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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Formation of Christendom, Volume II + +Author: Thomas William Allies + +Release Date: May 31, 2012 [Ebook #39873] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, VOLUME II*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Formation of Christendom</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Volume II</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Thomas William Allies</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Longmans, Green, Reader, + and Dyer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1869</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Chapter VII. The Gods Of The Nations When + Christ Appeared.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">Chapter VIII. The First And The Second + Man.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">Chapter IX. The Second Man Verified In + History.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc9">Chapter X. The First Age Of The Martyr + Church.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc11">Chapter XI. The Second Age Of The Martyr + Church.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc13">Chapter XII. The Third Age Of The Martyr + Church.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc15">Chapter XIII. The Christian Church And The + Greek Philosophy. Part I.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc17">Chapter XIV. The Christian Church And The + Greek Philosophy. Part II.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc19">Index.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc21">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the six + chapters forming the first volume of this work I was engaged in + describing the operation of Christianity, as it took the individual + human soul for its unit, purified it, and wrought in it a + supernatural life. I began with the consummation of the old world in + its state of the highest civilisation united with the utmost moral + degeneracy; I proceeded thence to the new creation of individual man; + compared heathen with Christian man in the persons of Cicero and St. + Augustine; drew out certain effects upon the world around of + Christian life, as seen in those professing it, and viewed Christian + marriage as restoring the primary relation between man and woman, and + thus remaking the basis of human society, while the Virginal Life + exhibited the crown and efflorescence of the most distinctive + Christian grace in the soul.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I had thus, + beginning with the stones of which the building is formed, reached + the building itself; and the next thing was to consider the Christian + Church in its historical development as the Kingdom of Truth and + Grace: for while the soul of man is the unit with which it works, the + word <span class="tei tei-q">“Christendom”</span> betokens a society + founded in Christ, made by Christ, stamped with the image of Christ. + It is the first great epoch of such a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Kingdom of Truth and Grace, proceeding from the + Person of its Founder, which I here attempt to delineate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But not merely is + the volume which I now publish a part only of a projected design; + even as a part it is incomplete. It was my wish to finish this + portion of my subject in one volume, which should reach to the great + Nicene Council. But the treatment of the Greek Philosophy was too + large for my limits, and so the last two chapters serve but as an + introduction to the actual contact of that Philosophy with the + Christian Church, which remains to be considered before I can + complete my view of the Formation of Christendom in the ante-Nicene + period.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VII. The Gods Of The Nations + When Christ Appeared.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Emmanuel, Rex + et Legifer noster, Expectatio gentium, et Salvator earum, veni ad + salvandum nos, Domine Deus noster.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the sceptre + of the imperial unity were brought together a hundred different lands + occupied by as many different races. That rule of Rome which had + grown for many centuries with out, as it seemed, any presiding + thought, by the casual accretions of conquest, may be said to assume + under the hands of Augustus, about the year of Rome 750, certain + definite and deliberately chosen limits, and to be governed by a + fixed Idea, more and more developed in the imperial policy. The + limits which the most fortunate of Roman emperors, nay the creator of + the empire itself, put to it, were the Rhine and Danube, with the + Euxine Sea, on the north; the deserts of Africa on the south; the + Euphrates on the east; the ocean on <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the west. The Idea, which may indeed have been + conceived by Julius, but was certainly first embodied by Augustus, + was to change the constitution of a conquering city, ruled by an + aristocratic senate, into a commonwealth governed by one man, the + representative of the whole people; and the effect of this change, an + effect no doubt unforeseen, at least in its extent, by its framer, + was gradually to absorb the manifold races inhabiting these vast + regions into the majesty of the Roman law, order, and citizenship. + The three centuries which follow Augustus are occupied in working out + the drama of this unity. During this time the provinces appear to + come out more and more as parts of one whole. Some which at its + commencement had only just entered the circle of Roman power and + thought, as Gaul, become entirely interpenetrated with the law, + language, customs, and civilisation of the sovereign city. Spain was + nearly as much, and northern Africa perhaps even more Latinised: in + all, local inequalities, and the dissimilarity arising from + conflicting races, customs, and languages, are more and more softened + down, though never entirely removed; and while throughout this period + the great city continues the head, yet the body assumes an + ever-increasing importance, until at length its members engage the + equal solicitude of that central potentate to whom all equally + belong. In the times of so-called Roman liberty, the plunder of lands + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" + id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which received pro-consuls for + their annual rulers, served to replenish the fortunes of nobles + exhausted by the corruption requisite to gain high office; but if the + dominion of one at Rome seemed an evil exchange to a nobility which + deemed itself born to enjoy a conquered world, at least it served as + a protection to those many millions for whom the equality of law and + order, the fair administration of justice, and the undisturbed + possession of property, constituted the chief goods of life. Cicero + and his peers might grieve over the extinction of what they termed + liberty, but Gaul, Spain, Africa, and Asia exulted in deliverance + from the oppression of a Verres, a Fonteius, a Gabinius, a Piso, or a + Clodius, in the communication of citizenship, and in the peace of a + common civilisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I. With a passing + glance at the progress of this unity, which, great and magnificent as + it is, is yet external, let us turn to an object filling the whole of + this vast empire with its varied manifestations: for this object + leads us to the consideration of another unity, wholly internal, + without which that of government, law, and order must be apparent + rather than real, or at best, however seemingly imposing, be deprived + of the greater part of its efficacy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. It has been + said that the empire contained in it many lands and many races, but + these likewise worshipped their own distinct gods, which were + acknowledged and sanctioned as national <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> divinities for the several countries wherein + they were locally established. Had Augustus ordered an enrolment not + only of the numbers, the landed property, and the wealth of his + subjects, but of their gods, his public register, or Breviarium, + would have included at least ten distinct systems of idolatrous + worship. First of all, there would be the proper gods of Rome, then + those of the Hellenic race; and these, though the most similar to + each other, yet refused a complete amalgamation. But besides these + there were on the west the Etrurian, the Iberian, the Gallic, and the + Germanic gods; on the east, the Carian and Phrygian, the Syrian, the + Assyrian, the Arabian; on the south, the Phœnician, Libyan, and + Egyptian. All these different races, inasmuch as they were subjects + of the empire, enjoyed undisturbed the right of worshipping their + ancestral gods,<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href= + "#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> who, so + long as they did not overstep their local boundaries, were + recognised; they possessed priests, rites, temples, estates, and + self-government; they held the soil, and their worship was legal. It + was a matter of Roman policy not to interfere with them. Nay, their + several worshippers could carry their rites along with them in their + various sojourns and settlements, and even in Rome build <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> altars, and adore Egyptian, Asiatic, + African, or Gallic gods. These various systems agreed all in one + point, that they were systems of polytheistic idolatry: they all + divided the attributes of the godhead, assigning them to more or + fewer objects, and worshipping all these by visible symbols which the + power worshipped was deemed to inhabit:<a id="noteref_2" name= + "noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> but they + did not make the same division with a mere difference of name; on the + contrary, they ran into and across each other with the most + bewildering multiplicity, variation, and contradiction. Even in the + same system, if we may give this name to any of the various + mythologies, the several divinities were perpetually interfering with + each other's province. When the Roman made vows for the removal of + his ailments, in his uncertainty to which god the ailment belonged, + or who was most proper to remove it, he addressed his vow to several + together; or in public supplications, being often uncertain to whom + exactly the prayer or offering should be made, he cautiously + expressed himself, <span class="tei tei-q">“whether it be a god or a + goddess.”</span> And the various Hellenic, Asiatic, or Egyptian + cities often possessed local gods, whose worship was supreme there, + while they exercised far less influence, or were even scarcely known + elsewhere.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href= + "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now merely as a + specimen of what this worship was all over the Roman empire, let us + take <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name= + "Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the brilliant Athens, + Greece's eye, the world's university. First of all ruled in her the + worship of Pallas-Athené: she was the lady of the land, who had won + it for her own after a hard contest with Poseidon. Her chief + sanctuaries were the temple of Athené, guardian of the city, with its + old statue fallen down from heaven on the Acropolis. On the Acropolis + likewise the Parthenon, built expressly for the gorgeous Panathenaic + festival; and in the lower city the Palladium with the statue of the + goddess supposed to have been brought from Troy. Yet the worship of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“high goddesses,”</span> Demeter and + Persephoné, was also richly endowed with shrines and festivals, and + affected scarcely less the feelings of the Athenians. Then Jupiter, + as <span class="tei tei-q">“supreme,”</span> was honoured with + unbloody offering before the Erechtheium, dedicated to Athené: whilst + as <span class="tei tei-q">“Olympian”</span> he had the colossal + temple begun by Peisistratus and finished after many hundred years by + Hadrian, and as <span class="tei tei-q">“guardian of the city”</span> + distinct festivals. Yet more manifold was the invocation of Apollo, + as the Pythian, the Delphic, the Lycian, as the ancestral god of the + Ionians. The multiform Artemis had her temples and worshippers as the + Tauric, by the name Brauronia; as the port-goddess, by the name + Munychia; as the goddess of the hunt, by the name Agrotera, who had + the credit of the victory won at Marathon; as presiding over birth, + she was called Chitone, while Themistocles had <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> built a temple to her as the Counsellor. + Heré had only a doorless and roofless temple on the road to Phalerum; + but the god of fire was worshipped in Athens abundantly. Hermes had + his peculiar statues in every street, irreverence to which might be + fatal even to an Alcibiades, the city's darling; while Aphrodité had + a crowd of temples and shrines whose unchaste worship found but too + many frequenters. Poseidon had to content himself with a single altar + in his rival's city, and with games in its harbour; but Dionysos had + three temples, with brilliant festivals; Mars was not without one; + Hestia was throned in the Prytaneum; the Earth, Kronos, and Rhea had + their temples and festivals, as also the Erinnyes, who were + worshipped only in two other places in Greece. Here alone in Greece + was a sanctuary and a rite to Prometheus; while the Asiatic mother of + the gods had a splendid temple where the archives of the state were + kept. Besides, there was the worship of the Hours and the Graces, of + Eileithyia, goddess of victory and of birth, of Æsculapius and + Themis, of the Kabirian Anakes, the Arcadian Pan, the Thracian + Cotytto and Bendis, the Egyptian Serapis. Mercy and Shame, Fame and + Endeavour had their altars; and the hero-worship numbered Theseus, + Codrus, Academus, Solon, the tyrant-slayers Harmodius and + Aristogeiton; and Hercules, originally a hero, but here and elsewhere + widely honoured as a god.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Athens, if the + most superstitious as well as the most intellectual of cities, may be + taken as the type of a thousand others of Hellenic race scattered + over the Roman empire from Marseilles to Antioch. Say that she had + twice as many deities and festivals as her sister cities, enough will + remain for them wherewith to occupy the soil with their temples and + to fill the year's cycle with their rites.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lively Grecian + imagination impregnated not with stern notions of duty, nor with + reverential devotion to those whom it worshipped, but regarding them + as objects of æsthetical satisfaction,<a id="noteref_5" name= + "noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> and + yearning for a serene and confidential exchange of relations with + them, had in process of time spun out a complete web of idolatrous + worship which encompassed heaven and earth, the whole domain of + nature, every state and act of human life. Rain and sunshine and the + weather stood under the ordering of Zeus; the fruitfulness of the + soil was Demeter's care; countless nymphs of field, of fountain, and + of river, offered to men their gifts; the vine and its juice was + under the protection of Dionysos, and Poseidon was lord of the sea. + The flocks had their defenders in Hermes and Pan; the Fates ruled the + lot of men. Kings and magistrates had in Zeus their prototype and + guardian. Athené held her shield over cities; the hearth of each + private home <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg + 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + the public hearth of the city were in Hestia's charge. Marriage was + secure under Heré's care. Demeter was entrusted with legislation; the + pains of childbirth were recommended to Eileithyia, or Artemis. + Music, archery, divination, were Apollo's attributes; the art of + healing claimed him and his son Æsculapius as patrons. Athené and + Ares swayed the issue of war; the chase was the domain of Artemis; + smiths and all workers in fire saw in Hephæstus their patron; whilst + Athené the Worker protected the gentler trades, and Hecate watched + over the roads.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href= + "#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet Rome itself, + whose own Capitoline Jupiter claimed a certain superiority over all + these gods, would scarcely have yielded to any Grecian city, even + were it Athens, in the number or variety of her deities, the + frequency and solemnity of her festivals; while in the costliness of + victims offered to her gods, and in the strictness of her ceremonies, + she probably far surpassed that and all other cities. Her sterner + worship of originally shapeless gods, presiding over the labours of a + simple agricultural life, had long yielded to the seductions of her + dangerous Grecian captive. The rude block Terminus, and Jupiter the + Stone, ceased to satisfy those who had beheld the majesty of the + father of gods and men embodied by the genius of a Phidias; and she + had ended by going farther in breaking up the conception of one god, + and in the personification <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg + 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + particular powers, operations, physical functions, and qualities, + than any nation of antiquity.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href= + "#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> But + though the beautiful forms of the Hellenic gods, as expressed by the + skill of unrivalled sculptors, had carried her away, yet the nature + of her worship was in strong contrast with that of Greece. Her + religion had rested originally on two ideas, the might of the gods + friendly to Rome, and the force of ceremonial over these gods;<a id= + "noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> and still + when she accepted the gods of conquered nations for her own, it was + to secure the possession of their might, and to have them for friends + instead of foes; while her own worship was a matter of routine and + habit jealously guarded by unchanging ceremonies, and prosecuted not + out of affection, but for the material security of daily life, which, + according to the deeply-rooted feeling of the people, could not go on + without it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The individualised + and humanised Latin and Hellenic gods, if they had much in common, + still could not be thoroughly amalgamated; but Rome, as the mistress + of Western Asia and Egypt, came upon Oriental religions of a very + different stamp. Instead of this wide Pantheon of gods, each of whom + had his occupation, these Asiatics generally regarded the deity in a + sexual relationship, as one male and one female god, representing the + active <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name= + "Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and passive forms of + nature,<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> and + worshipped with a mixture of fear and voluptuousness. Such were Bel + and Mylitta, Moloch and Astarte, and by whatever different names the + same idea was presented. The worship of the great mother Cybele, so + widely spread through Asia Minor, approached in many respects in + character to that of this female goddess. But it is needless to go + farther into the specific differences of these various idolatries; + only bear in mind that they in their several countries occupied the + domain of public and private life, as the worship of which I have + given the details did at Athens. So it was before the influence of + external conquerors reached them. After this a certain change ensues. + The Roman empire was accomplishing in the west as well as in the east + what the progress of Grecian rule and thought had commenced three + hundred years before<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href= + "#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> under + Alexander and his successors, the bringing together and in some sort + fusing the multiform and often contradictory worship of the nations + surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Not merely in Rome, but in all the + chief cities of the Empire, the Asiatic, the Egyptian, the Libyan + deities, and many others of subject nations under the Roman sway, + were worshipped side by side. Accordingly, in the time of Augustus, + and at the year of Rome 750, where we are taking our stand, there + prevailed all over <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg + 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + hundred millions of men ruled by him a polytheistic idolatry + bewildering by its multiplicity, internal contradictions, + fluctuations, and mixtures, yet imposing by its universal extent and + prevalence. The only exception seems to have been the Jewish worship + of one God, whether in its chief seat, the small province of Judæa, + or as it was seen in the lives of Jewish settlers scattered + throughout the empire. It must be remarked that this Jewish worship + of the true God was sanctioned as that of a national god belonging to + the Jews, and sacrifice was perpetually offered for Augustus in the + Temple at Jerusalem. But the Jews did not, as a rule, make efforts to + convert the Gentiles to their religion, nor seek to exhibit it as + antagonistic to the prevailing idolatry, and as claiming to subdue + and cast it out. They were content to keep their own worship to + themselves, and with the toleration which the Roman law thus allowed + them. Yet even so in every place where they dwelt in any numbers some + of the better heathens were found to be attracted to their worship by + the intrinsic beauty of their belief in one God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. But such an + exception as this hardly made a perceptible break in that continuous + mass of evil and falsehood which then surrounded young and old, + learned and ignorant, rich and poor, in its grasp. The sea stands in + Holy Writ as the well-known image of the world's disobedience to the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" + id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> divine promptings, of its + impetuosity and lawlessness. What image is there in nature so + striking and awful as the long waves of the Atlantic bearing down in + storm upon a helpless ship, and sweeping it upon an iron-bound coast! + So broke that wild sea of human error over the individual mind of + man. The observer looked round upon all the nations, and it was + everywhere the same—a multiplicity of gods filling up the whole + circle of human life, many-named, many-natured, but all without + truth, purity, and justice; full of violent and sensual deeds, and + still viler imaginations. What stay was there for the spirit of man + against that universal flood? Its vastness was everywhere. Who was + strong enough, who wise enough, to resist what all his fellows + accepted? And the struggle of a single soul against it might seem + like that of <span class="tei tei-q">“some strong swimmer in his + agony”</span> alone at night amid the waste of waters.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. For this + polytheism was no dormant, otiose power withdrawn into the background + and crouching apart from the actions and feelings of daily life. Its + presence was indicated in every home by the little images of the + Lares; homage was done to it at every table by libations; every house + had its consecrated emblems; every street its statues of Hermes and + serpents; in the forum there were feasts in honour of the gods; the + shops, taverns, and manufactories had little altars on which wine and + incense were offered to them; <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> there were idolatrous emblems on the foreheads + of the dead, on their funeral pyre, on their tombs. The places of + amusement were specially dedicated to the gods; the theatres had + representations in honour of them; the circus had their images, + chairs, carriages, robes borne in procession; the amphitheatre was + consecrated to them, and as being so Tertullian called it + <span class="tei tei-q">“the temple of all demons.”</span> So much + for private and social life. But not only so. All political acts were + bound up with a crowd of religious formalities, and outward signs of + divine concurrence; and were carried on with a ceremonial, every part + of which was prescribed as having an exact inward meaning. Then there + were continually recurring vows to the gods made for the great, made + for private individuals, made for the emperor and his family. Three + special ceremonies were used to obtain favours from them or to + deprecate calamities, feasts, the solemnly bearing their images on + cushions, processions with naked feet.<a id="noteref_11" name= + "noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> To this + we must add the priestly colleges, pontifices, flamines, augurs, and + magistrates, whether distinct or co-ordinated. Then, besides, + consider the magical character of the prayers, and the strict use of + formularies without mistake, omission, or addition, which were + supposed to insure success apart from the intention of those offering + them. Thus the whole life of the Romans was filled with invocations, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" + id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> propitiations, purifications, + and even in any small matter a whole string of gods had prayer and + service offered to them, and no one of their names might be omitted. + Consider again the great frequency of the offerings, whether + propitiative or consultatory; and, further, how particular beasts + belonged to particular gods. The mere expense of victims was felt as + a great burden. It was reckoned that on the accession of Caligula + 160,000 animals, chiefly oxen and calves, were sacrificed in the + Roman Empire in token of the general joy; and Augustus and Marcus + Aurelius devoted such a multitude of beasts to their sacrifices that + what had been said of the former was repeated as to the latter, how + the white oxen had written to him, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If you conquer, we are lost.”</span> Indications of the + will of the gods were to be taken on all occasions; nothing was to be + done in public or private without consulting the auspices. Then there + was the institution of the Haruspices, in its two branches of + examining the entrails of the victims, and divining the meaning of + all prodigies. One is still amazed at the ever-untiring solicitude + which the senate showed to have all these things carefully + watched—eclipses, rainbows of unusual colours, shooting stars, + misbirths human or bestial; showers of earth, stones, chalk, or + ashes; mice gnawing the golden vessels of a temple, bees swarming on + a public place, but especially a shrine touched by lightning. Such + things struck senate <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg + 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + people with consternation; special supplications were ordered to + appease the causers of them.<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" + href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are the + external manifestations of polytheism which struck every eye, and + affected the mind by their constant recurrence. But if we go beneath + the surface and examine the root, we shall find an universal sense in + the minds of all men in that day of unseen power over and above the + material operations of nature. It was too strong as well as too + general and invariable to be called an opinion, and it so acted on + the nerves and feelings of men that I term it not so much a logical + conviction as a sense of the close contact between man and nature, or + rather an unseen power behind the veil of nature and working through + it. Various as the forms of idolatry were—Egyptian, Asiatic, Libyan, + Greek, or Roman; or, again, Iberian, Gallic, German,—all teemed with + this sense. To the adherents of these religions, one and all, the + world was very far from being a mere system of nature governed by + general laws;<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href= + "#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> it may + rather be said that this was precisely what it was not. They looked + upon nature in all its forms as an expression of the divine will, and + therefore the unusual productions of nature became to them + intimations respecting that will. And having lost the guidance of a + fixed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name= + "Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> moral and religious + teaching, they were ruled by an ever-watchful anxiety to gain + acquaintance with that will. On this sense rested the universal + belief that it was in man's power to hold intercourse by means of + charms, spells, adjurations, with spirits of greater might and + knowledge than his own—that is, magic or witchcraft. Hence the + evocation of the spirits of the dead to reveal secrets of their + prison-house, or necromancy. Hence the recurrence to oracles, running + through all pagan history, of which there were many scattered through + the Roman world, and which, after a temporary discredit, rose again + into name in the time of Hadrian. Not less general was the belief + that men and women might be possessed by spirits who ruled their + words and actions according to an overmastering will. Then divination + existed in endlessly various forms; and of its force we can gather a + notion by Cicero's remark that it lay like an oppressive burden on + the minds of men, so that even sleep, which should be the refuge from + anxieties, became through the meaning attached to dreams the cause of + a multitude of cares.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href= + "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> To this + must be added the use of sortileges, amulets, and talismans, in + countless number and variety; and the belief that the actions and + fortune of men were swayed by the course of the stars—that is, + astrology. It was not the vulgar and ignorant merely whose minds + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" + id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were filled with these things. + Scarcely a philosopher, scarcely a statesman, scarcely a ruler can be + found whose mind, even if proof against a genuine devotion to a + divine providence, was not open to one or more manifestations of the + dark mysterious power pressing upon the confines of human life, and + every now and then breaking through the veil of visible things with + evidences of malignant might. A more determined and unscrupulous + conqueror than Sylla, a more genuine philosopher than Marcus + Aurelius, a more sagacious user of religion than Augustus, we shall + not easily find; yet each of these, like their ordinary countrymen, + had this sense of the supernatural and intangible above, beneath, and + around them. Sylla, on the eve of any battle, would, in the sight of + his soldiers, embrace a small statue of Apollo, which he had taken + from Delphi, and entreat it to give an early fulfilment of its + promises.<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href= + "#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> Marcus + Aurelius, in his war with the Marcomanni, collected priests from all + quarters to Rome, and was so long occupied in offering rites to their + various foreign gods that he kept his army waiting for him. And + Augustus watched carefully the most trivial signs, and was distressed + if in the morning his left shoe was given to him for his right. Even + that Julius before whose genius all men quailed, and whose disbelief + of a future state stands recorded at a notable point of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Roman history, never mounted a chariot + without uttering certain words for good luck and preservation against + calamity.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href= + "#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> We shall + therefore judge most inadequately of the force which the innumerable + rites, temples, festivals, pomps, ceremonies, prayers, invocations, + priesthoods, sodalities, initiations, and mysteries of polytheism + exercised upon the minds of men, unless we take into full account + that remarkable sense of contact and sympathy between the external + world and man—of invisible power betraying itself through palpable + agents, whether in reasoning or unreasoning productions, whether in + the animal or vegetable world—which served as its basis. The line + between religion and superstition in paganism no eye can trace; but + at least the foundation of true worship plunged deep out of sight + into the secret recesses of abject fear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. But what was + the moral influence of this multiform, universal, all-embracing, and + all-penetrating worship?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Varro, whom Cicero + calls the most acute and learned of writers, and whose great work in + forty-one books he praises as containing the names, classes, offices, + and causes of all divine and human things, divided theology into the + fabulous, the natural, and the civil. In the first, he said, are many + fictions unworthy of the nature and dignity of immortal <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> beings: such as that one god sprang from + the head, another from the thigh, another from drops of blood; such, + again, as that gods were thieves or adulterers, or became slaves to + men. In fact, this fabulous theology attributed everything to them + which might happen not merely to a man, but to the most contemptible + of men.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> Let us + leave what he calls natural theology, which is the discussion of + philosophers concerning the physical nature of the gods, and proceed + to the third, which he calls civil, and which is that which the + citizens, and especially the priests of human communities, are bound + to know and administer. This treats of what gods are to be + worshipped, and with what rites and sacrifices. The first theology, + he says, belongs to the theatre, the second to the universe, the + third to the city. S. Augustine, commenting at length upon his + division, proves that the first and the third, the fabulous and the + civil, are, in fact, identical, since the universe is a divine work, + but the theatre and the city works of men. The theatre is indeed made + for the city, and the very same gods are ridiculed on the stage who + are adored in the temple; the same have games exhibited in their + honour and victims sacrificed to them. The images, features, ages, + sexes, bearing of the gods in the one and in the other are the same. + Thus this fabulous, theatrical, and scenic theology, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> full of everything vile and criminal, is + actually a part of the civil, cohering with it as limb with limb in + the same body.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Conceive, then, + every revolting detail of adultery, prostitution, incest, or of + dishonesty, or of violence, which the perverted invention of modern + writers has ever dressed up for the theatres of great cities in this + and other countries. They will perhaps yield in turpitude to that + which the theatres of the Roman empire exhibited. But what these + theatres represented in mimic action was the exact image, as + reflected in a mirror, of what was transacted at the solemn service + of the gods in unnumbered temples.<a id="noteref_19" name= + "noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> The + exact image so far as it went, yet stopping short in some respects, + for our eye-witness above cited declares that gratitude was due to + the actors, inasmuch as they spared the eyes of men, and did not lay + bare upon the theatre all that was hidden within the walls of + temples. It was not enough, then, that all the many games and + spectacles in which such things were represented were dedicated to + the gods, acted under their especial sanction, even enjoined by them + as means of gaining their favour or averting their wrath, which alone + would have made them answerable for the immorality so portrayed; not + enough, even, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg + 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that actions of this quality were in the theatres ascribed to the + gods who presided over them; but these acts of immorality were not + the fictions of poets or the acting of players, but the very + substance of the theology itself in which the worship of all these + nations was embodied. Priapus appeared to make a laugh on the stage + exactly in the costume in which he was worshipped in the temples, or + in which he entered into the rites of marriage; a costume of + indescribable turpitude, the shame of our human nature. The players + on the stage and the statues in the temples equally exhibited Jove + bearded and Mercury beardless, Saturn in decrepitude and Apollo in + youthful beauty. In the rites of Juno, of Ceres, of Venus, of the + mother of the gods, words were uttered and scenes acted such as no + decent person would suffer to be spoken or acted before his own + mother; or rather they contained, as a portion of themselves, the + worst crimes which the theatres represented; nay, crimes which they + stopped short of acting, and persons so infamous that they were not + tolerated even on the stage, where yet to take part was a civil + dishonour. What, then, was the nature of those rites wherein those + were chosen to take part whom the utmost license of the stage + banished from its boards?<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href= + "#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> Let us + conceive—if such a conception can be adequately represented + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" + id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to the mind—that the vilest + drama ever acted upon a modern theatre was being daily carried on in + all the churches of Christendom by troops of priests and priestesses, + with all the paraphernalia of costliest worship, with prayers, + invocation, and sacrifices, as a service acceptable to the Ruler of + man's lot, and as an account of what that ruler had Himself done, and + of what He loved to be imitated by others. That would be a picture of + heathen worship in the time of Augustus; that would be the moral food + on which was nurtured that crowd of nations which acknowledged + Cæsar's sway; that the conception of divine things wrought into the + minds of the hundred millions of men who formed the Roman empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Was it surprising + that all worshippers of the gods should look for their example rather + in Jupiter's actions than in Plato's teaching or the moral judgments + of Cato?<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href= + "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> A nature + subject in itself to the sway of passion was stimulated by an + authority supposed to be divine to the commission of every criminal + excess; and herein lay a strong proof of the malignant and impure + character of these gods.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand, + the same eye-witness challenges the defenders of the pagan gods to + produce a single instance wherein moral precepts of living were + delivered to their worshippers upon divine <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> authority. True, indeed, there were here and + there whispers of secret rites in which a pure and chaste life was + recommended, but where were the buildings dedicated to the public + preaching of such truths? Places there were in abundance consecrated + to the celebration of infamous games, rightly termed <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fugalia,”</span> since they put modesty and decency to + flight, but none where the people might listen to divine commands + repressing avarice, ambition, or unchaste desire. Thus with the + positive inculcation of all evil, under cover of their own example, + was united the negative absence of all moral teaching.<a id= + "noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For even the + prayers which accompanied these sacrifices and this ceremonial, and + this lavish exhibition of every human wickedness under divine names, + were not addressed for moral goods, but for wealth, bodily strength, + temporal prosperity. Horace but expresses the general mind when he + says:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Sed satis + est orare Jovem quæ donat et anfert;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Det vitam, det opes, æquum mi animum ipse + parabo.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">i. 18, 111.)</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They were moreover + viewed as carrying with them a sort of physical force, not as + prevailing through purity of intention in those who offered them. In + fact, the gods to whom they were addressed were powers of nature, or + malignant and impure powers, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> but in neither case beings who looked for a + moral service from rational creatures.