple, unmixed, +passionless reason, which came upon chaos, forming and ordering the world +out of it.(331) Democritus of Abdera takes for his principles the Full and +the Empty, identifying these with Being and Non-being, or Something and +Nothing. His Full consists of indivisible atoms.(332) + +The remarkable thing about all these systems, if we may so call them, is, +that while the existing popular religion teemed over, so to say, with the +idea of a number of personal agents directing human things, these +philosophers nearly all concurred in the attempt to find some one agent, +and that material, from which all should spring. As yet even the radical +distinction of matter and spirit was not clear to their minds:(333) the +soul of the individual man was to them merely a particle of the vital +power which disclosed itself through the universe, the purest portion, but +a portion still, of primal matter. In their conception of the constituent +cause while they advanced towards unity they receded from personality. +Even the world-forming Intelligence of Anaxagoras, who first distinctly +declares that spirit is not mixed with matter, works only as a power of +nature, and is portrayed to us in a semi-sensuous form, as a finer +matter.(334) + +After Greek philosophy had run out during about a hundred and fifty years +in this sort of vague and imaginative speculation upon the physical world, +it underwent a great change, which marks the transition to its second +period. These successive opinions of philosophers led a class of men who +arose at Athens about the middle age of Socrates to the conclusion, that +it would be more profitable to turn the course of human thought from such +cosmological reveries to the question of the perception itself of truth by +man. He who accomplished this was Socrates, who turned his reflexion by +preference upon man himself as the subject who thinks and wills.(335) And +herein his character had an influence over Greek philosophy which is +strikingly marked through the whole of its second period. This period +embraces the Sophists, Socrates himself, Plato and Aristotle, and the +Stoics and Epicureans; finally those Sceptic and Eclectic schools which +rose naturally from the criticism detecting what is untenable in preceding +systems. During the six hundred years which elapse from the teaching +career of Socrates to the death of Marcus Antoninus we may say that one +great line of inquiry occupied among philosophers the human mind; it was +man himself, as the subject of logical thought and moral will.(336) The +chief endeavour was to form a science of ethics, and a science of +reasoning, to which physical and mathematical studies, though at times +warmly pursued and never wholly neglected, were yet subordinate.(337) + +Who is this man of singular ugliness, with a face like a Silenus, with a +body enduring hunger and impervious to heat and cold, who for thirty years +frequents from morning to night the agora, the streets, the porticoes of +Athens; who can drain the wine-cup through the night, and with reason +unimpaired discuss philosophy through the following day; never alone, +ready to converse with all in whom he discerned the germ of inquiry; who +neither courts the high nor despises the low, but beside whom may be found +the reckless beauty of Alcibiades and the staid gravity of Nicias, the +admiring gaze of Plato even in youth majestic, and the sober homage of +plainer Xenophon? Who is this, the man most social of men where the whole +population is a club, the club of Athenian citizenship; whose tongue +arrests the most volatile and inconstant of peoples; whose reason attracts +and by turns draws out or silences the most opposite of characters; whose +whole life is publicity; of spirit at once homely and subtle, simple and +critical, parent both of philosophic certitude and philosophic scepticism? +This is Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, to whom Greek philosophy will +look back as on one that had given its bent and directed its course during +a thousand years, until the last of its defenders(338) will fight a +hopeless battle with triumphant Christianity, as the gods of Greece +vanish, never more to return, and the lurid star of a false prophet +teaching a false monotheism appears above the horizon, and takes the +place, which they have left vacant, to be chief foe of the Christian name. + +The special principle of Socrates is thus described to us by an historian +of Greek philosophy.(339) "It is not merely an already existing mode of +thought which was further developed by Socrates, but an essentially new +principle and proceeding which were introduced into philosophy. Whilst all +preceding philosophy had been directed immediately on the object, so that +the question of the essence and grounds of natural appearances is in it +the radical question, on which all others depend, Socrates was the first +to give utterance to the conviction that nothing can be known respecting +anything which meets our thought, before its general essence, its +conception, be determined: that accordingly the trial of our own +representations by the standard of the conception is philosophical +self-cognition, the beginning and the condition of all true knowing: +whilst those who preceded him had arrived through the consideration of +things only to distinguishing between the representation of things and the +knowing of them, he, reversing this, makes all cognition of things +dependent on the right view of the nature of knowledge." + +Another(340) says: "It is stated in Aristotle's _Metaphysics_(341) that +Socrates introduced the method of Induction and Definition, which proceeds +from the individual to the determination of the conception. Aristotle +marks(342) the domain of ethics as that on which Socrates applied this +method. According to him the fundamental view of Socrates was the +indivisible unity of theoretical prudence and practical ability on ethical +ground. Socrates conceived all the virtues to be prudences, inasmuch as +they are sciences.(343) These statements are fully borne out by the +portraits of Xenophon and Plato: Aristotle has only given point to their +expression. Thus Xenophon says,(344) 'he was ever conversing about human +things, inquiring what was piety and what impiety; what honour and what +turpitude; what just and what unjust; what sobermindedness and what +madness; what courage and what cowardice; what policy and what politician; +what the government of men and who capable of it; and suchlike things; and +those who knew these he esteemed men of honour and goodness, those who +knew them not to be justly called of servile mind.' 'Never did he cease +inquiring with those who frequented him about what everything was.'(345) +'And he did not distinguish between wisdom and temperance, but he asserted +that justice and every other virtue was wisdom.'(346) With this view hang +together the convictions that virtue can be taught, that all virtue in +truth is only one, and that no one is willingly wicked, but only through +ignorance.(347) The good is identical with the beautiful and the +expedient. Right dealing, grounded upon prudence and practice, is better +than good fortune. Self-knowledge, the fulfilment of the Delphic Apollo's +injunction, 'Know thyself,' is the condition of practical ability. +External goods do not advance. To need nothing is godlike; to need the +least possible comes nearest to the divine perfection.(348) Cicero's +well-known expression is substantially correct,(349) that Socrates called +down philosophy from heaven to earth, introduced it into cities and +houses, and required it to study life, morals, goods and evils, which +constituted a progress from the natural philosophy pursued by his +predecessors to ethics whose province is man. But Socrates possessed no +complete system of ethical doctrines, but only the mainspring of inquiry; +and so it was natural that he could only reach definite ethical statements +in conversation with others. Thus his art was Mental Midwifery,(350) as +Plato designates it. His confessed non-knowledge, resting on the firm +consciousness of the essence of true knowledge, stood higher than the +imagined knowledge of those who conversed with him; and to it was attached +the Socratic Irony; that apparent recognition which is paid to the +superior wisdom and prudence of another until this is dissolved into its +nothingness by the dialectic examination which measures what is maintained +as a generalisation by the fixed point of the particular case. Thus it was +that Socrates exercised the charge of examining men,(351) which he was +convinced had been imposed upon him by the Delphic god in the oracle +elicited by Chaerepho, that he was the wisest of men." + +The opinion, practice, and teaching of Socrates concerning the gods and +the godhead are set forth most graphically by his disciple Xenophon in two +chapters of his _Memorabilia_. Scarcely could a Christian moralist exhibit +more lucidly the argument from design in proof of a divine Providence +which has formed and which rules the world; more than this, which has +produced the seasons of the year, the plants, the animals, for the good of +man. In the eyes of Socrates the human body itself is a never-failing +proof of the divine love of man. He details the wisdom with which it is +put together, and forces the opponent, who is introduced as not +sacrificing, nor praying to the gods, nor believing in divination, to +confess: "When I consider this, assuredly these things seem the device of +some wise world-maker, the lover of living things."(352) Another he +compels by a long enumeration of divine benefits to man to come to a +similar conclusion.(353) "Certainly, Socrates, the gods seem to have a +great care for men. Besides, he replies, when we cannot foresee in the +future what is good for us, they help us by revealing through divination +what is to come, and instructing us as to the best course. Nay, Socrates, +rejoins the other, they seem to treat you even more kindly than other men; +for without being asked by you they signify before to you what you should +do and what leave undone. That I say true, answers Socrates, even you, O +Euthydemus, will acknowledge, if you do not wait until you see the forms +of the gods, but are contented, when you behold their works, to worship +and honour them. And consider that the gods themselves point this out to +you: for not only do the rest of them, when they give us good things, not +exhibit themselves to our senses in so doing, but he(354) who cooerdinates +and holds together the whole universe, in whom are all beautiful and good +things, and who provides them for the perpetual use of men free from +waste, disease, and old age, so that they help us unfailingly, quicker +than thought, is discerned in the greatness of his operations, but while +he administers these to us, is himself invisible. And take thought that +the sun, who seems to be manifest to all, allows not men to examine him +closely, but should anyone attempt to look at him shamelessly, takes away +his sight. And the ministers of the gods too you will find evading our +senses; the lightning shoots from on high, and is master wherever it +alights, but is seen neither in its approach, nor in its stroke, nor in +its departure. The winds themselves are invisible, but their works are +manifest, and we feel them as they come. Nay and man's soul too, or if +there be anything else in man participating the divine, manifestly rules +in us as a king, but is not seen. Bearing in thought these things we must +not despise the invisible, but learning their power by their results, +honour that which is divine.(355) Indeed, Socrates, says Euthydemus, for +my part I am quite resolved not the least to neglect what is divine; but +my trouble is, that it seems to me that no single man can ever be duly +thankful for the kindnesses of the gods. Do not let this trouble you, +Euthydemus, for you see the god at Delphi, when anyone asks him how to be +grateful to the gods, answers, By your country's law. Now it is surely law +everywhere to please the gods by sacrifices, as best you can. How then can +anyone honour the gods better or more piously than by doing what +themselves bid? Only we must not be behind our power: for anyone who is so +behind surely is manifest therein as not honouring the gods. Our duty is +to honour them to the utmost of our power, and then to take heart and hope +from them, the greatest goods: for a man cannot show a sound mind in +hoping from others greater goods than from those who have the power to +give the greatest aid; nor from those in any other way than by pleasing +them. And how can one better please them than by the most unfailing +obedience to them? Now by saying such things, and himself doing them, he +was ever bringing those who were in intercourse with him to piety and a +sound mind." + +The last words of this man to his judges were: "And now it is time that we +depart, I to death, and you to life; but which of us are going unto the +better thing is not clear to anyone save to God."(356) And when the +hemlock was reaching his heart,(357) he uncovered his head, and said with +his last utterance, "O Crito, we owe a cock to AEsculapius: pay it, and do +not neglect it." + +I have cited at length these passages because I think that they exhibit +clearly the opinions and convictions of Socrates on the most important of +all subjects. We behold here a man of a very religious mind, holding with +the utmost tenacity the idea of a Providence, the Benefactor of men and +their Judge, since it discriminates between them by reward and punishment: +nor is it an impersonal Providence, an abstract Reason, but "a wise +world-maker," who loves man and does him good, and whose operations in +this very purpose of doing him good indicate unity of design and +perfection of execution: and yet in his conception of the godhead itself +he halts between unity and plurality, and beside a statement such as we +might read in a Pauline epistle of the one God who orders in harmony the +universe and holds it together, we find him passing to the recognition and +worship of many gods: beside words to his judges most sublime and most +pathetic, concerning the issue of life and of death, we find him with his +last breath directing his friend to discharge the sacrifice of a cock +which he had promised to AEsculapius. He does not attempt to solve either +the rational or the moral antagonism between many gods and one; but +practically he throws himself into the worship of his country, referring +to the law of each place as that which should determine for ever man the +question how the gods are to be honoured. And in this I believe that he is +typical of the whole race of philosophers at whose head he stands. Like +him they spoke of one God, and they offered the cock to AEsculapius. If we +seek the highest expressions concerning the divine unity, wisdom, and +power which are to be found in their writings, they approach S. Paul: if +we consider other expressions, and above all, their practice, it is in the +main that other word of Socrates, Worship according to the law of your +country. In the doctrine attributed to him both by Xenophon and Aristotle, +that he identified virtue and prudence, and believed that no man is +willingly wicked, but only out of ignorance, we have a proof which can +scarcely be exceeded in force how entirely the standing-point of Socrates +was that above attributed to the Greek mind in general, that of a religion +according to nature. It ignores in the most emphatic because in the most +unconscious way the inclination to evil in man. The relation between God +and man is simply that of greater and less. There is a physical affinity +and a numerical proportion between that mighty nature which is ruled +through all its length and breadth by a pervading reason, and the portion +of it contained in man's body and soul.(358) + +It is curious to imagine what would have been the effect of the life and +the death of Socrates had he lived and died just as he did with one sole +exception, that Plato and Xenophon had not been his disciples. Socrates +wrote nothing: oral discourse was his sole instrument of teaching. When +its last memories had faded away, we might have known as little of him as +we really know of Pythagoras. He would still indeed have been the greatest +of heathen names because he died for his moral convictions. This might +have been all, and it would have been very much. This, however, was not to +be. In Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ we have an accurate life-portrait of the +man, while in the great genius of Plato we have the application of what +may be termed Socratic principles to the formation of an ethical, logical, +and physical system. The Megaric(359) school of Euclides, and Phaedo's +school of Elis, took indeed one side of his doctrine, the dialectic, for +their special subject of inquiry; the Cynic school of Antisthenes and the +Cyrenian school of Aristippus another side, the ethical: but it was Plato +who embraced in one comprehensive scheme the whole grasp of his master's +thought, as well as the collective approved elements of former systems. + +The principle of Socrates concerning the union of knowledge and virtue +invited his followers to work out a system of dialectics and ethics.(360) +And further the dialectic process of induction and definition, which +Aristotle tells us that Socrates introduced, was made by Plato the +foundation of his philosophy.(361) Its central point is the doctrine of +Ideas. Now the Platonic Idea is the object of the conception. As a single +object becomes known by its representation, so the Idea becomes known by +its conception. It is not the essence as such which dwells in many similar +individual objects, but that essence as represented perfectly in its kind, +unalterably, in unity, independence, and self-existence. The Idea points +to the general, but is represented by Plato as an original image of the +individual projected as it were outside of time and space. Conceive +individuals which have a similar being, or belong to the same class, +delivered from the limits of time and space, of materiality and individual +imperfections, and so reduced to that unity which is the groundwork of +their existence, and such unity is the Platonic Idea. The highest Idea is +the Idea of the good,(362) which is as it were the sun in the realm of +Ideas, viewed as the first cause of being and of knowledge. Plato seems to +identify it with the highest godhead. Thus the method to attain the +knowledge of Ideas is dialectics, which comprehend the double path of +rising to the general and returning from the general to the particular. + +As to the generation(363) of the doctrine of Ideas, Aristotle states it as +the common product of the doctrine of Heracleitus that everything which +meets the senses is subject to change and flux, and of the Socratic view +of the conception. From Socrates Plato learnt that when once this is +rightly formed, it can be held fast unchangeably: he would not then apply +it to anything which meets the senses, but inferred that there must be +other beings which are the objects of the knowledge acquired by the +conception, and these objects he named Ideas. The filiation,(364) then, +between Socrates and Plato is this: Socrates was the first to require that +all knowledge and all moral dealing should proceed from the knowing of the +conception, and endeavoured to execute this by his inductive process, +while with Plato the same conviction formed the starting-point of a +philosophical system: so that what with Socrates was simply a rule of +scientific procedure was carried out by Plato to an objective intuition, +and when Socrates said, Only the knowing of the conception is true +knowledge, Plato added, Only the being of the conception is true being. + +Thus in Plato we have a man of great original mind attempting with this +instrument of induction and definition to form a scheme of the universe, +which divides under his hand into a triple aspect of ethics, physics, and +dialectics.(365) No doubt his main intention was to offer to the cultured +and reflective few,--that inner circle to which his teaching and his +writings were directed,--a philosophy which should serve them as a +religion,(366) which should fill up the gaps and remove the anomalies of +the existing worship, purifying and restoring it, while it preserved amity +with it notwithstanding. Such being his intention, the manner in which he +treats the doctrine of the Divine Being is the more remarkable. Instead of +basing his philosophy upon it, and showing its relation as a part of his +system of physics, ethics, and dialectics, he speaks of it frequently +indeed, but always incidentally.(367) It is not so with other doctrines +which he has at heart. Three of his finest dialogues are dedicated to +setting forth as many aspects of his doctrine as to the soul's +immortality; the Phaedrus treats of its preexistence; the Banquet of the +influence of immortality on the relations of the present life; the Phaedo +of death as the means of a happy futurity.(368) But no one collects +together and lucidly exhibits his view of the divine nature. This has to +be picked out of his writings, a bit here, and another there, and put +together by the student. No doubt he felt, as he has said,(369) "with +regard to the Maker and the Father of this universe it is hard to find him +out, and when you have found him impossible to describe him to all men." +He was intimately convinced that the great mass of mankind was quite +unsuited to receive the conception of the Divine Being which he had +formed. But I believe there to have been another reason of greater force +with him for his not having presented as a whole his conclusions on this +central doctrine of all. It was not merely that the fate of his master +Socrates was ever before him,(370) but the singular position which he held +with regard to the established worship. He wished to correct, not to +destroy it; he wished to reduce it to monotheism, and yet to preserve +polytheism. The two are bound together in his mind. If then his writings +be carefully analysed, and every reference to the Supreme Being put +together into a sort of mosaic,(371) we should find the following picture. +The everlasting essence of things, with which Philosophy deals, is the +highest object. Ideas are those everlasting gods after the pattern of +which the world and all things which are in it are formed, and the +Godhead, taken absolutely, is not distinct from the highest Idea. Plato +sets forth the causality of Ideas and the sway of reason in the world +together with the impossibility to explain what is generated save by an +Ingenerate, motion save by a soul, and the ordered disposition of the +world, working out a purpose, save by reason; and in all which he declares +respecting the Godhead, the Idea of Good, of the highest metaphysical and +ethical perfection, is his guiding-point. As this highest Idea stands at +the head of all Ideas as the cause of all being and knowledge, so the one +everlasting invisible God, the Former and Father of all things, stands at +the head of all the gods, alike difficult to find and to describe. Just as +the above Idea is distinguished by the conception of the Good, so Plato +selects goodness as God's most essential attribute. It is on this ground +that he maintains the Godhead to be absolutely good and upright, and its +operation to be merely good and upright; against the old notion which +imputed envy to it, and derived evil from it. Again, in opposition to the +fabulous appearances of the gods, it is from the goodness of the Godhead +that he deduces its unchangeableness, inasmuch as what is perfect can +neither be changed by anything else, nor change itself, and so become +worse. He adds, the Godhead will never show itself to men other than it +is, since all falsehood is foreign to it; inasmuch as to falsehood in the +properest sense, that is, ignorance and self-deception, it is not exposed, +and has no need to deceive others. He extols the divine perfection, to +which no beauty and no excellence is wanting; the divine power, which +embraces everything and can do everything which is possible, that is, +which does not involve a moral or a metaphysical contradiction: for +instance, it is impossible for God to wish to change Himself, for evil to +cease, and from the doctrine respecting the forming of the world and +matter it is clear that the divine activity in producing is limited by the +nature of the finite.(372) He extols the divine wisdom which disposes all +things to its purpose; its omniscience, which nothing escapes; its +justice, which leaves no transgression unpunished and no virtue +unrewarded; its goodness, which makes the best provision for all. He +rejects, as notions taken from man, not merely the Godhead's having a +body, but likewise all those tales which impute passions, quarrels, crimes +of every kind to the gods. He declares them to be exalted above pleasure +and displeasure, to be untouched by any evil; and is full of moral +indignation at the thought that they allow themselves to be won over, or +rather corrupted, by prayers and offerings. Moreover he shows that +everything is ordered and ruled by Divine Providence, which extends over +the least as well as the greatest, and as regards men is especially +convinced that they are a carefully-tended possession of the Godhead, and +that all things must issue in good to those who through virtue gain its +goodwill. If the unequal and unjust distribution of men's lot is objected, +his reply is, that virtue carries its reward and wickedness its punishment +immediately in itself; further, that both are sure of a complete +retribution in the after-world, while already in this life as a rule in +the end the upright goes not without recognition and thanks, nor the +transgressor without universal hate and detestation. As to the general +fact that there is evil in the world, it seemed to him so inevitable that +it was not requisite expressly to defend the Godhead on that score. All +these statements carry us back at last to one and the same point. It is +the Idea of the Good by applying which Plato produces so exalted a +doctrine of God. In the like spirit he will consider only the moral +intention in acts of worship. He alone can please the Godhead who is like +it, and he alone is like it who is pious, wise, and just. The gods cannot +receive the gifts of the wicked; the virtuous alone have a right to invoke +them. God is goodness; and he who bears not the image of that goodness in +himself stands in no communion with him. + +The doctrine here set forth is the highest ever reached by purely heathen +Greek speculation; but we must remember that it is not thus collected into +a head by Plato himself, still less is it put into such a relation to his +physical, his logical, and his moral system as such a doctrine ought to +bear. A man who had reached so lofty a conviction of the divine unity and +moral perfection as this must, if he would make it effectual, give to it +in his system the place which it really holds in the world. If there be +indeed a Maker and Father of the universe by whom all things consist, all +that Plato taught should have been subordinated to this its first +principle, and the sum of his teaching to men should have been to set him +forth. So far is this from the position which Plato really took, that in +his ideal Republic no other religion but the traditional Greek religion +was to subsist; he changes nothing in the very forms of the polytheistic +worship; he refers the decision on many points to the Delphic Apollo.