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One other + turpitude the Asiatic idolatry added to the Greek and Roman forms. By + consecrating the sexual relations themselves in one male and one + female god, they effected this crowning connection of idolatry with + immorality that unchaste acts became themselves acts of sacrifice, + and so of worship.<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href= + "#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> This is + the strange perversion borne witness to by Herodotus, and + corroborated by the prophet Jeremiah. A great seat of this worship + was the city of Hierapolis, in Syria, where was one of the most + magnificent temples of the ancient world, dedicated to Derketo, and + rich with the offerings of Arabians, Babylonians, Assyrians, + Phœnicians, Cilicians, Cappadocians, and all nations of the Semitic + tongue. Nor was this worship confined to the East, for hence, as from + a centre, the adherents of the Syrian goddess spread themselves in + begging troops over the provinces of the empire. And the worship of + Venus at Eryx, and other places in the West, with the thousands of + female priestesses dedicated to it, reproduced the same + abomination.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the great + result of all that we have said, we find the notion of sanctifying + the human will absent from the religious rites of the polytheistic + idolatry in all its forms. To this corresponded <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the absence of the notion of holiness in + the gods. And this leads us finally to the remarkable character which + defines it as a whole. This worship was throughout a + corruption,<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> the + spoiling, that is, of something good; a turning away from the better + to the worse. The worship itself had been originally good. The + corruption lay in the alteration of the quality and the object of the + worship. Worship had been implanted in man, and prescribed to him. It + was at once the need of his nature and the command of Him who gave + that nature. It had for it, first, positive institution, and then + tradition and custom, and throughout, the conscience, the reason, and + the heart of man. The reason of man ever bore powerful witness to the + unity of the Godhead; the breaking up of that unity, as exhibited by + this idolatrous polytheism, in contradiction to the original + prompting and continued witness of the reason, is a very strong proof + of that moral corruption in the will which first generated it, which + continued its existence, and which, while multiplying, degraded its + forms from age to age. But man was free to decline from the good in + which he had been placed. The corruption which was left in his power + he exerted; he changed the quality of the service, and the person + served. The productive cause of idolatry on the part of man was the + soul of man turning <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg + 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + away from the notion of a good and holy Creator, the contemplation of + whom was its present support and future reward, to visible things. Of + these things the chief were bodily pleasures. Thus this corruption of + the soul, in process of time, and continually becoming worse, + produced this whole pantheon of gods, originally the creation of its + own lusts, and subsisting as a perpetual food and support of those + lusts. For this cause it had broken up the one perfect idea of God + the Creator and Ruler of all persons and things into a multitude of + gods, whose functions became more and more divided, until the ether, + the air, the earth, and the water swarmed with these supposed beings, + which took possession even of wood and stone, dwelling in the statues + erected to them; and every desire which the soul in its corruption + could entertain had its corresponding patron, helper, and exemplar. + In this descending course cause and effect were perpetually reacting + on each other, and as the corruption of the human soul had generated + these gods, so their multiplication and degradation intensified its + corruption from age to age.<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href= + "#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. But this was + not all. If corrupt affection in man himself, if the charm of + representing the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg + 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + unseen objects of worship in visible characters of wood or stone, if, + finally, the ignorance of the true God, together with the beauty of + the creature substituted for Him,<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" + href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> were the + disposing causes within man to idolatry, there was a cause outside of + him which must not be forgotten. When we look upon this idolatry, + occupying not one country or race, but all; not merely bewildering + savage or uncivilised man, but throned in the chief seats of the + world's choicest civilisation; when we look upon its endlessly + divergent forms, its palpable contradictions, its cherished or + commanded immoralities, its crowd of debasing, irrational, + heterogeneous superstitions, its cruelty, sensuality, and + fearfulness, all these being no less an insult to man's reason than a + derogation from God's majesty, who is there that does not feel this + to be the strangest and most astonishing sight which history presents + to man? And yet there is a unity which runs through it all, and + stamps it with a double mark. Not only is it a service due from man + to God, which is paid by him to the creature rather than to the + Creator,<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href= + "#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> but more + especially it is that service paid by man to God's enemies, the + fallen angels. These it is who have assumed <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the mask of dead men; these it is who within + the sculptured forms of Jupiter, Juno, Mars, and Venus, of Baal and + Derketo and Mylitta, of Anubis and Serapis, of Thor and Woden, and so + many more, receive man's adoration, and rejoice above all things in + possessing his heart. These it is who have seduced him by exhibitions + of visible beauty, have lain in wait for him by fountain, forest, and + field, and filled the groves and high places with the charms which + best pleased him under the name of worship; or have promised to + disclose future things to him; or, again, have harrowed his soul with + phantasms and terrors of the unseen world. These incoherent systems; + these deities, whose functions ran into and athwart each other; these + investing of human passions, and even unnatural and monstrous vices, + with immortality and terrible power; these rivals ever quarrelling + with each other, and jealous for the possession of man's homage, all + serve the purpose of those behind the scenes, are puppets under their + command, and have a common end and result in the captivity of their + victim. More even than this; while they seem disunited and + contradictory, they are really one, marshalled by the power, directed + by the mind, held in the hand of him who is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the ruler of this world,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the power of darkness,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the might of the enemy,”</span> who <span class= + "tei tei-q">“holds the power of death,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the ancient serpent, who leads into error the whole + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" + id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> world,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that malignant one in whom the whole world is + lying,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the prince of the power of + the air, the spirit who now works in the children of + disobedience,”</span> who musters <span class="tei tei-q">“the + principalities, the powers, the world-rulers of this life's darkness, + the spirits of wickedness in ethereal places,”</span> to serve him in + his conflict with man's flesh and blood; in fine, for S. Paul's + language goes one point even beyond that of his Master, and terms him + not merely the ruler, but <span class="tei tei-q">“the God of this + world;”</span><a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href= + "#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> that is + to say, this manifold idolatry is the establishment of his kingdom, + the enthronement of his godhead over men, the mark of their captivity + and prostration before him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The statements of + our Lord and his apostles being so express and definite as to the + existence of this diabolic kingdom, and as to the personal sway of a + sovereign over it, let us look once more at this idolatry itself by + the light thus shed upon it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And first, whether + we regard men as made to be members of a well-ordered society, + enjoying temporal prosperity in this life, or as further intended for + happiness in a future life, resulting from their present + actions,<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> the + condition in which the heathen nations are actually found at our + Lord's coming is quite unintelligible unless we <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> suppose the reality of a diabolic power + exercised upon them. The polytheism which we have witnessed holding + all human life in its grasp, while it did not teach and uphold the + great laws of morality, did, on the other hand, actively inculcate + the violation of those laws by continually representing to the minds + and eyes of men such a violation in the acts of the deities + worshipped. It was a perpetual incitement of men to crimes, as well + against social order as against all the sanctities of private life; + it fostered the savageness of slavery, and the utmost cruelty in + carrying on war, because its deities, being diverse for every nation, + and belonging exclusively to the nation, had obliterated the idea + that all men were of one blood, and thus delivered over the captive + and the slave to the pitiless hatred or equally pitiless luxury of + their fellow-men. So much for its action on human society as + terminating with this life, while for a life to come it had no + doctrine and made no preparation, but had suffered the earlier + teaching of a future retribution to be considered as a fable fit for + children and old women. Looking at such a condition of human society + from the moral point of view, we may conclude with certainty that man + would never, if left to himself, have devised it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly, + regarding this polytheism as an object presented to the human + intellect, nothing more unreasonable and monstrous than this crowd of + deities can even be conceived. The human reason <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> demands imperatively the unity of the + godhead, since infinite power at least enters into the conception of + the godhead, and to divide or limit infinity is an unreason. All the + great works and order of the world bore witness likewise to this + unity of the godhead, and were sufficient to prove it;<a id= + "noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> and even + in the worst times of paganism we find this proof exhibited with a + force and lucidity to which even now little can be added. And in the + worst times, again, we find the natural witness of the human soul + breaking out in moments of sudden trial or great anguish, and calling + upon the one God for help.<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href= + "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> Yet in + spite of this we see whole nations renowned for their intellectual + productions, and men among them in whom the force of reason has + rarely or never been surpassed, bowing their necks to this yoke of + polytheism, and accepting this tissue of monstrous error, paying + homage to it in their life, and dying with it on their lips; as + Socrates offering the cock to Æsculapius, and Seneca the libation to + Jove the liberator. We know not how to account for this, were man's + reason left alone. We can see an adequate ground for it only in + <span class="tei tei-q">“men having been made unreasonable, and in + the demoniacal error overshadowing the earth, and concealing the + knowledge of the true God.”</span><a id="noteref_32" name= + "noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us take a + third view of it, neither the moral nor the logical, but the view of + it as an existing fact, as something which for many hundred years + occupied the earth, ruled nations, moulded the institutions and + characters of men. Here we do not speak merely of the multitude of + temples, of priests or priestesses serving in them, of sacrifices + offered by these, of prayers, vows, festivals in honour of the + gods—because all these enter into the notion of a service rendered by + man to the power superior to him, and in their utmost perversion + there is nothing which may not be accounted for by a simply human + corruption stealing into and spoiling an originally good institution; + but all these in the actual condition of paganism were mixed up with + and penetrated by other elements, and accompanied by effects not to + be so accounted for. Let us take the universal persuasion that the + statues of the gods were inhabited by the deities which they + represented, as bodies by souls.<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" + href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> Here was + the notion of a spiritual power taking possession of material forms. + But how was this notion introduced, propagated, and maintained in + men's minds? By certain visible and palpable effects,<a id= + "noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> of which + those who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg + 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + were eye-witnesses give us many details. Take again the oracles which + existed throughout the heathen world, and, as dealing with the same + subject-matter, divination in all its forms. However much of deceit + there might be here, was there not also, in many instances, an + exhibition of power and knowledge beyond that of man, which no mere + deceit could produce? Take again magic, the invocation, adjuration, + and compacting with spirits, which ran through heathen society in + numberless shapes; and take lastly the fact of spirits seizing upon + and possessing the bodies of men, speaking by their voice, and + controlling their minds. The four classes which we have just given + comprehend in themselves an innumerable multitude of facts which are + apparent in pagan history, in all which the corruption of the human + soul is an agent or patient, but for which that corruption by itself + supplies no adequate cause. A spiritual power is behind, laying hold + of and acting upon this corruption, and by fault of the human will + making an inroad into the visible world, and partially mastering it, + bending it to an evil purpose, and making it serve as an agent to + man's captivity. Let us briefly cite as to the reality of this + spiritual power the witness of its victims and the witness of its + opponents.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg + 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, as to its + victims. Scarcely a writer, whether poet, historian, philosopher, or + biographer, can be found among the heathens of Greece and Rome who + does not attest facts belonging to one or more of these four classes + which surpass human power, and suggest an invisible spiritual agency. + The poet who writes expressly to deny such an agency speaks of the + whole world as bowed beneath the fear of it; another poet,<a id= + "noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> + referring tacitly to this very passage, felicitates the man not who + has a pure conscience, but who through knowledge of natural things + has trampled these fears under his feet. Nor is such a belief + confined to the vulgar; but scarcely a man of eminence, a soldier, or + a statesman can be cited who does not in his life and actions + acknowledge it, shrink from it, or cower beneath it. It is too + powerful for Alexander or even Julius to escape; and the philosophers + who affect to deny it in their systems exhibit it in their conduct. + They have all the conviction of an evil power beyond and above + nature, but taking hold of natural forms, and ever lying in wait to + burst forth from them upon human life. The Greek name for + superstition is fear of the demons; and what S. Paul said of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" + id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Athenians, that he found them + in all things too fearful of the demons, might be applied to the + whole circle of nations surrounding the midland sea.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly, as to + the opponents of this power. Now they offer a triple witness to its + existence. The first of these is in the facts mentioned in the New + Testament. The strongest, most terrible, and most inexplicable + instance of this power lies in those diabolical possessions with + which so many of our Lord's miracles are concerned. Again, as to the + reality of divining powers arising from the presence of a demon in a + human form, we have the evil spirit in the girl at Philippi + acknowledging in S. Paul a servant of the most high God, and, when + cast out by the Apostle in the name of Christ, leaving his victim + destitute of those powers which had brought gain to her masters, who + forthwith try to avenge themselves for their loss by exciting a + persecution against the Apostle.<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" + href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A second witness + is found in the rites and offices of the very power set up to + dethrone and abolish this other power. The Church called upon every + one who was received into her bosom to begin by renouncing the + usurpation of this great enemy, which was thus declared to be + universal. She provided forms for exorcising him. One of her Apostles + warned those to whom he wrote that men could not partake at once of + the Christian <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg + 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + sacrifice and the heathen; for as truly as one was the chalice of the + Lord, the other was the chalice of devils; as one was the table of + the Lord, the other was the table of devils.<a id="noteref_37" name= + "noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A third witness is + found in the unanimous testimony of all Christian writers as to the + reality of the demoniacal powers with which they were waging war; as + to their perpetual interference with human life; as to the open and + palpable effects which they produced; as to their unwilling + retirement in the face of that Stronger One who was come upon them. + It was not merely the fervid Tertullian who offered to rest the truth + of Christianity and the life of any ordinary Christian upon his power + publicly to expel a demon. Athanasius, who weighs every word he + utters, says also, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let him who will, try the + truth of what we have said, and in the very presence of the spectral + illusion of the demons, of the deceit of oracles and the wonders of + magic, let him use the sign of the cross derided by them, only naming + the name of Christ, and he shall see how by him the demons fly, the + oracles cease, and every sort of magic and witchcraft is + annulled.”</span> No less express is S. Augustine in acknowledging + the reality of these dark powers, and the wonders worked by + them.<a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href= + "#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Resuming then for + a moment our view of heathenism as a whole, with regard to the + exhibition of diabolic power in it, let us bear in mind, joined to + the absence of moral teaching, its flagrantly immoral disposition; + secondly, its illogical character, by which it is an insult to human + reason while yet accepted by the human will; and thirdly, the + superhuman effects noted in it and attached to its rites, ceremonies, + and practices, attested by many generations alike of its victims as + of its opponents. These proofs have each their own separate force, + but they have likewise as to our conclusion a cumulative force; and + its result is, that the existence of a diabolic kingdom and sovereign + throned in heathenism, pervading its rites and directing its + operations, which is so expressly declared in Holy Writ, is no less + strongly proved by the facts of history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">6. Now, having + sketched in four main points the substance of this polytheism, its + multiplicity, its universality, its hold upon daily life, and its + moral corruption, to all which a consummating force is added by the + indwelling of diabolic power, it remains to give a glance at certain + conditions and circumstances under which it was acting on the minds + of men. We have here taken it and examined it by itself, abstracting + it from those <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + circumstances, but it never so appeared to those who lived under it. + The wonderful error which so enfolded these widespread nations never + exhibited itself to them bare and naked. On the contrary, it came to + them interwoven with the dearest claims of the family, the city, the + country, with the force of habit and tradition, with the dread of + change, with the past history and future hopes of their fatherland, + coloured moreover with the radiant dress of a rich and ever-advancing + civilisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To judge of its + power, vitality, and chance of permanence, we must look at it under + these conditions. And if, when we regard this idolatrous polytheism + in itself, one is lost in wonder at its ever having arisen, at its + existence, at its continuance, so, when one regards it as throned in + the customs, feelings, convictions, and interests of society, one + wonders how any moral force could ever overthrow it. At the present + time not only are there religions outside of Christianity, but there + are also sects within it, so irrational, so devoid of the witness + given by internal truth and harmony, so unable to render any account + of themselves and their claims which will satisfy a mind looking for + consistency, that, regarding them merely as facts, one cannot account + for them, yet notwithstanding they may have existed for several + hundred years, and had a large share in forming national habits of + thought, or even national character; <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> nay, perhaps their secret strength lies in some + fold of this character itself. And because they are never seen by + themselves, their intrinsic absurdity does not come before their + adherents, and the last thing which these think of examining is the + foundation of their sect, inasmuch as in fact it has never approached + them otherwise than as a condition of their daily life. So we shall + understand paganism better by considering it as interwoven with + civilisation, polity, and national feelings. We will treat of it + briefly under these three heads.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. First, the + whole eastern part of the Roman empire was made up of many various + nations having a long and sometimes renowned history, kingdoms, and + politics much anterior to Rome herself, of which the Romans had taken + violent possession, but wherein remained still the fruits of a rich + and undisturbed civilisation. And this word comprehends all the + natural life of man, all the discoveries gained by his invention or + experience, and accumulated by wealth descending from age to age, all + the manifold ties of social intercourse, all the pleasures of the + intellect, united, moreover, in their case with an art even now + unrivalled in portraying the beauty of the human figure, and in the + elegance with which it adapted material forms to the conveniences of + life. So rich and varied an inheritance unfolded itself in a thousand + Hellenic cities studding the shores of the Mediterranean. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" + id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The culture itself since the + time of Alexander might be termed Hellenic, but it embraced Egypt, + and Syria, and all Western Asia. And so completely was idolatrous + polytheism interwoven with culture, so inextricably was it blended + with the bulk, so gradually had it grown with the growth, and wound + its fibres about the tree and the branches, that the worship might be + absolutely identified with the civilisation. The gods of Greece were + the heads of the most illustrious Grecian families; their + hero-worship consecrated every city, every grove, every field. The + gods of Egypt were blended with the long renown of the Nile-land, + with every Egyptian custom, with the beginning and the end of life. + Not less had the gods of Syria and Western Asia occupied their + respective lands. These deities struck their root into the home of + man, into the union of the sexes, into the loves of parent and child, + of brother and sister. They had their mementos in every street of + busy traffic; they watched over the Acropolis; not a fountain but + laid claim to their patronage, nor a field which was fruitful but by + their supposed influence. These countries had lost their political + independence, but the material ease of life under the majesty of the + Roman name they retained. There was a passionate love for this + world's goods, comforts, and enjoyments in the Greek, Syrian, + Asiatic, Egyptian, and Libyan races, all of them more or less worn, + and effete, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg + 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + deeply sensualised; but their glory was this great Hellenic + civilisation, with which polytheism might be termed one and the same + thing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. When we turn to + the West, the seat of the sovereign city and of the empire itself, we + find that from the very beginning and through many centuries the + political constitution of the city had been indissolubly blended with + the worship of the Roman gods. The religion of Rome was much more + than national; her polity seemed only another name for her worship. + Her temples were as much a part of her political life as her forum. + So far at least she had embodied in her whole structure the legend of + her Etruscan teacher, wherein the dwarf Tages sprung from the soil to + communicate the worship claimed by the gods.<a id="noteref_39" name= + "noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> Her soil + and her worship were indivisible. And even after seven centuries, + when the city was embracing the world in its arms, this union + practically existed. Rome indeed admitted, as we have said, the gods + of the conquered nations into her pantheon, but it was on the same + tenure as the nations themselves shared her civic rights. Jupiter + Capitolinus was a sort of suzerain not only to the gods of the + Grecian Olympus, but to the dark forms of the Nile deities, to the + Syrian, the Libyan, the Gallic, the Germanic, the Sarmatian Valhalla. + When the greatest of her poets would express unending duration, he + joins together the race of Æneas enthroned <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> on the Capitol with the god who dwelt + there:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Nulla + dies unquam memori vos eximet ævo,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Dum domus Æneæ Capitoli immobile + saxum</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Accolet, imperiumque Pater Romanus + habebit.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Roman father + is the Capitoline Jupiter. I am not a king; the only king of the + Romans is Jupiter, said the most royal of the race, and the founder + of her empire, when, seeing all prostrate at his feet, he put away + reluctantly the diadem offered by his creature. Thus even he who had + seized the reality of power, who would have omens when he pleased, + and whose will was his law, left the crown on the head of Jupiter. In + Rome, all through her history <span class="tei tei-q">“piety and + patriotism were the same feeling.”</span><a id="noteref_40" name= + "noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> When her + empire became world-wide, this sort of devotion did not cease. Rome + had long been deified; and the double import of her name<a id= + "noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> + expressed strength against the foe without, and nourishment to the + child within. She was at once a warrior-goddess clothed in mail to + meet the enemy, and a mother offering her bosom to her citizens + clustered around her. And so in her new constitution, adapted for the + world, her emperor too was deified, as the first of her children, her + living representative, the embodiment of her force and love, the + visible wielder of her unseen power. All that is sacred in home + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" + id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and country to us the Roman + signified when he swore by the genius of the emperor. Nothing could + be more tolerant than this polytheism, if the innovation extended + only to the borrowing or creating a new divinity, to reforming a rite + or a ceremony,<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href= + "#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> or to + suchlike modifications of worship which admitted that on which it + rested; but nothing more intolerant than the same polytheism when the + worship itself was attacked. A movement against the Capitoline + Jupiter would be not only sacrilege but high treason, and the refusal + to call to witness the emperor's genius was in fact to deny his + imperial authority. The worship of the gods was as much identified + with the empire of Rome in the West as with the civilisation of + Greece throughout the East.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. But as if these + two powers were not ties sufficiently strong to hold polytheism + together, there was another feeling distinct from both, which formed + its last bulwark. The iron hand which held in its grasp these vast + countries, many of them so large that by themselves they might have + been empires, was strong enough to prevent or crush insurrection, but + provided only the majesty of the Roman peace was accepted, did not + seek to disturb a large remnant of local feeling and interest still + representing the former life and polity of the several provinces. Now + whatever of national, tribe, or race feeling existed, was grouped + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" + id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> everywhere about the worship + of the native gods.<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href= + "#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> The + Nile-land had ceased to be a royal seat, and was governed by a simple + Roman knight as prefect of the emperor; but not for this had the Nile + gods abdicated their dark sway over their votaries. In them the + Egyptians still felt that they had something which was their own. + Thus, whatever force of patriotism still lurked in the several parts + of the empire was nurtured by its own form of polytheism, which it in + turn invested with the memories dearest and most ineradicable in man, + of past independence or renown. Not only the Egyptians, but the + various Asiatic and Libyan races, the Gauls and Germans under Roman + sway, were thus attached to their native gods with a feeling no doubt + akin to that of the English towards <span class="tei tei-q">“Old + England,”</span> or the Russians towards <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Holy Russia.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. Two more + conditions of society throughout the whole empire we have yet to + consider in their bearing on the maintenance of polytheism: first, + the concentration of the vast power of the state—in itself an + acknowledged omnipotence, without the restriction or reservation of + individual rights—in one hand, the hand of the emperor, the sole + representative of the people. By this it would seem that all the + upper classes of society, the classes at ease as to their + maintenance, the classes who have leisure to think and will to act in + political <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg + 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + matters, were deprived of so much of their freedom, and such + deprivation would tend to support an existing institution. Secondly, + the despotism above was met by a corresponding despotism below. The + rights of the slaveholder over the human labourer left as little + margin of freedom to daily toil as the right of the imperial autocrat + to the freedom of conscience in the rich. The servants throughout the + world of Rome being slaves, were as much in the hand of their masters + as those masters were in the hand of the prince.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can now take a + prospect of human society in reference to the polytheism of the + empire from the standing-point of Augustus in the last twenty years + of his reign. The worship of her gods was so intertwined with the + political constitution of Rome from her birth through seven centuries + and a half, that it might be said to be one thing with it. Almost as + close was the identification of the several religious systems of the + East with the enjoyments of civilised life which they prized so + highly, and which the empire of Rome secured to them. Further in the + background the national gods of the many races included in the empire + were the last inheritance of their former independent life. Again, + not only was the emperor as Pontifex Maximus the official head of + this polytheism, but as representing the whole power of the state, he + was its guardian, and whatever assailed it was an insult to the + majesty which he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg + 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + embodied; while the slavery in which the masses were lying seemed to + represent in human society the chances of war which had all ended in + the dominion of Rome and the subjection of the whole pantheon of + incongruous gods to the sovereignty of the Capitoline Jupiter. These + were general conditions to that multifarious whole of nations and + races. Then if Augustus sought to examine more narrowly the society + of Roman citizens spread through his empire, he would find it divided + very unequally as to numbers into two classes. The vast majority were + those who take things as they find them, and who belonged with more + or less fidelity and heartiness to the idolatrous polytheism. The + worship which came to them as part and parcel of the empire, of + civilised and of national life, they accepted without thought. To all + these an indefinite number of immoral gods was throned in possession + of Olympus; to all these the result of such worship was, as we have + seen described by S. Augustine, the utter perversion of morality, the + consecration of fables equalling in turpitude the utmost license of + the theatres. But everywhere among the educated classes were to be + found a small number of sceptical minds: philosophers they termed + themselves: it was fashionable to follow some philosophic system or + sect, and these fell mainly into two. Now the Epicureans and the + Stoics, while they left the existing polytheism in practical + possession, as a matter of custom and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> state religion, and so delivered themselves + from any unpleasant consequences of denying the prevailing worship, + concurred entirely in this, that the one by the way of atheism, the + other by that of pantheism, destroyed all religion of the heart and + inner conduct; because they equally removed the notion of a personal + God, and its corresponding notion of a personal being in man + outliving the body and the world of sense, and meeting with a + personal retribution. Whether the power they acknowledge be nature, + as in Lucretius, or a hidden physical force running through all + nature, which might be called Jupiter, Juno, Hercules, or the name of + any other god, as in Marcus Aurelius, the notion of a personal + Creator, provident and rewarding, was equally destroyed. Nor before + the preaching of the Gospel does there appear a single individual who + drew out of the existing polytheism such a conclusion. On the + contrary, in Augustus and his successors the imperial idea of unity + in religion was to make out that all these systems of polytheism, + running into and athwart each other, came practically to the same + thing, differing in name only. Their obedience to Jupiter of the + Capitol was the only bond of unity, and pledge of the empire's + duration, conceived by the Roman rulers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. Thus in the + time of Augustus no human eye, whether we look at the mass of mankind + or the thinking few, could see any sign either that the dominant + polytheism was about to fall, or that the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> lost doctrine of the divine Unity and + Personality could be extricated from the bewildering mass of error + and superstition which had grown over, disguised, and distorted it. + Darker still, if possible, became the prospect under his successor, + Tiberius, whose reign had reached the climax of moral debasement, + when Sejanus was all-powerful at Rome. Hope for the human race there + appeared none, when such an emperor devolved his omnipotence on such + a prime minister. Then in the judgment-hall of a procurator in a + small and distant eastern province, there passed the following + dialogue between an accused criminal and his judge:—<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pilate went into the prætorium again, and called Jesus, + and said to him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Art thou the king of the + Jews?’</span> Jesus answered him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Sayest + thou this thing of thyself, or have others told it thee of + me?’</span> Pilate answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Am I a Jew? + Thine own nation and the chief priests have delivered thee up to me: + what hast thou done?’</span> Jesus answered, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘My kingdom is not of this world. If my kingdom were of + this world, my servants would strive that I should not be delivered + to the Jews; but now my kingdom is not from hence.’</span> Pilate + therefore said to him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Art thou a king, + then?’</span> Jesus answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou sayest + that I am a king. For this was I born, and for this came I into the + world, that I should bear witness to the truth. Every one that is of + the truth heareth my voice.’</span> Pilate saith to him, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘What is truth?’</span> ”</span> He who thus declared + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" + id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> himself to be a king, the + cause of whose birth and advent into the world, the function of whose + royalty, was to bear witness to the truth, received from the power + which then ruled the world the punishment allotted to the slave who + was worthy of death. For many ages a false worship had overshadowed + the earth, hiding the true God from men, and setting up instead a + multitude of demons for gods. And during this time the thinkers of + Greek and Roman society had been asking, What is truth? And now the + officer who asked that question of the Truth Himself, replied to it + by crucifying Him. And when the body of that Crucified One was the + same day taken down from the cross and laid in its sepulchre, the + power which reigned in polytheism and spoke by the mouth of the + judge, seemed to have given the final answer of triumphant force to + its question, What is truth? and falsehood might be thought to reign + supreme and victorious in the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with the + resurrection of that Body, in which Truth was enshrined, that the + resurrection of truth among men began. He had said to His disciples a + few hours before, not <span class="tei tei-q">“I show the + truth,”</span> but <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the Truth.”</span> + His birth and His advent took place that His witness might be given + to it, the witness to it being that very birth and advent, His + appearance among men, and the reception He would meet with. The + crucifixion itself—the reply of triumphant force to its own + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" + id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> unanswered question—was the + witness which, first in Him, and then in His followers, should make + itself heard over the earth, now held in captivity by falsehood. And + since Truth is His proper Name and His personal Being from eternity, + and by being the Truth He who spoke is the second Person in the + Godhead, the perfect Image of all Truth, let us consider the import + of His Name as the summing-up of the great antagonism which He then + planted on the earth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For He named + Himself the Truth because He is the Son and the Word of the Father. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus the Father, as it were uttering + Himself, begot His Word, equal to Himself in all things. For He would + not fully and perfectly have uttered Himself, if there were anything + less or anything more in His Word than in Himself.... And therefore + this Word is truly the Truth; inasmuch as whatever is in that + knowledge of which He is begotten, is also in Himself; and whatsoever + is not in it, is not in Himself.... The Father and the Son know each + other, the one by generating, the other by being + generated.”</span><a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href= + "#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> Thus it + is that He is the perfect Word, the absolute Image of God; and being + the Image of God He created man in the beginning a copy of that + Image, and according to its resemblance, in that He created him in + the indivisible unity of a soul intelligent and willing—a created + copy of the Trinity in Unity. But though <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> by the original constitution of the soul this + copy could not be destroyed, being the very essence of the soul, yet + the resemblance might be marred, and the harmony which reigned in the + original man between the soul, its intellect, and will, through the + indwelling of God's Spirit, was broken by the act of sin; whereupon + that Spirit withdrew from him, and left the copy of the divine Image + defaced and disordered. All the heathenism we have been considering + is the sequence of that disorder, part of which is the grievous + obscuration of truth, that is, of the whole relation between God and + man, of which idolatrous polytheism is the perversion. It was the + exact representation of the soul's own disorder, being the distortion + but not the extinction of worship; the fear of many demons, instead + of the fear of one God; slavish instead of filial fear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But as the Truth + of the Father is beheld and expressed in generating His Son, His + Word, His perfect Image, so truth to man is the resemblance of + created things to the archetypal idea of them in God; the resemblance + of the works of the divine art to the Artificer's intention. In this + long act of heathenism we see the work of the divine Artificer marred + and obscured, and the marring and obscuration seem to have gone as + far as was possible without touching the essence of the soul. Who, + then, should restore, but He who had first created? Who should give + back to the copy the lost harmony, and reimprint the defaced + resemblance, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg + 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + save the perfect Image of God? Thus, when the corruption had run its + course, and the original disobedience had reproduced itself all over + the earth in a harvest of evil and disorder, the time for the work of + reparation was come, and the Divine Word, the Image of the Father, + took flesh.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Magnificent as had + been the dower of the First Man, and wonderful the grace which held + his soul in harmony with itself, and his bodily affections in + obedience to his soul, incomparably more magnificent was the dower of + human nature in its reparation, inconceivably grander the grace which + ruled the Soul and Body of the Restorer. For whereas the First Man's + person had been simply human, the Person of the Second Man was the + Divine Word Himself, the perfect Image of the Father; and whereas the + grace of the First Man was such that he was able not to sin, the + grace which had assumed the nature of the Second Man was a Person who + could not sin, the fountain of grace itself, measureless, absolute, + and personal. The Image of God Himself came to restore the copy of + that Image in Man; his appearance as man among men was the + reconveying of the Truth to them, because He was the Truth Himself. + The Truth in all its extent; the Truth in the whole moral order and + every relation which belongs to it; the Truth by which all the + rational creation of God corresponds to the Idea of its Creator, was + the gift which He brought to man in His Incarnation.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this truth is + not merely external to man. In order to be received and appropriated + by him, he must become capable of it. The Restorer works his + restoration by an inward act upon the soul, its intellect and will. + The Image of God sets up His seat within His work, the copy. Man is + sealed by the Holy Spirit with the likeness and resemblance of the + Father's Face, the Son; and having the Son within him, and giving a + home within the soul to the divine character, and making this his + treasure, man is formed after God.<a id="noteref_45" name= + "noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> The + supreme likeness, which is beyond all others, is impressed on human + souls by the Spirit of the Father and the Son. As the defacing of the + likeness, the result of the original fall, caused the obscuring of + the Truth, so its restoration was itself the recovery of the + Truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this + restoration is itself the witness to the Truth of which He spoke + before Pilate as the object of His birth and advent. But to make the + witness operative and fruitful, the greatest wonder in this list of + wonders is required, the suffering of the Truth Himself. He said of + the corn of wheat, which was to bear fruit in unnumbered hearts, that + it would remain alone unless it fell into the ground and died. And so + His crucifixion in the nature which He had assumed was the act from + which the renewal of truth went forth; and not only in His Person, + but likewise in His chosen witnesses this special mode of vivifying + the truth, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg + 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + making it fruitful, should be repeated. Not only must the absolute + Truth of God appear in our nature itself in order to be accepted, but + the nature in which it appeared should offer the sacrifice of itself; + and this particular mode of propagating the truth should be observed + in that chosen band whom He termed specially His witnesses. Their + witness should be their suffering; in them too the Truth should be + crucified, and so become fruitful.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And as man in his + original creation had been a copy, however faint, of the eternal + relations of the Godhead in itself, so his restoration springs from + those same eternal relations. In it the Father, the Son, and the Holy + Spirit are seen working.<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href= + "#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> It + springs from the Father, in that He is the Father of the + only-begotten Son, the Original of the Image, and so the Father of + all those who are the copies of that Image. It springs from the Son, + in that He is the perfect Image of the Father, and by dwelling in a + created nature has raised it to the dignity of His Person, from which + the grace of Sonship comes. It springs from the Holy Spirit, whose + work as the Spirit of the Father and the Son is to imprint the copy + of the Son on man. He performs in every one of the redeemed by + communicating to them a participation of the divine nature, by + dwelling in them, by contact and coherence with them, a work + infinitely less in degree, but yet of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the same order with that work of His whereby + all the fulness of the Godhead dwelt by personal unity in our Lord's + Manhood.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href= + "#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But we left our + Lord before Pilate, bearing witness to the truth. It remains to see + how that truth became impressed on the world.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name= + "Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VIII. The First And The Second + Man.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Totus Christus caput et corpus est. Caput unigenitus + Dei Filius, et corpus ejus Ecclesia, Sponsus et Sponsa, duo in carne + una.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">S. Aug.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">de + Unitate Ecc.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">tom. ix. + 341.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Totus Christus, id est, caput et + membra.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">S. Thomas, Prolog. ad 1 Sentent. art. + 4.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us look back + on the space which we have traversed, and gather up in a few words + the sight which it presents to us. We have man before us as far as + history will carry us back, as far as reasoning, planting itself on + the scanty traces of history, will penetrate into the cloudland of + prehistoric times: and the result stands before us exhibited in the + manifold records still remaining of the most renowned ancient + civilisation. Here, then, we see nations whose genius, whether in + history, poetry, and literature, or in works of art, or in civil + government, we still admire, comprising men in many of whom the + powers of reason reached their utmost limit; nations inhabiting the + most varied climates and countries, and amongst them the fairest in + the world, nations formed under the most different circumstances and + pursuing the most <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg + 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + distinct employments, some agricultural, some commercial, some + inland, some nautical, but alike in this, that they were enthralled + by systems of a false worship, of which it is hard to say whether it + was the more revolting to the reason by its absurdity, or to the + conscience of man by its foulness. And this false worship does not + lie distinct and apart from the concerns of daily civil and domestic + life, but is intertwined with all the public and private actions of + men, forming their habits and ruling their affections. Moreover, the + polytheistic idolatry described above as existing at the time of + Augustus in every province of his empire except one, in almost<a id= + "noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> every + country which touched upon it, or was known to it, is the result, the + summing-up, the embodiment of man's whole history up to that time, so + far as we know it: it is that into which this history had run out, + its palpable, it almost seemed its irresistible, form. And it amounts + to a complete corruption, first of the relation between man and his + Creator, secondly of the relation between man and his fellow, thirdly + of the relations of man in civil government, that is, of states and + political communities, to each other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, looking at + this polytheistic idolatry simply as a fact, without for the moment + any attempt to give a solution of it from authority, looking at it + just as modern science would regard the facts of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> geology or astronomy, there is one thing, + we may suppose, which it proves with a superabundance of evidence not + found to belong to any other fact of history; and that is, the + intrinsic corruption of man as a moral being. That which in + theological language is called the Fall of man is, apart from all + revealed doctrine on the subject, brought in upon the mind with + irresistible force by the mere enumeration of the gods which + heathendom worshipped, and of the worship paid by it to them; a force + which is indefinitely increased by every inquiry into the moral and + religious state of man as he lived under this worship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, then, let us + consider what solution the Christian faith does give of this fact, + which exists, be it remembered, independently of this solution, and + would exist with all its force undiminished, if this were + rejected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I. The Christian + faith, as a solution of this wonderful maze of polytheistic idolatry, + with all its accompaniments and consequences, carries us back to the + first father of the race, whose development we have been following in + it. This, it says, is nothing else<a id="noteref_49" name= + "noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> but the + body of Adam carried out through thousands of years, the body of Adam + fallen under a terrible captivity. Not only does the Christian faith + set before us man as one race descended from one, but because he is + this one race, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg + 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + descended from one, it represents him as having come into such a + state. To understand this we must contemplate the original creation, + the fall of man, and its consequences, in their several bearings on + each other, which will then lead us on to the nature and mode of the + restoration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In speaking of the + creation of man we may first consider the union of the soul and body + simply by themselves; that is, in order to obtain a clear view of our + subject, we may form to ourselves a purely ideal state of simple + nature. Such a state would include two things; one positive, the + other negative.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href= + "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> + Positively, human nature in this condition would have all natural + faculties in their essential perfection, and the assistance and + providence of God naturally due to it: negatively, it would have + nothing superadded to nature, nothing not due to it, whether evil or + good, that is, neither sin on the one hand, and what follows sin, the + guilt which entails punishment, nor on the other hand any gifts of + grace, or perfections not due to nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Human nature, if + created in such a state, would have no supernatural end; its end + would be to love God with a natural love, as the Author and Ruler of + the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of such a state it + is requisite for our present purpose to say only two things further. + The first, that it is not contrary to any attribute of God to + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" + id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> have created human nature in + such a state. The gift of eternal beatitude, arising from the vision + of God, which such a creature would not have had for its end, is + simply and absolutely a gratuitous gift of the divine bounty, which + God is not bound to bestow on any creature as such. Secondly, God did + not in fact so create man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Going on from this + state of simple nature, we may consider another state in man, in + which, beyond all his natural faculties,<a id="noteref_51" name= + "noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> he would + have a certain special perfection, consisting in the absence of + immoderate concupiscence, or in the perfect subjection of the + sensitive to the rational appetite, so that the inferior appetite + should not be allowed to set itself in motion against the superior, + or to anticipate reason. For human nature, regarded in itself as the + union of a spirit and a body, is as it were divided in its natural + affections, which tend in diverse directions, and thus totters, so to + say, in its gait; when, therefore, it receives an inward peace in its + own proper faculties, it is said to be supplemented, or to receive + its integrity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now it is much to + be noted that this special gift of integrity would not be connatural + to man, that is, not given to him by force of his nature itself. It + is true indeed that as such a gift perfects nature in regard to all + natural acts, and supplies a sort of natural deficiency arising out + of the combination of a spiritual with a material substance, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" + id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wherein a conflict is + engendered, in such a sense it may be called natural: but strictly + speaking it is a gift superadded to nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must further be + noted that this state of nature in its integrity, however high and + beautiful, is not only entirely distinct from but of an inferior + order to the state of human nature raised to the gift of Divine + Sonship. Between human nature in this condition and human nature + raised to the gift of sonship, there would be more than the + difference<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href= + "#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> that + with us exists between the kindly-treated servant and the adopted + son: for human nature in this integrity would still not by virtue of + it possess sanctifying grace, or, in consequence, have God and His + vision for its supernatural end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, thirdly, it + was not merely in this state that God created man, but in a state + which not only included this, but had grace for its basis,<a id= + "noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> that is + to say, every perfection which it had sprang out of this, that it was + united to God by grace. This is a state of far superior order, + absolutely gratuitous, and beyond anything which is due to nature. + The first man, Adam, then, was not only a union of soul and body, not + only did he possess this nature in its integrity, but he was created + in grace, so that there was a union of the Holy Spirit with him, + whereby he was exalted to the condition of a supernatural end + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" + id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and adopted Sonship, and in + this union was rooted the integrity of his nature, and the + supernatural power of so ruling all the lower faculties of his soul + that the higher could mount undisturbedly to God: and certain other + gifts over and above, such as immunity from error or deception, so + long as he did not sin, immunity from even venial fault, immunity + from death, and from all pain or sorrow. Such was the original + condition which grace bestowed on human nature, wherein man had not + only a supernatural end, but the power to attain it easily.<a id= + "noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now it is evident + that man, by being created in grace, was raised to an astonishing + height of dignity, to which not only his nature, but any created + nature whatsoever had no claim. All that the justice and goodness of + God required him to do in creating such a being as man of two + substances, soul and body, was to bestow on the compound being so + united such perfections as made the several substances complete in + their own order. Such would be the ideal state of simple nature as + delineated above. It was a gift beyond nature, such as nature in its + first beginning could not claim, to bestow on it the integrity which + in the second place we considered. But how far beyond this, passing + it by an unmeasured chasm, was that dower of sonship rooted in + sanctifying grace which God actually bestowed on His favoured child? + It <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name= + "Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is obvious at first + sight that the divine gift here intended, being in Adam's actual + creation the root of all which was over and above the natural + faculties of body and soul in their union, was bestowed absolutely by + the pure goodness of God, and therefore could be bestowed with such + conditions attached to it as pleased the Giver. In all that is beyond + the mere faculties and needs of nature—in forming which God's own + being is a sort of rule to Him—He is absolutely free to give as + pleases Himself, to what degree He pleases, on what terms He pleases. + What, then, were the conditions on which He invested Adam with the + gift of Sonship, and created Him in grace as its foundation? He + created him, not only as the individual Adam, but as the Head of his + race, so that his race was summed up in him, and a unity was founded + in him attaching his whole race as members to his body, in such + manner that the supernatural gift of sonship bestowed on him was to + descend from him by virtue of natural propagation to every member of + that body, which thus became a supernatural race from a supernatural + father. So absolute was this unity that the order maintained in the + case of every other creature put under the dominion of the man so + formed was not followed in his case. For whereas they were created + with the difference of sex, each a male and a female, he was created + alone, as the Head, and then she, by whose coöperation the race was + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" + id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to be continued, was formed + out of him. It was not a second man who was so formed from the first, + but one made with reference to him, in dependence on him, to be a + help meet for him, not for herself, with an independent being, but + for him. This formation of Eve from Adam, which has a meaning of + unfathomable depth in the development of the race, is an essential + part of the original design. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Therefore,”</span> says Adam, speaking in an ecstasy + sent upon him by God, the words of God, <span class="tei tei-q">“this + is now bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called + woman, because she was taken out of man. Therefore shall a man leave + his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife, and they + shall be one flesh.”</span> First, the Eve so formed from him is one + flesh with him; secondly, the race springing from both is one flesh + likewise with him. The consequence intended by that one flesh was the + transmission of that magnificent inheritance in which Adam was + standing when he so spoke. In this he was Father and Head, for this + created alone, then Eve built up from him, from whom afterwards was + to issue their joint race. On the further condition of his personal + obedience to God and fidelity to his grace, he held the whole + supernatural gift of grace conferring sonship, both for himself and + for his race: on these terms it was bestowed by the charter of God, + the original Giver. Thus, the greatness of his Headship was visible + in two things, the power <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg + 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + transmitting his quality of divine sonship to his race by + propagation, and the dependence of that quality, in them as well as + in himself, on his personal fidelity to God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the First Man, + the Father and Head of the race, did not stand in his inheritance. He + broke the divine command, and lost the gift of sonship, and with it + all the prerogatives attendant on that gift, which were above nature + and rooted in grace, and which the eminent goodness of God had + bestowed upon him: and by the terms of the original charter lost the + gift, not only for himself, but for his race. But he did not, + therefore, destroy that relation between the Head and the Race, which + was part of the original foundation of God. This continued; but + whereas it had been intended to communicate the blessing of adoption, + it now served to communicate the demerit of adoption lost, the guilt, + and with it the punishment incurred by that loss. This is the + original sin, the sin of the nature, not of the person, inherited by + the members of Adam's body; and as there can be no sin without + free-will, the sin of the whole nature included in Adam as its Root + and Head, which sinned by Adam's abuse of his free-will.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us try to + determine as accurately as we can the position into which Adam and + his race fell.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Did, then, Adam + simply lose with the forfeiture of sanctifying grace the gift of + sonship, the supernatural <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg + 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + inheritance, all which God had bestowed on him beyond that ideal + state of pure nature which we described in the first instance? God, + we said, might have created man originally in this condition, and man + so created, that is, in virtue of this creation, would not have been + under any sin, nor exposed to the anger of God. Did man, by Adam's + sin, fall back into it? Not so. His state after his fall differed + from such a state of pure nature in that he had upon him the guilt of + lost adoption, of adoption lost by the first Adam's fault, and in + proportion to the greatness of the loss, and the gratuitousness of + the gift originally bestowed, was the anger with which, on the + donor's part, the loss was regarded. How would a king, a man like + ourselves, regard one whom he had raised out of the dust to be his + adopted child, and who had been unfaithful to the parent who had so + chosen him with more than natural affection? Such an anger we can + indeed understand when felt against the person sinning; but we fail + to enter into it as resting on the race, because the secret tie which + binds the head and the race into one is not discerned by us; because + too the greatness of the divine majesty, the awfulness of His + sovereignty, and the wrath of that majesty slighted, are feebly + appreciated by us. But this image may at least give us some notion of + the nature of that divine anger which pressed upon Adam and his race + after the fall. Not only, therefore, was the gift <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of sonship and the prerogatives attending + it withdrawn, but this withdrawal was a punishment, which their + absence in the presumed case of an original state of simple nature + would not have been. Thus death was a punishment to Adam and his + race; the body's weakness and disease, the soul's sorrows and pains, + the disobedience of the inferior appetites to the reason, the + resistance of the reason to the law of God, were all punishments, and + a remarkable point of the punishment is to be seen in this. Adam, as + the head of his race, was in virtue of natural propagation to have + bestowed on the children of his flesh, the members of his body, his + own supernatural inheritance. Thus a singular honour was conferred on + the fathership of Adam. But now when, in virtue of this natural + propagation, he, continuing to be the head of his race, transmitted + to it the guilt of adoption lost instead of the blessing of adoption + conferred, a peculiar shame was set by God upon this fathership of + Adam, and upon all the circumstances attending it: so that henceforth + in the disinherited race the bride veiled her head, and the act of + being a father became an act of shame.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The condition, + therefore, of Adam and his posterity after his fall differed from the + condition which would have been that of simple nature by the whole + extent of the guilt incurred by the nature in its fall from + sonship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And herein lies + one peculiarity, and one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg + 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + strangely distressing condition of his state, in that while he lost + by the fall the grace in which, as an indwelling gift, his whole + supernatural state had been rooted, he yet did not lose that + condition of being formed and intended for a supernatural end which + grace alone could enable him to attain. For the supernatural vision + and love of God he had been created, and in his fall he did not sink + to be merely a natural man; but his original end was still held out + before him as that which he might reach supported by that grace the + aids of which were in a different measure promised to him in order to + lead a life of penance, and as the earnest of a future + restoration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This, however, is + far from being a complete statement of his case, and we must go back + to the circumstances of his fall in order to add that further still + more peculiar and remarkable condition which, added to the one just + described, made up the whole of his fall.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adam had not + disobeyed the divine command, and so broken the covenant of his + sonship, by the simple promptings of his own will. Another had + intervened; had suggested to the woman doubts against her Maker and + Father. She had yielded to these doubts, and disobeyed; and then Adam + had suffered himself to be drawn with her in her disobedience. Who + was this other? He was the prince and leader of spirits created good, + but fallen into enmity with God. Thus, the favourite <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> son of God had listened to the persuasion + of God's chief enemy, and his fall from sonship had been, by the + judgment of the offended Parent, not a simple fall from his + supernatural estate, but a fall likewise into servitude to that + enemy. This servitude also, with the guilt of the nature in which he + had sinned, Adam transmitted to the members of his body in and by + their nature. Adam with his race was the captive taken in war by the + enemy of God, and the life which he was allowed to live had the + condition of this servitude impressed on it, with this alleviation + only, that the assistance of the divine grace offered to him by the + mercy of God in his state of penance could protect those who accepted + it from the effects of this servitude, and ultimately deliver + them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, then, is the + condition of Adam's posterity in consequence of his fall; members of + a Head who had broken his allegiance to his Creator and Father, and + so inheriting with their nature the disinherited state into which he + had cast himself; captives, moreover, of that powerful spirit, God's + antagonist, who had tempted Adam, seduced him, and led him to his + fall.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now the heathenism + which we have been contemplating is the carrying out in time and + space of this body of Adam in those who, by their personal fault, + fell away from the aids of grace which were accorded to man after his + fall—aids given first to Adam for the whole race, and then + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" + id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> renewed to Noah for the whole + race; and the false worship, so blent and mingled with heathenism, + which seemed as if it were the soul of its body, is the sign and + stamp of that captivity to the evil spirit which the first man's sin + inaugurated.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How powerful was + the bond between Adam and his race, how great and influential the + headship which the Divine choice had vested in him, we see in that + mysterious transmission of guilt which passed from him to his + children. And it must be expressly noted that it was not a + transmission of punishment alone. Rather, the divine justice cannot + punish where there is no guilt; and as in this case Adam's fall, and + that of his posterity with him, was not merely a loss but a + punishment, so it had the special nature of guilt, not only in him + but in his posterity, and was a sin both of the person and of the + nature in him, of the nature only in them. We see the force and range + of the divine endowment of Adam here, though it be in the tenacity of + the calamity which ensued to his race; but it must be remembered that + such in this respect as the punishment was, the blessing would have + been. Adam was created both an individual and a race. In him were two + things—the single man and the head; but of these two things the + headship was peculiar to himself, while such as the individual Adam + was, his race was to be. He had it in his power to break the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" + id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> covenant of his sonship with + God, but not the tie between himself and his race.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this sheds a + light upon the darkest part of that terrible picture which collected + heathenism presents to us. Man, as a social animal, is incessant in + his action on his fellow-man; the parent and the family form the + child; the companion and the neighbourhood lead forth the child into + manhood. This work is perpetually going on in all its parts, and + society is the joint result. When, therefore, we see this society + once fallen into the possession of a false worship, which perverts + the very foundations of morality, and instils deadly error into the + child with the mother's milk, no thoughtful mind can gaze without + horror upon beings involved in such a maze,<a id="noteref_55" name= + "noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> yet + intended for an eternal duration. Man's nature, as a race, seems + turned against him; and in addition to the guilt under which each + individual of the race is born, and the nature which each inherits, + wherein the internal harmony of peace is broken, and neither the + appetites obey the reason nor the reason is obedient to God, comes + the force of habit, of education, of culture, of companionship, of + man's business and leisure, his play and his earnest, the force of + his language, the expression of his thoughts upon himself and others, + the whole force, in fact, of man's social being when it is put under + possession of an evil power, man's adversary. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But this social nature was to have been + to him the means of the greatest good. As by his natural descent from + Adam unfallen would have come the grace of sonship, so the whole + brotherhood of those who shared that gift would have helped and + supported each in the maintenance of it. The human family would have + had a beauty and a unity of its own as such; an order and a lustre + would have rested on the whole body, confirming each member in the + possession of his own particular gift. The concatenation of evil in + the corrupt society is the most striking contrast to the fellowship + of good in the upright; and while it is distinct from that guilt + which descends to man as the sin of his nature, yet springs like it + from the original constitution of that nature as a race. It is the + invasion of evil upon good carried to its utmost point, wherein we + discern most plainly <span class="tei tei-q">“the prince of this + world”</span> wielding that <span class="tei tei-q">“power of + darkness”</span> by which the Apostle described the whole state of + the world, out of which these nations, which made the empire of + Augustus, were a part.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have thus + contemplated four distinct pictures. The first of these was human + nature bare and naked by itself, a merely ideal view of man, as a + being compounded of soul and body, each possessing only the faculties + which belong to them as spiritual and corporeal natures, the result + of which is a substantial union, because the spiritual <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> substance becomes the form of the + corporeal, not by making the body, when already animated by another + principle, to participate of spiritual life, but by becoming itself + the principle first animating it. And we set forth this condition of + human nature in order to throw light upon our second picture—the + first man as he was actually created, possessing, as a gift + superadded by the purest divine bounty to this his natural + constitution, a divine sonship founded in grace; which transcendant + union of the Holy Spirit with his soul kept the soul with all its + faculties in a loving obedience to God, and the body in obedience to + the soul; and added even to this state the further gratuitous + prerogatives of immunity from error, fault, pain, distress, and + death. Our third picture was man in this same state, but constituted + besides by the divine will, whose good pleasure was the sole source + of all this state of sonship, to be father of a race like to himself, + receiving from him, with its natural generation, the transmitted gift + of sonship; that is, from our view of him as an individual person we + went on to consider him as the head of a body—the root of a tree. + Fourthly, we have looked on the same man stripped by a fault, + personal to himself but natural to his race, of this divine + sonship—reduced to a state like that which the first would have been, + but altered from it by two grave conditions, one of guilt lying on + himself and his race on account of this gratuitous gift of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" + id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sonship lost, another of + captivity to that enemy of his Creator and Father who had seduced him + to fall. And this picture included in it the double effect of guilt + transmitted through a whole race from its head and father, and of the + personal sins of each individual of the race: which, moreover, had a + tendency to be perpetually heightened by the social nature of + man—that part of his original condition which, as it would have + supported his highest good in the state of innocence, so came to make + his corruption intense and more complicated in the state of fall. It + has not been our purpose in this sketch to dwell upon those who, like + Adam himself after his fall, accepted the divine assistance offered + to them, and the promise of a future Restorer, and who, living a life + of penance, kept their faith in God. Such an assistance was offered + not only to Adam but to his whole race, and such a line of men there + always was; of whom Abel was the type in the world before the flood; + Noah after the flood, as the second father of the whole race; + Abraham, the friend of God and father of the faithful, in whose son + Isaac a people was to be formed, which, as the nations in their + apostasy fell more and more away from the faith and knowledge of the + true God, should maintain still the seed of promise out of which the + Restorer should spring. But before that Restorer came, the + heathenism—of which we have been speaking in the former chapter, and + of which we have been giving <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the solution above—was in possession of all but + the whole earth, and the captivity of man to his spiritual foe, on + account of which that foe is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Ruler”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the God”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“of this world,”</span> which is said + <span class="tei tei-q">“to lie in the malignant one,”</span><a id= + "noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> was all + but universal. This universality denoted that the fulness of the + time<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> marked + out in the providence of God was come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For Adam, in his + first creation, and in the splendour of that robe of sonship<a id= + "noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> in which + he was invested, had been the figure of One to come: his figure as an + individual person, his figure as father and head of a race; his + figure likewise, when the race itself is viewed as summed up in one, + as one body. Let us take each of these in their order.