(373) +And when in his last book on the Laws(374) he sets forth the notion of a +second best state, one which can be realised under actual circumstances, +wherein he gives a mass of practical directions for the needs of the lower +classes, religion in its purely polytheistic dress is the soul of his +teaching, the groundwork of his structure. Men are to worship first of all +the Olympian gods, and the gods who are the patrons of the city; then the +gods of the earth; then demons and heroes; and all these in the +traditional way by offerings, prayers, and vows. All good in public life +is their gift; everything is to be consecrated to them; to violate their +shrines is the greatest of crimes. In fact, after all, but few of mankind +are capable of understanding or receiving the philosophic God. However +imperfect(375) the popular belief in the gods may be, and however +unsatisfactory to him the allegorical interpretations of it then so much +in vogue, yet is it in Plato's conviction indispensable to all those who +have not had a scientific education. Men must first be taught with lies, +and then with the truth: the popular fables and the worship grounded on +them is therefore for all the _first_, and for most the _only_ form of +religion.(376) The philosopher, it is true, sees deeper and despises them +in his heart. Thus the monotheist in speculation is a polytheist in +practice: as Socrates, the model and exemplar of Greek philosophy, with +his dying breath, so Plato, its most inspired teacher with all the voice +of his authority, sacrificed the cock to AEsculapius. + +But moreover, this supreme God, who has to be disinterred from the +recesses of the Platonic teaching, and conciliated with the worship +practically paid to a host of subordinate gods, is in Plato's conception +neither absolutely personal nor free, and he is not the Creator but only +the Former of the world. In Plato's theory there is coeternal with him a +first matter, without form or quality, which exists independently of him; +which moreover is inhabited and swayed to and fro in disorderly heavings +by a sort of soul, the token of that dark Necessity(377) which rises +behind the figures of gods and men in Greek poetry. It is indeed the work +of the divine reason to come down upon this shapeless mass and its inborn +mover, and out of them to construct the world-soul, with which and with +his own reason he forms and maintains and vivifies the ordered universe. +As he is by this operation the Father of the universe, so this First +Matter is "the Mother of all generation," the condition of the existence +of corporeal things. But in this original matter lies the origin of evil, +which, perpetuated in the corporeal structure of man, can indeed be tamed +and schooled, and in a certain degree subdued, but never can be +exterminated by the divine reason. The power, the wisdom, and the +providence of Plato's God are encountered by this check, which stands +eternally over against the Demiurgos in his world-forming activity, which +limits his freedom, and impairs his personality, while it excludes the +whole idea of creation. Students of this philosophy(378) attempt to +associate together his highest Idea, that of the Good, with the supreme +God, of whom he speaks with personal attributes, as the just, the wise, +the true, the good, but admit that Plato has not attempted to solve the +problem how the Idea, which by his hypothesis as it is the highest is also +the most general, is at the same time the most individual, the one +personal God. In fact, it is admitted that he fails--together with all the +ancient Greek writers--in the strict conception of personality.(379) As +according to him individual beings are what they are only by participation +of something higher, it is no wonder that in describing that one Reason, +the Idea of the Good, the highest and most general of all, which forms and +governs the world, his language oscillates between the personal and the +impersonal. But if his philosophical reasons tend one way, it must be +allowed that the heart and affections of the man, and the whole moral +sense of the teacher, decide another. + +The ethical system of Plato appears to be a strict deduction from his +physical. As man in his view is a compound of matter, vivified by a +portion of the world-soul, which the divine reason takes and unites with a +portion of itself, so his virtues correspond to this threefold +composition.(380) For man has an immortal portion in his soul, the reason, +the godlike, in him, but the divine reason, in joining a portion of the +world-soul with matter, invests it with two mortal parts, one the +courageous, or manly, the other, sensuous desire, or the female element, +having their seat in the body's activity. To these answer respectively the +virtues of prudence, of courage, and of temperance, while justice comes in +afterwards as a right ordering of the three, or as prudence applied to +practice. The seat of all irregular desires, of all evil, in fact, is to +Plato in this union of the soul with matter. As this matter is primordial, +evil in its origin does not indeed spring from God, but it is beyond his +power: it springs from that state of things which existed before the +action of God on chaos:(381) it must stand over against the good: and of +necessity encompasses this mortal nature and the place of its habitation: +and to man it lies not in the perverted use of free-will, but in his +original composition, wherein his body is its seat. But in this triple +composition of man Plato does not seem to have clearly apprehended a human +personality at all: he has not even attempted to explain(382) in what the +unity of the soul consists besides these its three portions, two of which, +being tied to the body, drop off at death. + +It is in the practice of Plato as a teacher that we can most fitly +consider the conception which the Greek philosophers in general had +concerning the method of studying and imparting philosophy altogether. It +was about the fortieth year of his life, and twelve years after the death +of his master Socrates, that Plato, having already travelled widely, +settled at Athens.(383) Here he purchased a fixed residence at the +Academia, which became from that time a philosophical school for study, +conversation, oral lectures, and friendly meetings. Here he drew around +him an inner circle of scholars to whom he addressed his unwritten +doctrines,(384) especially his doctrine of Ideas, the key to his whole +system, according as they were able, after preparation, to receive them: +and here besides he gave lectures which might be attended not only by that +inner circle of choice disciples but by studious persons in general. This +residence of Plato served for three hundred years, from 387 before Christ +until the siege of Athens by Sylla in 87, as the centre of Plato's +philosophy viewed as a teaching power. Now in this Plato had before him +the great example of Pythagoras, in the first age of Greek philosophy. +Concerning the doctrines of that philosopher we know little with +certainty,(385) but all are agreed as to his manner of teaching them. His +attempt was to establish a community which should carry in its bosom, +propagate, and perpetuate a doctrine in morals, politics, religion, and +philosophy. His whole procedure was by oral teaching, for he left not a +word written. It was in fact a religious order of life which he first +practised in his own person, and then endeavoured to communicate to +others. Into this order trial for everyone preceded reception.(386) His +scholars were for a long period required to practise silent obedience and +unconditional submission to the authority of the doctrine delivered to +them. Severe daily examination was imposed upon all. The publishing of his +doctrine, especially his speculation as to the nature of God, was strictly +forbidden. The upright life, the learning which then could only be +attained by personal inquiry, the persuasiveness of Pythagoras, were +together so effective that he succeeded in establishing such a community +both in Crotona and in other cities of Southern Italy. It was persecuted +and suffered continual disasters, but still this Pythagorean community, +bearing on its founder's doctrines and manner of life, existed for several +generations after his death, during which many of the most distinguished +Greeks belonged to it. Such was the poet AEschylus, whose mind was formed +on Pythagorean principles. In Plato's time the Pythagorean Archytas was at +the head of the state of Tarentum: and Plato himself was largely imbued +with Pythagorean tenets.(387) + +Now Plato, it is true, did not imitate the political part of the +Pythagorean scheme. It was only upon paper that he set forth his ideal +republic. But the same conception as to the manner of communicating a +doctrine lay in his mind as in that of Pythagoras. He did not look to +writing as a primary instrument of communicating thought. He places it +himself in a relation of dependence upon oral dialectic instruction. It is +only to serve as a reminder of what had been otherwise taught: and, +moreover, it is quite subordinate to his first postulate, the earnestness +of a life devoted to inquiry and education.(388) These principles are set +forth with great lucidity in his dialogue Phaedrus, where he introduces by +the mouth of Socrates the Egyptian god Thoth, the inventor of arithmetic, +geometry, astronomy, drafts and dice, and also of letters. With these +inventions in his hand the god approached the then king of Egypt Thamous, +recommending him to make them known to his subjects. But Thamous was by no +means inclined to receive these inventions unconditionally: he praises or +blames them, as he judges of them, and at last he comes to the +letters.(389) "This discovery," says Thoth, "O king, will make the +Egyptians wiser, and improve their memory. It is of sovereign effect in +both things." "Most ingenious Thoth," replies the king, "one man is made +to give birth to art, and another to judge what good or what harm it will +do to those who use it. And now you, being the father of letters, out of +natural affection assert of them that which is just the contrary to their +real office. For they will breed forgetfulness in the minds of those who +learn them, who will slight the faculty of memory, inasmuch as relying on +what is written externally in the types of others they do not exercise +remembrance by an inward act of their own. The spell you have found is +good not for fixing in the mind, but for reminding. And as to wisdom, you +offer to those who learn them not its reality but its appearance. For they +will indeed hear much, but as this will be without teaching, they will +seem to have many minds but generally no judgment, and be hard to +comprehend, having become wiseacres instead of wise men. O Socrates, says +Phaedrus, you are one who can easily tell stories from Egypt or any other +country. My dear Phaedrus, it was in the temple of Dodonean Jupiter that +they made the first oracular words to proceed from an oak. The men of that +day, not being wise as you young men, were satisfied in their simplicity +to listen to an oak or a rock, if they only spoke the truth. Perhaps it +makes a difference to you who the speaker is, and from what country; for +you do not look merely whether it is true or not. Your rebuke, says +Phaedrus, is just, and what the Theban says about letters seems to me to be +right. Well then, says Socrates, the man who thinks to leave an art in +writing, and he also who receives it as being, when written, something +clear and certain, must be very simple, and be really ignorant of Ammon's +oracle, when he thinks that written words are something more than a +reminder to one who knows the subject of the matters about which they are +written. Exactly so, Socrates. For surely, Phaedrus, writing shares this +troublesome characteristic with painting. The productions of painting +stand there as if they were alive, but if you ask them a question, +preserve a solemn silence. Just so it is with writing. You may think that +they speak with some meaning, but if you ask what that meaning is, there +they stand with just the same word in their mouth. When once a thing is +written, it is tossed over and over by all who take it in, whether it +concerns them or not, and is unable to speak, or to be silent with the +proper persons. And if it is maltreated or slandered, it wants its father +always to help it, for it can neither defend nor help itself. What you say +now is also very true indeed. But, says Socrates, can we not find another +word, this one's lawful brother, and see the process by which it arises, +and how much better and abler than the former it is? What word is this, +and how does it arise? The word which is written on the disciple's soul +together with true knowledge, which is able to defend itself, and knows +how to speak and to be silent with the proper persons. You mean the living +and animated word of one who has knowledge, whereof the written word may +justly be called the shadow.(390) I mean that indeed. Tell me now; an +intelligent gardener, who had seeds that he cared for, and wished to bear +fruit, would he hurry with them in summer to the gardens of Adonis, plant +them, and rejoice to see them springing up with a fair show in a week? or +would he do this for amusement, and in festival-time, if he did it at all, +but when he took pains would use his gardener's art, sow them at the +fitting time, and be too glad if, seven months afterwards, he saw them +coming to perfection? Certainly, Socrates, that would be the difference +between his sport and his earnest. Shall we, then, say that he who +possesses the science of justice, honour, and goodness, has less +intelligence than the gardener for his own seeds? Surely not. He will not, +then, hurry to write them with a pen in ink with words, which cannot on +the one hand help themselves with speech, and on the other hand are +incapable to teach the truth sufficiently. I should think he would not. He +will not; but as for these written flower-borders, he will sow and write +them, when he does write them, for amusement, storing up reminders for +himself, should he come to a forgetful old age, and for every one who +pursues the same footsteps, and he will take pleasure in seeing them +springing up tenderly: so when other men fall to other amusements, +lubricating themselves at the banquet, or other such things, he will take +his amusement here. In this, Socrates, you would substitute a very seemly +amusement for a bad one, when the man who can play with words sports upon +the subject of justice and suchlike. So it is, my dear Phaedrus, but it is, +I take it, earnest in a far higher sense, when one, using the art of +dialectics, takes hold of a fitting soul, and plants and sows with true +knowledge words able to help both themselves and their planter, not +fruitless, but having seed, whence growing up in a succession of minds +they will from age to age produce an immortal line,(391) and will make +their possessor happy as far as man can be." + +In these words, put in his master's mouth, Plato, if I mistake not, has +given us the whole purpose of his life, and the manner in which he hoped +to accomplish it. It was in the Academia that he sought to establish that +immortal line of living words, who should speak as the possessors of real +knowledge upon justice, truth, and goodness. He is describing a living +culture by living teachers, of whom he aspired to be himself the first; +and the written dialogues which he has left are in his intention, and so +far as they enter at all upon the higher points of his doctrine,(392) +reminders of that which he had set forth to chosen auditors by word of +mouth, the word which was able, as he says, to explain and defend itself, +and to answer a question put to it. + +This, then, was the relation existing in the mind of the prince of Greek +philosophers between the written and the spoken word as instruments in +imparting true knowledge, or science. The written word he regarded as +subsidiary, as presupposing instruction by question and answer, and still +more the moral discipline of a life earnestly given up to the study of the +subjects in question. Without this a writing by itself was like a figure +in a picture, which makes an impression on the beholder, but when asked if +it is the true impression keeps, as he says, a solemn face, and makes no +reply; which is the same to all, the earnest and the indifferent, and +cannot treat them according to their merits. He laughs at the notion of +such a writing being by itself any more than sport. And let us remember +that he who said this has enshrined his own philosophy in the most +finished specimens of dramatic dialogues which the Greek mind produced. +These are the statements of the man who wrote Greek in his countrymen's +opinion as Jupiter would have spoken it. There are, then, in Plato's mind +three constituents of teaching: first, the choice of fitting subjects for +it, and what is therein implied, the imposition of a moral discipline upon +them regulating their life to the end in view; secondly, the master's oral +instruction conveying gradually and with authority to minds so prepared +the doctrine to be received; and thirdly, the committing such doctrine to +writing, which shall serve to _remind_ the disciple of what he has been +taught. And this was what he carried into effect.(393) He fixed himself at +the Academia, over which he presided for forty years: he was succeeded +therein by his nephew Speusippus, who held his chair for eight years; +Xenocrates followed in the same post during twenty-five years; and the +line was continued afterwards by Polemon, Crantor, Crates, Arcesilaus, and +others in uninterrupted series. Plato thus established the method of Greek +philosophy, and his example herein was followed by Aristotle, Zeno, and +Epicurus. + +His great disciple Aristotle came to him at the age of seventeen, and +studied under him during twenty years. At a later age, when, after +completing the education of Alexander, he fixed himself in middle life at +Athens, he set up there a second philosophical school at the Lyceum on its +eastern side, and on the model of that of Plato. Attached to this museum +were a portico, a hall with seats, one seat especially for the lecturing +professor, a garden, and a walk, together with a residence, all +permanently appropriated to the teacher and the process of +instruction.(394) When Aristotle died in the year 322 B.C., his friend +Theophrastus presided over his school during five and thirty years, and +the line continued on. We learn that there were periodical meetings, +convivial and conversational, among the members both of the Academic and +Peripatetic schools, and laws for their regulation established by +Xenocrates and Aristotle. It was in the shady walks of his garden that +this great philosopher taught by word of mouth the choicer circle of his +disciples: for the more general hearers he gave lectures sitting.(395) His +instructions were divided into two classes, those which he gave on +rhetoric, the art of discussion, knowledge of civil matters, and suchlike, +which were exoteric, and those which touched the finer and more subtle +points of philosophy, which were termed acroatic, as addressed to the +ears.(396) Again, his dialogues he called "public" or "issued" discourses, +things made over to the general public, in distinction from what was not +so disclosed, but reserved for the philosopher's own meditation, to be +subsequently communicated either by oral lecture or by writing to the +private circle of scholars who gave themselves up entirely to his +philosophy. These Aristotle called "philosophical" or "teaching" +discourses, proceeding, that is, from the principles proper to each branch +of learning, and not from the opinions of the lecturer. These latter were +termed "tentative," as belonging to the exoteric. Simplicius, one of the +latest writers on Greek philosophy, defines exoteric as "the common, and +what concludes by arguments which are matter of opinion;" and Philoponus, +as discourses "not of strict proof, and not directed to lawfully-begotten +hearers," that is, trained and prepared, "but to the public, and springing +from probabilities."(397) Thus in Aristotle, the largest in grasp of mind, +the most observant of facts, the most accurate in definition among Greek +writers, the philosopher in fact and "master of those who know,"(398) for +all future ages, we find the same three constituents of teaching as in +Plato, and in the same order of importance: first, hearers selected for +their natural aptitude, and then submitted to a moral discipline and a +common life; secondly, the instruction of such hearers by word of mouth, +question and answer, discussion and cross-examination; and lastly, the +committing of doctrines to writing. With him too his written philosophical +discourses were _reminders_ of his oral teaching, which they presupposed +and required as a key to their full meaning, and especially for the +comprehension of their harmony as a system. + +The order of teaching which I have thus sketched as being followed in +practice by the two most eminent Greek philosophers belonged to them all. +They had no other conception respecting the method of communicating a +doctrine efficiently to men. None of them considered philosophy merely or +chiefly as a literature: none of them attributed to a book the power of +teaching it. Their conception was, a master and his scholars, and the +living together, the moral subordination and discipline which this +involved. This school of education or training in knowledge(399) was their +primary thought: the committing of their doctrine to writing was both +subsequent and secondary. Their writings were intended, as Plato says, to +be recollections(400) of their teaching, and failed to convey the real +knowledge to those who had not the stamp of this teaching impressed on +their minds. + +As Plato made a local habitation for himself and his doctrine in the +Academia, and Aristotle in the Lyceum, so Zeno, the founder of the third +great philosophic school, took up his abode in the Portico at Athens, a +court surrounded with pillars, and adorned with the paintings of +Polygnotus. Here he began to teach about 308 B.C., and here he continued +teaching as some say for fifty-eight years. It is said that the character +of Socrates, as drawn by Xenophon and by Plato in his _Apology_, filled +him with astonishment and admiration:(401) and the Stoics afterwards drew +their doctrine of the wise man, which they endeavoured to image out and +realise, from that living example of it,(402) an instance of the +connection of doctrine with person which is full of interest and +suggestion. Zeno was succeeded in his office of teaching by Cleanthes, and +Cleanthes by Chrysippus and a long line of teachers, who for several +hundred years continued, with variations, the same general doctrine of +ethics. + +Just in the same way and at the same time Zeno's great rival Epicurus +fixed the seat of his school in the Garden at Athens, which thenceforth +became for thirty-six years the central point of the teacher's activity. +About him gathered a circle of friends whom similarity of principles and +the enjoyment of cultivated intercourse bound together with unusual +intimacy. It speaks for the special character of his philosophy that from +the beginning women and even hetaerae formed a part of this society. But he +succeeded during this long period of teaching in impressing upon his +school so strong a character that it is recognised without essential +change during hundreds of years.(403) + +We should do injustice to the character and the work of Plato, Aristotle, +Zeno, and Epicurus, the founders of the four great schools of Greek +philosophy, if we did not take into account what was in their day no doubt +of greater influence than their writings, that is, their function as +teachers, their oral teaching itself, and those fundamental principles of +philosophic education which lay at the bottom of it. Plato has left us +very little of doctrine put out in his own name. He is not a speaker in +his dialogues. He puts what he would say in the mouth of others, +especially of Socrates. He tells us that he has purposely done this in +order that men might not say, here is Plato's philosophy:(404) and the +reason of this was that he utterly distrusted his own or any man's power +to disclose to others such a system in a set form of words. It is, then, +the more remarkable that he has said in his own person what were his most +settled convictions as to intercourse by word of mouth, and continuous +written discourse, viewed as instruments for attaining and communicating +truth. He expresses his absolute disbelief that men can reach true +conceptions by their being set forth in the immutable form of writing. It +is a far other and more difficult work which has to be accomplished. In a +word, not even aptness for learning and memory will give the power to see +the truth as to virtue and vice to one who is not kin to the subject; nor, +again, this kinship without such aptitude and memory: but when both are +joined, then out of living together, after much time,(405) by the +continual friction of name, definition, acts of sight and perception, by +thought and meditation, the hearing and answering the objections of +others, the process of mutual cross-examination discharged without envy or +jealousy, and with sincere love of the truth, a sudden flash of fire +kindles in the mind, and nourishes itself, disclosing the knowledge +required. Thus it is that prudence and intelligence on each subject, +shining out in this beam of light, go forward as far as man may reach. The +view here propounded, if reflected upon, will convey to us what the living +work first of Pythagoras, and then of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus, +and their successors, was. Both the conception indeed and the realisation +seem to have been most complete in Pythagoras. The philosophic living +together was its basis. Instruction was oral. Learning was effected by the +collision of mind with mind, by objection and answer. It was the Socratic +principle inherited from these schools that nothing passed muster for +knowledge which did not stand the test of cross-examination:(406) but an +unchangeable text was utterly unsuited, according to Plato, to debate the +question under treatment in such fashion, while on the other hand the mind +of the reader was passive in receiving the impression which it conveyed. +On neither side therefore did the conditions of knowledge exist, but this +was reached under the circumstances of personal intercourse above +mentioned, and might be recalled in the written form to the minds of those +who had thus first attained it. + +Down to the end of Greek philosophy the same conception as to the method +of teaching prevailed. Ammonius Sakkas, the founder of Neoplatonism, +delivered his doctrine only by word of mouth, which his chief disciples, +Erennius, Origines, and Plotinus, engaged not to make public.(407) It was +when one of them, Erennius, had broken this promise, that another, +Plotinus, after delivering lectures at Rome, wrote down his philosophy; +but his scheme was to carry it out by collecting his disciples together in +one city, and thus realising Plato's republic. + + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY. PART II. + + +The mind of the next great teacher who arose in Greece after Plato +presented an almost complete contrast to that of the master under whom he +had so long studied. Aristotle's power consisted in a parallel development +of two forces which do not often coexist.(408) He joined together a rare +degree of consistent philosophic thinking with an equally rare degree of +accurate observation. This double faculty is shown in what he effected. He +made the sciences of logic, ethics, and psychology: he built up those of +natural history and politics with the wealth of knowledge which his +experience had accumulated.(409) Thus his analytic and synthetic genius +embraced the whole range of human knowledge then existing. As Plato threw +his vivid fancy and imagination and his religious temper into everything +which concerned the human spirit, so Aristotle fixed his gaze upon nature, +which with him in all its manifestations was the ultimate fact. As Plato +rose from the single being to his conception of the true, the good, the +beautiful, of which the Idea to him was everything, so Aristotle, +steadfastly discarding his master's doctrine of Ideas, took his stand on +the single being, examining it with the closest observation and the +subtlest thought, and the knowledge thus conveyed to him is everything. +Plato's conception of God is that of the great world-former, orderer, and +ruler: Aristotle's conception of God is that of a pure intelligence, +without power, an eternal, ever-active, endless, incorporeal substance, +who never steps out of that everlasting rest into action: who is the +world's first cause, but is unconscious of it, his action upon the world +being likened to the influence of the beloved object upon the lover. +Plato's dualism is summed up in the expression, God and Matter; +Aristotle's dualism, in God and the World. Plato represents the action of +the Deity as the working-up of the original matter into the millions of +forms which the world exhibits: but these millions of forms are taken by +Aristotle as if they had existed for ever; the World, as it is, and the +Deity, are coeternal. + +Aristotle's doctrine of the human soul is that it exists only as that +which animates the body, without which its being cannot be known.(410) It +is the principle which forms, moves, and developes the body; the substance +which only appears in the body formed and penetrated by it, and which +works continuously in it, as the life which determines and prevails over +its matter. Thus the body is of itself nothing; what it is, it is only +through the soul, whose being and nature it expresses, to which it is +related as the medium in which the purpose, which is the soul, realises +itself. Thus the soul cannot be thought of without the body, nor the body +without the soul: both come into their actual state together. In the soul +Aristotle distinguishes three parts, the vegetative, the sensitive, and +the thinking. This last, the peculiar property of man, is further +divisible into the passive and the active, of which the former is linked +to the soul as the soul is to the body, as form is to matter, multiplies +itself with individuals, and is extinguished with them. But the reason, or +pure intelligence, has nothing in common with matter, comes from without +into man, and exists in him as a self-consisting indestructible being, +without multiplying or dividing itself. Accordingly this intellect or +reason suffers the soul to sink back with the body into the nothing from +which both have been together produced. It alone continues to subsist as +what is ever the same and unchangeable, since it is nothing but the divine +intelligence in an individual existence, enlightening the darkness of the +human subject in the passive part of the understanding, and so must be +considered as the first mover in man of his discursive thinking and +knowing, as well as of his willing.(411) As that which is properly human +in the soul, that which has had a beginning, must also pass away, even the +understanding, and only the divine reason is immortal, and as memory +belongs to the sensitive soul, and individual thinking only takes place by +means of the passive intellect, all consciousness must cease with death. +And again, clearly as Aristotle maintains that man is the mover and master +of his own actions, and has it in his power to be good or evil, and thence +repudiates the assumption of Socrates and Plato that no one is willingly +evil, yet he cannot find a place for real freedom of the will between the +motion which arises from sensitive desire, and that which proceeds from +the divine intelligence dwelling in the soul. Necessity arises on both +sides, from the things which determine the passive understanding, and from +the divine intelligence.(412) Thus his physical theory, as in the case of +Plato noted above,(413) prevents a clear conception of the human +personality. His notion of man in this point corresponds to his notion of +God: he does not concern himself with questions respecting the goodness, +justice, and freedom of God, inasmuch as his God is not really +personal:(414) so with regard to man we find in him no elucidation as to +the question of moral freedom, nor of the origin and nature of wickedness +in man. Wickedness is with Aristotle the impotence to hold the mean +between too much and too little: it presents itself therefore only in this +world of contingency and change, and has no relation to God, since the +first or absolute good has nothing opposed to it. He has not the sense of +moral perversion with regard to evil. In accordance with which the end of +all moral activity with him is happiness, which consists in the well-being +arising from an energy according to nature; as virtue is the observing a +proper mean between two extremes. And the highest happiness is +contemplative thought, the function of the divine in man, the turning away +from everything external to the inner world of the conceptions. + +The religious character, which belongs conspicuously to Plato's +philosophy, fails, it will be seen, in that of Aristotle. Whereas Plato +strove to purify the popular belief, and urged as the highest point of +virtue to become like to God by the conjunction of justice and sanctity +with prudence,(415) Aristotle divides morality from religion as his God is +separated off from the world.(416) His scientific inquiries have not that +immediate relation to the personal life and the destiny of man in which +the religiousness of Platonism most consists. His whole view of the world +goes to explain things as far as possible from their natural causes.(417) +Thus he admits in the whole direction of the world the ruling of a divine +power, of a reason which reaches its purpose; he believes in particular +that the gods care for men, take an interest in him who lives in +accordance with reason; that happiness is their gift; he contradicts the +notion that the godhead is envious, and so could withhold from man +knowledge, the best of its gifts; but this divine providence coincides for +him entirely with the working of natural causes. In his view the godhead +stands in solitary self-contemplation outside the world, the object of +admiration and reverence to man. The knowledge of it is the highest task +for his intellect. It is the good to which in common with everything that +is finite he is struggling; whose perfection calls forth his love: but +little as he can expect a return of love from it, so little does he find +in it any cooeperation distinct from the natural connection of things, and +his reason is the only point of immediate contact with it. + +Religion(418) itself Aristotle treats as an unconditional moral necessity. +The man who doubts whether the gods should be honoured is a subject fit +not for instruction but for punishment, just as the man who asks whether +he should love his parents. As the natural system of the world cannot be +imagined without God, so neither can man in it be imagined without +religion. But he can give us no other ground save political expediency for +resting religion upon fables so apparent as the stories of the popular +belief. He sometimes himself uses these fables, like other popular +opinions, to illustrate some general proposition, as, for instance, +Homer's verses on the golden chain show the immobility of the first mover: +just as in other cases he likes to pursue his scientific assumptions to +their least apparent beginnings, and to take account of sayings and +proverbs. But if we except the few general principles of religious belief, +he ascribes to these fables no deeper meaning, and as little does he seem +to care about purifying their character. For his state he presupposes the +existing religion, as in his personal conduct he did not withdraw from its +usages, and expressed his attachment to friends and relations in the forms +consecrated by it. But no trace is found in him of Plato's desire to +reform religion by means of philosophy: and in his politics he allows in +the existing worship even what in itself he disapproves, as the case of +unseemly words, inscriptions, and statues. Thus the relation of the +Aristotelic philosophy to the actual religion is generally a very loose +one. It does not disdain indeed to use the points of connection which the +other presents, but has no need of it whatever for itself: nor does it +seek on its own side to purify and transform religion, the imperfection of +which it rather seems to take as something unavoidable. The two are +indifferent to each other; philosophy pursues its way without troubling +itself about religion, without fearing any interruption from it. + +In the seventy-seven years which elapsed from the death of Socrates, B.C. +399, to that of Aristotle, B.C. 322, Greek life had suffered a great +change. That dear-loved independence which every state had cultivated, and +which concentrated every energy of the mind in civil life, had vanished. +During the forty years of Plato's work as a teacher it was becoming less +and less: Chaeronea gave it the death-blow; while Aristotle is the son of a +time at which scientific study had already begun to take the place of +active political life.(419) But the conquest effected by his great pupil +Alexander completed this change. He opened the East to the Greek mind, +bringing it into close contact with Asiatic thought, beliefs, and customs. +Under his successors Alexandria, Antioch, and Seleucia, Tarsus, Pergamus, +and Rhodes became great centres of Greek culture: but Greek +self-government was gone. Athens with the rest of the Greek cities had +lost its political independence, but it remained the metropolis of Greek +philosophy. From the last decade of the fourth century before Christ four +great schools, the Platonic, Peripatetic, Stoic, and Epicurean, all seated +here, as embodied in the dwelling-place and oral teaching of their +masters, stand over against each other. The point most interesting to our +present subject is this, that all these schools take up a common ground, +one which we consider to belong properly to religion, that is, the +question wherein the happiness of man consists, and how to attain it.(420) +Thus the political circumstances of the land gave the tone to its +philosophy. What the time required was something which would compensate +men for the lost position of a free citizen and a self-governed +fatherland. The cultivated classes looked to philosophy for consolation +and support. The answers to this question which the various systems gave +were very different from each other, but an answer they all attempted. +What they have in common is, the drawing-back of man upon himself, his +inner mind, his consciousness, as a being who thinks and wills:(421) while +on the other hand the mental view was widened from the boundaries of a +narrow state to that which touches man in general. The field of morality +opened out beyond the range of this or that city, territory, or monarchy. +Thus two hundred full years were occupied with the struggles of the Stoic +and Epicurean schools, and the sceptical opposition to them of the middle +and later Academy. At the very beginning of this time the man who sat +first in Aristotle's chair after him, and therefore the head of the most +speculative school, Theophrastus, had shocked the students of philosophy +by declaring that fortune, not wisdom, was the ruler of the world. But it +was precisely against the despondence which such a conviction would work +in the mind that the Stoics struggled with their doctrine of apathy, +Epicurus with his self-contentment, the Sceptics with their tranquillity +of indifference.(422) These all sought to cure those whom the fables of +the popular religion were insufficient to satisfy, those who felt the +evils and trials of life and knew not whither to turn in their need. But +the Stoic and the Epicurean cures stood in the strongest contrast to each +other. + +Zeno(423) of Cittium in Cyprus, after listening for twenty years to the +teaching of various Socratic masters in Athens, founded a school himself, +and wished it to be a school of virtuous men rather than of speculative +philosophers. It was a system of complete materialism rigorously carried +out. He admitted only corporeal causes, and two principles, matter, and a +force eternally indwelling in it and shaping it. These two principles, +matter and force, were in fact to the stoic mind only one eternal being +viewed in a twofold aspect. Matter for its subsistence needs a principle +of unity to form and hold it together: and this, the active element, is +inconceivable without matter as the subject in which it dwells, works, and +moves. Thus the positive element is matter viewed as being as yet without +qualities, while the active element which runs through and quickens +everything is God in matter. In real truth God and matter are one thing, +or, in other words, the stoic doctrine is a pantheism which views matter +as instinct with life.(424) God is the unity of that force which embraces +and interpenetrates the universe, assuming all forms, and as such is a +subtle fluid, fire, ether, or breath, in which are contained all forms of +existence belonging to the world-body which it animates, and from which +they develop themselves in order: it lives and moves in all, and is the +common source of all effect and all desire. God, then, is the world-soul, +and the world itself no aggregate of independent elements, but a being, +organised, living, filled and animated by a single soul, that is to say, +by one original fire manifesting itself in various degrees of tension and +heat. If in Aristotle's theory the world is a total of single beings, +which are only bound together unto a higher aim by a community of effort, +in the stoic system on the contrary these beings all viewed together are +members of a surpassingly perfect organisation, and as such, so bound in +one, that nothing can happen to the individual being, which does not by +sympathy extend its operation to all others. Thus on his physical side, +God is the world-fire, the vital all-interpenetrating heat, the sole cause +of all life and motion, and the necessity which rules the world: while on +his moral side, inasmuch as the first general cause can only be a soul +full of reason and wisdom, he is the world-reason, a blessed being, the +originator of the moral law, ever occupied with the government of the +world, being in fact himself the world. Thus everything is subject to the +law of absolute necessity; everything eternally determined through an +endless series of preceding causes, since nothing happens without a cause, +and that again is the working of a cause before it. What, then, is called, +or seems to be, chance, is merely the working of a cause unknown to us. +The will of man is accordingly mere spontaneity. He wills, but what he +wills is inevitable: he determines himself, but always in consequence of +preceding causes. And since here every cause is something subject to the +conditions of matter, something purely inside the world, it becomes +unalterable destiny. But inasmuch as the series of causes leads back to +the first, and this first cause has not only a physical side, but includes +intelligence with it, and so everything in it is foreseen and +predetermined, therefore that which considered under the aspect of +inevitable necessity is called fate or destiny, viewed as thought may be +termed Providence, a divine arrangement. + +With such a doctrine it is evident that all morality was reduced to a +matter of physics: and yet no sect of Greek philosophers struggled so hard +to solve the great problem of moral freedom as the Stoics.(425) But the +iron grasp of their leading tenet was ever too much for them. Man's soul +is of the same substance as the world-soul, that is, breath or fire, of +which it is a portion: in man it manifests itself as the force from which +knowledge and action proceed, as at once intelligence, will, and +consciousness. It is, then, closely allied with the Divine Being, but at +the same time corporeal, a being which stands in perpetual action and +reaction with the human body. It is that heat-matter bound to the blood, +which communicates life and motion: it is perishable, though it lasts +beyond the body, perhaps to the general conflagration. It has therefore, +in the most favourable view, the duration of a world-period, with the +outrun of which it must return to the universal ether or godhead: its +individual existence and consciousness end. + +As to the popular religion,(426) the Stoics admitted that it was filled +with pretended deities, false doctrines, and rank superstition; that its +wilderness of fables about the gods was simply contemptible: but that it +was well to retain the names of gods consecrated in public opinion, who +were merely descriptions of particular incorporations of the one +world-god. + +The Stoics did not represent the component elements of human nature as +struggling with each other, like Plato.(427) With them nature and reason +is one thing. Their virtue,(428) or highest good, is life in accordance +with nature, that is, the concurrence of human conduct with the all-ruling +law of nature, or of man's will with God's will. Thus it was that the +Stoic sought to reach his doctrine of philosophical impassibility: and to +this system the majority of earnest and thinking minds in the two +centuries before Christ inclined.(429) + +At the very same time as Zeno, Epicurus set up at Athens a school destined +through all its existence to wage a battle with stoicism, yet aiming by +different means at the same end, the freedom of the individual man from +anxiety and disturbance.(430) If Zeno's world was an intelligent animal, +that of Epicurus was a machine formed and kept in action by chance. He +assumed the atomic theory of Democritus, that all bodies--and there are +nothing else but corporeal things--have arisen originally from atoms moving +themselves in empty space. They are eternal and indestructible, without +quality, but not without quantity, and endlessly various in figure. As +these from mere weight and impulse would fall like an everlasting rain in +empty space without meeting each other, Epicurus devised a third motion, a +slight declension from the perpendicular, in virtue of which their +agglomeration is produced: and thus it is a work of pure chance that out +of these, the countless worlds which frame the universe began to be. Any +order or higher guidance of the universe, as directed to a purpose, is not +to be thought of, any more than necessary laws, according to which the +appearances of nature reproduce themselves. For a law would ultimately +lead to a lawgiver, and this might reawaken fear, and disturb the wise +man's repose. He utterly denied the intervention either of one god or of +many gods in the forming or the maintenance of the world: the main purpose +indeed of his philosophy was to overthrow that religious view which saw in +the argument from design a sure proof of a divine Providence.(431) +Nothing, he thought, was more perverted than that the opinion that nature +was directed for the good of man, or generally for any object at all; that +we have tongues in order to speak, or ears in order to hear, for in fact +just the reverse is true. We speak because we have tongues, and hear +because we have ears. The powers of nature have worked purely under the +law of necessity. Among their manifold productions some were necessarily +composed in accordance with an end: hence resulted for man in particular +many means and powers; but such result must not be viewed as intentional, +rather as a purely casual consequence of naturally necessary operations. +Gods, such as the people believed, he utterly repudiated. Not he who +denied such gods, but he who assumed their existence, was godless. He +allowed, indeed, that there existed an immense multitude of gods, beings +of human form, but endued with subtle, ethereal, transparent, +indestructible bodies, who occupied the intermundial spaces, free from +care, regardless of human things, enjoying their own blissful repose.(432) +His gods are in fact a company of Epicurean philosophers, possessing +everything which they can desire, eternal life, no care, and perpetual +opportunity of agreeable entertainment. + +The soul of man is a body made out of the finest round and fiery atoms; a +body which, like heated air, most rapidly penetrates the whole material +frame. The finest portion of the soul, the feeling and thinking spirit, +which as a fourth element is added to the fiery, aerial, and vaporous +portions, dwells in the breast. In these elements all the soul's passions +and impulses are rooted. When death destroys the body, the sheltering and +protecting home of the soul's atoms, these evaporate at once. It was clear +that in such a system the soul could not outlive the body, but Epicurus +laid a special stress on this, since thereby only could men be delivered +from the greatest impediment to repose and undisturbed enjoyment of life, +the torturing fear of the world below, and of punishments after death. It +was the crown of his system, to which ethics, physics, and such logic as +he admitted were entirely subordinate, to emancipate men from four fears, +the fear of death, the fear of natural things, the fear of the gods, the +fear of a divine Providence, which was the same thing as fate.(433) +Nevertheless, the followers of Epicurus had no scruple, after the manner +of their master, who had spoken of the worship of the gods like a priest, +to visit temples and take part in religious ceremonies. These, it is true, +were useless, since they had nothing to fear and nothing to hope from the +gods, but it was an act of reason, and could do no harm, to honour beings +naturally so high and excellent.(434) + +Of this school we learn that it gradually became the most numerous of all. +Its social force really lay in setting forth as a model the undisturbed +security of individual life. It agreed at the bottom with stoicism that +man's wisdom and highest end was to live in accordance with nature. Zeno, +it is true, called this living in accordance with nature, virtue, man's +highest and only good; Epicurus called it pleasure; but Zeno's virtue +consisted essentially in the absence of passions, the pleasure of Epicurus +in the mind's undisturbedness.(435) The Epicureans were more attached to +their master's memory than any other school. They were renowned for their +friendship with each other. Epicurus's Garden at Athens meant the highest +refinement of Athenian life, the enjoyment of everything that was pleasant +in the society of likeminded men.(436) It was this side of his philosophy +which made it popular. + +While the schools of Zeno and Epicurus seated at Athens were powerfully +influencing Grecian thought, the former especially drawing to it the +stronger and more thinking minds, resistance arose to them both in the +chair of Plato. First Arcesilaus and then Carneades, who had succeeded to +this office, set up in the middle Academy the school of Scepticism. While +Stoics and Epicureans alike sought peace of mind through knowledge of the +world and its laws, they on the contrary maintained that this same peace +of mind could only be attained by renouncing all such knowledge.(437) They +held that no truth and no certainty were given to man by the +representations of his senses, by his feelings, and by his consciousness +of these, which do not enable him to know the real being of anything.(438) +Those who held this view would not say downright that what they +contradicted was untrue: they were of opinion that it might be true, only +there was no certitude of this, and therefore it must be left +undetermined. The uncertainty was as great on the one side as on the +other. Sextus Empiricus defined the state of skepsis to be "skilfulness in +so setting forth appearances and reflections against each other, as to be +brought through the equilibrium of opposing facts and grounds in their +favour first to a suspension of judgment, and then to imperturbable +tranquillity." + +Carneades, whose life occupied the greater part of the second century +before Christ, and who is extolled by Cicero as the keenest and most +copious of disputants, was the man in whom this school of thought reached +its highest point. He had appeared at Rome among a deputation of +philosophers in the year 155, when his eloquence and earnestness made a +great impression on his Roman hearers. This scepticism of the younger +Academy however ran in accordance with the direction which the collective +philosophy of the Greeks naturally took, and was carried out with an +acuteness and a scientific ability which makes us recognise in it an +important member of philosophical development.