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was the + counterpart of Adam, as an individual person, in the new creation? It + was the Eternal Son Himself assuming a human soul and body, and + bearing our nature in His divine personality. Over against the + creature invested with sonship stood the uncreated Son, invested with + a created nature. For the grace of the Holy Spirit given by measure, + and depending for its continuance <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> on the obedience of the creature, was the + Fountain of Grace Himself ruling the creature by a union indefeasible + and eternal; for grace communicated grace immanent in its source. For + the son gratuitously adopted was the Son by nature, making, by an + inconceivable grace, the created nature assumed to be that not of the + adopted but of the natural Son. In a word, the figure was man united + to God; the counterpart, the God-man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, again, is + Adam's counterpart as Father and Head of his race? It was human + nature itself, which the Word of God espoused in the bridal chamber + of the Virginal Womb, and so is become the Second Adam, the Father of + a new race, the Head of a mystical Body, which corresponds to Adam's + original Headship, but as far transcends it as the grace of the + Incarnate Word transcends the grace bestowed on the first man. As + Adam, had he stood in his original state of son, would have + transmitted the gift of a like sonship to his whole race—as, falling, + he did actually transmit to that race the guilt of adoption lost, so + the Second Adam, out of His own uncreated Sonship, but through the + nature which He had assumed, bestowed the dower of adopted sons and + the gift of justice on his race. From the one there was punishment + generating through the flesh;<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" + href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> from + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" + id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the other, grace regenerating + through the Spirit. From the one, nature stripped and wounded, yet + still bound to its head by an indissoluble tie; by the other, the + Spirit of the Head, the Spirit of Truth, Charity, Unity, and + Sanctity, ruling his Body and animating it, as the natural soul + animates the natural body. Precisely where the mystery was darkest + and the misery greatest, the divine grace is most conspicuous, and + the divine power most triumphant. The very point which brings out + Adam's connection with his race has an exact counterpart in Christ's + Headship of His people, and an inscrutable judgment serves to + illustrate an unspeakable gift. In exact accordance with the doctrine + that the sin of Adam is man's sin, and the guilt of Adam man's guilt, + is that boundless and unimaginable grace that the Incarnate Word did + not merely assume an individual human nature, but espoused in that + assumption the whole nature; that on the cross He paid the debt of + the whole nature, whether for original or actual sin; that His + resurrection is our collective justification; that the gift of + sonship is bestowed on men not as individual persons, but as members + of His Body, before they have personally merited anything, just as + the guilt came on them, as members of Adam, before they demerited + anything personally. Exactly where the obscurity of the fall + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" + id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was the deepest, the light of + the restoration is brightest; and where the sentence was most severe, + the grace most wonderful. But to deny the first Adam would entail the + loss of the Second; and he who declines the inheritance of the father + stripped and wounded cannot enter into the Body of the Word made + flesh.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But thirdly, as in + that terrible corruption of heathenism, wherein immorality was based + on false worship, we saw the body of Adam run out through time and + space into the most afflicting form which evil can assume in the + individual and social life of man, so in that Body which is ruled by + the Divine Headship we see the counterpart, the triumph of grace, + individual man taken out of that state of fallen nature, and invested + with a membership answering to the dignity of the Head. The one great + Christian people, the Kingdom of Christ, stands over against that + kingdom of violence, disorder, impurity, and false worship. As there + is a unity of the fallen Adam, a force of evil which impact only + gives, so much more is there a unity of the Second Adam, which is not + a collection of individuals, but a Body with its Head. The first + unity consists in the reasonable soul, informing the flesh which was + moulded once for all from the clay and descended to the whole race; + and the race so descending was polluted by a common guilt, on which, + as an ever-fertile root, grew the whole trunk of man's personal sins, + of falsehood, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg + 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + enmity, corruption of morals, division, having the common quality of + egotism. The second unity consists in the Holy Spirit of the Head + communicated to the soul and body of the faithful people, both being + restored by that grace of which truth and charity, unity and + sanctity, are the tokens, the full virtue being planted in the cross + of the Head, and from the cross diffusing itself to His Body.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. And so we are + brought again to Him who stood before Pilate to make the good + confession, and who declared that the cause of His coming into the + world was to bear witness to the truth. In what form was that witness + to be made, and how was it to be efficacious? This is that point + which we have now to illustrate. Adam's disobedience was a single + act, the power of which, springing out of his headship, extended + through the whole line of his race; through the consequences of this + act the truth was obscured to them, and human life involved in + manifold error. What was that action on the part of Christ, the + purpose, as He declares, of His Incarnation, which had an equally + enduring effect? If the guilt communicated was not transitory, then + should the corresponding grace be perpetual. And how was it so? The + Son of God, as the Head of His race, does not stand at disadvantage + with Adam, but rather, we are told His grace is superabundant in its + results over the other's sin: and He Himself declared that He had + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" + id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> completely finished the work + given Him to do.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href= + "#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> But here + He describes this work to be the bearing witness to the truth. For, + indeed, it was worthy of the eternal wisdom to clothe Himself in + flesh<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href= + "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> in order + that truth, the good of the intellect, and the end of the whole + universe, might stand forth revealed to His rational creatures: and + He who made all things in truth would Himself restore truth, when it + had been obscured by the traducer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. Let us take the + character which He acknowledged and claimed before Pilate: His + character of King, and the kingdom in which it is exercised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Person of + Christ, as that of the eternal Word, is the Truth itself. But He has + assumed a body, and in that body He declares that He is a king, and + that the exercise of His royalty is the bearing witness to the + truth.<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href= + "#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> His + words therefore indicate no less than the creation of a kingdom to + which the truth should be the principle of subsistence. But what in + the material or temporal kingdom is that by force of which it + subsists? Plainly power. A kingdom may be larger or smaller in + population, wealth, extent, stronger or weaker in the quality of its + people; but as long as it retains in itself that in which power + culminates, sovereignty, it will be a kingdom. If this power departs + from it, if it falls into subjection <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to a foreign authority, or if its own subjects + successfully rebel against its power, it ceases to be. In the + kingdom, therefore, of which Christ speaks, the maintenance of truth + corresponds to what the maintenance of power is in a material + kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But power in the + material kingdom moves men to the natural end of society; it + preserves order, administers justice, allows and assists all natural + forces to develop themselves, and it must be in its supreme exercise + one and indisputable: that is, it culminates in sovereignty. So in + the spiritual kingdom truth, the corresponding power, moves men to + the supernatural end, and truth culminates in infallibility. But + where is this power seated, and how does the King wield it?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same who here + calls Himself King and declares it to be the function of His royalty + to bear witness to the truth, in describing elsewhere the very + creation of His kingdom says to His apostles, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You shall receive power by the Holy Ghost coming upon + you,”</span> bidding them also to remain in Jerusalem <span class= + "tei tei-q">“until they were endued with power from on + high.”</span><a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href= + "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> But a + few hours before that scene in the hall of Pilate He had told them + also that He would send them the Spirit of Truth, who should abide + with them for ever, and should lead them into all truth. He creates + therefore the kingdom of the truth by sending down the Spirit of the + Truth to dwell for ever with those to whom <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> He is sent; and this Spirit of the Truth is His + own Spirit, whom He Himself will send as the token of His ascension + and session; the Spirit who dwelt in the Body which He had assumed, + and in which He spoke before Pilate, should be sent by Him when that + Body had taken its place at the right hand of God, should invest with + His own power those to whom He was sent, and should never cease to be + with them in His character of the Spirit of Truth. Here, then, is + that power in the kingdom of the Truth which enables it to bear a + true and a perpetual witness. It is the power of the King, for it is + His Spirit: it is the power of the kingdom, for it remains in it, is + throned in it, and makes it to be what it is.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But to create a + kingdom of the truth, and to bear perpetual witness in that kingdom + to the truth, is not only to state what is true. These expressions + mark out an organisation in and by means of which truth is + perpetuated. And further, the spirit in man is both reason and will; + and that man may act, the intellect which has truth for its object + must work on the will which has good for its object. And so the + witness which our Lord speaks of is that action of the truth upon the + will which produces a life in accordance with it: it is truth not + left to itself, but supported by grace. This power of the Spirit of + Truth is therefore double, as intended to work on the two powers of + the soul, the reason and the will: it is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the double gift of Truth and Grace; as He is + the Spirit of Grace no less than the Spirit of Truth, and all grace + is His immediate gift.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the Word made + flesh being full of Truth and Grace from His own Person communicated + that Truth and Grace as the power which should form His kingdom for + ever, abide in it, and constitute its being a kingdom; the gift of + truth and grace being the very presence of His own Spirit, who took + possession of His kingdom on the day of Pentecost and holds it for + ever.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This whole + possession of Truth and Grace dwelling in a visible body is the work + of the eternal Word, who assumed a body for that purpose. It is the + counter-creation to the kingdom of falsehood which commenced with the + sin of the first man believing a falsehood against his Maker, and + which spread itself with his lineage into all lands.<a id= + "noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> And as + in the natural creation He not only created but maintained—for He did + not make His creatures and then depart from them, but from that time + they exist in Him—so in the supernatural the act of maintaining is + equivalent to the act of creating, it is a continued creation. As the + guilt had a force which was fruitful, which continued and propagated + itself, and produced a widespread reign of falsehood, how much more + should that mighty and astonishing grace of a Divine Person assuming + a created nature be fruitful, continue, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and propagate itself in the maintenance of a + visible kingdom, whose distinctive character and its very life should + be the possession and communication of the truth. Should the Creator + of man in His greatest work be less powerful than His seduced + creature in his fall? and if the fall, pregnant with falsehood, bore + fruit through ages in a whole race, should not the recovery likewise + have its visible dominion, and stand over against the ruin as the + kingdom of truth?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is as King + ruling in the kingdom of truth that the Divine Word incarnate redeems + man from captivity, which began in a revolt from the truth, and in + becoming subject to falsehood. All who are outside His kingdom lie in + this captivity;<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href= + "#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> the life + which He gave voluntarily is the price paid for their liberation; and + as age after age, so long as the natural body of Adam lasts, the + captivity endures, so age after age the liberation takes effect by + entering into His kingdom. And this is the most general name, the + name of predilection, which both in prophecy marked the time of + Messiah the King, and was announced by His precursor, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" + id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> taken by our Lord to indicate + His having come. The eternal duration of this kingdom may be said to + be the substance of all prophecy, and it was precisely in the + interpretation of a vision describing under the image of a great + statue the four world-kingdoms, that is, the whole structure, course, + and issue of the heathenism which we have been contemplating, that + Daniel contrasts these kingdoms with another. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the days of these kings shall the God of heaven set + up a kingdom which shall never be destroyed; and the kingdom shall + not be delivered to another people, but it shall break in pieces and + consume all these kingdoms, and shall stand itself for ever.”</span> + As King in this kingdom through all the generations of men from the + moment that He stood in Pilate's hall until He comes to judge the + world, our Lord bears witness to the truth, His witness and His + royalty being contemporaneous and conterminous to each other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. This perpetual + possession and announcement of the truth is indicated by another + image which is of constant recurrence,<a id="noteref_66" name= + "noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> wherein + Christ is the Inhabitant, His people the Inhabited, while both are + the House or Temple, for that in which God dwells is at once His + House and Temple. Thus Moses is said to have been <span class= + "tei tei-q">“faithful in all his house as a servant, but Christ as a + Son over His own house, whose house are we.”</span> Here the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" + id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> King who bears witness to the + truth is the God who sanctifies the faithful people by dwelling in + them and building them in the truth. It is not merely the individual + believer, but the whole mass of the faithful which grows up to be a + holy temple; and the ever-abiding Spirit of truth, whose presence is + the guarantee of truth, is the equally abiding Spirit of sanctity, + whose presence imparts holiness. The Son dwells in His own house by + His Spirit for ever: as He ceases not to be incarnate, He ceases not + to dwell in His house, and could falsehood be worshipped in His + temple, it would cease to be His. That was the work of heathenism, + when a false spirit had caused error to be worshipped for truth; the + specific victory of the Word incarnate was to set up a temple in + which the truth should be worshipped for ever, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the inhabitation of God in the Spirit.”</span> But + living stones make up this temple, that is, individual spirits, + endued with their own reason and will, yet no less fitted in and + cemented together by His grace, and so forming a structure which has + an organic unity of its own, being the House and Temple of One. It is + in virtue of this inhabitation that the Church is termed the House of + God, the pillar and ground of the truth, inasmuch as it contains, as + between walls,<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href= + "#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> the + faith <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name= + "Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and its announcement + and proclamation, that is, the law of the King of Truth declared by + His heralds. <span class="tei tei-q">“We speculate,”</span> says S. + Augustine, <span class="tei tei-q">“that we may attain to vision; yet + even the most studious speculation would fall into error unless the + Lord inhabited the Church herself that now is.”</span><a id= + "noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> And + again: <span class="tei tei-q">“In earthly possessions a benefit is + given to the proprietor when he is given possession; not so is the + possession which is the Church. The benefit here lies in being + possessed by such a one.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“Christ's + Body is both Temple and House and City, and He who is Head of the + Body is Inhabiter of the House, and Sanctifier of the Temple, and + King of the City.—What can we say more acceptable to Him than this, + Possess us?”</span><a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href= + "#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Again, to take + another image, which is the greatest of realities. What a wonderful + production of divine skill is the structure of the human body! Even + its outward beauty is such as to sway our feelings with a force which + reason has at times a hard combat to overcome, so keen is the delight + which it conveys. But the inward distribution of its parts is so + marvellous that those who have spent their lives in the study of its + anatomy can find in a single member, for instance, in the hand, + enough out of which to fill a volume with the wise adaptation of + means to ends which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg + 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it + reveals. There are parts of it the structure of which is so minute + and subtle that the most persevering science has not yet attained + fully to unravel their use. In all this arrangement of nerves and + muscles, machines of every sort, meeting all manner of difficulties, + and supplying all kinds of uses, what an endless storehouse of wisdom + and forethought! And all these are permeated by a common life, which + binds every part, whatever its several importance, into one whole, + and all these, in the state of health, work together with so perfect + an ease that the living actor, the bearer of so marvellous a + structure, is unconscious of an effort, and exults in the life so + simple and yet so manifold poured out on such a multitude of members, + a life so tender that the smallest prick is felt over the whole body, + and yet so strong that a wound may transfix the whole structure + leaving the life untouched. And, in addition to this physical marvel, + the incorporeal mind, which has its seat in this material structure, + and whose presence is itself its life, rules like an absolute monarch + with undisputed sway over his whole dominion, so that the least + movement of volition carries with it a willing obedience in the whole + frame, and for it instantaneously the eye gazes, the ear listens, the + tongue speaks, the feet walk, the hands work, and the brain feels + with an incomparable unity. The marvel of the body is that things so + many and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + various by the rule of the artificer impressed upon them are yet one, + concur to one end, and produce one whole, from which no part can be + taken, and to which none can be added without injury, the least and + the greatest replete with one life, which so entirely belongs to the + whole body that what is severed from the body at once dies. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Now as the body is one, and has many + members, but all the members of this one body, being many, are one + body, so also,”</span> says S. Paul, <span class="tei tei-q">“is + Christ,”</span> giving the name of the Head to the whole Body. What + the human head is to its own body, that our Lord is to His Church. + Perhaps no other image in the whole realm of nature would convey with + such force the three relations<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" + href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> which + constitute spiritual headship, an inseparable union, by which the + head and the body form one whole, an unceasing government, including + every sort of provision and care, and a perpetual influx of grace. + This is on the part of the head, while as to the body perhaps no + other image but this could equally convey the conjunction of many + different members with various functions, whose union makes the + structure, and whose unity is something entirely distinct from that + which all the parts in their several state, or even in their + collocation and arrangement, make up, for it is the life which makes + them one. Thus it is an unfathomed depth of doctrine, which is + conveyed in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg + 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + words, <span class="tei tei-q">“God gave Him to be Head over all + things to the Church, who is His Body, the fulness of Him who fills + all things in all.”</span> For though no language could exhaust or + duly exhibit the meaning of the kingdom or the temple in which the + abiding work of our Lord is indicated, we have in this title yet more + strikingly portrayed the intimate union and common life of His people + with Christ, and His tender affection for them, since the King of + Truth who redeems and the God of Truth who sanctifies is at the same + time the Head who by His own Spirit of the truth rules and vivifies + His own Body. If it be possible to dissociate the idea of the King + from his kingdom, or that of God from the temple of living souls in + whom He is worshipped, and whose worship of Him makes them one, yet + in the human frame to dissever the head from the body is to destroy + the propriety of both terms, and it is as a whole human body that the + apostle represents Christ and His people to us.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. Yet, as if this + was not enough, S. Paul goes on to delineate Him as the Bridegroom, + whose love after redeeming sanctifies one who shall be His bride for + ever, one who obeys Him with the fidelity of conjugal love, one whose + preservation of His faith unstained is not the dry fulfilment of a + command, but the prompting of wedded affection. The image seems + chosen to convey intensity of love, first on the part of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" + id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Bridegroom as originating it, + and then on the part of the Bride as responding to it. But no less + does the unity of person in the Bride, given by S. John as well as by + S. Paul, indicate in the Church something quite distinct from the + individuals who compose her. For she is the pattern of the faithful + wife in that she is subject to Christ; and in these words a fact is + stated,<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href= + "#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> a fact + without limit of place or time, which therefore marks that she who is + so described can never at any time be separated from the fidelity and + love due from her to her Head and Husband. And this is not true of + the individual souls belonging to her, for they, having been once + faithful members of the body, may fall away and be finally lost. The + Bride alone is subject to Christ with a never-failing subjection. And + He on His part loves her as His own flesh, a union of the two loves + of the Head for the Body, and of the Bridegroom for the Bride, which + is true with regard to Him of the Church alone, since individuals + within her He may cast off, but her alone He cherishes and fosters + for ever. It is indefectible union and unbroken charity with Him + which her quality of Bride conveys.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. And out of this + wedded union by that great sacrament concerning Christ and the + Church, of which in the same passage S. Paul speaks, that they two + shall be one flesh, springs the whole race, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the generation of whom is most completely + verified his title of the Second Adam. From the womb of the Church, + become from a Bride the Mother of all living, the Father of the age + to come bears that chosen race, and royal priesthood, and holy + nation, and purchased people. And here we see expressed with great + force the truth that all who belong to the Father's supernatural race + must come by the Mother. Her office of parent is here set forth; as + her fidelity and intense affection shine in the title of the Bride, + as her union, submission, and unfailing reception of life in her + title of Body, so in the title of Mother all the saved are borne to + Christ by her, as S. Cyprian<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" + href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> drew the + conclusion, <span class="tei tei-q">“he cannot have God for his + father who has not the Church for his mother.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In all this we see + the five<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href= + "#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> great + loves first shown by God to man, then returned by man to God; the + love of the Saviour, redeeming captives, and out of these forming His + kingdom; the love of the friend, who is God, sanctifying those whom + He redeems into one temple; the love which He has implanted in man + for self-preservation, since that which He so redeems and sanctifies + He has made His own body; the love which He has given to the + bridegroom for the bride, since it is the Bride of the Lamb who is so + adorned; and the love <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg + 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the Father for his race, since it is his wife who bears every child + to him. Why is the whole force of human language exhausted, and the + whole strength of the several human affections accumulated, in this + manner? It is to express the super-eminent work of God made flesh, + who, when He took a human body, created in correspondence to it that + among men and out of men in which the virtue of His Incarnation is + stored up, the mystical Kingdom, Temple, Body, Bride, and Mother. No + one of these titles could convey the full riches of His work, or the + variously wrought splendour of His wisdom, which the angels desire to + look into; therefore He searched through human nature and society in + all its depth and height for images whose union might express a work + so unexampled and unique. Rather, it is truer to say that these + natural affections themselves, the gift of that most bountiful giver, + were created by Him originally to be types, foreshadowings, and + partial copies of that more excellent supernatural love which He had + decreed to show to man, since first of all things in the order of the + divine design must the Incarnation have been. The whole structure of + the family, and the affections which it contains, must spring out of + this root, for nature was anticipated by grace in man's creation, and + must ever have been subordinate to it. And now, when the full time of + grace is come, these titles of things which by His mercy have lasted + through the fall, serve <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg + 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + illustrate the greatness of the restoration. For this, which has many + names, all precious and dear, is but one creation, having the + manifold qualities of redemption and sanctification, of organic unity + in one body, wherein many members conspire to a corporate life, which + life itself is charity, and in which is the production of the holy + race. As we gaze on the Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, and Family, + one seems to melt and change into the other. The Kingdom is deepened + and enlarged by the thought that the King is the eternal Truth who is + worshipped therein; and the worship passes on into the love of the + Incarnate God for the members of His own Body, whom He first saves, + then fosters and cherishes as His own flesh: and here again is + blended that tenderest love of the Bridegroom for the bride, which + further issues into the crowning love of the Father for His race. The + mode of the salvation seems to spring from the nature of God Himself, + since all paternity in heaven and earth springs from that whereby He + is Father of the only-begotten Son, who, descending from heaven with + the love of the Bridegroom for the bride, binds together in sonship + derived from his own the members of His body, the bride of His heart, + the subjects of His kingdom, who are built up as living stones into + that unimaginable temple raised in the unity of worshipping hearts to + the ever-blessed Trinity. To this grows out, as the fulness of Him + who fills all in all, that body of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Second Adam, of which in the body of the + first Adam He had Himself deposited the germ.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the angel + described to the Blessed Virgin herself that miracle of miracles + which was to take place in her, the assumption of human flesh by the + Son of God, he used these terms: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Holy + Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Most High shall + overshadow thee.”</span> When the Son of God, at the moment of His + Ascension, declared to His Apostles the creation of His mystical + body, by using similar words He referred them back to His own + conception: <span class="tei tei-q">“You shall receive power, the + Holy Ghost coming upon you:”</span> having already on the day of His + Resurrection told them, <span class="tei tei-q">“I send the promise + of my Father upon you; but wait you in the city until you be indued + with power from on high.”</span><a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" + href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> Our Lord + Himself thus suggests to us the remarkable parallel between the + formation of His natural and His mystical body. He who framed the one + and the other is the same, the Holy Ghost: the Head precedes, the + Body follows; because of the first descent, that Holy Thing which was + to be born should be called the Son of God; because of the second, + <span class="tei tei-q">“you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and + in all Judea, and Samaria, and to the farthest part of the + earth;”</span> and this is said in answer to their question whether + He would then <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg + 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + restore the kingdom to Israel: that is, the second descent of the + Holy Ghost forms the kingdom whose witness to Christ is perpetual; + forms the body with which and in which He will be for ever by this + power of His Spirit dwelling in it to the end of the world. We have + therefore here all the various functions and qualities which, under + the five great titles of Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, and Mother, + delineate His Church, gathered up into that unity which comprehends + them all, and from which, as a source, they all flow, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Power of the Holy Ghost coming upon + men.”</span><a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href= + "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> This + creation is as absolutely His, and His alone, as the forming of our + Lord's own Body in the Virginal Womb; it is the sequel of it; the + fulfilment among men of those divine purposes for which God became + Incarnate; in one word, the Body of the Head perpetually quickened by + His Spirit. And here we may remark those striking resemblances + between the natural and mystical Body which this <span class= + "tei tei-q">“power of the Holy Ghost,”</span> the former of them + both, indicates. For in the first the manhood<a id="noteref_76" name= + "noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> cannot + be severed from the Person of the Word, nor in the second can the + body of the Church be severed from Christ the Head and His Spirit. + Secondly, in the first the Person of the Word and His manhood make + one Christ, and in the second Christ <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Head and the Church the Body make one + complete Body. Thirdly, in the first the manhood has its own will, + but through union with the Godhead is impeccable and indefeasible; + and in the second the Body of the Church, though possessing its own + liberty, is so ruled by Christ and guided by His Spirit, that it + cannot fail in truth or in charity. Fourthly, in the first there is + an influx of celestial gifts from the Person of the Word into the + manhood, and in the second there is a like influx from Christ the + Head into His Body the Church, so that he who hears the Church hears + Christ, and he who persecutes the Church, as Saul before the gate of + Damascus, persecutes Christ. Fifthly, in the first the Head, through + the manhood as His instrument, fulfilled all the economy of + redemption, dwelt among men, taught them, redeemed them, bestowed on + them the gifts of holiness and the friendship of God; and in the + second, what He began in His manhood He continues through the Church + as His own Body,<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href= + "#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> and + bestows on men what He merited in His flesh, showing in and by the + Church His presence among men, teaching them holiness, preserving + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" + id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them from error, and leading + them to the eternal inheritance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is also by this + one <span class="tei tei-q">“power of the Holy Ghost coming upon + men”</span> that we learn how the Head and the Body make one Christ. + As in the human frame the presence of the soul gives it life and + unity, binding together every member by that secret indivisible + force, from the least to the greatest, from the heart and brain to + the minutest portion of the outward skin, so in this divine Body, + which makes the whole Christ, it is the presence of the Holy Ghost, + as of the soul, which gives it unity and life. The conclusion was + drawn by a great Saint, and no less great a genius, fourteen hundred + years ago, and I prefer S. Augustine's words to any which I can use + myself: <span class="tei tei-q">“Our spirit by which the whole race + of man lives is called the soul; our spirit, too, by which each man + in particular lives is called the soul; and you see what the soul + does in the body. It quickens all the limbs: through the eyes it + sees, through the ears it hears, through the nostrils smells, through + the tongue speaks, through the hands works, through the feet walks; + it is present at once in all the limbs that they may live; life it + gives to all, their functions to each. The eye does not hear, nor the + ear nor the tongue see, nor the ear nor the eye speak, but both live; + the functions are diverse, the life common. So is the Church of God. + In some saints it works miracles; in others gives voice to the truth; + in others, again, maintains the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> virginal life; in others keeps conjugal + fidelity; in these one thing, in those another; each have their + proper work, but all alike live. Now, what the soul is to the human + body, that is the Holy Spirit to the body of Christ, which is the + Church: what the soul does in all the limbs of an individual body, + that does the Holy Spirit in the whole Church. But see what you have + to avoid, what to observe, and what to fear. It happens that, in the + human body, or in any other body, some member may be cut off, hand, + finger, or foot. Does the soul follow it when cut off? As long as it + was in the body it lived: when cut off, it loses life. So too the + Christian man is a Catholic while he lives in the body; when cut off, + he becomes a heretic; the Spirit does not follow the amputated + limb.”</span><a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href= + "#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what is this + <span class="tei tei-q">“power of the Holy Ghost coming upon + men”</span>? It is the whole treasure of truth and grace, which dwelt + first in the natural body of Christ, which He came to bestow on men, + which He withdrew not when He ascended, but of which He promised the + continuance in the Person of the Holy Ghost, and fulfils by that + Person indwelling in the Church. It was the imparting the whole + treasure of truth and grace by such an indwelling which made it + expedient for Him to go, which made His bodily departure not a loss, + but a gain, which was <span class="tei tei-q">“the promise”</span> of + which He spoke on that last night, and which was expressly declared + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" + id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to be a perpetual presence, + leading, as it were, by the hand<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" + href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> into all + truth—an all-powerful, all-completing, all-compensating presence, + such as that alone is or can be which maintains the intellect of man + in truth, because it maintains his will in grace: and, instead of the + two wild horses of which the great heathen<a id="noteref_80" name= + "noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> spoke, + guides the soul in her course as borne aloft on those twin divine + yoke-fellows,<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href= + "#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> faith + and charity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Correlative, + therefore, to the Person of Him who is at once King, and God, and + Head, and Bridegroom, and Father, is that singular creation of His + Spirit, by which, in the Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, and Mother, + He deposited the treasure of the truth and grace which He became man + to communicate. It was not as individual men, living a life apart, + but as common children of one race, joint members of one body, that + the guilt of the first father fell upon them; it is only on them as + children of a higher race and members of a far greater body, that the + grace of the Deliverer is bestowed. The distinctions of race and the + divisions of condition drop away as they are baptised into one body, + and made to drink of one spirit. The new and supernatural life cannot + be communicated <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg + 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + save by this act of engrafting into a new body. As Eve from the side + of Adam sleeping, so the Church from the side of Christ suffering; as + Eve bears still to Adam the children of men, so the Church to Christ + the children of Christ. These are not two mysteries, but one, + unfathomable in both its parts, of justice and of mercy; but the + whole history of the human race bears witness to the first, and the + whole history of the Christian people to the second. It would be + amply sufficient to prove what we have been saying, that the first + communication of the supernatural life is conferred by being baptised + into one body and made to drink into one spirit. But this is not all. + There is a yet dearer and more precious gift, which maintains and + increases the life so given. Our Lord stands in the midst of His + Church visibly forming from day to day and from age to age that Body + of His which reaches through the ages; He takes from Himself and + gives to us. He incorporates Himself in His children. He grows up in + us, and by visible streams from His heart maintains the life first + given. Here, above all, is the one Christ, the Head and the Body. + This is but an elemental truth of Christian faith, though it is the + highest joy of the Christian heart. It was in an instruction to + catechumens that S. Augustine said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Would + you understand the Body of Christ? Hear the Apostle saying to the + faithful, <span class="tei tei-q">‘But you are the Body and the + members of Christ.’</span> If, then, you <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> are Christ's Body and His members, it is your + own mystery which is placed on the Lord's table; it is your own + mystery which you receive. It is to what you are that you reply amen, + and by replying subscribe. For you are told, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Body of Christ,’</span> and you reply, amen. Be a + member of the Body of Christ, and let your amen be true. Why, then, + in bread? Let us bring here nothing of our own, but listen to the + Apostle himself again and again, for in speaking of that sacrament he + says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘We that are many are one bread, one + body.’</span> Understand and rejoice. Here is unity, verity, piety, + charity. One bread. Who is that one bread? We being many are one + bread. Remember that the bread is not made of one, but of many + grains. When you were exorcised, it was as if you were ground; when + baptised, as if you were kneaded together with water; when you + received the fire of the Holy Ghost, it was your baking. Be what you + see, and receive what you are. This the Apostle said of the bread. Of + the chalice what we should understand is clear enough even unsaid. + For as to make the visible species of bread many grains are kneaded + with water into one, as if that were taking place which Holy + Scripture records of the faithful, <span class="tei tei-q">‘they had + one mind and one heart in God,’</span> so also in the case of the + wine. Many grapes hang on the bunch, but their juice is poured + together into one. So too Christ the Lord signified us; willed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" + id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> us to belong to Himself; + consecrated on His own table the mystery of our peace and unity. He + who receives the mystery of unity and holds not the bond of peace + receives not a mystery for himself, but a witness against + himself.”</span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href= + "#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the coherence + of the natural and mystical Body of Christ was at once exhibited and + effected in the great central act of Christian worship, and the whole + fruit of the Incarnation was seen springing from the Person of + Christ, and bestowed on men as His members in the unity of one Body. + Thus were they taken out of the isolation, distraction, and + enmity—that state of mutual strife and disorder which heathendom + expresses—and made into the one divine commonwealth; and thus the + Body of Christ grows to its full stature and perfect form through all + the ages of Christendom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And if there be + one conviction which, together with the belief in the Incarnation + itself of the Word, is common to all the Fathers, Doctors, Saints, + and Martyrs of the Church—which together with that belief and as part + of it is the ground of their confidence in trouble, of their + perseverance in enduring, of their undoubting faith in times of + persecution, of their assurance of final victory, it is the sense + which encompassed their whole life, that they were members of one + Body, which, in virtue of an organic unity in itself and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with its Head, was to last for ever. The + notion that this Body, as such, could fail, that it could cease to be + the treasure-house of the divine truth and grace, would have struck + them with as much horror as the notion that Christ had not become + incarnate, and was not their Redeemer. The Body which the Holy Ghost + animated on the day of Pentecost never ceased to be conscious of its + existence—conscious that the power of its Head, the Eternal Truth, + was in it, and would be in it for ever. Confidence in himself as an + individual member of the Body, the Christian had not, for he knew + that through his personal sinfulness grace might be withdrawn from + him, and that he might fall away; confidence he did not place either + in his own learning, knowledge, and sanctity, or in these gifts as + belonging to any individual Christian; his confidence lay in the King + who reigned in an everlasting Kingdom, in the Head who animated an + incorruptible Body. To sever these two would have been to decapitate + Christ.<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href= + "#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> The + thought that the Bride of Christ could herself become an adulteress, + and teach her children the very falsehoods of that idol-worship which + she was created to overthrow, would have appeared to him the denial + of all Christian belief. And such a denial indeed it is to any mind + which, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name= + "Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> receiving the + Christian truth as a divine gift, looks for it also to have a logical + cohesion with itself, to be consistent and complete, to be a body of + truth, not a bundle of opinions. Let us take once more S. Augustine + as expressing, not a private feeling, but the universal Christian + sense, when he thus reprehended the Donatist pretension, that truth + had deserted the Body of the Church to dwell in the province of + Africa. <span class="tei tei-q">“But, they say, that Church which was + the Church of all nations exists no longer. She has perished. This + they say who are not in her. O shameless word! The Church is not + because thou art not in her. See, lest therefore thou be not, for + though thou be not, she will be. This word, abominable, detestable, + full of presumption and falsehood, supported by no truth, illuminated + by no wisdom, seasoned with no sense, vain, rash, precipitate, and + pernicious—this it was which the Spirit of God foresaw, and as + against these very men, when He foretold unity in that saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘To announce the name of the Lord in Zion, + and his worship in Jerusalem, when the peoples and kingdoms join + together in one that they may serve the Lord.’</span> ”</span><a id= + "noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, to suppose + that anything which is false has been, or is, or can be taught by the + Church of God, is to overthrow the one idea which runs through the + titles of the Kingdom, Temple, Body, and Spouse of Christ, it is to + make the Mother <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg + 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + His children an adulteress, to deny that power of the Holy Ghost + coming down on the day of Pentecost, and abiding for ever, with His + special function of leading into all truth, that presence of the + Comforter in virtue of which the Apostles said for themselves and for + the Church through all time, <span class="tei tei-q">“It has seemed + good to the Holy Ghost and to us.”</span> With all men who reason, + such a supposition is equivalent to the statement that Christ has + failed in what He came on earth to do, for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Word was made flesh that He might become the Head of + the Church.”</span><a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href= + "#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> Next, + therefore, in atrocity to that blasphemy which assaults the blessed + Trinity in Unity upon His throne is the miserable and heartless + blasphemy which, by imputing corruption of the truth to the very + Kingdom and Temple, the very Body and Spouse of the Truth Himself, + the Incarnate God, would declare the frustration of that purpose + which He became man to execute, the falsifying of that witness of + which He spoke in the hall of Pilate, and would so annihilate that + glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to men of good-will, + which was the angelic song on the morning of His birth, and is + daily<a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href= + "#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> in the + mouth of His Bride. The truth can as little cease out of the House + and Temple of God as the Father and Son <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> can cease sending the Spirit to dwell in it: + the truth can as little cease to be proclaimed and taught in its own + kingdom as the King can cease to reign in it. The conjugal faith of + the Bride of Christ cannot fail, because He remains her Bridegroom. + The power of the Head, the double power of truth and grace, cannot + cease to rule and vivify His Body, because He is its Head for ever. + The Mother cannot deceive her children, because she is of one flesh + with the Son of Man, in the union of an unbroken wedlock.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been said + above that the power of that bond which from the origin of man united + the race to its head was shown not only in the guilt which the act of + that head was able to inflict on the body, not only in the exact + transmission of the same nature, thus stained, from age to age, but + likewise in that social character of the race in virtue of which such + a thing as a man entirely independent of his fellow men, neither + acting upon them, nor acted upon by them, never has existed nor can + exist. It was in that connected mass which this social nature + creates, that corporate unity of human society, that heathenism + appeared most terrible, because corruption seemed to propagate + itself, and evil by this force of cohesion to become almost + impregnable. But it was especially in creating a corporate unity + which should show the force of our social nature for good, as the + corruption had shown it for evil, that the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> power of the Restorer shines forth. The true + Head of our race came to redeem and sanctify not so many individuals + but His Body. Surely there is no distinction more important to bear + in mind.<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href= + "#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“No single member by itself can make a body; + each of them fails in this; coöperation is required, for when many + become one, there is one body. The being or not being a body depends + on being united or not united into one.”</span> And, again, beautiful + as the individual member, the hand or the eye, may be in itself, far + higher is the beauty which belongs to the body as the whole in which + these members coalesce and are one. Each member too has a double + energy, its own proper work, and that which it contributes to the + body's unity, for this is a higher work which the coöperation of all + produces; each a double beauty, its beauty as a part, and that which + it adds to the whole: and these two, which seem to be separate, have + the closest connection, for a maimed limb impairs the whole body's + force, and as to its beauty, as it is incomparably finer than the + beauty of any part, so is it marred by a slight defect in one part, + as the fairest face would <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg + 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be + spoilt by the absence of eyebrows, the fairest eyes lose their + lustre, and the countenance its light, by the want of eyelashes. It + is, then, in the beauty of the Body of Christ that the Christian mind + would exult, not merely in the several graces of those who are its + members, but in that corporate unity which they present. We see in + the course of the world that great image of the prophet, lofty in + stature and terrible to behold, whose head is of gold, whose breast + and arms of silver, the thighs of brass, the legs of iron, the toes + mixed of iron and clay. This is the form of the first Adam, seen in + his race; and over against it likewise is the one man Christ, forming + through the ages, gathering His members in a mightier unity. This is + the Word made flesh, the Second Adam, <span class="tei tei-q">“so + that the whole human race is, as it were, two men, the First and the + Second.”</span><a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href= + "#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much, then, is + the creation of the Church superior to the creation of a single + Christian as the creation of a body is superior to that of a single + bone or muscle. This superiority belongs to the nature of a body as + such. It is another thought, which we only suggest here, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">whose</span></em> + body it is. And here it appears in two very different conditions, the + one as it is seen by us now, the other as it will be seen hereafter. + There is, I conceive, no subject in all human history comparable in + interest to that which the divine commonwealth <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as such, when traced through the eighteen + centuries which it has hitherto run, presents. What nation can be + compared to this nation? what people to this people? what labours to + its labours? what sufferings to its sufferings? what conflicts to + those which it has endured? what triumphs to those which it has + gained? what duration to that portion only of its years which is as + yet run out? what promise to its future? what performance to its + past? What is the courage and self-denial, what is the patience and + generosity, what the genius, the learning, the sustained devotion to + any work, shown by any human race, compared to those which are to be + found in this race of the Divine Mother? How do those who are + enamoured of nationalities fail to see the glories of this nation, + before which all others pale their ineffectual fires? How do those + with whom industry is a chief virtue, and stubborn perseverance the + crowning praise, not acknowledge her whose work is undying and whose + endurance never fails? These men admire greatness and worship + success. Let them look back fourteen hundred years, when that great + world-statue seemed to be breaking up into the iron and clay which + ran through its feet. Then this kingdom was already great and + glorious, and crowned with victory, and filled the earth. The toes of + that statue have meanwhile run out into ten kingdoms, and the islands + which were forest and swamp when this <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> kingdom commenced have become the head of a + dominion which can be mentioned beside that of old Rome; but still in + undiminished grandeur the great divine republic stands over against + all these kingdoms, penetrates through them, stretches beyond them, + and while they grow, mature, and decay, and power passes from one to + the other, her power ceases not, declines not, changes not, but shows + the beauty of youth upon the brow of age, and amid the confusion of + Babel her pentecostal unity. If success be worshipful, worship it + here; if power be venerable, bow before its holiest shrine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if this be the + Body of Christ here in its state of humiliation, during which it + repeats the passion of its Head, if these be the grains of wheat now + scattered among the chaff,<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href= + "#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> what is + that one mass to be which these shall make when the threshing-floor + is winnowed out? We see the Body in its preliminary state of + suffering, where it has a grandeur, a duration, and a beauty like + nothing else on earth. What it shall be in its future state S. John + saw when he called it the great City invested with the glory of God, + the Bride adorned for her husband; and S. Paul hints, when he speaks + of the perfect man compacted and fitly framed together by what every + joint supplies, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg + 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + grown up to full stature in the Head. There is in the redeemed, not + only the exceeding greatness of the quality of their salvation, that + is, the gift of divine sonship; nor, again, that this gift is + heightened by its being the purchase of the Son of God, so that He is + not ashamed to call those brethren whom He has first washed in His + own blood: but over and above all this, one thing more, that the + whole mass of the redeemed and adopted are not so many souls, but the + Body of Christ. Faint shadows, indeed, to our earthly senses are + House and Temple, Kingdom and City paved with precious stones of that + mighty unity of all rational natures, powers, and virtues, each with + the perfection of his individual being, each with the superadded + lustre of membership in a marvellous whole, under the Headship of + Christ. The exceeding glory of this creation, which will be the + wonder of all creation through eternity, is that God the Word made + flesh, the Head and His Body, make one thing, not an inorganic, but + an organised unity, the glorified Body of a glorified Head.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once more let us + note the consistency and unbroken evolution of the divine plan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + creation of the human race the Body of Christ is not only foretold + but prefigured, not only prefigured but expressed in the very words + uttered by Adam in his ecstasy, the words of God delineating that act + of God, the greatest of all His acts of power, wisdom, and goodness, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" + id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whereby becoming man, and + leaving His Father and His Mother,<a id="noteref_90" name= + "noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> He would + cleave to the wife He so took, the human nature which in redeeming He + espoused. This, and no other, was the reason why Eve was formed out + of Adam. It is the beginning of the divine plan, which is coherent + throughout, which was designed in the state of innocency, which + remains intended through the state of guilt, which is unfolded in the + state of grace, which is completed in the state of glory, when what + that forming of Eve from the side of Adam, and of the Church from the + side of her Lord, what that growth through thousands of years, + through multitudinous conflicts, through unspeakable sorrows, through + immeasurable triumphs, shall finally issue in, shall be seen by those + whom the Second Adam has made worthy of that vision, and by whom it + is seen enjoyed.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name= + "Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IX. The Second Man Verified In + History.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Magnum + principium, et regni ejus non erit finis. Deus fortis, dominator, + princeps pacis.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + complete the view taken in the preceding chapter of the work of + Christ as the second Adam over against the work of the first Adam, it + is necessary to dwell at greater length upon a point of which only + cursory mention was made therein. It was our object there to bring + out the relation of Christ to the Church, but this cannot be done + without fully exhibiting the relation to the same Church of the Holy + Spirit. To the Incarnation the Fathers in general give the title of + the Dispensation of the Son, and as the equivalent, the result, the + complement and crown of this Dispensation, they put the Giving of the + Spirit.<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href= + "#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> This + Giving of the Spirit occupies the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> whole region of grace, and is coextensive with + the whole action of the Incarnate God upon men whom He has taken to + be His brethren. The Holy Spirit in this Giving is He who represents + the Redeemer, and executes His will, not as an instrument, not as one + subordinate, but as the very mind of Christ between whom and Christ + there can far less enter any notion of division or separation than + between a man and his own spirit. He is that other Paraclete, abiding + for ever, who replaces to the disciples the visible absence of the + first Paraclete, the Redeemer Himself: He is the Power constituting + the Kingdom of Christ; the Godhead inhabiting His Temple; the Soul + animating His mystical Body; the Charity, kindling into a living + flame the heart of His Bride; the Creator and Father of His Race.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This connection + between the Dispensation of the Son and the Giving of the Spirit was + delineated by our Lord himself when He first appeared to His + assembled disciples after His resurrection. As they were gazing in + wonder and trembling joy on that Body which had undergone His awful + passion, as He showed them the wounds in His hands and His feet, He + told them how His sufferings were the fulfilment of all that in the + Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms had been written concerning Him. + And thereupon it is said, He opened their mind to the understanding + of these Scriptures. It was thus that the Christ was to suffer, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" + id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it was thus that He was to + rise again on the third day. Hitherto He has dwelt upon His own + dispensation, as the fulfilment of all prophecy, now He proceeds to + its fruit: that in the name of this Christ repentance and remission + of sins should be proclaimed to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem. + <span class="tei tei-q">“And you,”</span> He says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“are the witnesses of these things. And, behold, I send + the promise of my Father upon you: but stay you in the city of + Jerusalem until you be endued with power from on high.”</span> Again, + at another occasion of equal solemnity, when He was with His + assembled disciples in visible form for the last time, at the moment + preceding His ascension, He uses the same emphatic words, charging + them not to depart from the city, but to await there that promise of + the Father, the baptism in the Holy Ghost, which they were to receive + in common together, which was to be the power in virtue of which they + should be His witnesses for all time unto the ends of the earth: the + power which instead of restoring a local kingdom to Israel, as was in + their thoughts when they questioned Him, was to create an universal + kingdom to Him in the hearts of men. It is then as the result of His + passion, and the token of His resurrection, that the Son sends down + upon His disciples the promise of the Father, that is, the perpetual + presence of the Spirit of the Father and the Son, the Spirit of Truth + and Grace, that permanent and immanent power <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> from on high, who, dwelling for ever in the + disciples, makes the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But these words, + so singular and so forcible, which He uses on these two occasions, at + His resurrection and His ascension, are themselves a reference to the + long discourse which He had held with His apostles on the night of + His passion. It is in this discourse, from the moment that Judas left + them to the conclusion of the divine prayer—and if we can make any + distinction in His words, surely these are the most solemn which were + ever put together in human language, since they are the prayer not of + a creature to the Creator, but the prayer of One divine Person to + Another—it is in this discourse that He describes the power from on + high with which, as the promise of the Father, He, the Son, would + invest His disciples. It is here He says that He would ask the + Father, who should give them another Paraclete, the Spirit of truth, + to abide with them for ever: whom the world would not receive, nor + see, nor know, but whom they should know, because He should abide + with them and be in them. This other Paraclete, coequal therefore + with Himself, whom the Father should send in His name, and whom He + should send from the Father, the Spirit of holiness as well as the + Spirit of truth, should teach them all things and remind them of all + His teaching. And His coming, though invisible, should profit them + more than His own visible presence. For while He <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> declared Himself to be the Way, the + Truth, and the Life,<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href= + "#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> He + revealed to them here that it was by that very way that the Spirit of + truth should lead them by the hand into all truth. It was in this + Truth, that is, in Himself, that they should be sanctified, and that + they should be one, the glory of the Incarnation, which had been + given to Him, passing on to them as the members of His Body, by the + joint possession of the spirit of truth and holiness, whose presence + was the gage that the Father loved them, as He loved Christ, the Body + being identified with the Head. In all this He was describing to them + the work of that other Paraclete, His own Spirit, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“who was to sanctify what He had redeemed, and to guard + and maintain possession of what He had acquired.”</span><a id= + "noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> This is + but a small portion of that abundant revelation, which our Lord then + communicated to His apostles, concerning the Power from on high with + which they were to be invested.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The words of our + Lord to His apostles at the three great points of His passion, His + resurrection, and His ascension, stand out beyond the rest in their + appeal to our affections. The last words <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of a friend are the dearest, and these are the + last words of the Bridegroom, and they are concerning His Bride. When + He was Himself quitting His disciples He dwells upon the Power which + was to create and maintain His Church, upon the gift of His Spirit, + His other self, in which gift lay the formation of His kingdom. It is + thus He expresses to us the point with which we started, that the + Giving of His Spirit is the fulfilment of all that Dispensation + wherein the eternal Word took human flesh.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not only + then the unanimous voice of the Fathers which sets the Giving of the + Spirit over against the Incarnation of the Son. They are but carrying + on that which our Lord so markedly taught; their tradition was but + the echo of His voice, as their life was the fulfilment of it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was a + double malady in man which God the Word became man to cure. It was + the whole nature which was affected with a taint, and the soul + through the whole race touched in both its powers of the + intellect<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href= + "#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> and the + will. That false worship which we have seen spreading through the + earth, and that deep corruption of manners which was interlaced with + it, were the symptoms of this malady. The perversion of the truth + concerning the being of God, and all the duties of man which grow out + of this being, was inextricably blended with the disregard of these + duties <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name= + "Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the actual conduct + of man. It was in vain to set the truth before man's intellect + without a corresponding power to act upon his will. Therefore the + apostle described the glory of the only-begotten Son, when He dwelt + as man among us, by the double expression that He was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“full of grace and truth.”</span> Viewed as the Head of + human nature, its Father and new beginning, He is the perpetual + fountain to it of these two, which no law, not even one divinely + given, could bestow. For the law could make nothing perfect, because + it could not touch the will; and the law gave the shadow, but not the + very truth of things. But when that unspeakable union of the divine + nature with the human had taken effect in the unity of one Person, + Truth and Grace had an everlasting human fountain in the created + nature of the Incarnate Word. Now was the fountain to pour forth a + perpetual stream upon the race assumed. And this it does by the + descent of the Spirit. In this descent upon the assembled Church the + Grace and Truth of the divine Head, with which His Flesh, carried by + the Godhead, overstreams, find themselves a human dwelling in the + race. Such an operation belongs only to the Divine Spirit, for God + alone can so act upon the intellect and will of creatures as to + penetrate them with His gifts of Truth and Grace, while He leaves + them their free will, their full individuality, as creatures. This, + then, was the range of that power <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with which our Lord foretold to His apostles + that they should be invested, and for which He bade them wait. The + whole field of truth as it respects the relation of God to His + creatures as moral beings, and the whole extent of grace, as it + touches the human will, for the performance of every act which a + reasonable creature can execute, made up the extent of that divine + indwelling in men which the Spirit of Christ assumed upon the day of + Pentecost. This was the power of the Holy Ghost which then came down + upon men. Through the whole divine discourse which preceded His + passion, our Lord dwells upon this double power, referring to Himself + as the Truth, to His Spirit as the Spirit of the Truth, to Himself as + the Vine, and so that root of grace which should communicate its sap + to the branches, and to His Spirit, who should take of His and give + it to them; uniting both ideas of Truth and Grace in that one word, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sanctify them in thy Truth,”</span> that is + by incorporation with me, who am the Truth, in my Spirit, who is the + Truth. And so the eternal Word, having assumed a human Body, when He + withdraws His corporal presence, proceeds to form that other human + Body, the dwelling-place of His Spirit, in which His Truth and Grace + are to become visible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + transfusion of Truth and Grace from the Incarnate Word to His + mystical Body is the generic character of the Giving of the + Spirit.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg + 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two differential + marks distinguish this giving from any which preceded the coming of + our Lord.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, the Spirit + should come upon them, but should never depart from them. + <span class="tei tei-q">“He shall give you another Comforter, to + abide with you for ever, the Spirit of Truth.”</span> This giving was + not an intermittent operation, whether extraordinary, such as had + shown itself in Moses and the Prophets, for their inspiration in + writing, or their guidance in particular trials, nor that ordinary + one whereby from the beginning He had enabled all the good and just + to lead a life acceptable to Him. It was a far higher gift,<a id= + "noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> wherein, + as S. Augustine says, by the very presence of His majesty no longer + the mere odour of the balsam, but the substance itself of the sacred + unguent was poured into those vessels, making them His temple, and + conveying that adoption in virtue of which they should not be left + orphans, but have their Father invisibly with them for ever. No + intermittent operation, and no presence less than that of His + substance, would reach the force of the words used by our Lord, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I will ask the Father, and He shall send you + another Paraclete, the Spirit of Truth, to abide with you for + ever;”</span> for that word <span class="tei tei-q">“other”</span> + conveys a comparison with Himself, from whom they had never been + separated since He had called them, in whose continuance with them + alone was their strength, their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> unity, their joint existence and mission, + without whom they could do nothing. All this to them that + <span class="tei tei-q">“other”</span> Paraclete was to be, in order + that the departure of the Former Paraclete should be expedient for + them. For in this continuity of His presence was involved the further + gift that the Paraclete was to come to them as a Body, and because of + this manner of coming He replaced the Former. Had He come to them + only as individuals, they would have suffered a grievous loss, the + loss of the Head who made them one. But He came to them as the Body + of Christ, and by coming made them that Body, being the Spirit of the + Head. That rushing mighty wind filled the whole house in which they + were sitting, and they all were filled together with the presence; + and as a sign that the old confusion and separation of mankind were + in them to be done away, speaking in one tongue the one truth which + was evermore to dwell with them, they were heard in all the various + languages of the nations present at the feast. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The society by which men are made the one Body of the + only Son of God belongs to the Spirit,”</span><a id="noteref_96" + name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> and He + came upon all together in one House to indicate, as He made, that one + Body. <span class="tei tei-q">“The mode of giving,”</span> says S. + Augustine, <span class="tei tei-q">“was such as never before + appeared. Nowhere do we read before that men congregated together had + by receiving the Holy Ghost spoken <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the tongues of all nations.”</span><a id= + "noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Therefore He came upon Pentecost as upon His + birthday.”</span><a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href= + "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is His presence + alone which confers four gifts upon the body which He vivifies.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the will, + says S. Augustine,<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href= + "#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> of the + Father and the Son that we should have communion with each other and + with Them by means of that which is common to Them, and by that gift + to collect us into one, which, being one, They both have; that is to + say, by the Holy Ghost, who is God, and the gift of God. For, says S. + Thomas,<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href= + "#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> the + unity of the Holy Spirit makes unity in the Church. It is not by + similarity, or by juxtaposition, or by agreement, how much less by + concessions and compromises, that unity exists in the body of Christ, + but because the Spirit is one, because all gifts, however various, + all functions, however distinct, are distributed by this One.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the same + reason truth dwells in this Body, because He is the Spirit of Truth. + Our Lord Himself has defined His great function in this particular, + to lead His disciples by the hand<a id="noteref_101" name= + "noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> into + all truth, to teach all things, and remind of all things which made + up His own teaching. This function began on the day of Pentecost, and + lasts to the day of judgment, and belongs to the Body of Christ, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" + id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and to it alone, and belongs + to it because it is animated by the Spirit of Truth. And this + animation is like the Head, the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever. + It is not of any past time more or less than of the present or the + future. It is the illumination which belongs to that whole last day, + through which the Body of Christ grows, teaches, labours, and + suffers, until the mortal day break into the light of eternity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His third gift to + the Body is that of charity, and for the same reason, because He is + this Himself. He who is not only the Unity of the Father and the Son, + but their mutual Love, coming as the gift of that Divine love which + redeemed the world by the sacrifice of its Maker, and as the Spirit + of that Love, who invested Himself with human flesh, creates in this + human dwelling-place that one charity which bears His name, and is of + His nature, and which in that one body joins the wills of men + together as His Truth joins their intellects. If the Body of Christ + has one prevailing charity, which reaches to all its members, and + encompasses the least as well as the greatest, it is because the + heart is divine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fourth gift + which He bestows upon the Body is sanctification, and it may be said + to be the result of the other three. This, again, is His own name and + nature, and many have thought and said, His personal attribute, to + make holy; and that, as Fathership indicates the First Person, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" + id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and Sonship the Second, so the + making holy names the Third, the bond of the most blessed Trinity. + But this, at least, may be said to be the final cause of the body + which He animates, the imparting of holiness. In virtue of this gift, + all the means and aids and rules of holiness are stored up in the + Body. And this does not mean that there is not a continual falling + away from the rule and practice of holiness in particular members, + but it means that while these, in spite of the Body's nurture and + solicitude, fall away from it and perish, the Body lasts for ever, + the rules and aids and means of holiness lasting for ever within it, + because it is the Body of the Spirit of holiness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now these four + gifts, Unity, Verity, Charity, and Sanctity, can none of them exist + in the Body without the other, and all of them exist together there, + because they have one divine root, that indwelling of the Holy Spirit + which is the fruit of the Incarnation, and whereby the mystical Body + of Christ corresponds to His natural Body. Of this Body the beginning + is Unity, the substance Truth, the bond Charity, the end Sanctity. + Countless heresies and schisms have sought to break up the + coinherence of these gifts, but in vain. The only success which the + indwelling Spirit allows them is to detach from the Body those who + are unworthy to remain in it, and to prolong for a time their maimed + existence by some portion of some of His gifts. Truth, for instance, + has such <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg + 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + vitality that many a heresy will live for ages on that fragment which + it has detached from the mass; unity and charity have such force that + even their shadow, that is, the joint possession of a fragmentary + truth, and the good-will thence proceeding, will prolong for a time a + sort of corporate existence. Holiness has so attractive a power, that + zeal and self-denial, which present the seeming of it, will make the + fortune of a sect for a time. But in the union and the completeness + of these four gifts, the great Body of Christ stands out through all + the ages inimitable and unapproachable. Alone it dares to claim them + thus united and complete, for alone it can present their + realisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These four gifts, + then, dwell in the Body in a higher degree than that in which they + adorn the members of the Body, as in it, by force of the Spirit's + indwelling, they ever exist together. Let us now see the qualities + which the Spirit imparts to the members of the Body, by virtue of + their incorporation into it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First of all is + the forgiveness of sins. The Spirit takes them out of that state of + alienation in which they are born, and unites them to His Body; and + in so doing He effaces both the birth-sin and every actual sin which + they may have committed. This is that plenary forgiveness of sins, + the pure gift of God unpreceded by any merit on man's part, which + greets the new-comer out of Adam's body of sin <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> into the Body of Christ. It is imparted + by and from the Body, and to its members alone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second quality + is that illumination of the mind, irradiated by the truth, the whole + compass of which exists in the Body. This illumination is the root of + the virtue of faith, by means of which the individual mind + appropriates the divine truth presented to it. The force of the + virtue differs in the individual as the keenness of sight in the + natural man, but the visual power is the same in quality in all. By + it the mind of the believer lays hold in ever varying degree, one + more and one less, of that great harmony of truth which is held in + its completeness, its manifold applications, and all but infinite + relations, only by the Body. For the truth with which we deal is not + unlocalised and scattered, the prey, as it were, of the individual + mind, which can hunt it down and take it as a spoil, but it is a + divine gift, orbed in the sphere which was created for it, the Body + of that Word who is the Truth. Hence the first question to the + applicant for baptism: What askest thou of the Church of God? and the + answer is, Faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third quality + is the adoption of Sonship, which flows directly from incorporation + into the Body of Christ, and to which man has no sort of title in + himself or from his own nature, but which comes to him only by + kindred with Him who, on the morning of His resurrection, greeted + that great penitent who bore the figure of the Church with that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" + id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> paschal salutation of the + Second Adam, <span class="tei tei-q">“Go to my brethren, and say, I + ascend to my Father and to your Father, to my God and to your + God.”