(439) Carneades subjected +the stoic doctrine as to God in particular to a criticism the range of +which went far beyond the dogmas of this school, and in fact tended to +represent every conviction as to the existence of the godhead, and every +religious belief, as something impossible and untenable.(440) This, +however, as Cicero repeatedly assures us, was not done for the purpose of +destroying belief in the gods, but only to point out the weakness and +groundlessness of stoic doctrines. It is chiefly in his assaults on the +assertions and assumptions of his adversaries that Carneades is +victorious: when he attempts anything positive on his own side, it amounts +to this, that a rational man will take probability for his guide, when he +cannot be assured of truth: and his chief merit appears to have been in +more accurately determining the degrees of probability.(441) + +The contests of these schools bring us down to the middle of the second +century before Christ, when Greece fell under the dominion of Rome. From +this time forth not only were Greek philosophers of eminence drawn to live +themselves at Rome, and so to meet her statesmen and nobles in habits of +intercourse, but the higher classes of the great capital commonly +completed their education by visiting and studying at Athens, Rhodes, and +other centres of Grecian thought. Thus by the fusion of Greece with the +empire, while her political importance dwindled away, her influence upon +the mind of her subjugators was immensely increased. But the Roman on his +side obtained a sort of victory. As a rule he was anything but an original +thinker. He was an essentially practical man: he had a steady instinct +which led him to distrust first causes and general principles. The Greek +schools were to him of value only as they might fit into his daily life, +not as coherent systems of thought. The spirit therefore in which he +regarded their differences was to select from them what best suited his +tastes and feelings. If he had no power to originate, he could choose. But +such likewise had been the result among the Greeks themselves of two +centuries of conflict, in which the rival systems of Stoicism, +Epicureanism, and Scepticism had stood over against each other. They +sprung from the same soil; they might even be termed three branches of one +stem,(442) inasmuch as their common root was the desire to find for the +individual man something which would give him tranquillity of mind, +happiness in fact, independent of his civil circumstances. In this they +all took up a practical rather than a theoretical ground, the ground +indeed which is now assigned to religion. Utterly opposed, then, as they +were in their means, they sought the same end, and it was not in nature +that the collision of their various arguments should not at length kindle +the spirit of eclecticism. Thus the temper of the Roman statesman and +noble, and the course of Greek philosophy itself, combined to produce this +spirit, which from the beginning of the first century before Christ +pervaded the thinkers of the Greco-Roman world.(443) But eclecticism +betokens a weakening of the philosophic mind, that weariness which is +unable to take a firm grasp of truth, an absence of the keen aim and high +desire which such a grasp betokens. It is a confession that no one system +possesses the truth: in which state of things nothing remains for the +individual but to choose for himself out of different systems those +morsels of truth which approve themselves most to his taste or tact, or, +as he would term it, his truth-seeking sincerity. + +But it is not too much to say that the whole spirit of later antiquity, so +far as it interested itself in the discovery of truth, from the time that +Greek philosophy was diffused over the Roman world, leant more or less to +eclecticism. Its most able, most distinguished, and most interesting +representative is Cicero.(444) He lived at a time when rival criticism had +searched out and exposed every weak point in the different systems of +thought. To found new systems there was no further creative force; his +eclectic position was the necessary result. His genius supplied him with +no means to overcome it. His philosophical writings are scarcely more than +transcripts from various Grecian sources, wherein he uses his skill as a +rhetorician and his unfailing wealth of words to set forth with lawyerlike +balancing the arguments of different schools. We can yet detect the +originals, from which in the short intervals of enforced absence from +political life before and after the death of Caesar he transfused with such +rapidity into a Latin shape the products of Greek discussion.(445) Thus +his treatise on the Republic and on Laws are in form imitations of Plato's +writings with the same title, while for their contents Cicero applies +Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic doctrines to his own political +experiences, making also much use of Polybius. His _Paradoxa_ explain +Stoic propositions. The groundwork of his _Consolatio_ is Crantor's +writing upon Grief. The _Lost Hortensius_ is drawn from an exhortation of +Aristotle to Themison, a prince of a city of Cyprus, or from a similar +work of the academician Philo of Larissa; his books _De Finibus_ from +works of Phaedrus, Chrysippus, Carneades, Antiochus, as well as the studies +which Cicero himself in his youth made while attending lectures; his +_Academica_ from the writings and partly also from the lectures of the +best-known Academicians: his _Tusculan Disputations_ from Plato and +Crantor, from Stoics and Peripatetics. The first book on the _Nature of +the Gods_ from the writing of an Epicurean, which has been discovered in +the rolls of Herculaneum, and was first supposed to be a treatise of +Phaedrus, but is now known to be a work of Philodemus: his critique on the +Epicurean standing-point is drawn from the stoic Posidonius; the second +book from Cleanthes and Chrysippus; the third from Carneades and +Clitomachus. Of his books on _Divination_, the first is taken from +Chrysippus, Posidonius, Diogenes, and Antipater; the second from +Carneades, and the stoic Panaetius. His treatise on _Fate_ from the +writings of Chrysippus, Posidonius, Cleanthes, and Carneades: his _Elder +Cato_ from Plato, Xenophon, Hippocrates, and Aristo of Chius: his _Laelius_ +mainly from a writing of Theophrastus on Friendship. His main authority +for the first two books on _Offices_ is Panaetius; and for the third +Posidonius; while besides Plato and Aristotle he has made use of Diogenes +of Babylon, Antipater of Tyre, and Hecato. + +Now in this selection from rival and antagonistic schools--this oscillation +between the positive and sceptical tone of thought, this sitting as a +judge rather than obeying as a disciple--Cicero very exactly represented +the tone and attitude of the cultivated classes in his own time and in the +century following his death. Originality of mind in philosophic studies +was gone; nor was any system as a whole believed in. The sceptic and +eclectic turn of mind are but the reverse sides of the same mental +coinage: he who selects from all is convinced by none. Neither his doubts +nor his choices satisfied Cicero, or any one of those who followed him in +that most important century, the eighth of the Roman city, fifty years of +which preceded and fifty followed the coming of Christ. In its +philosophical productions no preceding century had been so poor as this. +It had only to show the school of the Sextii, which arose at Rome about +the beginning of our era, and took a sort of middle standing between +Pythagorean, Cynic, and Stoic principles.(446) This school was of small +importance, and soon became extinct. With this exception from Cicero to +Seneca no names of distinction appear. There is a gap in philosophical +thought. A period so influential on the destinies of man in its events, so +celebrated for its polite literature, on which the world has since been +feeding, is barren in the highest realm of inquiry. For this reason there +is a particular justice in taking Cicero as an exponent of heathen thought +and spirit, the living specimen of the kind, inasmuch as he is the last +philosophic writer before Christian thought appears in the world, and +chose for himself the function of summing up what he thought of value in +the ages before him. + +We omit therefore nothing in our review if we place ourselves at the end +of this century, in the reign of Claudius, and cast a glance backward over +that prodigious labour of human reason through which we have hastily +travelled, and which had then lasted six hundred years. The problem was, +given the universe, what will man's reason in the most gifted, cultivated, +inquiring, dialectic race of the ancient world do with it? And more +particularly, to what results will reason come as to the power which has +formed, or which rules it: as to its chief inhabitant, his nature, and the +purpose for which he exists, and the end to which he is ever advancing: as +to the duties by which he is bound to this creating, or at least +maintaining and ruling power: as to those offices which he owes to his +fellow, the individual to the individual, the civil community to the +community. It was to these points especially that the greatest character +in the whole movement--the single heathen who knew how to die for his +convictions--turned the thoughts of those who followed him. Again, at the +very starting-point of Greek philosophy a man of most virtuous conduct, +gifted likewise with great powers of attraction, had sought to realise in +a society the philosophic life. And we have seen this conception of the +mode of propagating truth to lie at the bottom of Greek teaching, and to +have been pursued by Plato, by Aristotle, by Zeno, by Epicurus, to have +been the original and even the only form of teaching which they +recognised. What was the result in this respect also? In the four hundred +and forty years following the death of Socrates had reason produced a +consistent doctrine, and a society of which that doctrine should be the +law and bond, a fitting body for its soul to tenant, the immortal race of +that living word which Plato contemplated? Time there had been enough, and +even a superfluity of genius: but there were also two great outward events +which might be expected to favour and advance such a result. + +The first of these was the subjection of the whole East to the influence +of the Greek mind by the conquest of Alexander, the effect of which +continued in the kingdoms carried on by his successors. Originally the +civil position of the Greek, as the free citizen of a free state, had been +all in all to him. His country was his single measure. But during the +lifetime of Plato and Aristotle this position had been more and more +altering. The philosophy of Zeno and Epicurus was set up by men who had +lost it altogether, who were thrown back on themselves, on the intrinsic +nature of man, for support. Their inmost thought was how to produce +tranquillity of mind, and so far as might be, happiness, for man, in +something independent of his civil position. The loss of self-government +had opened to them perforce a field far wider than the narrow confines of +a provincial citizenship. Henceforth the schools of Plato, Aristotle, +Zeno, and Epicurus issued their mental legislation not for the inhabitant +of Attica, but for all that fusion of races which occupied the eastern +coasts of the Mediterranean, was ruled by Greek potentates, and spoke the +Hellenic tongue. Thus the ground taken up by philosophy was at once +religious and cosmopolitan; the former because it attempted to deal with +the nature of man as man, and to give him inward contentment, the latter +because the mind, which used as its organ the Greek language, swayed large +and independent empires, embracing various races of men. Then, if ever, it +might have been expected that heathenism would make a great spring,(447) +would cast aside what was local and accidental in the various customs, +races, and beliefs brought under the fusing influence of one spirit, and +idealise out of them a religion bearing the stamp and showing the force of +that human reason of which Greece was the great representative. But the +three centuries which witnessed the birth, the vigorous growth, and the +incessant contests of the schools of Zeno and Epicurus, together with the +scepticism which from Plato's chair passed judgment on them both, produced +no such result, but rather terminated in that balancing of opposite +systems, and the selection of fragments from each, which we have seen in +Cicero. + +The second great event which we have to note is that when the Greek mind +had thus been for three hundred years in possession of society throughout +the East, the Roman empire came to bind in unity of government not only +all those races which the successors of Alexander had ruled, but the wide +regions of the West as well, and their yet uncivilised inhabitants. Here, +again, the Greek mind was not dethroned, but married, as it were, to Roman +power. Philosophy made a sort of triumphal entry into Rome in spite of +Cato and all the conservative force of the old Roman spirit. And if fusion +had been the thought, the desire, and the attempt of the Ptolemies and the +Seleucidae, even more certainly was it the only spirit by which Augustus +and Tiberius could hope to rule in peace the world made subject to them. +And not less than the extinction of Greek autonomy did the loss of +self-government accompanying the institution of the empire force the Roman +also back upon himself. When Cicero could no longer sway the senate, he +studied philosophic systems at Tusculum: and certainly his book of Offices +has been more valued by all posterity than his speeches against Catiline +or his defence of Milo. A long train of writers from the Fathers downwards +have seen in the civil unity of the Roman empire a providential +preparation for a great religion. But the field on which that empire arose +had already, so far as concerns the thinking classes, long been occupied +by the Greek philosophy. The two forces come into operation now together: +and seventy years after the battle of Actium, when Augustus and Tiberius +had completely established one ruling authority, and when this second +outward revolution had had full time to give its impulse to thought, and +had set before the eyes of men for two whole generations the vision of an +empire which seemed conterminous with civilisation itself, we may fairly +ask what philosophy had done towards producing a corresponding unity of +doctrine, and a society sustaining and propagating it. + +If, then, we take our stand at the moment when Claudius began to reign, +and count a century backwards, it is impossible to mention a time when +philosophy was more impotent for good, and when the higher classes of the +Roman empire were more thoroughly irreligious and unbelieving. To +understand the reason of this we must take into account first the negative +and then the positive action of philosophy up to that time. As to the +former, there can be no doubt that the effect of philosophy in all its +schools and through all its shades of thought had been hostile to a simple +belief in polytheism and its mythology. Human reason had been turned with +pitiless severity on its mass of fables, its discreditable stories, its +manifold contradictions. As early as the sixth century before Christ it +had used the key of allegory in order to infuse into these some better +meaning, and this was carried out into full detail by Metrodorus, a +follower of Anaxagoras. Thus if Homer, the mirror in which the Greek saw +his religion reflected, described Jupiter as suspending Juno between +heaven and earth, Heracleitus was indignant with the atheists who did not +see that it meant how the world and the elements were formed.(448) By this +process indecent personal agencies melted away into physical effects, or +were even sublimated into moral lessons. Men were told that only soft +Phaeacians could see in the loves of Mars and Venus a consecration of +adultery: to the man of sense it meant that valour and beauty were worthy +of each other. Through all the following centuries this tone of mind +continued. As to the stoical philosophers in particular, this physical +allegorising was the perpetual instrument by which they reconciled their +stern system of material Pantheism with all the stage scenery of the +poet's Olympus. Epicurus, on the contrary, recognised the existence of +gods in countless numbers, but they were beings who lived in the enjoyment +of his philosophy, far removed from the cares of providence and the +thought of human things. On the other hand, Plato's attempt to purify, +while he recognised, polytheism, and to sweep away all its fables as +purveyors of evil thoughts and desires, found little success, though his +conception of the godhead as the Idea of goodness, remained the highest +ever reached in that long process of thought; and through all this period +the best and purest minds found in him a support against that bewilderment +of the reason which the vulgar religion inflicted on them. But few and far +between were those who followed Plato in this his highest conception, +while the literature of that last century, in the midst of which Christ +appeared, remains an abiding proof that the critical, scoffing, negative +spirit of philosophy had spread itself over all the cultured classes. We +seek in vain in Julius Caesar and Cicero, in Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil, +Manilius, Horace, Ovid, in Polybius, Dionysius, Diodorus, or Strabo, for +any real belief in the immortal gods whose names appear in their writings. +The poets use them for stage-effect, the statesmen as part of the +machinery of government, the historians as names interwoven with the +events which they recount: yet the life of all these men was filled with +the frequentation of rites and ceremonies, as a matter of law and custom, +having reference to a multitude of gods, concerning whom they had a +contemptuous disbelief, though none of them were without many a dark +superstition. + +Such was the negative influence of philosophy; but what inward support had +it given to minds whose ancestral belief, still entertained by the mass of +men all around, was thus eaten out? What substitute had it provided for +this discredited polytheism with its ridiculed mythology? + +1. First, did the Greek philosophy teach the unity of the Godhead? If by +this question be meant, did philosophy ever go forth into the midst of the +temples and smoking sacrifices with which every city teemed, and proclaim, +These gods which you worship are no gods: there is one Maker and Ruler of +the universe, and the homage due to him alone is usurped by a multitude of +pretended deities;--then there is no doubt about the answer, that this is +what neither Socrates, nor Plato, nor Aristotle, nor Zeno, nor any other +philosopher thought of doing. The philosophic god was never set in the +forefront of the battle after this fashion. He dwelt in the most secret +shrine of Plato's mind, hard to be discovered, and to be confessed, if at +all, in secret. If with Aristotle he was a pure spirit, yet he abode apart +from the world, working on it indeed, as the magnet on the iron, but +unconscious of it, not ruling it with free will.(449) And, save so far as +this is an exception, the Greek mind from beginning to end never succeeded +in absolutely separating God from matter. And as time went on, this +original defect showed itself more and more, until in the stoic system, +which, as to the conception of the power ruling the world, prevailed over +all the rest, that which was called God was simply a force pervading all +matter.(450) The Stoics could, indeed, as in the hymn of Cleanthes, invest +this god of theirs with many beautiful, grand, and attractive attributes. +His was almighty power;(451) he was the author of nature; he ruled all +things with law; and the world willingly obeyed his will. And this common +law passed through all things, so that evil mixed with good resulted in a +general order. Thus they could address him as Father and as King, guiding +all things with justice; and this being they termed Jupiter. But this is +only a poetic(452) exhibition of their genuine thought and meaning, which +was, that "all which was real was corporeal; matter and force are the two +chief principles; matter in itself is motionless and formless, but capable +of assuming every motion and every form. Force is the active, moving, and +forming principle; it is indivisibly joined with matter: the operating +force in the whole of the world is the Godhead."(453) "By the names +World-soul, World-reason, Nature, Universal Law, Providence, Fate, the +same thing is indicated, the one Primal Force determining everything with +absolute regularity, interpenetrating the whole world." And even the +opposition between the material and the spiritual description of the +Godhead disappears upon closer examination, for on Stoic principles the +Godhead can only then be considered as real when considered as body.(454) +It was to such a unity that Greek philosophy advanced, receding more and +more from that imperfect conception of personality with which it had +started. Further, the idea of creation is wanting to Greek philosophy from +its beginning to its end. The power which it contemplates is evermore +confronted with matter, which it can permeate, fashion, move through a +natural alchemy of endless changes, but in face of which it is not free to +create or not to create, not even free to prevent the evil which lies +therein as a sort of blind necessity. As there was always Force, so was +there always Matter. To the conception of a free Creator of spirit and of +matter the Greek mind never rose: nor accordingly to that of a free Ruler +of the universe: and this is only to say in other words, that the +conception of personality--that is, of self-consciousness and moral +freedom, as applied to a Being of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness--was +imperfect and confused. Plato in his highest flight had seemed to +recognise one God, whom to enjoy is the happiness of man; but Plato and +all who followed him had endured, had countenanced, had taken part in the +polytheistic worship. And again, neither he, nor Aristotle, nor Zeno +showed any inclination to suffer for their doctrines. This philosophic +god, gradually evolved by the reasoning mind, produced the very smallest +effect upon the unphilosophic world. The stoic argument from final causes, +which Cicero has preserved for us, and the force of which he has +acknowledged in very remarkable words,(455) generated no martyrs. Was it +merely from want of earnestness that the philosophers tolerated and +practised the polytheism which surrounded them, and avoided all suffering +for their opinions by compliance with a worship which they disbelieved? or +was it that their standing-ground, in all more or less pantheistic, was +identical with that which they impugned?(456) that the gods of Olympus +were powers of nature personified, while their god was simply one power +inhabiting nature? that they never reached the one personal creating God, +and were consequently unable to maintain his absolute distinction from the +world together with his relation to it as Creator and Ruler? That which +they cherished as a private philosophical good, which they cared so little +to exhibit to the world, was in fact incapable of conquering the world, +for the human heart cannot live upon an impersonal god, and will not +suffer for a conception of the reason. But it was in this conception that +philosophic thought had terminated. And here we find the chief cause of +its powerlessness to improve and purify the mythology which it attacked, +and much more to affect the lives and conduct of those who professed its +tenets. For the old mythology had at least a strong consciousness of +personality in its gods. In Homer himself the original tradition, of which +his religion was a corruption, still spoke of the father of gods and men +as the ruler and judge of the world. In the heathen mind generally such a +conception still existed; nor is it too much to say that the common people +among the Greeks and Romans were nearer to the truth of one personal God +than the philosopher; and the philosopher himself when he listened at any +moment of danger and anxiety to the promptings "of the soul naturally +Christian" within him, than when he indulged in his esoteric problems. + +2. But the conception of personality in God rules the conception of +personality in man. As throughout the Greek philosophy the former was weak +and imperfect, until in the Stoic system it vanished, so the latter. The +physical theory of the Greek overmastered and excluded the conception of +freewill in his mind, first as to God and then as to man. As evil existed +throughout the world, for which he had no better solution than to place +its seat in that matter which was coexistent with the divine reason, and +which that reason was powerless wholly to subdue, so in the smaller world +of man. In him a portion of the divine reason was united with matter. If +Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics arranged somewhat differently the mode of +this composition, yet to all of them alike from the one side and the other +the notion of physical necessity came in. The material constituent tended +to evil, the reasoning constituent to good: in the man who was made up of +the two there was a perpetual jar. There was no room left in their theory +for the conception of the soul as a self-originating cause of action. No +sect struggled so hard and so persistently to maintain a doctrine of +freewill as the Stoic: but it went down before that central tenet of their +system, physical necessity, the inexorable sequence of cause and effect, +which made up their "common law," by which the world was ruled. The +conception of an all-wise, all-good, and all-powerful personal Creator, in +whose nature the eternal law is based, not being clear to their minds, so +neither was the conception of sin, as the infringement of that law. The +law of physical necessity took the place of the eternal moral law: that +which man did he did by virtue of the physical constituents out of which +he was composed. The evil which he did was physical rather than moral: and +he was not responsible for what he could not prevent. The questions of +freewill, of evil viewed as sin, and of responsibility, are inextricably +bound up with the doctrine of the human personality; and on all these the +philosophic mind was dark and confused. + +But if the Greek's physical theory stood in the way of his conceiving +clearly the human personality in this life, much more did it impede his +conception of that personality as continuing after death. For as the union +of a portion of the divine reason with matter constituted man, and as +death put an end to that union, the compound being ceased to exist, the +portion of the divine reason reverted to its source, but the sensitive +soul, as well as the body, was dissolved and came to nothing. There was in +his mind no "individual substance of a rational nature" to form the basis +of identity, and maintain the conception of personality. In the absence of +this, he who had felt, thought, and acted, was no more. He could not +therefore receive retribution for his deeds, since there was no personal +agent on whom the retribution was to fall. + +3. A god who was not personal and did not make man,--man in whom freewill, +the mark of personality, was not recognised, so long as he lived, and in +whom after death no personal agent continued to exist,--these correspond to +each other, and these were the last result of Graeco-Roman philosophic +thought up to the time of Claudius. But what sort of duty did man, being +such, owe to such a god? Cicero's book on Offices had been written upwards +of eighty years, but nothing that followed it during that time equalled it +in reputation or ability. It was the best product that his Roman thought +could draw from all the preceding Grecian schools: and it was accepted for +centuries as the standard of heathen morality. Let us, then, first note +that in this book(457) there is nothing like a recognition of God as the +Creator and Common Father; no call upon the human soul to love him as +such, and for his own perfections; no thought that the duty of man +consists in becoming like to him, nor his reward in attaining that +likeness. The absence of such a thought gives its character to the whole +book, and measures its level. The second point to be noted is, that the +happiness of man consists not in being like God, and consequently, in +union with him, but in virtue, which is living according to nature. In his +reasonable nature everyone possesses a sufficient standard of moral action +under every circumstance which may arise. Thirdly, throughout the whole of +his treatise Cicero makes no use of the doctrine of man's immortality. His +happiness, then, is left to consist in virtue--life according to reason, +which again is life according to nature--without respect to any future +state of existence. Now, if Cicero stood alone in these three points, his +book would only represent his own authority, but he is in fact the +mouthpiece herein of that whole preceding heathen philosophy which he +criticised, and from which he selected. Even Plato himself, by far the +highest and best of Greek philosophers in this respect, though he had in +single expressions indicated that the happiness of man was to be made like +to God, constructed no system of ethics in dependence on that conception, +which, if it be true, is of all-constraining influence, and is to the +whole moral system what the law of gravity is to the material universe. +Plato's ethical system was a strict deduction from his physical theory of +the three parts in man, to each of which he assigned its virtue. Far less +did Aristotle connect morality with God. The Stoics, indeed, who occupy by +far the largest space in Greek philosophy, seem to be an exception. It is +said that "their whole view of the world springs from the thought of the +Divine Being who generates all finite beings from himself, and includes +them all in himself, who penetrates them with his power, rules them with +his unchangeable law, and thus merely manifests himself in them all;" so +that their system "is fundamentally religious, and scarcely an important +statement in it which is not in connection with their doctrine of God;" +and so with them "all moral duties rest on a religious ground, all +virtuous actions are a fulfilment of the divine will and law;"(458) but +then this God is but a name for the sternest and most absolute system of +material necessity: a God without a moral nature; without freedom; without +personality; under that name, in fact, force and matter making up one +thing are substituted for a living God, who, in virtue of the laws of +nature, is swept out of his own universe. So, again, Cicero's statement +that man's happiness consists in virtue, which virtue is life according to +nature, is the general doctrine of philosophy, which the Stoics in +particular had elaborated. If there be any one expression which would +sum-up in a point the whole heathen conception of what man should do, it +would be "Life according to nature." So, again, the exclusion of any +thought of immortality, and a consequent retribution, in its bearing on +morality, was common to all the schools of Grecian thought, if we except +the faltering accents and yearning heart of Plato, and most of all was +truly stoic. The imperfection and unclearness of their view as to the +divine personality, and as to the human, in the reasonable being, the +image and reflection of the divine, accords but too truly, while it +accounts for, this detachment of man from God in the field of moral duty. + +4. What, then, remained to man after such deductions? There remained the +earthly city, the human commonwealth. And when, passing beyond the bounds +of any particular nation, and man's civil position therein, philosophy +grasped the moral life as the relation between man as man,(459) and +conceived human society itself as one universal kingdom of gods and men, +it made a real progress and reached its highest point. But this was the +proper merit of the Stoics.(460) Plutarch attributes to Zeno, their +founder, this precise idea, that we ought not to live in cities and towns, +each divided by peculiar notions of justice, but esteem all men as +tribesmen and citizens, who should make up one flock feeding in a common +pasture under a common law. The grandest passages of Cicero are those in +which he clothes in his Roman diction this stoic idea, as for +instance:(461) "They judge the world to be ruled by the power and will of +the gods, and to be a sort of city and polity common to gods and men, and +that everyone of us is part of this world." The bond of this community is +the common possession of reason,(462) "in which consists the primal +society of man with God. But they who have reason in common, have also +right reason in common. And as this is law, we are as men to be considered +as associated with the gods by law also. Now they who have community of +law, have likewise community of rights. This latter makes them also to +belong to the same polity. But if such pay obedience to the same commands +and authorities, then are they even much more obedient to this supernal +allotment, this divine mind and all-powerful God. So that this universal +world is to be considered one commonwealth of gods and men." "Law is the +supreme reason, implanted in nature, which commands all things that are to +be done, and prohibits their contraries." "The radical idea of right I +derive from nature, under whose guidance we have to draw out the whole of +this subject-matter." Thus the great Roman lawyer and statesman, robing +philosophy in his toga, propounded to his countrymen, full of the greed of +universal conquest, with no less lucidity than truth and beauty, the +result of stoic thought, that human society in general rested on the +similarity of reason in the individual, that we have no ground for +restricting this common possession to one people, or to consider ourselves +more nearly related to one than another. All men, apart from what they +have done for themselves, stand equally near to each other, since all +equally partake of reason. All are members of one body, since the same +nature has formed them out of one stuff, for the same destination.(463) + +Greek philosophy has undoubtedly the merit of bringing out into clear +conception this purely human and natural society. It thus expressed in +language the work of Alexander, and still more the work of the Roman +empire, as it was to be; and more than this, it herein supplied a point of +future contact with Christian morality. The advance from the narrowness of +the Greek mind in its proud rejection of all non-hellenic nations, and no +less from the revolting selfishness of Roman conquest, is remarkable. And +it is an advance of philosophic thought. As the older thinkers considered +the political life of the city to be an immediate demand of human nature, +so the Stoics considered the unitedness of man as a whole together, the +dilatation of the particular political community to the whole race, in the +same light. Its ground was the common possession of reason. The common law +which ruled this human commonwealth was to live according to the dictation +of reason, that is, according to nature, in which therefore virtue +consists,(464) being one and the same in God and in man, and in them +alone.(465) Such virtue branches into four parts, the prudence which +discerns and practises the truth; the justice which assigns his own to +each; the courage which prevails over all difficulties; the self-restraint +and order which preserves temperance in all things. These being bound up +together cover the whole moral domain, and embrace all those relations +within which human society moves, and, as having their root in the moral +nature of man, are a duty to everyone. + +This human commonwealth enfolds in idea the whole earth. It is the society +of man with man. But it closes with this life. It has no respect to +anything beyond. It was the Stoics who most completely worked out this +system of moral philosophy; who urged the duty of man's obedience to +nature, of his voluntary subjection to that one universal law and power +which held all things from the highest to the lowest in its grasp; and who +likewise most absolutely cut him off from any personal existence in a +future state. The virtue in which they placed his happiness was to be +complete in itself; it was the work of man without any assistance on the +part of God.(466) It made man equal to God. It found its reward in itself. +If it was objected that the highest virtue in this life sometimes met with +the greatest disasters, sorrows, pains, and bereavements, the system had +no reply to this mystery. It did not attempt to assert a recompense beyond +the grave. + +As little did it attempt to account for or to correct the conflict between +man's reason and his animal nature. That perpetual approval of the better +and choice of the worse part stood before the Stoic as before us all. He +admitted that the vast majority of men were bad, and his wise man was an +ideal never reached. But he had no answer whatever to the question, why, +if vice is so evil in the eye of our reason, it so clings to our nature; +why, if so contrary to the good of the mass, it dwells within every +individual.(467) + +The human city or community of men is the highest point which this moral +philosophy contemplates. Each particular commonwealth should be herein the +image of the one universal commonwealth which their thought had +constructed. But what, then, is the relation of the individual man to the +whole of which he is a part? This nature, which is the standard to the +whole ideal commonwealth, is, as we have seen so often, in fact a law of +the strictest necessity. If virtuous, man follows it willingly; if +vicious, he must follow it against his will. There was no real freedom for +the individual in the system as philosophy. What was disguised under the +name of law, reason, and God, was a relentless necessity before which +everyone was to bow. But transfer this philosophy to any political +community, and consider in what position it placed the individual with +regard to the civil government. Human society is considered as supreme: +but his own state represents to him that society, and as all things end +with this life, no part of man remains withdrawn from that despotism which +requires the sacrifice of the part for the good of the whole. Man's +conscience had no refuge in the thought of a future life; no reserve which +the abuse of human power could not touch. And so we find that in matter of +fact there was no issue out of such a difficulty but in the doctrine of +self-destruction. They termed it in truth _The Issue_,(468) when disease, +or disaster, or pain, or the abuse of human power, rendered it impossible +any longer to lead a life in accordance with nature. In this case all the +Stoic authorities justified it, praised it, and termed it the Door which +divine Providence had benignantly left ever open. + +While therefore it must be acknowledged that the stoical conception of the +whole earth as one city(469) was a true result of Greek thought, and at +the same time the highest point it reached, and a positive result of great +value, yet it must also be said that it was one rather big with rich +promises for the future than of any great present advantage: for it +required to be impregnated and filled with another conception of which its +framers had lost their hold, the doctrine, that is, of a future +retribution, redressing the inequality, the injustice, the undeserved +suffering so often falling upon virtue in the present life. When that +conception came to complete and exalt the Stoic idea, the need of +self-destruction as an issue of the wise man, as soon as he could not live +according to nature, ceased, for man himself ceased to be a part of a +physical whole governed by necessity. The human city relaxed its right +over the individual in presence of a divine city, which embraced indeed +man in his present life, but taught him to look for its complete +realisation in another. + +The human commonwealth, however, extended in idea to the race itself, as +possessing reason in common, and individual man therein, as well as the +whole aggregate, viewed as being ruled by the cardinal virtues of +prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance, but both the commonwealth +and the individual terminating with this life, was the last word of +heathen philosophy up to the time of Claudius. + +We have seen that from the time the Greek race was absorbed in the Roman +empire the systems of philosophy were broken up by the eclectic spirit, +which, engendered within already by the ferment of opinions, was +strengthened and developed by the accession of the practical Roman mind. +Variety of belief is indeed marked as "the essential feature of Greek +philosophy" from its outset, and "the antagonist force of suspensive +scepticism" as including some of its most powerful intellects from +Xenophanes five hundred years before to Sextus Empiricus two hundred years +after the Christian era. One of its historians stamps it as "a collection +of dissenters, small sects each with its own following, each springing +from a special individual as authority, each knowing itself to be only one +among many."(470) It is therefore no wonder that if Plato's grand +conception of an immortal line of the living word thus came to nought, +philosophy proved itself much more incapable of founding a society +impregnated with its principles than it had even been of constructing a +coherent doctrine which should obtain general reception. And to judge of +the actual impotence of philosophy in the century ending with the +principate of Claudius, we must rest a moment on this second fact. +Philosophers calling themselves Platonic, Peripatetic, Sceptic, Stoic, +Epicurean, or these in various mixtures, were to be found at the various +seats of learning, Athens, Rhodes, Alexandria, for instance, or at Rome as +the seat of empire, or travelling like wandering stars over her vast +territory, but these scattered, nebular, and disjointed luminaries shone +with a varying as well as a feeble light, which rather confused than +satisfied human reason. They were utterly powerless to transfer their +doctrine into any number of human hearts living in accordance therein. The +only exception to this statement seems to prove its real truth. By far the +most united of the sects was that of the Epicureans, who held with great +tenacity to their founder's views and mode of life, which may be summed up +in denial of God and Providence, and enjoyment to the utmost of this +world's goods; the fair side of it being a general benevolence, courtesy, +friendship, in short, a genial appreciation of what we understand by the +word civilisation. These antagonists of Stoic principles and of the +highest morality which heathen thought had constructed were the most +numerous of existing sects, and we are told that hundreds of years after +their founder's death they presented the appearance of a well-ordered +republic, ruled without uproar or dissension by one spirit, in which they +formed a favourable contrast to the Stoics. With the exception of a single +fugitive, Metrodorus, never had an Epicurean detached himself from his +school.(471) We must give philosophy the credit of this single instance of +a capacity to create a social life in accordance with its tenets in a sect +whose doctrines were a reproach among the heathens themselves. The failure +of Pythagoras, of Plato, of Aristotle, of Zeno, was the success of +Epicurus, and at the same time the announcement that the age of Augustus +and Tiberius was ready to expire in sensuality and unbelief, and even in +exhaustion of the philosophic mind, for no period is so barren of +scientific names, which carry any weight, as the fifty years preceding +Claudius.(472) We have seen above that all these philosophers aimed at +forming a society which should carry out their principles; that this was +their original and their only idea of teaching; that with a view to make +it permanent they created a chair of teaching, a living authority who was +to continue on their doctrine. But the chair of Plato alone presented(473) +five Academies with dissentient doctrines; and a Platonic or Stoic city no +one had seen. Thus viewing their united action upon the polytheistic +idolatry we may say that while they could discredit its fables in +reflecting minds, while they could even raise an altar in their thoughts +"to the unknown God," they left society in possession of the temples and +observant of a worship which they pronounced to be immoral, monstrous, and +ridiculous. They had destroyed in many the ancestral belief; they had +awakened perhaps in some a sense of one great Power ruling the universe; +but having taken up the religious ground and professed to satisfy man's +desire for happiness, they had been utterly powerless to construct a +religion. They failed entirely in the union of three things,(474) a dogma +and a morality founded on that dogma, both of which should be exhibited, +brought before the eyes and worked into the hearts of men by a +corresponding worship. To unite these three things was needed an authority +of which above all they were destitute. Their dogma was without the +principle of faith; their morality without binding power; but the worship +which should blend the two they had not at all. And so they presented no +semblance of the society which should carry these three things in its +bosom, and they could not in the least satisfy the doubts or the yearnings +which they had raised. + +But the period beginning with the rise of Greek philosophy and ending with +the principate of Claudius will ever remain of the highest interest and +importance as showing what human reason, putting forth its highest powers +in the race in which it culminated, but at the same time more thoroughly +separated from belief, tradition, and authority than anywhere else, did +actually achieve. It is in this respect that the heathen philosophers, +together with the poets and historians who precede the publication of the +Christian religion in the Roman world, possess a value far beyond any +intrinsic merit of their own. It is a study of pathology the results of +which are far as yet from being gathered in. It is only by carefully +examining what the philosophers taught in theology and morals--for they +aspired to be and were both the theologians and the moralists of those +ages--that we can at all form an adequate judgment of the real work which +the Christian Church has wrought in the world. It is only by using the +historians and poets as a mirror of that general society to whose cultured +classes the philosophers spoke, that we can estimate what the great mass +of mankind then was, and what effect the philosophers produced on them. +The difference between their world and their society and ours is the +measure of Christian work. The hundred years preceding Claudius, which +include in them almost all the greatest names of Roman literature, are the +most important of all in this point of view, both as containing the result +of scientific thought in the five preceding centuries, and as giving the +depth of the moral and intellectual descent. We learn from this whole long +period the fulness of the truth conveyed in those words of the angelic +doctor at the commencement of his great work: "Even for those things which +can be investigated concerning God by the force of human reason, it was +necessary for man to be instructed by a divine revelation, because few +only, and they after long inquiries, and with the admixture of many +errors, would convey to man the truth concerning God as searched out by +reason."(475) + +What the philosophers from the time of Thales had taken as their special +work was to measure and estimate the visible world. And for the last four +centuries of this period especially they made the nature and the needs, +the supreme good and the happiness of man their chief concern, in +subordination to which they continued their physical inquiries. And surely +the judgment which an inspired writer formed of their travail must recur +to the mind with great force at the end of the preceding review: "If they +knew so much as to be able to estimate the visible world, why did they not +more easily discover its Lord?"(476) Why from the goods which they beheld +had they not power to know the sole possessor of being, nor when they gave +attention to his works, recognised their artificer? Why did they esteem +fire or breath, rapid air or circling stars, or the force of water, or the +lights of heaven rulers of the universe? For if the visible beauty of +these delighted them so that they conceived them to be gods, how did they +not draw the conclusion that the Lord of these was so much better than +they? for it was the Author of beauty who created them. If they were +struck dumb with the sense of their power and operation, why did they not +conceive how much more powerful He who made them was? For from the +greatness and the beauty of creatures the parent of them is by the force +of reason discerned.