</span> And the divine virtue of hope well corresponds to this + quality, the effects of which in a state of trial and conflict are to + so great a degree future and unseen. It seems, moreover, to be as a + special link and tie between the virtue which purifies the intellect, + and that which corrects the will and makes it obedient. Thus through + it we pass on to the fourth quality of Sanctification, which is the + completion of the other three and their end, the harmony of each + individual will with the divine will, the work of charity. That + divine virtue is the special fruit of the passion of Christ, which + was to gather up into one what sin had disunited and torn away, first + from its Author, and then from the order by Him created, which was to + heal the animosities thus introduced, and to change the world from a + conflict wherein each sought to better himself at the expense of his + neighbour, into a community cemented together with mutual affection. + It was with reason, therefore, that S. Augustine would not allow the + possession of charity, save in the unity of that one Body which + Christ had created,<a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href= + "#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> and + without charity there is no sanctification.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The four qualities + thus slightly sketched, forgiveness of sins, illumination of faith, + adoption to sonship, and sanctification by charity, which come to the + individual by and with incorporation into the Body, are not given to + him irrevocably, but are conditional upon his perseverance. They are + portions and derivations of that vast treasure of Truth and Grace + which the Body holds in their entireness and for ever, because of the + perpetual indwelling of the Spirit who makes its life, but which He + dispenses as it pleases Him to the members, and which He may withdraw + from them in default of their coöperation. Vast are the losses + thereby incurred, not to the treasure-house which remains + inexhaustible, but to those who fall out of it back into the world, + or rather that body of Adam from which they were taken. But these + losses touch not the beauty and the glory of that Body of Christ, + which goes on through the ages, and takes up its own, fulfils its + appointed work, and reaches its intended end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus on the day of + Pentecost a new Power, the Spirit of the Incarnate God, descended not + upon single men, but upon an assembly of men, binding it in a unity, + conveying to it a truth, kindling in it a charity, and working + through these a sanctification never before known; which Power, + thenceforth dwelling in that Body, was to <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> collect and draw into itself out of all nations + and ranks of men those who should form the Church, that is, the + Kingdom and Temple, and House, and Body, and Family of Christ. In it + was to work and from it to go forth henceforward to all time the + virtue of Him who had assumed our flesh, not transiently, but for + ever; in the Head and the Body, through the life of His Spirit, + Christ should teach and bear for ever that witness to the truth of + which He spoke in the hall of Pilate, and concerning which He said + that <span class="tei tei-q">“this gospel of the kingdom should be + proclaimed through the whole world, for a witness to all nations, and + then that the end should come.”</span><a id="noteref_103" name= + "noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> To the + continuance, the indissolubility, the purity of this power He has + pledged His word in such a way that they who deny it must in doing so + deny Him. He has even made the unity of this Body the special mark to + men of the truth of His mission, beseeching His Father in that last + prayer, <span class="tei tei-q">“Neither pray I for these alone, but + for those also who through their word shall believe in Me, that they + all may be one, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I in Thee, that they + also may be one in Us, that the world may believe that Thou hast sent + Me.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are three + analogies<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href= + "#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> which + illustrate this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg + 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + creation of our Lord—a creation in itself as singular as His + assumption of man's nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, that of the + relation between the soul and body. The soul is the life of the body; + the body, as it were, the mansion and home of the soul, its bearer. + Through the body the qualities of the soul become visible and known; + its powers exercise themselves, and personal unity so binds the two + together that we love or hate, admire or despise, the one for the + sake of the other; the grief of the soul acts upon the body, the + sickness of the body depresses the soul. Through the acts of the body + we learn the very existence of the soul, and in these acts it + portrays itself. Human nature has been so made by its Creator that + the qualities of soul and body, of spirit and matter, are imputed in + the individual man to each other. Now to the Body we have been + considering the Spirit of Christ is, as it were, the soul. It is + nothing strange, then, if it was His will to create such a Body, if + it be the result of His Incarnation, that the like effects which + exist in the case of every human soul and body should take place + here. To this Body also the power and virtue of its soul are + communicated; and, since Christ by His Spirit animates it, in + honouring it He is honoured; in despising it, He is despised. There + is an imparting to it of the qualities which He has; and thus it is + that unity and sanctity, truth and charity dwell in it as the + operation of His mind. Thus every man contains in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> himself, in the union of soul and body, + an image of that tie by which Christ and His Church are one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly, because + God has created man for society, He has implanted in him an + irrepressible instinct of communion with his brother men. This + instinct it is which, under circumstances of every possible variety, + results in one end, the State. The human commonwealth, whatever + external shape it wear, whatever division of its powers it make, + springs from this. In virtue of this original formation of man, that + he is made to live together, and gregariously, not separately, the + supreme power of government, the power of life and death, dwells in + the community, and obedience to it has a divine sanction. Thus, the + commonwealth has a variety of powers which the individual has not, + and not only so, but it also has powers which do not arise from the + mere aggregation of individuals, rather which belong to it as a + community, as a whole, for instance, sovereignty in all the details + of its exercise. But now the very object for which Christ became + Incarnate was to constitute a divine commonwealth. He is the King: it + is the tenderness of a God Incarnate that He calls and makes His + Kingdom His Body. The powers, then, which belong to the earthly + commonwealth belong, with the changes which the change of subject + carries, to the Divine. They who have so great a reverence for human + government, who respect in the nation an ultimate irresponsible + power, ought, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg + 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> if + they were consistent, when they acknowledge Christ as having come in + the flesh, to acknowledge His government in the kingdom which He has + set up. All that his country is to the patriot, the Church is to the + Christian, but in so much higher a degree, as the object for which + Christ came is above the needs and cares of this present life. Has + the City of God, then, less claim upon Christians than the City of + Romulus had upon Romans? Thus, in the natural duty of the citizen, as + well as in the compound nature of man, is contained a reminder of the + Christian's relation to the Church, and a picture and ensample of the + Church's authority.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thirdly, there is + the analogy presented by the transmission of natural life<a id= + "noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> through + the one flesh of Adam to all his race. As the breath of natural life, + once given to Adam, is continued on to all those sprung from his + body, the power of the Creator never starting anew, but working in + and through the trunk of human nature; so the supernatural life + springing from our Lord, as the gift of His Incarnation, is breathed + on the day of Pentecost into the whole Body of the Church to be + communicated from that Body for ever. Christ <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is to the one exactly what Adam is to the + other. As the Word of God, creating, joined to the inheritance of the + flesh of Adam from generation to generation the communication of a + spirit such as Adam's, by which double action we have the unity of + race, so the Word of God, redeeming, when He had taken our flesh as + the first-fruits of human nature, breathed forth from that flesh the + communication of His Spirit to the Body of the Church, by which we + belong to the race of the Incarnate God, and are become His family, + and make His house. Thus that which the body of Adam is naturally, + the Body of Christ is spiritually, and the descent of human nature in + its unity a picture of the Holy Spirit's unity working through the + Body which He has chosen. And this analogy is made the more striking + by the statement so often repeated in the Greek Fathers, that with + the natural life, as first given to Adam, was conjoined the gift of + the Holy Ghost, forfeited afterwards by his sin, and withdrawn from + him and his race, and now restored as the special gift of the + Incarnate God.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href= + "#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> Thus + the descent of the Spirit at Pentecost is a true and real counterpart + of the creation of man in Eden; but they who share it are become + kindred of God through His flesh, and by so sharing it together, they + form that society <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg + 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which failed through Adam's sin. In the first creation, the + Omnipotent Creator, in His bounty towards His favourite child, as + foreseeing the assumption of that nature by Himself, attached to the + gift of natural life the Spirit of sanctification; in the second, + having assumed that nature, He gave through His own Body, first taken + out of us, then crucified, now risen and exalted, the gift of the + Spirit, Who, with all the endowments springing from Him, as the + Inspirer of truth and charity, of unity and holiness, dwells in that + Body for ever.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in the union + of the soul and body, in the constitution and authority of the human + commonwealth, and in the race's natural unity, God holds before us + three analogies, which each in some respect, and altogether very + largely, illustrate His finished work, to which all natural + productions of His providence are subordinate, His work of + predilection, His work of unbounded love and sovereign magnificence, + the creation of that which is at once the Body, the Kingdom, and the + Family of the Incarnate Word.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all that has + gone before we gather this conclusion, that to become a Christian was + to enter into a spiritual and physical<a id="noteref_107" name= + "noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> unity + with Christ <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg + 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by + incorporation into that Body which He had created as the result of + His becoming man. This it was for the individual to become a + Christian. But Christianity itself was neither a mere system of + belief, nor an outward order representing that belief; but + <span class="tei tei-q">“the great and glorious Body of + Christ,”</span><a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href= + "#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> + possessing and exhibiting the whole truth of doctrine, possessing and + distributing all the means of grace, and presenting together to God + those whom it had reconciled with Him, and made one, as the members + of the Son by the indwelling of the Spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us now trace + the exact correspondence of the historical fact with the dogmatic + statement just given.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Acts of the + Apostles exhibit to us the creation of the divine society by the + descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. When they were all + together, the sound as of a rushing mighty wind was heard, which + filled the whole house wherein they were sitting, and tongues as of + fire were seen, the tongues apportioned severally, but the fire + one,<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href= + "#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> which + rested upon each, to kindle in all that eternal flame of charity + which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name= + "Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was to draw into one + the hearts of men, the fire of which our Lord had spoken as being + that which He was come to light upon the earth. Fire, whose inward + nature it is at once to illuminate and warm, to purify and unite, was + thus appropriately selected as the outward sign, both expressing and + conveying the fourfold office of the Comforter, who came to be + <span class="tei tei-q">“no longer an occasional visitant, but a + perpetual Consoler and eternal Inhabitant”</span><a id="noteref_110" + name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> of this + His chosen home. As each in that assembly spoke in the one tongue of + the country, he was heard by those present in the several tongues of + all the nations of the earth represented at that great feast by the + Jews who dwelt in them. And this was the mark, says S. + Augustine,<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href= + "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> of the + Church which was to be through all nations, and that no one should + receive the Holy Spirit, save he who should be jointed into the + framework of its unity; the mark which signified that the confusion + of Babel, dividing the race into nationalities jealous of each other + and perpetual enemies, was to be reversed and overcome by the one + Power whose force to unite <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg + 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + should be greater than the force of sin to sever; who should gather + out of all nations the City of God, fed by the exulting and abounding + river of His Spirit, the fountain proper and peculiar to the Church + of Christ: the mark of that one truth,<a id="noteref_112" name= + "noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" + id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which conveys and harmonises + and works out into all its details the whole revelation of God, and + so is the utterance of one voice, the voice of Christ; speaking to + all nations, not in the broken languages of their division, but in + the Unity of His Person, carried by His Body. We have then in the one + Fire the one inward power; in the one language its outward + expression, in the assembly its receptacle, the House of God. This + Body appears at once as formed and complete. In it sits and prays in + her silent tenderness and unapproachable grandeur, as the Mother of + the risen Lord and Head, and the Mother too of His race, the most + beloved, the most lovable, and the most loving of creatures,<a id= + "noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> whose + great function in the Church for ever is to pray for the members of + her Son, and to solicit the graces of His Spirit, which as the Mother + of the sacred race she gains and distributes to all and each that + belong to it, a Second Eve who corresponds to the Second Adam, as the + First Eve in the divine plan corresponded to the First Adam. In it + the Apostles, so long before chosen and designated by their Lord, and + having already received from Him portions of their supernatural power + on the day of His resurrection <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and during the forty days of His secret + instruction, teach and govern; in it Peter at their head exercises + that primacy, which, imaged out by a new name imposed at his first + calling, promised at his great confession, and confirmed and conveyed + on the sea-shore of the lake of Galilee, is exhibited with such + grandeur, as he stood with the eleven and lifted up his voice, to + describe to the men of Judea and the inhabitants of Jerusalem the + nature of the event which they were witnessing, and the fulfilment of + all the promises made through their prophets concerning that presence + of God in the pouring out of His Spirit among men in the last days. + That first discourse of his at the head of his brethren is the + summary as it were of his perpetual office of teaching and + promulgating the dispensation of the Christ in the midst of the + Church. Its immediate effect was the aggregation of three thousand + persons to the Body, who were told that this was the way in which + they should receive remission of sins and the gift of the Holy + Ghost.<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href= + "#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> The + subsequent teaching of Peter and the Apostles, accompanied with + miraculous cures, produced further aggregations among all ranks of + the people. And the mode of salvation for all time is pointedly + marked out by the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Lord was adding + to the Church day by day such as should be saved.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have only to + repeat the process which is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg + 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + thus described as having taken place at Jerusalem in the first months + after the day of Pentecost, by carrying it through the various cities + of the Roman empire, Damascus, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria, and between + these all round the shores of the Mediterranean, to have a just + picture of the mode in which the Divine Society grew and gathered + into itself more and more of those who listened to the truth which it + announced. What is important to dwell upon is that men uniformly + became Christians in one way, by being received into the Divine Body, + through which reception forgiveness of sins and the gift of the Holy + Ghost were conveyed to them. From the whole account contained in the + sacred Scriptures, and from all that remains to us of history, the + great fact is established for us that Christianity came into the + world at its first beginning a society created by the Holy Ghost, and + held together and informed by Him as its soul, who is sent down upon + it as the Promise of the Father from the Incarnate Son.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, it was in + and by their reception into this society that men received all the + fruits of the Incarnation; it was in it that all the gifts of the + Holy Ghost dwelt, and through it that they were dispensed. By hearing + the truth announced by its ministry penitence was engendered in the + listeners, itself a preventing grace of the Holy Ghost, which gave + inward effect to the outward word. As a working of this penitence + they came, according to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg + 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + instruction of the teachers, to be baptised. By and in the act of + baptism they were received into the divine society, and made + partakers of the full operation of the Spirit who dwelt in it. They + had the supernatural virtues of faith, hope, and charity infused into + them, each according to the measure of the grace accorded to him, and + to help the exercise of these virtues, that they might be borne as it + were with the wings of a Spirit, the seven-fold gifts of wisdom, + understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear, were + added to the soul. None of these virtues and gifts were possessed by + believers as individuals; all of them came to men as members of her + who was dowered with the blood of Christ,<a id="noteref_115" name= + "noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> and + whose bridal quality imparted to her children all which that blood + had purchased. In her was stored up that great, inexhaustible source + of abiding life, the Body and Blood of her Lord and Husband: in her + the redeeming Word gave direct from His heart the vivifying stream. + In her was the gift of teaching which illumined the understanding, + and not only drew from without, as we have seen, those who should be + saved from the ignorance of the pagan or the carnalism of the Jew, + but which erected in the world the Chair of Truth,<a id="noteref_116" + name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" + id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is, the rule and standard of + right belief, which was the continuance of the pentecostal gift, the + illuminating and kindling fire, and the speaking tongue of unity, + which the Body of Christ possesses for ever. It was by enjoying these + endowments together in her bosom, by the actions of a life pervaded + with these principles, by the joint possession and exercise of these + supernatural powers which at once opened to the intellect a new field + of knowledge and strengthened the will to acts above its inborn + force, that men were Christians. And those who remembered what they + had been as Jews, and what they had been as heathens, had no + difficulty in recognising such a life as the effect of a divine + grace, and no temptation to refer it to anything which belonged to + them as individuals, since its commencement coincided with their + entrance into a divine society, its growth depended on their + membership in that Body. Their union with Christ in this Body was + something direct and palpable; to them the several degrees of that + one ministry constituted by Christ were the joints and articulations + of the structure; the teaching thence proceeding as it were the + current of life; by their being parts of the structure they were + saved from the confusion of errors which swept freely round + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" + id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them without, through the + craft of men and the seduction of deceit.<a id="noteref_117" name= + "noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Possessing the truth in charity,”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“sanctified in the truth,”</span> was the + expression of that divine life in common whereby they were to grow up + into one, and be called by the name of their Lord,<a id="noteref_118" + name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> because + inseparably united to Him by the nerves and ligaments of one + Body.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this makes + manifest to us how Christians, while scattered through every city of + the great Roman empire, formed one Body. It was by virtue of the + unity of spiritual jurisdiction which directed the whole ministry of + that Body. The command of our Lord was, <span class="tei tei-q">“Go, + and make disciples all nations,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“proclaim the gospel to every creature;”</span> the Body + assembled and empowered at Pentecost was to carry out this command. + How did it do so? The teaching and ruling power was distributed + through a ministry wherein those of a particular order were equal as + holding that order: bishops as bishops were equal, priests as + priests. But not the less by the distribution of the places where the + ministry was to be fulfilled, subordination was maintained through + the whole Body. Had it been otherwise, as each Bishop had the + completeness of the priesthood in himself, his sphere of action, that + is, his diocese, would have constituted a distinct body. But no such + thing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name= + "Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was ever imagined in + the Church of those first centuries. The Bishops were, on the + contrary, joint possessors of one power, only to be exercised in + unity.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href= + "#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> The + unity was provided for in the Apostolic body by the creation of the + Primacy, without which the Body never acted, the Primate being + designated before the Body was made; the Primate invested with his + functions on the sea-shore of the lake of Galilee before the + Ascension, the Body on which he was to exercise them animated on the + day of Pentecost. Spiritual jurisdiction being nothing else but the + grant to exercise all spiritual powers, two jurisdictions would make + two bodies; a thousand would make a thousand; so that the more the + Church grew, the more it would be divided, were it not that the root + of all its powers in their exercise is one. A spiritual kingdom is + absolutely impossible without this unity of jurisdiction; and in + virtue of it the whole Church, from north to south and from east to + west, was and is one Body in its teaching and its rule; that is, in + the administration of all those gifts which were bestowed at the day + of Pentecost, and which have never ceased to be exercised from that + day to this, and which shall never cease to the end of the world. + Thus as it is through the Body that men are made and kept Christians, + so the Primacy is that principle <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of cohesion and subordination without which the + Body cannot exist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us carry on + the history of the divine Body to another point. How was the Truth + transmitted in it?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peter and his + brethren having received through the great forty days from our Lord + the complement of His teaching concerning His kingdom, were empowered + by the descent of the Holy Ghost to commence its propagation. And for + this work they use the same instrument which their Lord had used—the + living spoken word. They labour together for some time; after several + years they divide the world between them; but in both these periods + they found communities and supply them with everything needful for + complete organisation and future increase and progress by their + spoken teaching, which therefore contained the whole deposit of the + truth. The gospel of which S. Paul so repeatedly speaks was that + which he communicated by word of mouth, and S. Peter and all the rest + did the same. Communities were planted by Apostolic zeal over a great + part of the Roman empire before as yet anything was written by their + founders. The whole administration of the sacraments, and the order + and matter of the divine service, were arranged by this personal + teaching of the living word. All that concerned the Person of our + Lord, all that He had taught, done, and suffered, was so + communicated. One reason of this is plain. It <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was not the bare gospel, but the + <span class="tei tei-q">“gospel of the kingdom,”</span><a id= + "noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> which + was to be proclaimed to all nations. It was not a naked intellectual + truth of which they were the bearers, but a kingdom which they were + to build. They were not disseminating a sect of philosophy, but + founding an empire. They were a King's heralds, and every king has a + realm. Thus the Kingdom of the Word was proclaimed by the word spoken + through many voices, but as the outpouring of one Spirit given on the + day of Pentecost. This whole body of their teaching, therefore, was + one Tradition; that is, a delivery over of the truth to them by + inspiration of the Spirit, as the Truth who had become incarnate + taught it, and a delivery of this truth from them to the communities + which they set up. The first communication of the Christian faith to + the individual was never made by writing. How, said the Apostle, + should they invoke one whom they did not believe, but how believe in + one of whom they had not heard, and how hear without a preacher, and + how preach except they were sent?<a id="noteref_121" name= + "noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> It did + not occur to him to ask how should they believe in one of whom they + had not read. On the contrary, he gives in these few words the whole + order of the truth's transmission. He conceived not heralds without a + commission, any more than faith without trust in the word of the + heralds. But here is the great sending, at and from the day + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" + id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Pentecost, the root of + perpetual mission from which the heralds derive their commission; + they are sent, they proclaim, they are heard, they are believed, and + this faith opens the door for the admission of subjects into the + kingdom, according to the law which they proclaim. Thus are described + to us at some length the acts of that wise master-builder whose words + we have just cited; but though he laboured more abundantly than all, + all acted after the same manner. The Church was founded by personal + teaching, of which the living word was the instrument, and the whole + truth which was thus communicated was termed the Tradition<a id= + "noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> or + Delivery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We now come to the + second step. Before the Apostles were taken to their reward, the same + Spirit, who had instructed them that they were to found the spiritual + kingdom by means of the living word, inspired them to commit to + writing a portion of that great tradition which they had already + taught by mouth.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href= + "#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> But + they never delivered these writings to men not already Christians. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" + id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> One evangelist expressly says + that he drew up a narrative in order that his disciple might know the + certainty of what he had already been instructed in catechetically, + that is, that by that great system of oral teaching by question and + answer, that grounding of the truth in the memory, intellect, and + will, which Christianity had inaugurated, and that he wrote after the + pattern of those who had delivered over the word to us, having been + its original eyewitnesses and servants.<a id="noteref_124" name= + "noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> A + second evangelist declares that what he was putting into writing was + a very small portion indeed of what his Lord had done.<a id= + "noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> Another + very remarkable thing is that the Apostles are not recorded to have + put together what they had written themselves, or others by their + direction, so as to make it one whole; far less that they ever + declared what was so written to contain the complete tradition of + what they had received. But what they did was to leave these writings + in the hands of particular churches, having in every case addressed + them to those who were already instructed as Christians, and not + having left among them any document whatever intended to impart the + Christian faith to those who were ignorant of it. These writings were + in the strictest sense Scriptures of the Church, which sometimes + stated, and always in their form and construction showed that they + were adapted to those who had been taught the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Christian faith by word of mouth. + Moreover, it was left to the Church to gather them together, and make + them into one book, which thenceforward should be <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the Book</span></em>; + it was left to the Church to determine which were to be received as + inspired writings, and in accordance with the teaching already + diffused in her, and which were not. And this collection of the + several writings from the particular Churches to which they were + addressed into one mass would seem not to have taken place until at + least three or four generations after the whole order and + institutions of the Church had been established by oral teaching, + which filled as with a flood the whole Christian people. Then, + finally, the authority of the Church alone established the canon of + Scripture, and separated it off from all other writings.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now as the + planting of the Church by oral teaching was a direction of the Holy + Spirit, from whom the whole work of mission proceeded, so all these + particulars concerning the degree in which writing was to be + employed, and the manner in which that writing was to be attested, + and the persons to whom it was to be addressed, were a direction of + the same Spirit. That a spiritual kingdom could not have been + established save by oral teaching Christians may infer with + certainty, because, in fact, that method was pursued. That a portion + of the great Tradition should be committed to writing they may for + the same reason <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg + 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + infer to have been necessary for the maintenance of the truth, + because it was so done. That these writings were the property of the + Church—her Scriptures—may be inferred with no less truth, because + they were addressed only to her children, and presupposed a system of + instruction already received by those who were to read them. And, + finally, that they were to be understood in their right sense only by + the aid of the Spirit who dictated them, is, their being given in + this manner once admitted, an inference of just reasoning. It is + plain, when once these things are stated, that these writings were + not intended to stand alone, as ordinary books, and to be understood + by themselves. Not only were they part of a great body of teaching, + but a portion of a great institution, to which they incessantly + alluded and bore witness. They would speak very differently to those + without and to those within the kingdom of which they were documents. + They would remind the instructed at every turn of doctrines which + they had been taught, corroborating these and themselves explained by + them. Some of them indeed were letters, and we all know how different + is the meaning of letters to those who know the writer and his + allusions, and to those who do not. A word of reference in these + documents to a great practice of Christian life would kindle into a + flame the affection of those who possessed that practice, while it + would pass as a dead letter to those who <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> had it not.<a id="noteref_126" name= + "noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> Such + word, therefore, would be absolute proof of the practice to the + former, while it would seem vague and indeterminate and no proof at + all to the latter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From what has been + said we may determine the relation of the Church to the Scriptures. + She having been planted everywhere by the personal oral teaching of + the apostles and their disciples, being in full possession of her + worship and her sacraments, filled by that word which they had spoken + to her, and ruled by that Spirit in whom they had spoken, accepted + these writings which they left as conformable to that teaching which + they had delivered by word of mouth, esteemed them, moreover, as + sacred, because proceeding from the dictation of the one Spirit, and + finally put them together and severed them off from all other books, + as forming, in conjunction with that unwritten word in possession of + which she passed this judgment upon them, her own canon or rule of + faith. Thenceforth they were to be for all ages a necessary portion + of the divine Tradition which was her inheritance from the Incarnate + Word, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name= + "Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> distributed by His + Spirit. They were to be in her and of her. To her belonged, first, + the understanding of them; secondly, the interpreting them to her + children, out of the fund of that whole Tradition lodged in her, and + by virtue of that indwelling Spirit, who, as He had created, + maintained her; as part and parcel, moreover, of that whole kingdom, + of that body of worship and sacraments, which she is.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this brings us + to a further point of the utmost importance. For the Truth, which is + the subject matter of all this divine Tradition or Delivery from the + Incarnate Word, in order to be efficacious and permanent, approached + men in the shape of a society invested with grace.<a id="noteref_127" + name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> It was + not proposed as a theory which is presented simply to the reason, and + accepted or rejected by it. True, it was addressed to the reason, but + only when illuminated by faith could the reason accept it. Here, + again, it showed itself manifestly as <span class="tei tei-q">“the + gospel <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of + the kingdom</span></em>.”</span> It was the good tidings proclaimed, + not simply and nakedly to man's intellect, but as the gift and at the + same time the law of that kingdom which accompanied its publication + by the bestowal of power to accept it, and to make it the rule of + conduct. There were many whom the word, though proclaimed to them as + to others, did not help, because it was not mixed with faith in those + who heard it. S. Paul <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg + 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + preached to many when the heart of one Lydia was opened to receive + what he announced.<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href= + "#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> Thus + with the first hearing of the message coincided the beginning of + grace to accept it. But so likewise the Church supplied a storehouse + of grace for the continuance of the truth in those who had once + received it. Truth and grace, as they come together in her, so they + remain together inseparable. Wisdom, understanding, counsel, and + knowledge, which perfect the intellect, are linked in her with + fortitude, piety, and fear, which perfect the will. And this which is + true of the individual is true of the mass. In the Body, as well as + in each single member of it, and the more because the Body is an + incomparably grander creation, it is the sanctified intellect which + must receive, harmonise, and develope the truth. If the sevenfold + fountain of the Spirit's gifts is one in the individual, much more is + it one in that Body out of whose plenitude the individual receives. + Thus wherever the Apostles preached the word, if faith made it + fruitful, they bestowed the sacraments.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We shall see, if + we observe it closely, that it is a triple cord through which the + Holy Spirit conveys His life perpetually to the Body; and in His life + is the Truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, there is + the succession of men. As the Word Incarnate taught, so men bear on + His teaching. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg + 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Personal labours, intercourse from mouth to mouth, the action of men + on men, the suffering of men for men, this was from the beginning, + this is to be for ever, the mode of spreading His kingdom. It is not + a paper kingdom, it cannot be printed off and disseminated by the + post. But from His own Person it passed to Peter and the Apostles, + and from them to a perpetual succession of men, whose special work it + is to continue on this line by a chain never to be broken. These are + the messengers, or heralds, or stewards, or ministers, or teachers, + or shepherds. They are all and each of these according to the + manifoldness of the gift which they carry. Through the unbrokenness + of this line the continuity of the gift is secured. Through it the + Redeemer, King, and Head touches, as it were, each point of time and + space, and with a personal ministry lays hold of each individual + through the vast extent of His kingdom in time and space. And the + gift is as living and as near to Him now as it was when S. Paul spoke + of it as communicated by the imposition of his hands to his disciple; + nay, as it was when He himself breathed on His Apostles together + assembled, and said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Receive the Holy + Ghost;”</span> and will be equally living and direct from Him to the + last who shall receive it to the end of time. And all this because + these men who are taken up into this succession are the nerves of His + mystical Body, through which runs the supply to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all the members. This is the + indestructible framework which He has wrought for carrying on to men + His own teaching, until the whole mass grow up to that fulness of the + perfect stature which He has foreseen and determined.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second + succession is that of the Truth itself committed to these men. For + that plenitude of teaching which the Apostles delivered orally to the + Church has never ceased to rest in her, and out of it she dispenses + to all the ages her divine message. But part of this teaching by the + further ordering of the Spirit of Truth has been incorporated in + writing. And no one can doubt that this incorporation has given a + firmness and stability to the teaching which we do not see how it + could otherwise have possessed. Thus the great Tradition of the Truth + poured out upon the Church has been partly written and partly + unwritten; not as if there were two teachings separable from each + other, but one and the same which runs in a perpetual blending. + Through the written teaching we receive the very words consecrated by + our Lord's use: we have the priceless privilege of knowing how he + spoke; of catching the accents of His voice, and the look of His + eyes, and the gestures of His body, portrayed in that narrative. The + words of Him who spake as never man spake live and sound for ever in + our ears; and we recognise in the structure of His sentences, which + convey in a clause principles of endless application, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> forces on which a universe can be built, + the Father's Word, and the world's Creator, and the Church's Head. + Parable and apophthegm and answer, metaphor and plain speech, when + used by Him, are all impregnated with this power. And now that we + possess this peculiar language of the Word Incarnate, embodied and + fixed for ever to our senses as well as our affections, it seems as + if we could not have done without it. Then the mode in which His own + Apostles apply and illustrate His doctrines, and exhibit to us the + formation of the society which He came to institute, possesses a + value only subordinate to His own words. The written word, it has + been said,<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href= + "#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> gives + to the whole Church through all times a sense of the truth and + consistency of her teaching like that which the sense of personal + identity gives to the individual respecting his own being. And again, + what memory is to the single man, such is the whole tradition of the + Truth in the bosom of the Church. But it is through the unwritten + teaching deposited in her by the Apostles that she possesses the key + to the true understanding of that which is written. The one in her + practice has never been severed from the other. So dear has the + written word been to her that almost the blackest epithet in + language, <span class="tei tei-q">“traitor,”</span> is derived from + the name which she gave to those who, under fear of persecution, + surrendered to the heathen her sacred <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> books. With these in her hand, or rather in her + heart, she has directed and carried out that great system of + instruction which the Apostles laid down and established by their + acts. For to her what they did was as sacred as what they said, or + what they wrote; and numberless acts of theirs constituted her + teaching originally, and have prolonged and continued it on + since.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For, besides the + succession of men and the succession of doctrine, there is in her + likewise the succession of institutions. As chief of these, but + involving a number of subordinate rites, the Apostles with their + first oral teaching delivered likewise to the Church sacraments, + instituted, not by them, but by their Lord Himself, which at once + embodied the truth taught by them, and conveyed the grace by which + that truth was to find a home in men's heart and mind. No sooner was + the first teaching of Peter at the head of the Apostles uttered, and + the gift of forgiveness of sins and of adoption disclosed, than three + thousand persons received the double gift by the baptism which + followed. Thus they established in the Church seven great rites, + encompassing the whole of human life. The regenerating power which + was the beginning of the whole change that they sought to work in man + was stored up in one; the confirming and developing it in a second; + the feeding and increasing it in a third; the removal of obstacles to + it in a fourth; the supporting and restoring the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> human nature so elevated, when under + pressure of sickness and in fear of death, in a fifth; the blessing + and consecrating the union of the species in a sixth; and, finally, + the conferring that distinctive power which transmitted through all + ages her Lord's gift to the Church in a seventh. This is that great + and marvellous sacramental system by which the Church, dowered, as we + have said, in her quality of Bride with her Lord's blood, applies + that blood to His members, according to their needs. This is the + perpetual consecration of matter to a supernatural end, of which the + highest example is found in the Body of the Head Himself, and so it + is an enfolding of human nature with the Incarnation, and a + transforming it into the image of its Head. But such, likewise, is + the summary of the whole written and unwritten teaching of the + Church; such also, in few and brief words, the perpetual work of the + succession of men whom we have described.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the three + successions, of men, of doctrines, and of institutions, are woven by + the Holy Spirit together as three strands of a rope which cannot be + broken: in the union of these three His perpetual presence dwells; + and this is the spinal cord whereby He joins the Body with the + Head.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us take + instances wherein the force of this union is seen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first gift He + bestowed upon men when the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg + 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + gospel of the kingdom approached them was the forgiveness of sins. + This is a power belonging to God alone, as sin is an offence against + His majesty. The conferring of this power upon the Apostles by our + Lord Himself is explicitly recorded. But then two sacraments exhibit + the application of this power, first that of baptism, where it is + given plenarily; secondly that of penance, where it is given under + restriction. And further, an order of men is instituted for this + perpetual application. Here, then, we see the force of the triple + cord carrying on through all ages this great truth of the forgiveness + of sins in and by the Church of God. The very definite mention of the + grant of this power in the written tradition is not left exposed by + itself to the action of unbelieving reason. It has a double bulwark + in the two institutions which assert its perpetual exercise as a + matter of history, and in the order of men established to carry it + out.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Take again the + doctrine of the Real Presence, upon which infidelity falls as being a + proof charge of human credulity,<a id="noteref_130" name= + "noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> on + which faith and love rest as the sovereign gift of God. The recorded + words of our Lord Himself express it distinctly and emphatically; + further words of His in the sixth chapter of S. John allude to it + with equal force, and S. Paul repeatedly refers to it. But this is + not enough for the solicitude with which the Holy Spirit has + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" + id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> guarded it against all attack. + As the great central rite of Christian worship it is presented day + after day, in myriads of churches, from age to age, to the eyes and + hearts of men. The act in which Christians assemble, in which they + offer up at once their repentance and their requests, their + thanksgivings and their praises, to Him who has formed them into one + Body, lives upon this truth. And further, the order of men which is + the backbone of the Church, the great Christian priesthood, made by + our Lord in instituting the rite and conferring the gift, exists for + its continuance. Against such a truth, defended with such bulwarks, + both infidelity and heresy dash themselves with impotent rage in + vain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thirdly, we have + in the epistles of S. Paul a mention of the bishop's office and the + duties belonging to it. The mention is incidental, and the words not + so determinate as in the former instances given. Those who are + outside the Body, in their attack upon the necessity of episcopacy, + thought that they could cut through these words so as to make it + doubtful whether the office of bishop, as distinguished from that of + priest, was of original institution. But then history disclosed the + fact that when the last apostle was taken from the earth not a church + existed which was not under episcopal jurisdiction, and through the + whole world, by the institution of bishops, was fulfilled the + prediction,—Instead of thy fathers <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> thou shalt have children, whom thou mayest make + princes in all lands. Thus, while the written record was interpreted, + the unwritten teaching of the Church found a plain and unanswerable + proof in her invariable practice. All through her long history she is + seen to be governed by bishops; and the words of S. Paul, flanked by + the institution and the practice, are more than sufficient to + maintain the truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once more let us + take the primacy of S. Peter's see in the Church. This, as is well + known, rests in the written word mainly on three great passages of S. + Matthew, S. Luke, and S. John. These, indeed, are so specific and + definite that they convey the dignity intended as clearly as the + passages above referred to convey the forgiveness of sins or the Real + Presence. But over and above these, what an overwhelming proof in the + unbroken succession of those who exercised the primacy from the + beginning, and are referred to from age to age by the doctors, + fathers, and historians of the Church. Beside the charter of + institution stands the long record of the work wrought in virtue of + it, the witness of the Church to it in councils, the obedience to it + in fact. As the priesthood exists in attestation of the Real + Presence, so the primacy stands beside our Lord's words, first + promising and then conferring it, like the comment of eighteen + hundred years, uniform and consistent.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What we have here + applied in the case of the forgiveness of sins, the Real Presence, + episcopacy, and the primacy of the Church, might be carried out in + the case of many more doctrines forming a part of the great deposit. + But it may be well to cite one instance of a truth not contained in + the written word at all, which through the unwritten teaching of the + Church has passed into universal practice. This is not the abolition + only of the Jewish Sabbath, constituted as it was by the most express + divine command, for to that abolition there is a passing reference in + an epistle of S. Paul, but the further substitution of the day of the + resurrection, the first day of the week for the seventh, with a + modified observance. This rests solely upon the deposit of the + Church's unwritten teaching, corroborated by universal practice from + the apostolic times.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Viewing, then, the + transmission of the Truth as a whole, and the creation of the + mystical Body of Christ as its home, and the Holy Spirit as the + perpetual Indweller who fills that treasure-house of Truth and Grace, + we may consider its maintenance as secured by the triple succession + or tradition of men, of doctrine, and of institutions which are + inseparably joined together in that its home. But there are some + words of our Lord so distinctly and translucently expressing all this + statement respecting the mode in which His Truth was first and is + ever to be transmitted, and the conditions <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to which His perpetual presence is attached, + that we cannot forbear to adduce them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His parting + instructions to His Apostles on the Mountain of Galilee given by S. + Matthew run thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus approached them and + said unto them, All power has been given unto Me in heaven and on + earth. Go therefore, and make disciples all nations, baptising them + in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, + teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you; + and behold I am with you all days even to the end of the + world.”</span> We shall here note six things. First, there is the + root and foundation of all mission, the power bestowed upon Christ as + man, in virtue of the Incarnation: <span class="tei tei-q">“all power + has been given to Me in heaven and on earth;”</span> secondly, there + is the derivation of this power from Christ to His Apostles, in + virtue of which sent by Him, as He by His Father, they were to go + forth: <span class="tei tei-q">“Go ye therefore;”</span> thirdly, + there is the creation of the perpetual teaching power, the authority + by which truth was to be imparted: <span class="tei tei-q">“make + disciples all nations.”</span> He placed it in them as in one Body, + here fulfilling what S. Augustine afterwards expressed, that He + <span class="tei tei-q">“seated the doctrine of Verity in the Chair + of Unity.”</span> They, invested with one Spirit, His own Spirit of + Truth, should go forth and make disciples all nations to one Body of + Truth. It is the creation of a power new as the Incarnation, as it + unique, because <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg + 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + springing from it, founded and continued in it. He Himself is the one + Teacher whose voice they express: He who came on earth for three and + thirty years speaks for evermore in those whom He sends as one Body, + which calls no man teacher, because it is the Body of Christ, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the</span></em> Teacher: so that this function + of magisterial teaching is the great distinctive office of His + Church, coming from above, and invested with the authority of the + God-man, by which it draws to it disciples, whose consent is not the + ground but the result of its authority. Fourthly, there is the + creation of the sacraments, as containing the grace which is needed + for the reception of this Truth, and they are summed up in the first, + which is the beginning of the new life, illumination, and perfection, + and which is given in the covenant name of God, as the Christian God, + and is the mark of the triune Creator, Redeemer, and Sanctifier, + impressed on his own people of acquisition. Thus Grace is for ever + associated with Truth as the means whereby alone on earth Truth shall + prevail and be received, and that only as the teaching of that Body + whose Head is full of Grace and Truth. Fifthly, there is marked the + manner of the teaching, the nature of the magisterial office created + as that of a living body of men: <span class="tei tei-q">“teaching + them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you.”</span> + The fund from which this teaching is drawn is that whole + communication of truth <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg + 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + from the Incarnate Word Himself, given to them by word of mouth, of + which we have spoken above as the great Tradition or Delivery; and + out of which a part is incorporated in the written word, while the + whole dwells ever in the Body created to receive it, from which it is + to be imparted by perpetual oral teaching. The teaching, therefore, + rests upon the perpetual presence of the Body representing Christ, + and as in the days of His flesh He teaches through it, and has fixed + part of His tradition in it by writing, not to the exclusion of the + rest, but as the charter of a sovereign, the title-deeds of an + empire, to be perpetually applied, interpreted, and developed in that + whole system of institutions, by that whole race of teachers, in the + life of that one Body, which He was creating. And lastly, to this + perpetual living line of teachers, to this perpetual living doctrine, + to this perpetual living framework of grace, He has promised His own + presence without fail to the end. In this triple succession He is + seen, lives, and rules, and this is His Kingdom, His Temple, His + Body, His Bride, His Family, to whom He says, Behold, I am with you + all days, even to the end of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From these words + of our Lord, as from the whole previous argument, we gather that + while the Truth which Christ imparted to His Apostles was one and + complete, its development in its various relations was designedly + left as the proper <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg + 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + work of such a Body as He created. He Himself spoke as God in human + flesh, uttering, that is, creative words, which gathered up in a + sentence a germ of truth capable of a long series of applications, + and requiring them in order to be understood. And the aptitude to + make these applications, so that the truth proclaimed by Him and + committed to His Apostles should penetrate through and leaven the + whole human society, He gave to His mystical Body. Let us take an + instance of this. The Pharisees approached Him one day to entangle + Him by their words, and proposed to Him a dilemma from which they + thought that He could not escape save by ruining His influence with + one great party, or by encountering the danger of being charged with + seditious teaching by another. They put to Him the question whether + it was lawful to give tribute to Cæsar or not. Whereupon He asked + them to show Him the tribute-money, and pointing to the image of the + emperor upon it, uttered those famous words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Render therefore to Cæsar the things which are Cæsar's, + and to God the things which are God's.”</span> Now these words were + laid up in the treasury of His Church, and by them she has had to + determine the relation between the civil and the spiritual powers in + the society created by Him who spake them. Here is a vast development + from a small seed: but it is a seed cast by the world's Creator and + the Body's Head. And His <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg + 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + teaching is full of such seeds, as the history of His Church is one + great process of developing and harmonising and conveying to man the + truth thus cast into the fallows of her soil. It is not new truth, + for He gave the germ, and no power in man could have developed it + without the germ, any more than it could produce the oak without the + acorn. It is the same truth, as He taught it, but with that process + passed upon it which He intended when He gave it in such a form, and + when He made a living Body, to be called by His name, to propagate + His teaching, to collect His members into one, and to fill the earth + with the knowledge which He brought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a work, + therefore, the root and authorisation of which we have been + attempting to delineate in this chapter, stretches over the whole + field which Truth and Grace occupy, and over all the relations of men + which are summed up in what they are to believe and what they are to + do. These ramifications are all but endless. But to all these extends + that giving of the Holy Ghost in His fourfold character of the Spirit + of Unity, Verity, Charity, and Sanctity, which is the result of the + Incarnation, and which makes the Church. What we have said here has a + special relation to Truth, and to Christian morals as resting upon + Christian dogma. But it is impossible to separate Truth from Grace, + in their actual operation as powers: faith and charity in the + Christian are linked together, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> as the intellect and the will are one soul. + What we have said is but an introduction to a sketch of the great + evolution of dogmatic truth through eighteen centuries: but in + recording its rise, the secret of its growth, and the source of its + strength, it was impossible not to bring out the great fact that + Christianity was nothing less than a divine life produced in the + world over against the existing heathenism, and laying hold of the + whole soul of man, in which, as we have just said, intellect and will + are inseparable. It did not consist in anything which individuals + believed, however true; but in a society of which Truth and Grace + were the joint spring, and it was produced in the midst of a world + which had to a great extent forfeited both Truth and Grace, while + both returned to it as the gift of Christ assuming man's nature. This + error and distraction of heathenism, and this great unity of + Christian life grounded in faith and charity which rose up against + it, were profoundly felt by all the Fathers, being eye-witnesses of + the old world and the new. Their writings express it again and again, + with the vividness which only eye-witnesses, who are likewise actors + and sufferers, feel. In nothing, perhaps, do they so differ from + modern writers as in the energy with which they appreciate the + supernatural character of the Christian, and the wonderful being and + endowment of that Christian Body which impressed this character on + its members. One cause, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg + 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we + may suppose, of this was the sight of heathenism before them with all + its impurities and its impotence to produce good. So they were not + even tempted to that naturalism which is the besetting sin of our age + and these countries. It would have seemed to them not only an + ingratitude but an absurdity to refer to the inborn force of humanity + a change equally of the intellect and of the will which they saw to + belong only to the power of Christ revealed in His Church. We will + cite one such passage as a conclusion to this discussion, and because + it represents the whole train of thought which we have been drawing + out.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href= + "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Of this sacrament, this sacrifice, this priest, this + God, before, having been made of a woman, He entered on His mission, + all sacred and mystical, angelic and miraculous appearances to our + fathers, as well as their own deeds, were resemblances, in order that + every creature might in a manner by its acts speak of that One + destined to come, in whom should be the salvation of all that were to + be restored from death. For as we had started away from the one true + supreme God by the injustice of impiety, and fallen out of harmony + with Him, and become unstable as water, and wasted ourselves on a + multitude of vanities, rent in pieces, and hanging in tatters to + every piece, need was there that by the will and command <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of a compassionating God this multitude + of objects itself should utter a cry in unison, calling for One to + come; and that thus called upon this One should come, and that the + multitude should attest together that the One had come: and so we, + discharged from the burden of this multitude, should come to One; and + dead in our soul by many sins, and from our sin doomed to death in + the flesh, should love that One, who, being without sin, died for us + in the flesh: and believing on Him when risen, and with Him rising + again in the Spirit through faith, should be justified, being in the + One Just made one: and should not despair of rising again in our very + flesh, beholding our Head being One going before His many members; in + whom now, cleansed by faith, and hereafter restored by vision, and + reconciled by the Mediator to God, we might inhere in the One, enjoy + the One, and continue One for ever.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thus the Son of God, Himself at once the Word of God and + Son of man, Mediator of God and men, equal to the Father by the unity + of the godhead, and partaker of us through the assumption of the + manhood, interceding with the Father for us through that which was + man, yet not concealing that as God He was One with the Father, thus + speaks: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Neither pray I for these alone, but + for those also who shall believe through their word on Me; that all + may be one, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and I in Thee, that they also + may be One <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg + 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + Us, that the world may believe that Thou hast sent Me. And the glory + which Thou gavest Me, I have given them, that they may be One as we + also are One.’</span> He said not, that I and they may be One thing, + although in that He is the Head of the Church, and the Church His + Body, He might say, I and they not One thing, but One person, because + the Head and the Body is One Christ. But marking His Godhead as + consubstantial with the Father (whence in another place He says, I + and the Father are One thing), He wills that His own should be One + thing in their own kind, that is, in the consubstantial parity of the + same nature, but in Him, because in themselves they could not, as + severed from each other by diversity of pleasures, desires, and + impurities of sin. From these they are cleansed through the Mediator, + so as to be One Thing in Him, not merely by the same nature in which + all from mortal men become equal to the angels, but likewise by the + same will breathing in perfect harmony together into the same + beatitude, welded, as it were, by the fire of charity into One + Spirit. For this is the force of His words, That they may be One, as + We also are One: that as the Father and the Son are One not only in + equality of substance, but also in will, so these also between whom + and God the Son is Mediator, may be One Thing not merely by being of + the same nature, but also by the same society of affection. And the + very point that He is Mediator, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> by whom we are reconciled to God, He indicates + in the words, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I in them and Thou in Me, that + they may be consummated into One.’</span> Thus as through the + mediator of death we had receded from our Creator, stained and + alienated, so through the Mediator of life we might be purified and + reconciled, wherein consist our true peace and stable union with + Him.”</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name= + "Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter X. The First Age Of The Martyr + Church.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Magnum hæreditatis mysterium! Templum Dei factus est + uterus nescientis virum. Non est pollutus ex ea carnem assumens. + Omnes gentes venient dicentes, Gloria tibi, + Domine.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Antiphon on Vespers of + Circumcision.</span></span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The world which + Augustus and Tiberius ruled was not conscious of the fact that there + was an order of truth, and of morality based upon that truth, the + maintenance of which was to be purchased, and cheaply purchased, with + the loss of life, or of all that made life valuable. This world was + indeed familiar with the thought and with the practice of sacrificing + life for one object—an object which collected all the natural + affections and interests of a man together, and presented them to him + in the most attractive form, his country. Greek and Roman history, + and indeed the history of all nations up to that time, had been full + of instances in which privations and sufferings were endured, and, if + necessary, life itself given up for wife and children, for the dear + affections of house and home, for friends, for freedom, for + fatherland. Man, civilised and uncivilised, was alike capable of + this, and capable of it in profusion. Rome had <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> many a Regulus and Sparta many a Leonidas + in the humblest ranks of their citizens: Gaul had thousands as noble + as Vercingetorex, and Spain not one but many Numantias. Human nature + had never been wanting in the courage to die for the visible goods of + human life. But to labour, to combat, to endure pain, sorrow, + privations, to suffer in every form for the invisible goods of a + future life, to recognise, that is, an inviolable order of religion + and morality, so far superior to all that a man can grasp and hold in + his possession, to wife, children, goods, friends, freedom, and + fatherland, and to life adorned and crowned with these, that any or + all of these, and life itself, are to be sacrificed for its + preservation; this may be said to be a thought of which the whole + heathen world ruled by Augustus and Tiberius was unconscious.<a id= + "noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> For + other reasons also it was familiar enough with the sacrifice of life, + since the continual practice of war and the permanent institution of + slavery had made human life the cheapest of all things in its eyes. + And further, to die rather than to live dishonoured was still the + rule of the nobler among the millions who yielded to the sway of + Augustus. But to die for the maintenance <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of moral truth, that is, for faith,—this was + known indeed to the Jews, who had already their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“cloud of witnesses”</span> to it; but it was unknown to + heathendom, which has in all its ranks and times but one man<a id= + "noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> to + offer whose death approaches to such a sacrifice, and therefore + shines with incomparable lustre among all deeds of purely human + heroism. But the death of Socrates found in this no imitators, he + created here no line of followers; and he stands alone in this + greatness, an exception to an otherwise invariable rule.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, in our + two preceding chapters we have been describing something much more + than the exhibition of this order of truth; that is, we have set + forth the union of it with a Person, who both exhibits it in Himself, + and is the source of it to others. And the difference between these + two things is very great. Many at different times have said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I teach the truth.”</span> One only has + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the Truth:”</span> and to say it + is the most emphatic indirect assumption of Godhead which can be + conceived. And with it that One also joined a similar expression, + containing the same assumption of Godhead, and which equally was + never approached by any other teacher, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am + the Life.”</span> The union of the Truth at once and of the Life with + His Person, which is thus become the root of both to human nature, + was the subject of the last two <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> chapters. Now, as we have said, that there was + an order of truth sacred and inviolable above all things, was borne + witness to by the Hebrew martyrs, and therefore was not new to the + chosen race of Israel, though it was new to heathendom, at the time + at which our Lord appeared. But the union of the Truth and of the + Life with the Person of One appearing visibly in the world as man, + was as new to the Hebrews as to the heathen, was an absolute novelty + to human nature. And so the Christian Faith also, as a system of + belief and action, that is, as embracing the mind and the will of + man, as giving both Truth and Life, is entirely new in this respect; + that in this double action it is in its origin and in its whole + course and maintenance bound up with a Person. Thus all which it + teaches is not naked truth, unlocalised as it were, and impersonal, + but is the development of relations in which the disciples of Christ + stand to Him; for instance, as King, as God, as Head, as Bridegroom, + as Father. As these, He is at once The Truth and the Life. Thus it is + that the Christian Faith flows out of the Person of Christ the + God-man; and, as its Truth is centered in that Person, so also its + continuous Life depends on Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And further, as + the connection of doctrine, or truth, and of life, that is, action, + with a Person is the point from which all this movement springs, in + which respect we have said it was absolutely <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> new, so the term to which it reaches is the + creation of something in both these things correlative to that + Person, the creation of a Kingdom, a Temple, a Body, a Mother, a + Race, in which respect also the term is as new as that from which it + springs. That He is the Truth and the Life is shown in this creation, + which has a distinctive character, as He has, an unique existence, + and an organic unity with Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The subject on + which we are now employed is to describe as an historic fact how the + duty of maintaining, propagating, and dying for the truth and conduct + thus identified with the Person of Christ, was carried out through + many generations and under difficulties which seemed to preclude the + possibility of its success; and to show the means by which this great + creation, starting from the day of Pentecost, made a home and + established itself in the Roman empire, by which, after a conflict of + nearly three hundred years, it was finally recognised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The worship of the + one true God had been fixed in the children of Abraham, Isaac, and + Jacob, as the faith which made them a nation, that is, as the dogma + on which their national existence was so based, that through + maintaining it they were to continue a people. The Jewish polity + lived in and by this belief, and, as a nation, was its prophet. + Certainly, this was the noblest form which nationalism has ever + assumed. Yet it <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg + 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was + nationalism still; and the proselyte who would enter into the full + worship of the God of Abraham and all its privileges had to become a + Jew. But now, instead of this bond another was substituted, + signifying that the King of the Jews who had appeared was come as the + saviour of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">man</span></em>, not of this or of that nation. + The bond is therefore placed at the point which constituted the + salvation of the whole race, that is in the Person of the God-man, + and by this the corporation was put beyond the bounds of a + nationality, and made coextensive with the world. The Christian creed + was formed round the Person, the actions, and the sufferings of + Christ. Now here, precisely in what constituted the character, the + greatness, and the glory of the Christian faith, was seated the + principle and the beginning of the persecution which it encountered + from the Roman empire. In that empire every species of idolatry<a id= + "noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> had a + right of homestead as the national or tribe religion of any one of + its constituent parts; and the worship of even one God, exclusive as + that Jewish worship was of the whole heathen pantheon, was allowed by + the laws of Rome to the Jews, because he was considered <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their national god. But the Christians + had no such justification in Roman eyes for their exclusive worship. + They were not a nation nor a province of the empire; they had not, + therefore, that title for their worship which constituted the charter + of toleration to all besides, including the Jew, who worshipped the + same God. For the Christians worshipped Him, not as their ancestral + God, but as the Father of that Son who had taken human flesh, and + become the Saviour of men. Their worship of the one true God was not + only exclusive, but in and through the fact of the Incarnation + claimed the homage of all men to it. It knew of no bond of + brotherhood but in Him who had deigned to call men His brethren. Thus + its special character and preëminent glory were the cause of its + persecution, and from the moment that it came before the notice of + the Roman governor not as a Jewish sect but as a distinct belief, it + was considered as not a lawful religion. Thus too it was that the + selfsame point which kindled Jewish hatred entailed Roman + persecution. The Christian faith was a mortal offence to the Jew + because it extended what had been his special privileges to all the + Gentiles. He abhorred the substitution of the Person of the God-man + for the race of Abraham after the flesh; as the Roman at once + despised and hated a worship which not only adhered to one God, but + dethroned from his political supremacy the capitoline Jupiter, and + whose title rested <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg + 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not + on tradition and national inheritance, but on a fact touching the + whole race of man, and therefore claiming the allegiance of the whole + race—the assumption of human nature by a divine Person. Thus the + doctrine in which lay the whole creative force, the truth and the + life of Christianity, was that which from the first caused the + dislike of the Jew and the persecution of the Gentile—the kingship of + Christ, involving the headship of a universal religion, and a power + which was not that of Cæsar.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have, then, now + to treat of a period of 280 years, homogeneous in its character from + the beginning to the end, which is, that it is the carrying out by a + people ever increasing in number and strength of that good confession + made before Pontius Pilate—that witness at its proper time of which + S. Paul<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href= + "#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> in its + first stage said that he was the herald and apostle. The course and + life of Christians during these ten generations is to be the + prolongation of this testimony, the embodiment of this confession. It + is as soldiers, imitators, followers of one Chief, that all appear on + the scene in their respective order.<a id="noteref_136" name= + "noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> It is + by a direct virtue drawn from the cross of that Chief that they move + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" + id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> onward to their own passion. + They endure and they conquer simply as under His command, and because + He endured and conquered before them. Their oath of military fidelity + is the bond of their discipline; they prevail because they are His, + and because they are one in Him:</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And they + stand in glittering ring</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Round their warrior God and + King—</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Who before and for them + bled—</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">With their robes of ruby + red,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">And their swords of cherub + flame.