(477) + +From their capital error in this--which the same writer declares to be +inexcusable(478)--proceeded their other errors concerning man, his nature, +his supreme good, and his final end. It is here sufficient to note that +down to the age of Claudius there is no appearance that either of these +great errors would be corrected: and still less any appearance of the rise +of a great religion which would cause the multitudinous altars of +heathenism to disappear before the altar of the unknown God, and would +construct a City of God in the midst of that population in the thinking +minds of which divergent systems of philosophy had eaten out belief in the +babel of false gods without implanting belief in a personal Creator, the +author and the end of man. + + + + + +INDEX. + + +_Academies_, the five, of Plato's school, 480. + +_Adam_, his headship, 60, 62, 65; + its result seen in his fall, 67. + +_Alexander_ the Great, effects of his conquests on Greek life, 436, 455. + +_Alexander Severus_, his treatment of Christians, 244. + +_Antoninus Pius_, extension of the Church in his reign, 197; + treatment of it under him, 227-233; + what aspect the Church bore to him, 233-7. + +_Apollonius_, a senator, martyred under Commodus, 302, 209, note 37. + +_Apostolic age_, result of, 186-7. + +_Aristotle_, his character as a philosopher, 429; + his view of the soul, 430; + relation of his philosophy to religion, 433; + conception of the method of teaching, 420; + what he says of Socrates, 390; + his account of the generation of the Platonic doctrine of Ideas, 400. + +_Athanasius, S._, 26, 32, 34, 37, 98. + +_Athenagoras_, 182. + +_Athens_, worship at, 5. + +_Augustine, S._, his contrast of Heathenism with Christianity, 172-5; + on the moral influence of Polytheism, 21-4, 27, 30, 33; + how the Second Divine Person is the Truth, 51; + Adam and Christ, 76, 77, 84, 110; + the Church Christ's Body, 99; + and at once his Temple, House, and City, 88; + also the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men, 97; + dowered with Christ's Blood, 144; + Christ and the Church one Man, 57, 144; + believing Christ, without believing the Church, is decapitating Christ, + 105; + crime of denying that the Catholic Church will for ever continue in its + unity, 106; + the Word made flesh that He might become the Head of the Church, 107; + the Holy Spirit Vicarius Redemptoris, 115, 119, 124, 125, 139; + asserts the perpetual Principatus of the Roman See from the beginning, + 290; + describes the uses of heresy, 281-2; + admits of no charity but in the unity of the Body, 130, 139; + coherence of the natural and mystical Body of Christ in the Eucharist, + 103; + what the Church will be hereafter, 112. + +_Augustus_, his idea of the Roman empire, 2; + prospects of Polytheism at the end of his reign, 46. + +_Aulus Gellius_, 421. + +_Beugnot_, Destruction du Paganisme, 43, 44. + +_Captivity_ of man to the devil, 27-30, 33-8, 69; + its full reversal as seen in the Body of Christ, 112. + +_Carneades_, 447. + +_Catholic_, term used of the Church by S. Ignatius about A.D. 115, and by + the Church of Polycarp fifty years later, 206. + +_Celsus_, 179, 197, 230, 231, 234. + +_Champagny_, 16, 182, 241, 243, 305, 475, 480. + +_Christ_, declares Himself to be a king, 49; + His kingdom that of Truth, 50-4; + the counterpart of Adam as an individual, 76; + as Head of a race, 77; + as making one Body with His people, 79; + parallel in His natural and mystical Body, 96; + analogies between them, 97; + coherence of both in the Eucharist, 103; + His action permanent in His kingdom, 81; + in His House, 86; + in His Body, 88; + in His Bride, 91; + in the Mother of His race, 92; + His five distinct loves, 93; + His Body imperishable, 104; + crime of imputing falsehood to it, 105; + force of its corporate unity, 110; + gifts which He bestows on it, 125; + connection of Truth with His Person the principle of persecution, 182; + His Passion repeated in His people, 185; + His work summed up by S. Augustine, 172-5. + +_Chrysostom, S._, 87, 101, 109, 220, 224. + +_Church_, the, the Kingdom of Truth, 81; + the House of Christ, 86; + the Body of Christ, 88; + the Bride of Christ, 91; + the Mother of His race, 92; + the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men, 97; + as such, the treasure-house of Truth and Grace, 100, 120-2; + conveys the fruits of the Incarnation, 101, 143; + is imperishable and incorruptible, 105; + possesses Unity, Truth, Charity, and Sanctity as coinherent gifts of the + Spirit, 125-8; + bestows forgiveness of sins, faith, adoption, and sanctification on the + individual, 128-31; + unity of its jurisdiction, 146; + analogy between it and the relation of soul and body, 133; + between it and the human commonwealth, 134; + between it and the natural unity of man's race, 135; + transmission of truth in it, 148, 166; + by a triple succession, 156-161; + development of the Truth its proper work, 168; + its divine life as opposed to heathenism, 171; + its witness of Christ's confession in the first ten generations, 184; + its first persecution by Nero, 191; + growth in the time of Antoninus Pius, 195; + picture of it by S. Ignatius, 199; + its treatment of heresies, 204, 206, 258, 265, 274, 276; + bearing of Trajan to it, 209, 215; + of Hadrian, 221; + of Antoninus Pius, 226; + of Marcus Aurelius, 292; + of Commodus, 302; + of Septimius Severus, 302; + its position in the third century, 308; + its organic unity as set forth by S. Cyprian, 325-334; + power of its idea on Christians, 340; + expresses Christ in its moral character, its worship, and its + government, 341-5; + persecuted by Decius, 356; + by Valerian and Aurelian, 361; + by Diocletian, 362; + obtains freedom from Constantine, 371; + how affected by Roman law between A.D. 64 and 313, 371-3. + +_Church_, a mother or cathedral church only so called, 253. + +_Churches_, public, when first known to exist at Rome, 308. + +_Cicero_, states the work of Socrates, 391; + representative of Eclecticism, 450; + sources of his philosophical works, 451; + what he says of the atomic theory, 464; + his book _de Officiis_ the standard of heathen morality for centuries + after him, 468; + his statement of the Stoic idea of the world as one republic of gods and + men, 471; + his conception of virtue in general, 471, 473; + his partition of the cardinal virtues, 473; + virtue not a gift of God, but the work of man, 474. + +_Cleanthes_, his hymn quoted, 461. + +_Clement_, Pope S., 191, 194. + +_Clement_, of Alexandria, 278, 287, 303. + +_Commodus_, 243, 302. + +_Cyprian, S._, his statement of the Church's organic unity founded on the + Primacy given to Peter, 326-331; + puts the force of the Episcopate in its unity, 147, 332-4; + repudiates a parallel between the twelve tribes of Israel and the + Church, on the question of unity, 334; + agreement of his witness with that of S. Paul, S. Ignatius, and S. + Irenaeus, 349; + his conversion, described by himself, a type of heathen conversion in + general, 336-8; + describes the relaxation produced by the long peace of the Church before + the Decian persecution, 350-2; + his martyrdom, 358; + says the Emperor Decius would much rather endure the appointment of a + rival emperor than of a Bishop of Rome, 356. + +_Cyril, S._, of Alexandria, 54, 55; + on the Fall and the Restoration, 136; + to become a Christian is to enter into unity with Christ both physical + and spiritual, 137. + +_Dante_, 422. + +_Decius_, 356. + +_De Rossi_, 252. + +_Diocletian_, 362. + +_Diognetus_, author of letter to, marks the Christians as one body and + people, but diffused everywhere, circ. A.D. 100, 318. + +_Dionysius, S._, archbishop of Alexandria, prizes martyrdom for the unity + of the Church more highly than for resistance to idolatry, + 345. + +_Doellinger_, Heidenthum und Judenthum, quoted or referred to, 5-13, 25, + 196, 386, 401, 402, 407, 409, 410, 429-31, 438, 441, 442, + 445-47, 456, 458, 461, 479, 480; + Hippolytus und Kallistus, 248, 256, 257. + +_Domitian_, his persecution, 94. + +_Eclecticism_, how it arose in Greek Philosophy, 448; + becomes universal, 450. + +_Epicurus_, his conception of the method of teaching, 424; + his doctrine, 442. + +_Episcopate_, the, triply defended by scripture, by institutions, and by + continuous personal descent, 163; + one and undivided, 327; + like the unity of the Godhead, 333; + which is effected by the Primacy, 334. + +_Eucharist_, coherence of natural and mystical Body of Christ in, 102-3; + called by S. Ignatius that flesh of our Saviour Christ which suffered + for our sins, 202, note. + +_Eusebius_, 150, 209, 251, 253, 302, 304, 361, 363, 364, 366, 367, 369. + +_Forgiveness of sins_, doctrine of, guarded by triple succession of + teaching, of men, and of sacraments, 162. + +_Freewill_, no room for it in the physical theory of Greek philosophy, + _e.g._ in Plato, 410, 411; + in Aristotle, 432; + in Stoicism, 440-1; + in all the schools, as to God, 461-5; + as to man, 465-7; + bearing of this on civil government, 475. + +_Future life_ of man as a personal being, why not held by Greek + philosophy, 467, 470; + absence of it from Cicero's _de Officiis_, 468. + +_Grace_, Adam created in, 62, 64; + loss of this gift in the Fall, 66; + grace as restored in Christ, 136; + grace in the God-man, 77; + as in Adam and as in the God-man compared, 53; + as bestowed through the headship of the God-man, 78; + as seen in the Body of Christ, the counterpart of the body of Adam, 79; + grace, with truth, makes "the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men," + 97, 117; + the human fountain of this double power in the created nature of Christ, + 121; + whence it is transfused into the Church, His Body, 122, 123-6; + grace, as given to the Church complete and indefeasible, 127; + as given to the individual may be withdrawn, 131; + actual bestowal of this grace on the Church, 138-142; + grace necessary for the acceptance and maintenance of truth, 155-6, 167, + 170-2, 269; + grace, truth, and unity, viewed by S. Cyprian as inseparable, 332-3. + +_Greek mind_, its standing-point, 380; + represents human reason more than any other ancient race, 382; + aided by a matchless language, 379; + ripens in the most beautiful of climates, 378; + pervades the whole East from the time of Alexander, 455; + is married to Roman power in the empire, 456; + is the great intellectual opponent of the Christian mind and Church, + 375; + criticises polytheism for six hundred years, 376; + its outcome up to the time of S. Peter's founding the Roman Church, + 475-484; + why its philosophy disbelieved a future life, 467, 470. + +_Grote_, Plato, 377, 402, 412, 413, 420, 421, 427, 478. + +_Hadrian_, grandeur of Rome in his days, 240; + treatment of the Church, 221-3; + puts to death S. Symphorosa and her sons, 224-6. + +_Hagemann_, die roemische Kirche in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 209, + 257, 273, 289, 352, 354. + +_Hasler_, Verhaeltniss der heidnischen und christlichen Ethik, 468. + +_Heathenism_, what it is, 59, 70, 72; + contrasted with Christianity, 79, 170-2; + by S. Augustine, 172-5; + its disregard of the value of moral truths, 177-9. + +_Heresy_, subserves the enucleation of doctrine, 281; + the determining the Canon of the New Testament, 284; + brings out full statements of the principle of tradition, 286; + promotes extension and corroboration of the hierarchy, 288; + temper of, described by Irenaeus, 270; + by Tertullian, 276; + by Clement of Alexandria, 278, 279; + by S. Augustine, 282. + +_Herodotus_, the travelled Greek gentleman, 377. + +_Idolatry_, Asiatic, its turpitude, 25; + division of gods, how far it could go, 27. + +_Ignatius, S._, Bishop of Antioch, his picture of the Church in his day, + 199-203; + his martyrdom, 215; + his recognition of the Roman Primacy, 218; + power of his intercession attested by S. Chrysostom, 219; + the Eucharist, that flesh of our Saviour Christ which suffered for our + sins, 202; + "Wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church", 206; + completeness of a diocesan church called {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, of the + whole church {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, 220. + +_Innocent I._ Pope S., 255, 347. + +_Irenaeus, S._, 113, 264; + guilt of those who divide the great and glorious Body of Christ, 138; + on the Church's unity of belief, 264-6; + gives the descent of the Roman See to his time, 267; + affirms its superior principality, 267; + sets forth the Church as the treasure-house of truth and grace, 268-9; + distinguishes the perpetual teaching office in her, 269, 287; + contrasts her truth with the variation of heresies, 270; + summary of his doctrine on the Church, heresy, the Primacy, tradition, + 271-4; + one of a chain between S. Paul, S. Ignatius, and S. Cyprian, 349; + speaks of the number of martyrs, 339; + himself martyred with many of his people, 303; + speaks of "the tradition of the Apostles" as the whole body of truth + which they communicated, 198; + speaks of the "founding and building" of Sees, 255. + +_Junius Rusticus_, 293. + +_Jurisdiction_, spiritual, its unity, 146; + emanates from Christ's Person, 342; + is the expression of His sovereignty, 345. + +_Justin, S._, his martyrdom, 294-8; + his _Apologia_ quoted, 227-30; + marks Christians as one people and body, 319; + censures Jewish conduct in defaming Christians, 189; + describes the extension of Christianity in his time, 197. + +_Kellner_, Hellenismus und Christenthum, 182, 197, 306. + +_Kleutgen_, die Theologie der Vorzeit, 62, 63, 287. + +_Kuhn_, Einleitung in die katholische Dogmatik, 291. + +_Lactantius_, 363, 364, 365, 366. + +_Lasaulae_, Fall des Hellenismus, 192. + +_Laurence, S._, his martyrdom, compared with a contemporaneous incident, + 358. + +_Liguori, S. Alphonso_, 141. + +_Man_, various states of: state of pure nature, 60; + state of integrity, 61; + state of original justice, 62; + state of, after the fall, 67; + how summed up in Adam, 64, 71; + effect of his being a race, 59; + force of his social nature, when fallen, 72; + when restored, 108-110; + his corruption viewed as a fact of modern science, 58. + +_Marcus Aurelius_, treatment of the Church, 292, 299-301. + +_Martyrdom_, said by S. Irenaeus to be frequent in the Church, but not + deemed necessary by the sects, 339; + losses to the Christian body by it contrasted with those of civil war, + by Origen, 324; + a continuation of Christ's confession before Pilate, 184; + its spirit the tissue of early Christian life, 238; + identified with "perfect charity" by S. Ignatius, 217; + termed "the chalice of Christ" by S. Polycarp, 300. + +_Maximus of Tyre_, a teacher of Marcus Aurelius, his notions of God, 293. + +_Merivale_, History of the Romans, 19, 203, 210. + +_Moehler_, 59, 132, 135, 159. + +_Nero_, importance of his act in raising the first persecution, 191. + +_Newman, Dr._, the natural beauty of Greece, 381; + the martyrs soldiers of Christ, 185. + +_Oral teaching_, viewed as the only adequate instrument for conveying + doctrine by Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and all subsequent + Greek philosophers, 411-425; + the means by which the Word of God declared that His kingdom should be + propagated for ever, 166; + which, as a fact, is fulfilled in the apostolic age, 148; + and in all subsequent times, 157. + +_Origen_, his heroic conduct in youth, 303; + agrees with Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian, in the + principle of tradition, 280; + states the unity of the Church, 286; + treats the Church as a polity, and compares it with other polities, 320; + the Christian people one people, formed on the imitation of Christ, 322; + dies of ill-treatment under the Decian persecution, 323; + how Christ leaves His Father and Mother to espouse the Church, 114, note + 43; + anticipates the universal prevalence of Christianity, 306; + on the number of martyrs, 324. + +_Pantheism_, Stoic, and _Polytheism_, how they fitted into each other, + Zeller, 464, note. + +_Passaglia_, 92, 97. + +_Patriarchal Sees_, the three original all Sees of Peter, 343. + +_Penance_, doctrine and practice of, in first half of third century, 351. + +_Personality_, defective conception of, by Plato, in God, 409; + in man, 411; + by Aristotle, in both, 432; + by Stoicism, in both, 439, 440; + by all the Greek schools as to God, 460-5; + as to man, 465-7. + +_Petavius_, 90, 56, 123. + +_Peter, S._, his personal work in building the Church, 346. + +_Peter and Paul, SS._, their martyrdom, 191. + +_Phileas_, Bishop of Thmuis, his account of persecution in Egypt, 367-9. + +_Philosophy_, what it is, 376, 377; + the Presocratic, 384; + its second period opened by Socrates, 386; + its four great schools at Athens, 436; + effect of the empire's establishment on it, 457; + its negative effect, 458; + its positive effect, 460; + as to the divine unity and personality, 461-5; + as to man's personality, 465-7; + as to man's duties to God, 467; + as to the duties of man to man, 470; + its conception of the human commonwealth, 472; + its failure to construct a society ruled by its principles, 477. + +_Philostratus_, 306. + +_Plato_, applies Socratic principles to an ethical, logical, and physical + system, 398; + his doctrine of Ideas, 399; + his filiation with Socrates, 400; + his philosophy, and his idea of God, 401-6; + with which, however, he retains the inculcation and practice of the + popular religion, 406; + his God not absolutely personal, nor free, nor a creator, 408; + his ethical system, 410; + his conception of the method of teaching, 411; + his contrast between oral teaching and writing, as means of imparting + doctrine, 414-18; + his account in his own person of how real knowledge, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, is to be + attained, 425; + calls the art of Socrates mental midwifery, 392; + the highest point of virtue to become like to God, 433. + +_Pliny_, the younger, his report of Christians to Trajan, 210; + compared in his conduct to them with Trajan and Junius Rusticus, 210, + note 38. + +_Plutarch_, his statement of Zeno's Politeia, 471. + +_Polytheism_, of the Graeco-Roman world, its multiplicity, 4; + universality, 12; + grasp on daily life, 13; + moral influence, 19; + absence of moral teaching in it, 23; + its internal cause in man, 26; + its external cause, 27; + its injuriousness to man, 30; + illogical character, 31; + superhuman power, 33; + relation to civilisation, 38; + to the empire's constitution, 42; + to national feelings, 44; + to despotism and slavery, 45; + its prospects about A.U.C. 750, 46; + is the summing-up of human history before Christ, 58. + +_Primacy_, S. Peter's, defended by specific scriptural proof, unbroken + succession, and perpetual recognition, 164; + attested by S. Ignatius, 218; + by S. Irenaeus, 267; + by Tertullian, 352; + by S. Cyprian, 326-331; + necessary to the Church's unity, 146-8; + is linked with jurisdiction, and is the expression of Christ's + sovereignty, 345; + brought out by the questions of penance, rebaptising heretics, and + keeping Easter, 351-5; + in it lies the unity of the Episcopate, 334. + +_Pythagoras_, 377; + his attempt to construct a philosophic religious community, 412; + his conception influences Plato, and all subsequent Greek philosophy, + 414. + +_Real Presence_, defended by the succession of doctrine, of men, and of + institutions, 162. + +_Rebaptisation_ of heretics, 353. + +_Ruinart_, Acta Sincera Martyrum, quoted, 184, 207, 217, 226, 294, 300, + 301. + +_Sabbath_, the day changed, and the observance modified, by authority of + the Church alone, 165. + +_Schmidt_, Geschichte der Denk- und Glaubensfreiheit, 194. + +_Schwane_, Dogmengeschichte der vornicaenischen Zeit, 261, 285, 287, 288. + +_Scripture_, not used as the means for the first foundation of + Christianity, 148-50; + introduced as subsidiary to oral teaching, 150-2; + its great value in this light, 152-4; + relation hence arising of Scripture to the Church, 154; + instances of this relation, 161-5; + this relation set forth by our Lord for perpetual guidance of His + Church, 166-8; + the same, urged by Tertullian, 274; + by S. Irenaeus, 268, 269; + by Clement of Alexandria, 278. + +_Sects_, their multitude in early times, 204, 261, 270, 315. + +_Septimius Severus_, maxims of government, 243, 248-50; + his persecution, 302. + +_Socrates_, his person, 388; + influence on Greek philosophy, 387; + the Stoic type of the wise man, 424; + Zeller's account of his special principle, 389; + that of Ueberweg, 390; + his opinion on the gods and the Godhead, 392-5; + his last words to his judges, 395; + last words of his life, 396; + halts between unity and plurality in the Godhead, 396, 397; + absence from his mind of the sense of impurity, 397, note. + Plato makes an ethical, logical, and physical system from his + principles, 398; + the filiation between them, 400; + his art termed mental midwifery by Plato, 392; + one of his statements compared with that of S. Paul, 393, note. + +_Stoicism_, Epicureanism, Scepticism, three branches on one stem, 449. + +_Suarez_, 60-2. + +_Suicide_, termed the _Issue_ in Stoic philosophy, 476. + +_Tacitus_, 190, 247, 248. + +_Teaching office_, created by Christ, 166; + witnessed by S. Ignatius, 202; + by S. Irenaeus, 266, 268, 269, 272; + by Tertullian, 274, 276; + by Clement of Alexandria, 278; + by Origen, 280; + alone carries both Tradition and Scripture as a living gift of the + Spirit, 287. + +_Tertullian_, 4, 32, 37, 188, 192, 194, 197, 209, 246, 250, 251, 274, 276, + 352. + +_Thierry_, Amadee, 313, 481. + +_Thomas Aquinas, S._, 28, 57, 81, 125, 483. + +_Tillemont_, 209, 245, 249, 263. + +_Tradition_, the whole body of Apostolic teaching so called, 149, 150; + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, by S. Irenaeus, 198; + Tertullian, 274-7; + Clement of Alexandria, 278; + Origen, 280. + +_Trajan_, his treatment of Christians, 213; + of S. Ignatius, 215; + importance of his answer to Pliny, 221. + +_Truth_, as meaning the whole body of the divine revelation, 140; + committed for its propagation to a society, 155, 166; + secured in it by a triple succession, 156-60; + its root in the Person of Christ, 51, 121, 181; + the gift of His Spirit, 121, 125, 127; + development of, 168; + in the hall of Pilate, 49; + its first transmission by oral teaching only, 148. + +_Ueberweg_, Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie des Alterthums, + quoted or referred to, 385, 387, 390, 398, 399, 400, 401, 412, + 413, 414, 421, 422, 424, 428, 442, 450, 451, 453, 462, 479, + 480. + +_Varro_, divides theology into fabulous, natural, and civil, 19. + +_Xenophon_, 390-5. + +_Zeller_, Philosophie der Griechen, quoted or referred to, 377, 380, 381, + 383, 385, 386, 388, 389, 400, 401, 403-6; 407, 408, 409, 410, + 411, 412, 425, 429, 433, 434, 436, 437, 438, 443, 444, 445, + 446, 447, 448, 449, 462, 469, 471, 472, 476. + +_Zeno_, the Stoic, his conception of the method of teaching, 424; + his doctrine upon God and the soul, 438-442; + his conception of men as one flock feeding in a common pasture under a + common law, 471. + +_Zukrigl_, 468. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Tertull. _Apolog._ xxiv, "Ideo et AEgyptiis permissa est tam vanae + superstitionis potestas, avibus et bestiis consecrandis, et capite + damnandis qui aliquem hujusmodi Deum occiderint. Unicuique etiam + provinciae et civitati suus Deus est, ut Syriae Astartes, ut Arabiae + Disares, ut Noricis Belenus, ut Africae Caelestis, ut Mauritaniae + Reguli sui," &c.; and Minucius Felix, Octavius vi., in like manner. + + 2 See Aug. _de Civ. Dei_, l. viii. 24. + + 3 Doellinger, _Heidenthum und Judenthum_, pp. 528, 529. + + 4 From _Heidenthum und Judenthum_, pp. 101-2. + +_ 5 Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 480. + +_ 6 Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 107. + +_ 7 Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 469. + + 8 Ibid. pp. 468, 480. + +_ 9 Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 344. + + 10 Ibid. p. 312. + + 11 "Epulae, lectisternia, nudipedalia." + + 12 These incidents are taken from various places in _Heidenthum und + Judenthum_, pp. 531, 549, 550, &c. + + 13 Champagny, _Les Antonins_, liv. v. c. 3. + +_ 14 De Divinat._ ii. 72. + + 15 Valerius Max. i. c. 2, 3. + + 16 Merivale's _History of the Romans_, ii. 447. + + 17 See Varro, quoted by S. Aug. _De Civ. Dei_, lib. vi. 5. + +_ 18 De Civ. Dei_, l. vi. 5, 6, 7. + + 19 "Illam theatricam et fabulosam theologiam ab ista civili pendere + noverunt, et ei de carminibus poetarum tanquam de speculo resultare: + et ideo ista exposita, quam damnare non audent, illam ejus imaginem + liberius arguunt." _De Civ. Dei_, vi. 9; id. vi. 7. + + 20 "Quae sunt ergo illa sacra quibus agendis tales elegit sanctitas + quales nec thymelica in se admittit obscoenitas." _De Civ. Dei_, vi. + 7. + + 21 "Omnes cultores talium deorum--magis intuentur quid Jupiter fecerit, + quam quid docuerit Plato vel censuerit Cato." _De Civ. Dei_, ii. 7. + +_ 22 De Civ. Dei_, ii. 6. "Demonstrentur vel commemorentur loca--ubi + populi audirent quid dii praeciperent de cohibenda avaritia, + ambitione frangenda, luxuria refraenanda." See also sec. 28. + + 23 See _Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 398. Herodotus, i. 199. Baruch, + vi. 42-3. + + 24 See S. Athan, _con. Gentes_, 5-9. In like manner S. Theophilus, lib. + i. ad Autolyc. c. 2. + + 25 In order to form a notion how far this division of gods could + descend, and what an incredible depth of turpitude it reached, see + _De Civ. Dei_, l. vi. c. 9, de officiis singulorum deorum. Its + foulness prevents any adequate representation of it. + + 26 See S. Thomas, _Summa_, 2, 2, q. 94, a. 4. + + 27 Of this whole polytheism in the mass S. Paul pronounces the + judgment: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. Rom. i. 25. + And the Psalmist adds: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Sept. xcv. 5. See also Ps. cv. 37. + + 28 See John xii. 31; xiv. 30; xvi. 11; Luke xxii. 53; x. 19; Apoc. xii. + 9; Heb. ii. 14; 1 John v. 18; Ephes. vi. 12; ii. 2; 2 Cor. iv. 3. + + 29 These two subjects occupy respectively the first five and the second + five books of S. Augustine's _City of God_, where the argument is + carried out in great detail. + + 30 Rom. i. 20. See the Stoical argument for the unity of the deity in + Cic. _de Nat. Deor._ 2. + + 31 Tertullian _de Testimonio Animae_, 2. + + 32 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. S. Athan. _de Incar._ 13. + + 33 See S. August. _de Civ. Dei_, viii. 24. "Immundi spiritus, eisdem + simulacris arte illa nefaria colligati, cultorum suorum animas in + suam societatem redigendo miserabiliter captivaverant." + + 34 Called by S. Athan. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Thus _De + Inc._ 47. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 35 "Humana ante oculos foede quam vita jaceret + In terris, oppressa gravi sub religione," &c. Lucret. i. 63. + + "Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, + Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum + Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari." + + Virg. _Geo._ ii. 491. + + 36 Acts xvi. 16. + + 37 1 Cor. x. 21. + + 38 Tertullian, _Apologeticus_, 23; S. Athanas. _de Inc._ 48; S. Aug. + _de Civ. Dei_, xxi. 6, who says, "Ut autem demones illiciantur ab + hominibus, prius eos ipsi astutissima calliditate seducunt, vel + inspirando eorum cordibus virus occultum, vel etiam fallacibus + amicitiis apparendo, eorumque paucos discipulos suos faciunt, + plurimorumque doctores. Neque enim potuit, nisi primum ipsis + docentibus, disci quid quisque illorum appetat, quid exhorreat, quo + invitetur nomine, quo cogatur, unde magicae artes carumque artifices + exstiterunt." + + 39 Merivale, iii. 496. + + 40 Beugnot, _Destruction du Paganisme_, i. 8. + + 41 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, strength; _ruma_, a mother's breast. + + 42 Beugnot, i. 17. + + 43 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}. + + 44 S. Aug. _de Trin._ l. xv. c. 14, tom. viii. 984. + + 45 S. Cyril. Alex. tom. v. 1, pp. 544, 557 a. + + 46 S. Cyril. Alex. _in Joh._ x. p. 858 b. + + 47 Petav. _de Trin._ lib. viii. c. 7. + + 48 An exception must be made in favour of Persia, where the original + monotheism was preserved with more or less corruption. + + 49 "Das Heidenthum ist nichts anderes als der gefallene und nicht + wiedergeborne Mensch im Grossen." Moehler, _Kirchengeschichte_, i. + 169. + + 50 Suarez, _de Gratia_, Proleg. 4, cap. i. sec. 3. + + 51 Suarez, _de Gratia_, Proleg. cap. ii. sec. 3. + + 52 Kleutgen, _die Theologie der Vorzeit_, ii. p. 559. + + 53 Suarez, _de Grat._ Proleg. 4, cap. v. sec. 3. + + 54 Kleutgen, _die Theologie der Vorzeit_, vol. ii. 650. + + 55 This is called by S. Peter 1. i. 18 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 56 The apostle speaks here not of "wickedness," but of a personal + agent, "the wicked or malignant one;" as the context shows. "He who + is born of God keeps himself, and the malignant one touches him not. + We know that we are of God, and the whole world lies in the + malignant one." 1 John v. 18, 19. + + 57 Gal. iv. 4. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 58 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Rom. v. 14. "Forma futuri e contrario Christus + ostenditur." S. Aug. tom. x. 1335. + + 59 "Adam unus est, in quo omnes peccaverunt, quia non solum ejus + imitatio peccatores facit, sed per carnem generans poena: Christus + unus est, in quo omnes justificentur, quia non solum ejus imitatio + justos facit, sed per spiritum regenerans gratia." S. Aug. tom. x. + p. 12 c. + + 60 John xvii. 4. + + 61 S. Thomas, _Summa contra Gentiles_, l. i. c. 1. + + 62 John xviii. 37. "Thou sayest that I am a king. To this end was I + born, and for this cause came I into the world, to bear witness unto + the truth." + + 63 Acts i. 8; Luke xxiv. 49. + + 64 See S. Aug. tom. iv. 1039 e. "Ipse ergo Adam," &c. + + 65 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}. 1 Joh. v. 19. Two persons are here opposed + to each other, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Compare the Lord's Prayer, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. Matt. vi. 13 and Joh. xvii. 14, 15. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. + + 66 Heb. iii. 1-6; Ephes. ii. 19-22; 1 Cor. iii. 9, 10-15; 2 Cor. vi. + 16; 1 Peter ii. 4, 5. + + 67 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. S. Chrys. in + loc. Compare S. Irenaeus, lib. i. c. 10. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 68 S. Aug. in Ps. ix. tom. iv. 51. + + 69 Ibid. in Ps. cxxxi. tom. iv. 1473. + + 70 Petavius on the Headship of Christ. + + 71 Passaglia _de Ecclesia_. + + 72 S. Cyprian _de Unitate_, 5. + + 73 All these five relations between Christ and the Church are mentioned + in one passage of S. Paul, Ephes. v. 22-33. + + 74 Luke i. 35. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Acts i. 8. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Luke xxiv. 49. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 75 The Church is so called by S. Augustine. + + 76 These five are taken from Passaglia _de Ecclesia_, lib. i. cap. 3, + p. 34, 5. + + 77 Compare S. Athanasius _cont. Arian. de Incarn._ p. 877 c.--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 78 S. Aug. serm. 267, tom. v. p. 1090 e. + + 79 Luke xxiv. 49 and John xvi. 13. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; and 14, 15. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 80 Plato. + + 81 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. S. Chrys. 3d Hom. on Ephes. tom. xi. p. 16. + + 82 S. Aug. serm. 272, tom. v. p. 1104 c. + + 83 "Quid tibi fecit Ecclesia, ut eam velis quodammodo decollare? + Tollere vis Ecclesiae caput et capiti credere, corpus relinquere, + quasi exanime corpus. Sine caussa capiti quasi famulus devotus + blandiris. Qui decollare vult, et caput et corpus conatur occidere." + S. Aug. tom. v. p. 636. + + 84 S. Aug. in Ps. ci. tom. iv. p. 1105 d. + + 85 S. Augustine, tom. iv. p. 1677. "Elegit hic sibi thalamum castum, + ubi conjungeretur Sponsus Sponsae. Verbum caro factum est, ut fieret + caput Ecclesiae." + + 86 By the "Gloria in excelsis," &c. in the Mass. + + 87 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. S. + Chrys. on 1 Cor. xii. tom. x. pp. 269, 271, 273. + + 88 S. Aug. _Op. imp. contr. Julian._ lib. ii. tom. x. p. 1018 d. + + 89 "Grana illa quae modo gemunt inter paleas, quae massam unam factura + sunt, quando area in fine fuerit ventilata." S. Aug. in Ps. cxxvi. + tom. iv. p. 1429. + + 90 See Origen on Matt. xiv. 17. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 91 As S. Irenaeus, v. 20. "Omnibus unum et eundem Deum Patrem + praecipientibus, et eamdem dispositionem incarnationis Filii Dei + credentibus, et eamdem donationem Spiritus scientibus;" and S. Aug. + tom. v. app. p. 307 f. "Ecce iterum humanis divina miscentur, id + est, Vicarius Redemtoris: ut beneficia quae Salvator Dominus + inchoavit peculiari Spiritus Sancti virtute consummet, et quod ille + redemit, iste sanctificet, quod ille acquisivit, iste custodiat." + This striking sermon is quoted by Petavius as genuine, but placed by + the Benedictines in the appendix. + + 92 There is in the original words here something which is lost both in + the Vulgate and in the English translation. First, c. xiv. 6. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}; then c. xvi. 13. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. As Christ is the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, so His Spirit is the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. "Ego + sum via et veritas; ille vos docebit omnem veritatem," does not + render this: and as little, "I am _the way_, the truth, and the + life; He shall _lead_ you into all truth." + + 93 S. Aug., quoted above in note. + + 94 This word is used as the equivalent of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, _ratio_, _Vernunft_, + in man. + + 95 See Petavius _de Trin._ vii. 7, where he states it to be the general + belief of the ancient writers that a new and _substantial_ presence + of the Holy Ghost began at the day of Pentecost. + + 96 S. Aug. tom. v. 398 g. + + 97 S. Aug. tom. iii. pp. 2, 527. + + 98 Ib. tom. v. 47. + + 99 Ib. tom. v. 392 e. + + 100 S. Thomas in Joh. i. lec. 10: "Nam unitas Spiritus Sancti facit in + Ecclesia unitatem." + + 101 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 102 Epist. 185. tom. ii. p. 663. "Proinde Ecclesia Catholica sola corpus + est Christi, cujus ille caput est, Salvator corporis sui. Extra hoc + corpus neminem vivificat Spiritus Sanctus, quia sicut ipse dicit + Apostolus; Caritas Dei diffusa est in cordibus nostris per Spiritum + Sanctum, qui datus est nobis. Non est autem particeps divinae + caritatis, qui hostis est unitatis. Non habent itaque Spiritum + Sanctum qui sunt extra Ecclesiam." + + 103 Matt. xxiv. 14. + + 104 See Moehler, _Die Einheit in der Kirche_, p. 176. "Der Koerper des + Menschen ist eine Offenbarung des Geistes, der in ihm sein Dasein + bekundet, und sich entwickelt. Der Staat ist eine nothwendige + Erscheinung, eine Bildung und Gestaltung des von Gott gegebenen + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}." + + 105 Moehler, _Einheit_, &c. p. 8. "Wie das Leben des sinnlichen Menschen + nur einmal unmittelbar aus der Hand des Schoepfers kam, und wo nun + sinnliches Leben werden soll, es durch die Mittheilung der + Lebenskraft eines schon Lebenden bedingt ist, so sollte das neue + goettliche Leben ein Austroemen aus den schon Belebten, die Erzeugung + desselben sollte ein Ueberzeugung sein." + + 106 For instance, two passages on the Incarnation in S. Cyril of + Alexandria, tom. iv. pp. 819-824 and 918-920, set forth the whole + sequence of the Fall and the Restoration, and how wonderfully the + gift of the Spirit replaces what was lost in Adam. + + 107 See S. Cyril. Alex. _in Joan._ p. 997 e. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}.; and p. 998. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}? + + 108 S. Iren. iv. c. 33, 7. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 109 Acts ii. 3. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 110 "Non jam visitator subitus, sed perpetuus consolator et habitator + aeternus." S. Aug. tom. v. d. app. p. 307. + + 111 Con. Crescou. lib. ii. c. 14, tom. ix. p. 418. "Hic Spiritus sanctus + veniens in eos tale signum primitus dedit, ut qui eum acciperent + linguis omnium gentium loquerentur, quia portendebat Ecclesiam per + omnes gentes futuram, nec quemquam accepturum Spiritum sanctum nisi + qui ejus unitati copularetur. Hujus fontis largo atque invisibili + flumine laetificat Deus civitatem suam, quia Propheta dixit: Fluminis + impetus laetificat civitatem Dei. Ad hunc enim fontem nullus + extraneus, quia nullus nisi vita aeterna dignus accedit. Hic est + proprius Ecclesiae Christi." + + 112 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}: there seems to be no one word in the New Testament of + more pregnant signification than this, which in a great number of + instances bears the sense of _the whole body of the divine + revelation_. The root of this meaning would seem to lie in Christ + Himself, who as the Divine Word is the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} of the + Father; on which title S. Athanasius and S. Cyril of Alexandria + specially dwell, while S. Hilary expresses the Blessed Trinity by + "AEternitas in Patre, Species in Imagine, Usus in Munere," on which + see S. Augustine's magnificent comment, _de Trin._ l. vi. 10, p. + 850; and as our Lord is from eternity the Truth, so in and by His + Incarnation He becomes in a special sense the Truth to man: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}: and so the Spirit who proceeds + from the Father and the Son, "ille ineffabilis quidam complexus + Patris et Imaginis" (S. Aug.), is {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, who + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}: and again, 1 John v. 6, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. This is the + first meaning. Secondly, as derived from it, the Truth is the whole + body of the divine revelation. In this sense it is used in a great + many places of S. John's Gospel and the Apostolic Epistles, _e.g._ + John i. 14, 17; viii. 31; xvi. 13; xvii. 17; xviii. 37; 1 John ii. + 21; iii. 19; 2 John i. 1-3; 3 John 3, 4, 8, 12; 1 Tim. iii. 15, + where, because this whole body of truth dwells in the Church of + Christ and there alone, it is emphatically called the "House of God, + which is the Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of the + Truth;" 1 Tim. ii. 3; Rom. xv. 8; 2 Cor, iv. 2; xiii. 8; Gal. iii. + 1; v. 7; Ephes. i. 13; iv. 21-24 (in which passage the Apostle + contrasts heathen man with Christian, the one, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; the other, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, and again, the mass of the + Gentiles, as {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, while Christians {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}); 2 Thess. ii. 8-13; 1 Tim. iv. 3; vi. 5; + 2 Tim. ii. 15, 25; iii. 7, 8; iv. 4; Titus i. 1 and 14; Heb. x. 26; + Jac. v. 19; 1 Pet. i. 22; 2 Pet. ii. 2. In this second sense, as + signifying the whole body of the divine revelation, the expression + has been searched for, but without success, in the Gospels of S. + Matthew, S. Mark, and S. Luke, and in the Acts. + + Thirdly, as the effect of this revelation to man, the Truth + signifies uprightness, as equivalent to justice or sanctity, in the + individual. + + Fourthly, it means sincerity, absence of hypocrisy: and Fifthly, + correspondence to fact. + + In the Apocalypse our Lord is designated "the holy, the true," "the + Amen, the Witness faithful and true," the rider of the white horse, + "called faithful and true," "whose name is the Word of God." iii. 7, + 14; xix. 11. + + 113 "La creatura, la piu amabile, la piu amata, e la piu amante di Dio." + S. Alfonso, _Gran Mezzo della Preghiera_, p. 280. + + 114 Acts ii. 38. + + 115 "Non te fefellit sponsus tuus: non te fefellit qui suo sanguine te + dotavit." S. Aug. tom. v. 1090 b. + + 116 "Quod tunc faciebat unus homo accepto Spiritu sancto, ut unus homo + linguis omnium loqueretur, hoc modo ipsa unitas facit, linguis + omnibus loquitur. Et modo unus homo in omnibus gentibus linguis + omnibus loquitur, unus homo, caput et corpus, unus homo, Christus et + Ecclesia, vir perfectus, ille sponsus, illa sponsa. Sed erunt, + inquit, duo in carne una; judicia Dei vera, justificata in idipsum: + propter unitatem." S. Aug. in Ps. xviii. 2, tom. iv. 85 f. + + 117 Ephes. iv. 11-16. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}. Joh. xvii. 19. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}. + + 118 1 Cor. xii. 12. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 119 So says the great maintainer of episcopal power, S. Cyprian, in his + famous aphorism: "Episcopatus unus est, cujus a singulis in solidum + pars tenetur." + + 120 Matt. xxiv. 14. + + 121 Rom. x. 15. + + 122 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. It will be shown hereafter that the four great writers, + Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, unanimously + refer to Tradition in this sense. + + 123 See S. Irenaeus, ii. 1. expressly stating this of S. Mark's and S. + Luke's Gospel, and of the Apostles generally: "quod (Evangelium) + quidem tunc praeconaverunt, postea vero per Dei voluntatem in + Scripturis nobis tradiderunt;" which is repeated by Euseb. _Hist._ + ii. 15, who declares that the Roman Christians, not content {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, besought Mark with many + prayers {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which S. Peter afterwards approved. + + 124 Luke i. 2-4. + + 125 John xx. 30. + + 126 As one instance out of many take the words of S. Paul, 2 Cor. i. 22: + "He that _confirms_ us with you is Christ, and that has _anointed_ + us is God; who has also _sealed_ us, and given the pledge of the + Spirit in our hearts." How differently would this passage appear to + one who had received the confirming chrism, with the words conveying + it, "_Signo_ te signo crucis, et _confirmo_ te _chrismate_ salutis;" + and to one who had lost the possession of this Sacrament. Those who + have deserted the ecclesiastical tradition and practice read the + Scriptures with a negative mind, and so fail to draw out the truth + which is in them. + + 127 Eine Gnadenanstalt: our language does not supply the expression. + + 128 Heb. iv. 2; Acts xvi. 14. + + 129 By Moehler. + + 130 See Macaulay's Essays. + + 131 S. Aug. _de Trin._ iv. 11, 12, tom. viii. 817. + + 132 Tertullian, _Apol._ 50. "O gloriam licitam, quia humanam, cui nec + praesumptio perdita nec persuasio desperata deputatur in contemptu + mortis et atrocitatis omnimodae, cui tantum pro patria, pro imperio, + pro amicitia pati permissum est, quantum pro Deo non licet." See + again the instances he collects _ad Martyres_, 4; and Eusebius, + _Hist. 5_, prooem., draws the same contrast. + + 133 Celsus only alleges the suffering of Socrates as a parallel to that + of the martyrs. Origen _c. Cels._ i. 3. + + 134 With an appeal to this fact Athenagoras begins his apology to the + Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, about A.D. 177. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}. Ch. i. See also Kellner's + _Hellenismus und Christenthum_, p. 79; and Champagny, _Les + Antonins_, ii. 189. + + 135 1 Tim. vi. 13; ii. 6. + + 136 "AEmulos nos ergo Sibi esse voluit, ac primus virtute coelesti + injustorum justus obtemperavit arbitrio; dans scilicet secuturis + viam, ut pius Dominus exemplum famulis Se praebendo, ne onerosus + praeceptor a quodam putaretur. Pertulit ante illa quae aliis + perferenda mandavit." _Epist. Ecc. Smyr._ i. Ruinart, p. 31. + + 137 Apoc. ii. 2, 10, 14. + + 138 This is what Tertullian calls "sub umbraculo insignissimae + religionis, certe licitae," _Apolog._ 21; and _ad Nationes_, i. 11, + "Nos quoque ut Judaicae religionis propinquos." + + 139 See Justin Martyr, _Dial. c. Tryph._ 17, who speaks of the Jews as + sending everywhere deputies in order to defame Christians. + + 140 Acts xxviii. 22. + + 141 Tacitus, _Ann._ xv. 44. + + 142 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + S. Clem. Rom. _ad Cor._ 5. + + 143 Tertull. _Apol._ 10. "Sacrilegii et majestatis rei convenimur: summa + haec causa, immo tota est." Lassaulx says, "die beiden Hauptanklagen, + die Religion-verachtung, die Majestaets-beleidigung." _Fall des + Hellenismus_, p. 11. + + 144 Matt. x. 22; xxiv. 9. + + 145 S. Clemens Rom., writing just after Domitian's time, associates as + sufferers with S. Peter and S. Paul in his own time {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. _Ad Cor._ 6. + + 146 Euseb. _Hist._ iv. 25; Tertull. _Apol._ 5. + + 147 In Tertullian's words, "debellator Christianorum," _Apol._ 5. + + 148 Thus a late Protestant writer, Schmidt (_Geschichte der Denk- und + Glaubensfreiheit_, p. 165), remarks of the condition of Christians, + "Vollkommen gewiss ist, dass unter Domitian eine neue Drangperiode + fuer die Christen begann, die sich in Verfolgungen, in Hinrichtungen, + und Verbannungen aeusserte. (_Dio._ 67, 14, und die Ausleger.) Damals + soll auch der Apostel Johannes nach Pathmos verwiesen worden sein. + Erst Nerva lueftete wiederum diesen Druck, indem er den Verhafteten + die Freiheit gab, und die Verbannten zurueckberief. (_Dio._ 68, 1.) + _Es war dies aber doch nur als eine Amnestie, als ein Gnadenact + anzusehen, nicht als eine Anerkennung der Unstraeflichkeit, wie das + schwankende Verhalten des nicht minder hochherzigen und freisinnigen + Trajan zur Genuege darthut._" + + 149 Doellinger, _Heidenthum und Judenthum_, Vorwort, iv. + + 150 Justin, _Dialog. with Tryphon_, 117. Tertullian, 50 years later, + _adv. Judaeos_, 7, goes beyond this. + + 151 Kellner, _Hellenismus und Christenthum_, p. 85. + + 152 Origen _cont. Cels._ i. 27. + + 153 Lib. iii.3. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}: where {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} indicate the whole body of truth which they communicated + to the Church, whether written or unwritten. + + 154 S. Ign. _ad Smyrn._ 1 and 8. + + 155 S. Ignat. _ad Ephes._ i.-iv. + +_ 156 Ad Ephes._ xix. + + 157 Another point on which S. Ignatius dwells repeatedly is the + receiving the flesh of Christ in the Eucharist: thus he says of the + heterodox, _ad Smyrn._ 6: "They abstain from the Eucharist and + prayer, because they do not confess that the Eucharist is that flesh + of our Saviour Jesus Christ which suffered for our sins, which in + His goodness the Father raised." + + 158 He says, _ad Rom._ ii.: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Merivale, _Hist._ + c. lxv. p. 150, note 1, says, "We are at a loss to account for the + bishop being sent to suffer martyrdom at Rome." This passage in the + epistle confirms the acts of martyrdom. It was the wish of Trajan to + make a great example, and the Bishop of Rome, S. Alexander, was at + this time in prison, and shortly afterwards martyred. + + 159 See _Epist. ad Magnes._ 13. + +_ 160 Ad Trall._ 6. + +_ 161 Ad Smyrn._ viii. + + 162 Compare with this expression of S. Ignatius that of the Church of + Polycarp, fifty years later, describing how after his martyrdom, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} [{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. _Acta Polycarpi_, xix Ruinart, p. 45. + + 163 Ephes. iv. 4-16. + + 164 See Eusebius, _Hist._ iii. 37, who speaks exactly in this sense; and + an important passage in Doellinger, _Kallistus und Hippolytus_, + 338-343, on the force of the word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, as Ecclesiae Doctor, + one particularly charged with the magisterium veritatis. See also + Hagemann, _die Roemische Kirche_, pp. 607-8. + + 165 Tillemont, _Ecc. Hist._ ii. 132. + + 166 Tertull. _Apol._ 5, and Euseb. _Hist._ v. 21, assert the existence + of this law. + + 167 Tillemont, _E. H._ ii. 182-3. + + 168 See the singular instance given by Euseb. v. 21, in the reign of + Commodus. An informer accuses Apollonius of being a Christian, at a + time when the imperial laws made such an accusation a capital + offence. The accuser is put to death; but Apollonius, who is + supposed to have been a senator, having made a brilliant defence + before the Senate, suffers martyrdom. + + 169 Duci jussi (confer Acts xii. 19, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}). The extreme + brevity with which the most urbane, kind-hearted, and accomplished + of Roman gentlemen, as Mr. Merivale conceives him, describes himself + as having ordered a number of men and women to be put to death for + the profession of Christianity, is remarkable and significant. + Compare it with the bearing of his friend Trajan to S. Ignatius + below. As soon as the saint's confession of "bearing the Crucified + in his heart" is specific, Trajan without a word of remark orders + his execution. The "duci jussi" of Pliny and Trajan's manner in + sentencing perfectly correspond and bear witness to each other's + authenticity. So later the like tone used by Junius Rusticus, + prefect of the city under Marcus Aurelius, to Justin Martyr, as will + be seen further on. + + 170 Pliny, _Ep._ x. 97, chiefly Melmoth's translation. + +_ 171 Acts of S. Ignatius_, Ruinart, pp. 8, 9. + +_ 172 Ad Rom._ iv. + + 173 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 174 S. Chrysostom, _Hom. on S. Ignatius_, tom. ii. 600. + + 175 S. Ignatius in the 11th sec. of his epistle to the Smyrnaeans + requests them to send a messenger to congratulate the church of + Antioch, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. The word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or + corpusculum, indicates the completeness of a diocesan church with + its bishop, the whole Church being {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, as S. Ignatius had + said in sec. I of the same epistle, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. + + 176 There is some doubt about the time of S. Ignatius's martyrdom. We + suppose it to be at the end of Trajan's reign. S. Alexander I. is + reckoned a martyr, and placed in the canon of the Mass next after S. + Ignatius, which seems to indicate a connection between their deaths. + + 177 So the persecution of Diocletian is said to have arisen from Apollo + declaring that the just who were upon the earth prevented him from + uttering true oracles; and a like answer was received by Julian the + Apostate at Antioch, where the relics of S. Babylas had been + translated by Gallus to Daphne, near a celebrated temple of Apollo. + Here Julian, offering in vain a great number of sacrifices to the + demon, was at length informed that the body of the saint condemned + him to silence, and ordered the Christians to remove it. S. Chrys. + tom. ii. 560. + + 178 Acts of S. Symphorosa, from Dom Ruinart, pp. 23-4. + + 179 Justin. 1 _Apol._ 1, 2. + + 180 Sec. 7. + + 181 Sec. 11. + + 182 Sec. 17. + + 183 Sec. 45. + + 184 Sec. 68. Chevallier's translation, sometimes altered. + + 185 Origen _c. Cels._ i. 3. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 186 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. viii. 38, 39. + + 187 viii. 69; by this we should judge that the work of Celsus appeared + not long after the punishment of the Jews by Hadrian. + + 188 Attached to Justin's first Apology. + + 189 See Trajan's remark to S. Ignatius: "You mean him that was crucified + under Pontius Pilate." + + 190 See the curious letter of Hadrian about the Alexandrians, in which + the Christians spoken of are probably heretics. + + 191 They are first mentioned at Rome in the reign of Alexander Severus. + + 192 See Origen _c. Cels._ vii. 62. + + 193 See Trajan's question, "Who art thou who art zealous to transgress + our commands, besides persuading others to come to an evil end?" + + 194 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 195 The Roman legionary, if he wished to lay aside his helmet, was only + allowed to go bareheaded. + + 196 Champagny remarks, that the emperors were never in the mind of the + Romans _sovereigns_ in the modern acceptation of the word, but + _life-presidents_ with absolute power. + + 197 Champagny, _Les Antonins_, iii. 311. + + 198 "Christianos esse passus est." Lampridius. + + 199 Tillemont, _Hist. Ecc._ iii. 250. + +_ 200 Apolog._ iv. "Jampridem, cum dure definitis dicendo, non licet esse + vos, et hoc sine ullo retractatu humaniore describitis, vim + profitemini et iniquam ex arce dominationem, si ideo negatis licere + quia vultis, non quia debuit non licere." + + 201 "Res olim dissociabiles, principatum et libertatem." Tacit. _Agric._ + 3. + + 202 "Primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu." _Ibid._ + +_ 203 Agricola_, 2. + + 204 See Doellinger, _Hippolytus und Kattistus_, p. 187, who quotes from + Dio Cassius, l. 75, p. 1267, Reimar. This was A.D. 203. + + 205 Tillemont, _Life of Severus_, iii. 75, from Dio: A.D. 206. + + 206 Tertullian, _ad Martyres_, 4: about A.D. 196. + + 207 Dio, quoted by Doellinger, ut supra. + + 208 Euseb. _Hist._ v. 21. + + 209 Tertullian, _Apol._ i. 37; _ad Scap._ 2. + + 210 De Rossi, _Archeol. Cristiana_, 1866, p. 33, makes this estimate. + + 211 From a passage in the account of the Martyrs of Lyons, A.D. 177 + (Euseb. _Hist._ v. 1, p. 201, l. 3), it appears that the word + "Church" was only given to a mother or cathedral church by writers + of that time. + + 212 Thus S. Irenaeus (iii. 3. 3) speaks of S. Peter and S. Paul as + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} the Church of Rome, and of the + Church of Ephesus (ibid. iv.) as {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 213 This S. Innocent states to S. Augustine and the African bishops in + 417 as a fact well known to them: "Scientes quid Apostolicae Sedi, + cum omnes hoc loco positi ipsum sequi desideremus Apostolum, + debeatur, _a quo ipse episcopatus et tota auctoritas nominis hujus + emersit_." Coustant, _Epist. Rom. Pontif._ 888. + + 214 Photius, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, quoted by Doellinger, _Hippolytus + und Kallistus_, p. 264, 5. + + 215 Can. 6. Concil. Nic. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + See Hagemann, _die Roemische Kirche_, 596-8. + + 216 "Traducem fidei et semina doctrinae." _De Praescrip._ 20. + + 217 See Doellinger, _Hipp. u. Kall._ p. 338-343, for the meaning of this + word in the time of S. Irenaeus, as carrying with it a special + magisterium fidei. "Presbyteros" was added as a title of honour to + the name of Bishop. In S. Irenaeus tho same persons have as Bishops + the succession of the Apostles, as Presbyteri "the charisma of the + truth." Papias marks the Asiatic Presbyteri as those who had heard + of S. John; and Clement of Alex. speaks of Presbyteri who, occupied + with the office of teaching, and deeming it diverse from that of + composition, did not write. _Eclogae_ xxvii. p. 996. + + 218 I am indebted for the above sketch of Gnosticism mainly to Schwane, + _Dogmengeschichte der vornicaenischen Zeit_, p. 648-51. + + 219 Tillemont, _Hist. des Emp._ iii. 281, deduces it from a passage of + Origen on S. Matt. tom. iii. p. 857 c. + +_ 220 Frag. Epist. ad Florin._ tom. i. p. 340. + + 221 He seems to refer to Matt. x. 24: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 222 S. Irenaeus, lib. iii. c. 2; lib. iii. c. 1. + + 223 "Quos et successores relinquebant, suum ipsorum locum magisterii + tradentes." + + 224 S. Irenaeus, lib. iii. c. 3, 4. + + 225 "Hoc enim Ecclesiae creditum est Dei munus." + + 226 Lib. iii. c. 24. + + 227 Lib. v. c. 20. + + 228 "Qui cum episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum secundum + placitum Patris acceperunt." iv. 26, 2; and 5, "ubi igitur + charismata Domini posita sunt, ibi discere oportet veritatem, apud + quos est ea quae est ab apostolis ecclesiae successio." + + 229 S. Ignatius, quoted above, p. 206. + + 230 Schwane, p. 661. + + 231 Hagemann, p. 622. + + 232 Letter of the Synod of Arles to Pope Sylvester: "Quoniam recedere a + partibus istis minime potuisti, in quibus et Apostoli quotidie + sedent, et cruor ipsorum sine intermissione Dei gloriam testatur." + Mansi, _Concilia_, ii. 469. + + 233 Tertull. _de Praesc._ 19, 20. + + 234 The word here stands evidently for the whole body of Christian + truth, rites, and discipline, the communication of which was a + sacramentum. + + 235 That is, he opposes the word _choosers_ to the word _Christians_; + the one signifying those who believe what they _choose_, the other + those who believe what Christ taught. + +_ 236 De Praescrip._ 37. + + 237 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 238 Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vii. 16, p. 890-894; 17, p. 897-900. The + sections 15-17, p. 886-900, treat of the spirit and conduct of + heresy. + +_ 239 De Principiis_, pref. p. 47. See also on Matt. tom. iii. 864, a + passage equally decisive. + +_ 240 Cont. Cels._ vi. 48, tom. i. 670. + +_ 241 De Civ. Dei_, xvi. 2. + +_ 242 De dono persev._ 53. + + 243 Enarr. in Ps. 54, tom. iv. 513. + + 244 Serm. 51, tom. v. 288. + + 245 S. Mark's Gospel would be referred to S. Peter, and S. Luke's + writings to S. Paul. + + 246 See Schwane, p. 779-80. + + 247 Schwane, p. 783-4. + + 248 "Quia a patribus ista accepimus in ecclesia legenda." n. 47. + + 249 Stromata, vii. c. 16, p. 896. + + 250 See Kleutgen, _Theologie der Vorzeit_, iii. 957; Schwane, vol. i. 3. + + 251 L. iv. 26. 2, p. 262. "Quapropter _iis qui in Ecclesia sunt_ + presbyteris obaudire oportet," &c. + + 252 L. iii. 24, p. 223. + + 253 Schwane, p. 683. + + 254 Observed by Hagemann, p. 618, referring to the words of S. Irenaeus, + "ad hanc enim Ecclesiam propter potiorem prinicipalitatem _necesse + est_ omnem convenire Ecclesiam," &c. It must be remembered that the + proper word for the power which held together the whole Roman empire + was Principatus, the very word used by S. Augustine to express the + _original_ authority of the Roman See: "Romanae Ecclesiae, in qua + _semper_ apostolicae cathedrae viguit _principatus_." _Ep._ 43. + + 255 See Kuhn, _Einleitung in die katholische Dogmatik_, i. 345-6. + + 256 Guizot ranks Marcus Aurelius with S. Louis, as the only rulers who + preferred conscience to gain in all their conduct. + + 257 Maximus Tyrius, diss. 17, 12; Reiske, and diss, ii. 2. 10. + +_ 258 Acta Martyrum sincera_, Ruinart, p. 58-60. + + 259 Ruinart, p. 67. + + 260 Ruinart, p. 68. + + 261 Ruinart, p. 69. + +_ 262 Hist._ v. i. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 263 Ib, v. 21. + + 264 Clem. Alex. _Strom._ ii. c. 20, p. 494. + + 265 Euseb. _Hist._ vi. 1. + + 266 Champagny, _les Antonins_, iii. 326, 338. + + 267 Philostratus in his _Life of Apollonius of Tyana_, written at the + request of the empress Julia Domna. See Kellner, _Hellenismus und + Christenthum_, c. v. s. 4, 81-4. + + 268 Orig. _c. Cels._ viii. 68, tom. i. p. 793. + + 269 Churches in private houses, under cover of that great liberty which + invested with a sort of sacred independence the Roman household, it + had from the beginning: the church of S. Pudentiana in the house of + the senator Pudens still guards the altar on which S. Peter offered. + + 270 The reign of Louis XIV. + + 271 Am. Thierry, _Tableau de l'Empire Romain_, p. 412. + + 272 Zach. ii. 11, Is. ii. 2, Mich. iv. 1, compared with Titus ii. 14 and + 1 Pet. ii. 9. + +_ 273 Ep. ad Diognetum_, 5, 6. + + 274 S. Justin Martyr, _Tryphon_, sec. 135, 42, 116; where he refers to + and explains the vision of the high-priest Jesus in the prophet + Zacharias iii. 1. + + 275 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. _Cont. + Cels._ iii. 29. + + 276 Ibid. viii. 74. + +_ 277 Cont. Cels._ viii. 75. + + 278 Ibid. vi. 48, p. 670. + +_ 279 Cont. Cels._ vi. 79, p. 692. + + 280 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. _Cont. Cels._ iii. 8. It must be + remembered that Celsus in the passage to which this is an answer had + asserted that the Christians had arisen out of the Jews through a + sedition; which makes the train of thought pertinent. For Origen is + contrasting the losses which occur through exterminating wars, such + as a sedition, or civil war, excites, with the losses to the + Christian body through martyrdom. The comparison therefore lies + between the whole number of Christians viewed _en masse_ and the + martyrs. Lasaulx remarks that this was written before the Decian + persecution. + + 281 Preface to the Oxford edition of S. Cyprian's treatise on the Unity + of the Church. + +_ 282 De Unitate_, iii. &c. + + 283 Epist. 70 and 73. + + 284 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 285 Ep. 1, Oxford translation. + + 286 S. Irenaeus, lib. iv. 33 g. + + 287 Dan. ii. 44. Compare Apoc. i. 9. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. + + 288 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Heb. iii. 1. + + 289 Thus S. Gregory the Great wrote to Eulogius, Patriarch of + Alexandria, that the three original patriarchal Sees were all Sees + of Peter: "Cum multi sint Apostoli, pro ipso tamen principatu sola + Apostolorum Principis Sedes in auctoritate convaluit, quae in tribus + locis unius est." _Epist._ lib. vii. 40. The Patriarchal authority + is a derivation from the Primacy, which is the well-head. + + 290 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Matt. iv. 23. + + 291 S. Dionys. Alex. Ep. 2. Gallandi, iii. 512. + + 292 Answer of Pope Innocent I. to the Council of Carthage in 416, among + the letters of S. Augustine. + + 293 Constant. _Epist. Rom. Pontif._ p. 1037. + + 294 Ephes. iv., written during S. Paul's imprisonment at Rome. + + 295 This text is continually used by S. Augustine against the Donatists, + as containing an express divine prophecy that the one Catholic + Church should continue to the end of the world. The Gospel _of_ the + Kingdom, and the Gospel _without_ the Kingdom, are ideas far as the + poles apart. + +_ 296 De Pudicitia_, § 1. See Hagemann, p. 54. + + 297 He is so represented by Hippolytus, _Philosophumen_, lib. ix. p. + 209. See Hagemann, p. 59. + + 298 "Nec hoc nobis nunc nuper consilium cogitatum est, nec haec apud nos + adversus improbos modo supervenerunt repentina subsidia: sed antiqua + haec apud nos severitas, antiqua fides, disciplina legitur antiqua; + quoniam nec tantas de nobis laudes Apostolus protulisset dicendo: + Quia fides vestra praedicatur in toto mundo, nisi jam exinde vigor + iste radices fidei de temporibus illis mutuatus fuisset: quarum + laudum et gloriae degenerem fuisse maximum crimen est." _Epist. Cleri + Rom. ad Cyprian._ 31. + + 299 Hagemann, p. 77. + + 300 In Matt. tom. iii. 857 c. + + 301 "Cum Fabiani locus, id est, cum locus Petri et gradus cathedrae + sacerdotalis vacaret." _Epist._ lii. p. 68. "Sedisse intrepidum Romae + in sacerdotali cathedra eo tempore cum tyrannus infestus + sacerdotibus Dei fanda atque infanda comminaretur, cum multo + patientius et tolerabilius audiret levari adversus se aemulum + principem quam constitui Romae Dei sacerdotem." Ibid. p. 69. + +_ 302 Epist._ lii. p. 69. + + 303 Compare with the savageness of the Prefect of Rome in torturing S. + Laurence the following incident which occurred five years later. + Valerian had been captured by the Persian monarch, and his son the + Emperor Gallienus bore the reproach with great tranquillity. In the + great festival which he held at Rome about 263, to commemorate the + victory of Odenatus over Sapor, some revellers mixed themselves with + the pretended Persian captives, and examined their faces closely. + When asked what they meant, they replied, "We are looking for the + emperor's father." The jest so stung Gallienus that he had them + burnt alive. Weiss, _Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte_, ii. 224. It was + for showing him the Church's spiritual treasures, the poor, the + helpless, and the suffering, instead of the coveted gold and silver, + that the Prefect burnt S. Laurence alive. + +_ 304 De Lapsis_, iv. p. 182-3, Oxford translation. + + 305 Euseb. _Hist._ l. vii. c. 10. + + 306 Ib. l. vii. c. 13. + + 307 See the martyrdom of the favourite chamberlain Peter, who, says + Eusebius (_Hist._ viii. 6), was violently scourged, and then slowly + roasted alive. + + 308 "Diocletianus ... excarnificare omnes suos protenus coepit. Sedebat + ipse atque innocentes igne torrebat.... Omnis sexus et aetatis + homines ad exustionem rapti; nec singuli, quoniam tanta erat + multitudo, sed gregatim circumdato igni amburebantur," &c. Lactant. + 14, 15. + + 309 Eusebius, _Hist._ viii. 2. + + 310 Lactantius, _de Morte Persecutorum_, 13. + + 311 Euseb. viii. 4. + + 312 "Statim productus non modo extortus sed etiam legitime coctus cum + admirabili patientia, postremo exustus est." Lact. _de Mort. Pers._ + 13; Euseb. viii. 5. + + 313 Euseb. _de Vita Constant_. 1. i. 13. + + 314 Lactant. _Divin. Institut._ 1. v. 9. Gallandi, tom. iv. 313-4. + + 315 Ib. 1. v. 11. + + 316 Euseb. _Hist._ viii. 11. + + 317 Lactantius, as above. + +_ 318 Hist._ viii. 9. + + 319 Euseb. _Hist._ viii. 10. + + 320 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}? {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}? {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. + + 321 1 Cor. i. 21. + + 322 Zeller, _die Philosophie der Griechen_, 2te Aufl. vol. i. pp. 6 and + 35. "Philosophy," says Grote, _Plato_, vol. i. v. "is, or aims at + becoming, reasoned truth: an aggregate of matters believed or + disbelieved after conscious process of examination gone through by + the mind and capable of being explained to others:" who quotes + Cicero's "Philosophia ex rationum collatione consistit." + + 323 Thus Herodotus says of Solon, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, i. 30; + and presently, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 324 Zeller, i. 39, quoted. + + 325 Zeller, i. p. 38. + + 326 Newman, _Verses on various occasions_; Heathen Greece, p. 158. + + 327 Zeller, i. p. 43. "Aber es liegt ueberhaupt nicht in der Weise des + Alterthums, die gottesdienstlichen Handlungen zur Belehrung durch + Religionsvortraege zu benuetzen. Ein Julian mochte in Nachahmung + christlicher Sitte dazu den Versuch machen, aus der klassischen Zeit + selbst ist uns kein Beispiel hievon ueberliefert." + + 328 Zeller, i. p. 141. + + 329 Ib. i. pp. 449-452. + + 330 Ueberweg, _Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie_, drit. Aufl. i. + p. 65. + + 331 Ueberweg, i. 68. + + 332 Ib. i. 72. + + 333 Doellinger, _Heidenthum und Judenthum_, p. 272, and Zeller, i. p. + 139, who states this of the Eleatics, Heracleitus, Democritus, and + even the Pythagoreans, who, though they put Number instead of + Matter, yet conceived incorporeal principles as material, and so + considered from the same point of view the soul and the body, the + ethical and the physical, in man. + + 334 Zeller, ibid. + + 335 Ueberweg, i. 75. "Die Sophistik bildet den Uebergang von der + kosmologischen zu der auf das denkende und wollende Subject + gerichteten Philosophie." p. 76. "Sokrates... theilt mit den + Sophisten die allgemeine Tendenz der Reflexion auf das Subject, + tritt aber zu ihnen dadurch in Gegensatz, das seine Reflexion sich + nicht bloss auf die elementaren Functionen des Subjects, die + Wahrnehmung und Meinung und das sinnliche und egoistische Begehren, + sondern auch auf die hoechsten gestigen, zur Objectivitaet in + wesentlicher Beziehung stehenden Functionen, naemlich auf das Wissen + und die Tugend richtet." + + 336 Ib. i. 76. + + 337 Thus Zeller throughout his great work perpetually deplores that + through this long period, and with increasing force after + Aristotle's time, pure science, _die reine Wissenschaft_, was not + studied for its own sake, but was subordinate to a moral purpose, + the question, that is, of man's greatest good, and his happiness. + + 338 Simplicius, in the sixth century. + + 339 Zeller, i. p. 117. + + 340 Ueberweg, i. p. 88. + + 341 xiii. 4. + +_ 342 Metaph._ i. 6. + + 343 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. _Ethic. Nic._ vi. 13. + + 344 Xen. _Mem._ i. 1. 16. + + 345 Xen. _Mem._ iv. 6. 1. + + 346 Ibid. iii. 4. 9. + + 347 Ibid. iii. 9, iv. 6; _Sympos._ ii. 12. Plat. _Apol._ 25 e; _Protag._ + p. 329 b. + +_ 348 Memor._ i. 6, 10. + +_ 349 Tusc._ v. 4. + + 350 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, Plat. _Theaet._ p. 149. + + 351 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, Plat. _Apol._ p. 20. + + 352 Xen. _Mem._ i. 4. 7. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + 353 Ibid. iv. 3. + + 354 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND VARIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + Compare the famous passage of S. Paul, Rom. i. 19, 20. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Socrates draws precisely the conclusion + which S. Paul asserts that the premises warrant. + + 355 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 356 Plato, _Apol._, at the end. + +_ 357 Phaedo_, p. 118. + + 358 The view here taken would be powerfully confirmed by citing at + length the interview of Socrates with the hetaera Theodote, as given + by Xen. _Mem._ iii. 11. The unconscious absence from the mind of + Socrates of any notion of turpitude in the occupation of Theodote is + very striking indeed. One is reminded that Socrates took lessons in + rhetoric of that Aspasia, herself the hetaera of Pericles, who is + recorded to have educated a school of Theodotes. Thus Plutarch, + _Pericles_, 24, says of her, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. In the + Meneximus, p. 235, Socrates claims her as being his {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, quoted by Wallon, _de l'Esclavage_, + vol. i. p. 190. + + 359 Ueberweg, i. 92, 93. + + 360 Ueberweg, i. 91. + + 361 Ibid. i. 117. + + 362 Ibid. i. 118. + + 363 Ueberweg, i. 120, from Aristotle, _Metaph._ i. 6 and 9, and xiii. 4. + + 364 Zeller, i. 119. + + 365 Ueberweg, i. 120, remarks: "Die Eintheilung der Philosophie in + Ethik, Physik und Dialektik (die Cicero _Acad. pos._ i. 5, 19, Plato + zugeschreibt), hat nach Sextus Empir (_adv. Math._ vii. 16) zuerst + Plato's Schueler Xenocrates foermlich aufgestellt: Plato aber sei, + sagt Sextus mit Recht, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ihr Urheber, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}." + + 366 See Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 599. Doellinger, p. 299, sec. 122; p. + 279, sec. 87. + + 367 Zeller, ii. part 1, p. 598. "Ueber diese beiden Gegenstaende (die + Religion und die Kunst) hat sich Plato ziemlich haeufig, aber immer + nur gelegenheitlich geaeussert." + + 368 Doellinger, p. 290, sec. 110. + +_ 369 Timaeus_, 28. + + 370 Thus Grote, _Plato_, i. 230, speaks of "the early caution produced + by the fate of Socrates," and believes "such apprehension to have + operated as one motive deterring him from publishing any + philosophical exposition under his own name, any {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}," p. 231. + + 371 This has been done by Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 599-602, from + whom I take it. He supports his analysis with a great number of + references to various works of Plato. + + 372 Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, p. 487, remarks of Plato's doctrine: "So + far as things are the appearance and the image of the Idea, they + must be determined by the Idea; so far as they have in themselves a + proper principle in matter, they must be determined likewise by + necessity: since, certain as it is that the world is the work of + reason, it is as little to be left out of mind that in its formation + beside reason another blindly working cause was in play, and that + even the Godhead could make its work not absolutely perfect, but + only so good as the nature of the finite permitted;" and he refers + to many passages of the _Timaeus_, of which one will suffice, wherein + at the conclusion of a review of the physical causes of things Plato + says: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. p. 68. Compare p. 48. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. + + 373 Doellinger, p. 297, sec. 119, quoted. + + 374 So likewise Zeller remarks, vol. ii. part 1, p. 604: "Die Gesetze, + welchen die philosophischen Regenten fehlen, behandeln die + Volks-religion durchweg als die sittliche Grundlage des + Staatswesens." + + 375 Ibid. p. 605. + + 376 Here Zeller remarks: "Diese Voraussetzung liegt der ganzen + Behandlung dieser Gegenstaende bei Plato zu Grunde.... Dass die + philosophische Erkenntniss immer auf eine kleine Minderheit + beschraenkt sein muesse ist Plato's entschiedene Ueberzeugung." + + 377 Doellinger, p. 293. + + 378 See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 448-457. + + 379 "Wie es sich aber in dieser Beziehung mit der Persoenlichkeit + verhalte, dies ist eine Frage, welche sich Plato wohl schwerlich + bestimmt vorgelegt hat, wie ja dem Alterthum ueberhaupt der schaerfere + Begriff der Persoenlichkeit fehlt, und die Vernunft nicht selten als + allgemeine Weltvernunft in einer zwischen Persoenlichem und + Unpersoenlichem unsicher schwankenden Weise gedacht wird." _Zeller_, + p. 454. + + 380 Doellinger, p. 286, sec. 103. Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, p. 538. + +_ 381 Theaetetus_, p. 176. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 382 See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 541-4, who points out a string of + difficulties on the subject of personality, free-will, as maintained + by Plato, and his doctrine that no one is willingly wicked. + + 383 See Grote's _Plato_, i. pp. 133, 4. + + 384 Ueberweg, i. p. 116. + + 385 So Zeller sets forth at length, i. p. 206; and Ueberweg, i. p. 47. + + 386 Ueberweg, i. p. 50. Plato calls it {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, for which + Pythagoras {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. _Polit._ x. p. 600. + + 387 Grote, _Plato_, i. p. 221. + + 388 Ueberweg, i. 115. + +_ 389 Phaed._ sec. 135, p. 274. + + 390 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 391 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}. + + 392 See his averseness to write on such doctrines at all set forth in + his 7th epistle. + + 393 Grote observes, _Plato_, i. 216: "Plato was not merely a composer of + dialogues. He was lecturer and chief of a school besides. The + presidency of that school, commencing about 386 B.C., and continued + by him with great celebrity for the last half (nearly forty years) + of his life, _was his most important function_. Among his + contemporaries he must have exerted greater influence through his + school than through his writings." + + 394 Grote, _Plato_, i. p. 138. + + 395 Ueberweg, i. p. 140, from Diogenes. + + 396 Aulus Gellius, _N. A._ xx. 5, quoted by Ueberweg. + + 397 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + which last are {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}. Simplicius calls {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; Philoponus, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Quoted by Ueberweg, i. p. + 146. + + 398 Vidi il maestro di color che sanuo + Seder tra filosofica famiglia. + + Dante, _Inf._ iv. 131. + + 399 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 400 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 401 Ueberweg, i. p. 188, from Diogenes and Themistius. + + 402 Ibid, from Noack, _Psyche_, v. i. sec. 13. + + 403 Zeller, vol, iii. part 1, p. 343. + + 404 Ep. vii. p. 341. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} and much more to the same effect; + after which he says, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. So again in his second letter, p. 314. + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Grote seems to me fully justified in counting these + epistles as genuine, against the attacks of some modern German + sceptics. + + 405 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. _Ep._ vii. + p. 344. + + 406 Grote, _Plato_, i. 229. "When we see by what Standard Plato tests + the efficacy of any expository process, we shall see yet more + clearly how he came to consider written exposition unavailing. The + standard which he applies is, that the learner shall be rendered + able both to apply to others and himself to endure a Socratic + Elenchus or cross-examination as to the logical difficulties + involved in all the steps and helps to learning." Without this + "Plato will not allow that he has attained true knowledge" + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}). Compare the system pursued in the mediaeval schools and + universities. + + 407 Ueberweg, i. pp. 242, 3. + + 408 Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 632. + + 409 Doellinger, pp. 304, 305. + + 410 Doellinger, pp. 309, 310, sec. 137, 138. + + 411 Doellinger, p. 310, sec. 139. + + 412 Ibid. p. 311, sec. 140. + + 413 See p. 411, above. + + 414 Doellinger, pp. 307 and 311. + + 415 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}.{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. _Theaetet._ p. 176. + + 416 Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 623. + + 417 Zeller, ii. 2, p. 625. + + 418 Ibid. p. 629. + + 419 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 7. + + 420 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 14. + + 421 Ibid. p. 18. + + 422 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 12. Doellinger, p. 318. + + 423 Doellinger, pp. 319-321. + + 424 The doctrine of Hylozoismus. + + 425 Doellinger, pp. 322-324. + + 426 Ibid. p. 324. + + 427 Doellinger, p. 326. + + 428 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Ueberweg, i. p. 198. + + 429 Doellinger, p. 340. + + 430 Ibid. p. 330. + + 431 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 370. + + 432 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 398. + + 433 Doellinger, pp. 331-333. Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 392. + + 434 Doellinger, p. 335. + + 435 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 427. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 436 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, i. p. 107. + + 437 Ibid. p. 435. + + 438 Doellinger, p. 336, who quotes Sextus, _Hypot._ i. 8. + + 439 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 477. + + 440 Doellinger, p. 338. + + 441 For a full account of the line of thought followed by Carneades, see + Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, pp. 454-477. + + 442 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 436. + + 443 Ibid. pp. 482, 492. + + 444 Ueberweg, i. p. 218; and Zeller, iii. part 1, p. 593, calls him + "neben seinem Lehrer Antiochus den eigentlichsten Vertreter des + philosophischen Eklekticismus in dem letzen Jahrhundert vor dem + Anfang unserer Zeitrechnung." + + 445 Ueberweg, i. pp. 221-2. + + 446 Ueberweg, i. 219, 223. + + 447 Doellinger, p. 313. + + 448 Doellinger, p. 254. + + 449 Doellinger, p. 307. "Er wirkt also zwar auf die Welt, aber ohne sie + zu kennen, wie der Magnet auf das Eisen, und seine Action auf die + Welt ist keine freiwollende." + + 450 Ibid. pp. 340, 572. + + 451 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~};-- + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}-- + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 452 Cleanthes preferred expressly the poetic form; see the note in + Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 289: for poetry and music are better + suited to reach the truth of divine contemplation than the bare + philosophical expression. + + 453 Ueberweg, i. p. 195. + + 454 Zeller, vol. iii. pp. 130, 131: see the many authorities he + produces, pp. 126-131. + + 455 He says of the opposite theory of Epicurus, the construction of the + world from the chance falling-together of atoms: "Hoc qui existimat + fieri potuisse, non intelligo, cur non idem putet, si innumerabiles + unius et viginti formae literarum, vel aureae vel quales libet, aliquo + conjiciantur, posse ex his in terram excussis annales Ennii, ut + deinceps legi possint, effici: quod nescio an ne in uno quidem versu + possit tantum valere fortuna." _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 37. + + 456 So Zeller remarks, iii. 1, p. 296: "A Pantheism, such as the stoic, + could take up into itself the most boundless polytheism, a double + liberty only being allowed, that of passing on to derived beings the + name of deity, from the Being to whom alone originally and in the + strict sense it belonged, and that of personifying as God the + impersonal, which is an appearance of divine power." + + 457 See Hasler, _Verhaeltniss der heidnischen und christlichen Ethik_, p. + 28; and Zukrigl's commentary on the same, _Tuebingen theol. + Quartalschrift_, 1867, pp. 475-482. + + 458 Zeller, iii. 1, pp. 288-9. + + 459 Zeller, iii. 1, 12. + + 460 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + Plutarch, _Alex. M. Virt._ i. 6, p. 329, quoted by Zeller, iii. 1, + p. 281. + +_ 461 De Finibus_, iii. sec. 19. + +_ 462 De Legibus_, i. 7, 6. + + 463 Zeller, iii. 1, p. 278, from Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, who here, + however, only enlarge on Cicero's idea, or rather Zeno's. + + 464 "Jam vero virtus eadem in homine ac Deo est, neque ullo alio ingenio + praeterea. Est autem virtus nihil aliud quam in se perfecta, et ad + summum perducta natura." _De Legibus_, i. 8. + +_ 465 De Officiis_, i. 5. + + 466 Cic. _de Nat. Deor._ iii. 36. "Virtutem nemo unquam acceptam deo + retulit. Nimirum recte. Propter virtutem enim jure laudamur, et in + virtute recie gloriamur: quod non contingeret, si id donum a deo, + non a nobis, haberemus." + + 467 Champagny, _les Cesars_, iii. 333. + + 468 "{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} ist bei den Stoikern der stehende Ausdruck fuer den + Selbstmord." Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 284 n. 2, who quotes Diog. + vii. 130. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 469 "Qui omnem orbem terrarum unam urbem esse ducunt." Cicero, + _Paradoxon_ 2. + + 470 Grote, _Plato_, vol. i. p. 87. + + 471 Doellinger, p. 315, from Numenius, quoted by Eusebius. Ueberweg, i. + 205, says of them, that up to the rise of Neoplatonism they were the + most numerous of all. + + 472 See Doellinger, pp. 341 and 572-584; so Champagny, _les Cesars_, iii. + 294. + + 473 Ueberweg gives them thus: to the first Academy belong Plato's + successor Speusippus, who taught 347-339 B.C.; Xenocrates, 339-314; + Polemo, 314-270; Crates, a short time. The second Academy was + founded by Arcesilaus, who lived 315-241, taking more and more a + sceptical direction, which was carried out to the utmost by + Carneades, 214-129, in the third: in the fourth, Philo of Larissa, + about 80 B.C., returned to the dogmatic direction; and Antiochus of + Ascalon, Cicero's friend, founded the fifth, in which he fused + Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic doctrines together. S. Augustine, + _de Civ. Dei_, viii. 3, puts his finger on the variations of the + Socratici. + + 474 "Lier ensemble les dogmes, une morale, et un culte, c'est-a-dire + donner a la societe une foi, une regle, et des pratiques, c'etait + l'oeuvre que le genre humain appelait de ses voeux, et sur laquelle + pourtant tous les efforts humains semblaient echouer." A. Thierry, + _Tableau de l'Empire Romain_, p. 328. + + 475 S. Thomas, _Summa_, p. 1. 9. 1. a. 1. + +_ 476 Sap._ xiii. 9. + + 477 Reading with S. Chrys. and S. Gregory {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, cognoscibiliter, _i.e._ by a conclusion of + reason. + + 478 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}. _Sap._ xiii. 1, 8. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, VOLUME II*** + + + +CREDITS + + +May 31, 2012 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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