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole process + and cause of Christians during this long period, the ground of their + accusation, the conduct and principles of the judges, and their + judgment, are summed up as in a parable in that scene which passed + before Pilate, while the subsequent day of Pentecost is in the same + manner an image of the final result won in these three hundred years. + For as the crucifixion of the Truth in the Person of Christ is + followed by the descent of the Holy Ghost forming the Church, so the + persecution and crucifixion of the truth in ten generations of His + people is followed by the empire's public recognition of His eternal + kingdom—of that Body of Christ seen visibly in a council of its + prelates assembling freely from all lands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Take first the + seventy years which form the Apostolic age. What do we find as the + result when S. John, the last apostle, is taken away? In a large + number of cities throughout the Roman empire a community has been + planted after <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg + 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + pattern of that which we have described as arising at Jerusalem, and + by the same means, the power of oral teaching. Every such community + has at its head its bishop, or angel, who sums up and represents in + his own person the people over which he presides. This is exactly the + picture presented to us at the close of this period by S. John in the + Apocalypse, when he is directed by our Lord personally appearing to + him to write seven letters to as many bishops of cities on the + seaboard of the province of Asia. Each, with his people, is addressed + as a unit. One, <span class="tei tei-q">“I know thy works, and thy + labour, and thy endurance, and how thou canst not bear those which + are evil;”</span> a second, <span class="tei tei-q">“Fear not what + thou art about to suffer; behold, the devil shall cast some of you + into prison;”</span> a third, <span class="tei tei-q">“I have against + thee some few things, that thou hast there some who hold the doctrine + of Balaam.”</span><a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href= + "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> Each + has around him his council of priests, his ministering deacons, his + faithful people. The last apostle is still living; but in all these + communities many exist, both of teachers and taught, who have learned + Christian doctrine, either from the mouth of an apostle or the + comrade of an apostle—a Mark, a Luke, a Silvanus, a Clemens. Thus + they live mainly upon oral teaching: the voice which went forth from + the day of Pentecost is sounding freshly in their ears. Doctrine is + in the stage of simple tradition and authority. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The writings of the New Testament are + completed, but being addressed to various parts of the Church, are + best known to those for whom they were written. They are not yet + collected and made the common patrimony of the whole Church. S. John + leaves the earth without performing any such function; without + setting the seal of his apostolical authority upon the New Testament + as a whole; nay, the authorship of some of his own writings, as we + now receive them, will be partially contested after his death before + their final reception. Of the absolute number of these Christian + communities, and of the multitude they severally embrace, we have no + account; we can form no estimate, save to infer that the whole number + of the faithful, at the end of this period, was very small in + comparison with the mass out of which they had been drawn. Still it + was a germ with a living force of expansion, planted in every + considerable spot of the empire; and wherever it was planted, a + Christian people, in the full sense of the word, existed, having a + complete spiritual life of its own, possessing the sacraments which + insured the beginning and the continuance of that life, an order of + worship based on the great central fact which made them a people, and + a ministry charged with the power to teach and to convey on to their + successors the doctrines delivered to them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in the mean + time how had the empire <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg + 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + treated it? In these seventy years it has traversed the seven last + years of the Emperor Tiberius, and the whole principates of Caligula, + Claudius, and Nero; the revolutionary crisis in which Galba, Otho, + and Vitellius reigned for an instant, and then the settled time of + Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva. Now, during this period its + treatment by the empire has been a singular reproduction of what + passed in the hall of Pilate. For the Jewish religion was one allowed + by Roman law. The profession of it entailed no penalty. Now the first + heralds of the Gospel, as Jews, preached their message boldly and + publicly, and in doing so it does not seem that Roman law would have + interfered with them.<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href= + "#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> At this + stage it looked upon Christians as a sect of Jews. As no authority of + the empire had interfered with the public ministry of our Lord, so it + would seem to have left the ministry of His disciples in the first + instance free. It is from another quarter that opposition arises. The + Jew in his jealous anger at the promulgation of a Messiah and a + spiritual kingdom which is not after Jewish taste, both because it is + a kingdom not of this world, and because it raises the Gentile to + coinheritance with the race of Abraham, drags the Christian + missionary before the tribunal of the Roman magistrate <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and imputes to him <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sedition.”</span> Then many a Gallio, many a Felix, many + a Festus have as it were unwillingly to enter into and decide these + questions of the Jewish law. It would seem that converts to the + Christian faith in these its earliest days might long have escaped + the notice of the magistrate, as belonging to a Jewish sect, but for + this enmity of the Jews themselves. But as the teachers of the new + faith everywhere addressed themselves first to their countrymen, so + everywhere they found these countrymen alive to their progress and + bitterly set against it.<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href= + "#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> This + state of things is pretty well expressed by that answer of the Roman + Jews to S. Paul when he excuses himself before them for having been + compelled to appeal to the Emperor Nero: <span class="tei tei-q">“as + concerning this sect, we know that it is spoken against + everywhere.”</span><a id="noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href= + "#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> This, + however, was Jewish, not Roman, contradiction. So far as everywhere + Jewish hatred and jealousy could malign and counterwork the progress + of the Christian Faith, and bring suffering on its teachers, it had + been done. But nevertheless with this exception it would seem that + for thirty-five years after the day of Pentecost that Faith had been + freely and publicly taught throughout the empire. It was through the + malignity of his own countrymen, stirring up a dangerous conspiracy + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" + id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> against him, that S. Paul felt + himself compelled to appeal to the emperor, and the result of his + appeal was that he was set free. But in the year 64 another state of + things had arisen. The ruin of a large part of Rome by fire had + brought a great odium upon Nero. Now his wife Poppæa is said to have + been a Jewish proselyte, he himself to have been surrounded by Jewish + influences, and nothing is more probable than that Jewish hatred, + which had tracked the Christians everywhere, pursued them especially + here, and suggested them to him both as authors of the conflagration, + and as convenient scapegoats whereon to divert the odium against + himself which had arisen from it. Thus he took the opportunity of + exposing to shame and torment, as victims of the popular dislike, and + in popular opinion guilty of <span class="tei tei-q">“hatred of the + human race,”</span> or of being hated by them, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a vast multitude”</span><a id="noteref_141" name= + "noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> of + Christians, who, says the heathen historian, were put to the most + exquisite suffering, being wrapt in the skins of wild beasts, and + torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or clothed in garments of pitch + and set on fire to illuminate the night. Thus it is, as decorations + of Nero's games, in his gardens of the Vatican, where the obelisk + from Heliopolis, once the ornament of his circus, now bears witness + to the victory of Christ, that Christians first come before us in the + pages of Roman historians, just at the middle of the period + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" + id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we are now describing, + thirty-five years after the Ascension.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be + considered part of this first persecution that the two great + Apostles—Peter, who had founded the Roman Church, and Paul, who after + its first foundation had helped to build it up—were condemned in the + last year of Nero, and by his deputies<a id="noteref_142" name= + "noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> during + his absence, to suffer as Christians, the one the death of a Roman + citizen by the sword, and the other that of a slave by crucifixion. + Thus the two great brethren by enduring together the martyr's death, + the highest mark of Christian charity, sealed their joint foundation + of Christian Rome, that like as the Rome which had gained the + conquest of the world by the strong hand of violence, had been + planted in the blood of one brother shed by another, so the Rome + which was to be the centre of Christ's kingdom, and in the words of + S. Ignatius <span class="tei tei-q">“preside over charity,”</span> + should have for her founders brethren in supernatural love, pouring + forth their blood together for the seat of that Christian unity which + binds the earth in one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this + persecution by Nero is not transitory in its consequences. The + emperor had judged that Christians as such professed a religion not + allowed by the Roman laws, and were guilty therein of a capital + crime. This crime, if technically expressed, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> would amount to sacrilege and treason;<a id= + "noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> for + they could not acknowledge the Roman gods as gods, nor the emperor as + Pontifex Maximus; nor could they swear by his genius, which was the + oath expressing fidelity to the Roman constitution in its civil and + religious aspect. This was that <span class="tei tei-q">“hatred of + the human race,”</span> that is, in other words, of the Roman empire, + of which in the eyes of Tacitus and Pliny, of Nero now and of Trajan + afterwards, they were guilty as Christians. But the singular thing is + this, that the Jew, who was the first to drag them before the Roman + tribunal, who was their omnipresent, ever-ready antagonist and + traducer, though he worshipped one only God, though he abhorred the + whole Roman polytheism, though he swore not by the genius of the + emperor, was exempt from punishment: his religion was recognised by + Roman law and the senate its interpreter, because it was the national + and time-honoured religion of a constituent part of the empire. On + the same ground the vilest Egyptian, Asiatic, African idol was + allowed the worship of those who claimed it as their ancestral god. + The Christian Faith was the sole exception to this universal + tolerance, because it was not the religion of a subject nation, + because it was new, because, in fine, it rested on principles which, + if carried out, would sweep away <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the whole fabric of polytheism on which the + Roman State rested. And the act of Nero had its great importance in + that it formally distinguished the Christian from the Jewish + religion, and took away from it by a legal decision of the State's + highest authority the claim to be considered <span class= + "tei tei-q">“licit.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nero then bestows + the crown of martyrdom on S. Peter and S. Paul, and on what Tacitus + calls, even within Rome alone, a vast multitude. But he does more + than this. On the first appearance of Christians before the supreme + authority he so applies an existing law to their case as to establish + their liability under it to capital punishment, and this liability + rests upon them henceforth down to the time of Constantine. It is by + no means always carried out; it is often suspended, sometimes for + many years together, according to the character of the ruling prince, + or the maxims of his government, or the state itself of the empire. + But it is henceforth the legal position of Christians. It is a danger + which besets their condition, and may be called into action at any + moment, in any city of the empire, from any motive of private enmity, + cupidity, or passion. It is the legal Roman equivalent and + interpretation of their Master's words, <span class="tei tei-q">“You + shall be hated of all men for my name's sake.”</span><a id= + "noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How often, and in + how many instances, it was carried out in this period of seventy + years we have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg + 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> no + means of telling; but another emperor is named as a persecutor. + Domitian not only put to death as Christian his cousin, the Consul + Flavius Clemens, but, as it would seem, a great many others at Rome, + in the latter years of his principate.<a id="noteref_145" name= + "noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> + Domitian and Nero are mentioned as persecutors by Melito when + addressing Marcus Aurelius, and by Tertullian,<a id="noteref_146" + name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> in the + time of Severus, though it was the object of both to make the + emperors appear to have been not unfavourable to Christians. But, + independent of any general act which would constitute an emperor a + persecutor,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href= + "#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> this + liability to punishment,<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href= + "#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> in + virtue of which the confessor or martyr was brought before the local + magistrates, was that under which individual Christians, in most + peaceful times, and in the reign of emperors generally just and + moderate, endured their sufferings. The Emperor Tiberius is said by + Tertullian <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg + 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + have brought before the senate a proposition to allow the Christian + Faith as a lawful religion. Had this been done, the whole course of + Christian history in these three centuries would have been changed. + As it was, every one, in becoming a Christian, accepted the chance + that he might thereby be called upon to forfeit the possession of + wife, children, goods, every civil right, and life itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The end of the + reign of the first Antonine, in the year 161, furnishes us with a + second fitting epoch at which we may estimate the growth and position + in the empire of the Christian Faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the sixty + years which elapse from the death of S. John to the accession of + Marcus, the Roman empire is ruled by three sovereigns, who have each + left a fair name and a considerable renown behind them, and who, + compared with most of those who preceded or who followed them, may + almost be termed great. Trajan by his military successes raised to + the highest point the credit of the Roman arms, by his moderation in + civil government effaced the remembrance of Domitian's cruelties, and + gave the Romans perhaps as much liberty as they could bear. His + successor Hadrian, joining great energy, administrative ability, and + moderation of his own to the fear and respect for the Roman name, + which the powerful arm of Trajan had spread around, was able at once + to exercise his army with unwearied discipline, and to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> maintain the empire at its full tide of + power in honourable peace, while Antoninus crowned the forty years of + equable and generally just government—bestowed on the Roman world by + Trajan and Hadrian—with a further happy period of more than half that + length, wherein the glory of the empire may be said to have + culminated. Imperial Rome never saw again such a day of power, or + such a prospect of security, as when Antoninus celebrated the secular + games at the completion of nine hundred years; and for ages + afterwards his name carried respect, and men looked back on his reign + as on an ideal period of happiness for those whom he ruled.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the most + competent observers of our time has marked the last ten years of the + reign of Pius as the period at which the independent development of + Græco-Roman heathenism terminated, when it had exhausted all the + forms of its own inward life, since the Neoplatonic philosophy which + is the only striking product of intelligence that arises afterwards, + is manifestly due to the antagonism with Christianity, and is no pure + offspring of the heathen spirit.<a id="noteref_149" name= + "noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> From + this time forth Christian influences become unmistakable in their + action upon heathen thought and society. This, then, affords another + reason why we should endeavour to trace the progress and extension + which the Church had reached at this point.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now a contemporary + of Antoninus declares that in his time, that is, about the year 150, + there was no race of men, either barbarians or Greeks, none even of + Scythian nomads roaming in waggons, or of pastoral tribes dwelling in + tents, among whom prayers and thanksgivings were not offered to the + Father and Creator of the universe in the name of the crucified + Jesus.<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href= + "#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> Thus, + in a hundred and twenty years the Church had outstripped the limits + of the empire. The germ which in the time of S. John was rooted in + the chief cities, had spread out thence and increased, taking more + and more possession of the soil in all directions. Still we must + consider the Christian Church in each place of its occupation as a + small minority of the people: nor is there any reason to doubt the + statement made by Celsus, that at the period when he wrote, the + middle of the second century, the Christian Faith counted few of the + educated, distinguished, and rich among its adherents;<a id= + "noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> for + Origen, in replying to him, alleges no specific example to the + contrary. Yet, here too we must consider the justice of Origen's + remark,<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href= + "#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> that + these classes are everywhere few in proportion to the poor and + ignorant, and that Christianity being the day-star arising on every + soul took of all classes alike. So much, then, as to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Church's material extension: now as to + its internal growth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As this period + opens, comrades of the Apostles still abound in the churches. We know + of several instances wherein such persons hold eminent rank. At Rome, + S. Clement is the third successor of S. Peter; and S. Irenæus,<a id= + "noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> + recording him as such eighty years afterwards, specially notes that + he had seen and lived with Apostles, and had their preaching still + sounding in his ears, and their tradition before his eyes; at + Antioch, S. Ignatius, second after the same S. Peter; in the See of + Jerusalem, S. Simeon, the brother of James, still survives; at + Smyrna, S. John's disciple Polykarp is bishop. Many more such S. + Irenæus declares that there were. This would prepare us for the + strength with which the principle of authority and tradition was + held, and show how completely the sense of a spiritual government, of + cohesion, and continuity of moral life, and of a common doctrine and + teaching, the foundation of these, prevailed. But we are not left to + inferences, we have the clearest statements on this point about + fifteen years after S. John's death. It has been remarked above how + in the Apocalypse our Lord himself, addressing the seven churches, + gathers them up in their bishops, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> speaks of them each collectively as of one + person. In the year 116, as is supposed, Ignatius still after + forty-eight years bishop of one of the three great mother churches, + all of them Sees of Peter, and types and models of church government, + whence missions went forth, and the layers of apostolic teaching were + propagated, in his seven extant epistles conveys the same idea as + that presented by those divine words which S. John had heard in + vision, and was commanded to record, but with much greater detail. As + he is being led to martyrdom, in the long transit between Antioch and + Rome, he pours forth the earnestness of one under sentence of death, + glowing at the prospect of shedding his blood for Christ, and being + for ever united with Him. These letters remain as a sample of + numberless conversations held with the deputations which came to meet + him on his way, mingling their tears at his approaching passion with + their exultation in his triumph. They are of one tissue throughout. + Ignatius dwells with incessant repetition upon union with God and + with Christ through obedience to the hierarchy of bishops, priests, + and deacons, by maintenance of one faith, in one body of the Church, + which is wherever Christ is.<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" + href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> Let us + take one instance from his letter to the Ephesians. After saying that + he had <span class="tei tei-q">“received their whole multitude in the + person of Onesimus, their bishop,”</span> he continues: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg + 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + then, fitting that you should by all means glorify Jesus Christ who + has glorified you; that by a uniform obedience you may be perfectly + joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment, and may + all speak alike concerning everything, and that being subject to the + bishop and the presbytery, you may be altogether sanctified. I am not + giving you commands, as if I were any one; for, though I am in bonds + for His name, I am not yet perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I begin + to learn, and I speak to you as my fellow-disciples, for I had need + to be encouraged by you in faith, exhortation, endurance, + long-suffering. But since charity suffers me not to be silent to you, + I have taken on me to exhort you to run together all with the mind of + God. For Jesus Christ, your inseparable life, is the mind of the + Father, as also the bishops, placed in their several limits, are the + mind of Jesus Christ. Therefore you should run together with the + bishop's mind, as indeed you do. So then in your concord and + harmonious charity Jesus Christ is sung. And each several one of you + makes up the chorus; so that all being harmonious in concord, you + take up the melody in unity, and sing with one voice through Jesus + Christ to the Father, that He may hear you, and perceive by your good + works that you are members of His Son. It is good for you then to be + in blameless unity, that you may always have fellowship with + God.”</span> And then he adds: <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“For if I in a short + time have had such familiarity with your bishop, and that not human, + but spiritual, how much more should I think you happy, who are so + fused with him as the Church with Jesus Christ, and as Jesus Christ + with the Father, that all things may be accordant in + unity.”</span><a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href= + "#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is an + incidental passage out of a very short letter, in which the speaker + is addressing practical exhortations to the people of a great church, + founded by S. Paul about sixty years before, dwelt in by S. John up + to about fifteen years of the time at which he was speaking. We + should not in such a writing expect S. Ignatius to speak with the + scientific correctness of a theologian, nor is he completely + exhibiting his subject in a treatise; yet here, as it were at the + first moment after the Apostles have left the earth, we have a + picture of the Church as a world-wide institution, held together by a + divine unity, which has its seat in the Person of Christ as the mind + of the Father. It is a composite unity which is contemplated in the + image of a harp with its strings pouring forth one song—the song of + Christ—to the Father. It is a unity wide as the earth; for the + bishops, placed in their several limits, constitute the mind of + Christ, who is Himself the Father's mind. It is the unity of the + diocese, for it is summed up in the bishop: but it is the unity + likewise of the whole Church, for the bishops are linked together + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" + id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in One whose mind they + collectively represent, and that One is He from whose Person their + authority radiates; in whom, as he says in this same letter, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the old kingdom was being destroyed, God + appearing in the form of a man, unto the newness of eternal + life.”</span><a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href= + "#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> Again, + it is not merely an outward unity of government, but an inward unity + of the truth held in common, and also held as given by authority: not + truth, as a result of the curiosity of the human intellect, rather + truth, as a participation in the mind of Christ. Thus the Catholic + unity of government is at the same time a unity of belief, which two + unities are not, in fact, separable, for their principle is one in + the Person of Christ, in respect of whom submission to the Ruler is + one and the same thing with belief in the truth revealed by Him, who + is King no less than Word, Word no less than King.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have, then, + here the principle of authority and tradition as seated in the + hierarchy, and at the same time the whole order and unity of the + Church as girdling the world by its chain of the Episcopate, and as + possessing the truth and exhibiting it in its quality of an + institution. It is before us and at work in its succession of men, in + its sacraments which they administer,<a id="noteref_157" name= + "noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> in its + truth which is imparted <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg + 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by + the one and delivered by the other. It is no vague congeries of + opinions held by individuals with the diversity of individuals, but a + body strongly organised, and possessing an imperishable life, the + life of its Author. And we have all this mentioned as fulfilled at + the distance of one life from our Lord's ascension, while indeed his + kinsman and elder in age, S. Simeon, is still bishop of Jerusalem, + and mentioned by one of whom a beautiful though insufficiently + grounded legend says that he was that child whom our Lord had called + and placed before His disciples as the model of those who should + enter into His kingdom. He was at least so near in time to Christ + that this could be said of him. He is the bishop of Antioch; he is on + his way to be thrown to the beasts in the Colosseum at Rome;<a id= + "noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> he is + welcomed on his way by church after church, and he sees and describes + the bishops, in their several boundaries through the earth, as each + maintaining the mind of Christ in the unity of his Body.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is the Church + merely stated as a fact towards the beginning of the second + century.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the trial + which in these sixty years the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Church was going through was well calculated to + test her constitution. It is against the spread of false doctrine + that S. Ignatius in these epistles so constantly appeals, to the + unity of the faithful among each other.<a id="noteref_159" name= + "noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> He + warns them to use only Christian nourishment, and to abstain from + strange food, which is heresy.<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" + href="#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> The + Church was then continually receiving into her bosom converts at all + ages of life, some from the Jews, many more from the Gentiles; among + these, therefore, minds brought up in Jewish prejudices, and others + which had run havoc in eastern superstitions and systems of + philosophy. In the course of these sixty years she probably + multiplied many times over in number; and the multiplication was + rather by the accession of adults than by the education of children + born of Christian parents. The Church was composed of a small + minority of the general population scattered at wide intervals over + an immense empire; and, so far from being assisted by the civil + power, was under constant persecution from it. Whatever force her + spiritual government possessed could be exercised only by the + voluntary submission of her members. Let us weigh the fact that, + under these circumstances, a number of heresies arose. Some were of + Jewish, some of Gentile parentage. But we are not here concerned + either with their cause or with their matter: we dwell at present + only on the fact of their existence. In <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> number they were many; in character most + diverse; they arose and flourished in different places. Hardly + anywhere was the Church free from them. Let us ask only one question + here: by what power were they resisted? The human mind had then the + fullest liberty of action in Christians. It was by a free choice—a + choice accompanied with danger, and persisted in through + suffering—that men became Christians. The liberty which men exercised + in becoming Christians they could use further against Christian + doctrine, by innovating; by mixing it up with other doctrines, with + which, perhaps, their minds had been familiar before their + conversion; by developing it after their own fashion. The desire of + fame, the self-will of genius, the mere luxury of thought, would + offer a continual temptation to such a course. Many, from one motive + or another, fell into it. The question which we repeat is, what power + prevented the one Church from breaking up under this process of free + thought into fragments? These heresies began even while the Apostles + were teaching. S. Peter, S. Paul, and S. John speak strongly against + them. They swarm in the two generations succeeding the death of S. + John. How is it that, at the accession of Marcus Aurelius, Christians + having passed the limits of the empire, and being found so far as the + wandering tribes of the north, there is still one Church, surrounded, + indeed, by a multitude of sects, differing from her and from + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" + id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> each other, but herself + distinguished and unmistakable among them all? We think the epistles + of S. Ignatius furnish us with a reply to this question. As we have + seen above, he views the Church in each place as a community closely + bound together under a spiritual government which is summed up in the + bishop, while the bishops in their several dioceses are as closely + linked to each other, and all form one society, wherein is Jesus + Christ. And these two truths are not separated from each other, but + the unity of the part is deduced from the unity of the whole, and is + subordinate to it. See, first, with what force he states the unity of + the diocese.<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href= + "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Avoid divisions, as the beginning of evils. + Follow all of you the bishop as Jesus Christ the Father, and the + presbytery as the Apostles, and reverence the deacons as God's + command. Let no one without the bishop do aught of what appertains to + the Church. Let that be deemed a sure Eucharist which is under the + bishop, or under him who has the bishop's authority for it. Wherever + the bishop appears, there let the multitude (of the faithful) + be.”</span> But this strict unity of the diocese is derived from that + of the whole Church; for he adds as the reason of the foregoing, + <span class="tei tei-q">“just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is + the Catholic Church.”</span><a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" + href="#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> This is + the first time when the word <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“catholic”</span> is + known to be used, and it is applied to the Church as its distinctive + character, to convey the two attributes of unity and universality, in + connection with the Person of Christ, exactly as it has been used, an + unique term for an unique object, from that day to this. S. Ignatius + further views the Church in each place as having one faith; and not + only so, but the same faith in every place; one faith at Antioch, one + at Rome, one at every city between them, beyond them, around them. + Here, then, is a double unity, inward and outward. As the double + unity of body and spirit makes the man, so the double unity of + government and of faith makes the Church. As neither mind nor body + alone make the man, so neither faith nor government alone make the + Church, but the coherence of both. The Incarnation is the joining a + human soul and body with the Person of the Divine Word; after which + pattern the Church, which is His special creation, is the joining of + one faith and one government in a moral unity. It is by this force, + by the same hierarchy everywhere guarding the same faith, by the + principle of authority and tradition planted in this one living + organisation throughout the earth, that the attacks of heresy are + everywhere resisted. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg + 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + What S. Paul<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href= + "#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> lays + down in dogma, history exhibits in fact. A hundred years after his + words are written, the Church has stretched her limits beyond the + empire, has multiplied incessantly, has been attacked by a crowd of + heresies striving to adulterate her doctrine, and has cast them out + of her by this double unity of her faith and her government, and so + is one Body and one Spirit. Her victory lies not in being without + heresies, but in standing among them as a contrast and a + condemnation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The solidity of + internal organisation, and the definiteness of the One Faith which + animated it, kept pace with the material increase of numbers. At the + expiration of this period it is probable that among all the + contemporaries and immediate disciples of the Apostles one only of + high rank remained, that Polykarp, joint-hearer with Ignatius of S. + John, and to whom in his passage the martyr addressed a letter as + well as to his Church; whose own letter written at the time of the + martyr's combat, and commemorating the wonderful patience therein + shown forth, is yet extant. But in the mean time in every Church the + transmission of authoritative teaching passed to those who had grown + up themselves in the bishop's council—his presbytery, which Ignatius + loved to represent as being to each bishop what the Council of + Apostles was to their Lord. And as the death of Apostles themselves + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" + id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had caused no break in this + living chain, so the gradual departure of their immediate disciples + was made up by the careful handing-on of the same deposit, lodged + securely in its receptacle, the succession of men, which carried on + the teaching office of the Church.<a id="noteref_164" name= + "noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the mean time, + what was the attitude of the empire to the Christian Faith under + Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius? Domitian's reign had ended in + active persecution, to which Nerva had put a stop on his + accession.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href= + "#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> But + though Domitian's edicts had been reversed, like those of Nero, one + of the most ancient laws of the Roman empire forbad the worship of + any god not approved by the Senate.<a id="noteref_166" name= + "noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> This, + as we have said above, was the sword perpetually suspended over the + heads of Christians, without any fresh action on the part of the + emperors. By virtue of this, even when it was forbidden to accuse + them, yet if they were brought before justice it was forbidden to + absolve them.<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href= + "#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> And + even senators,<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href= + "#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> if + accused, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg + 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + were not exempt from this severity. We find Trajan acting upon this + law in the year 111, when Pliny, being governor of Bithynia, brings + expressly the case of the Christians before him. And the terms in + which he does this show at once the temper of the Roman magistrate in + such cases and the state of the law.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“I have never been present,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“at the trials of Christians, and therefore do not know + either the nature of their crime, or the degree of the punishment, or + how far examination should go. And I have been in great hesitation + whether age made any difference, or the tender should not be + distinguished from the strong; whether they should be pardoned upon + repentance, or, when once a man had been a Christian, ceasing to be + so should not profit him; or whether the mere profession without any + crime, or whether the crimes involved in the profession should be + punished. In the mean time, with regard to those brought before me as + Christians, my practice has been this: I asked them if they were + Christians. If they admitted it, I put the question a second and a + third time, threatening them with death. If they persevered, I + ordered them to be led away to execution.<a id="noteref_169" name= + "noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> For + whatever <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg + 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it + was which they were confessing, I had no doubt that stubbornness and + inflexible obstinacy deserved punishment. There were others of a like + infatuation, but as being Roman citizens I directed them to be sent + to the city. Presently the crime spreading, from being under + prosecution, as is usual, several incidents happened. An anonymous + delation was sent in to me, containing the names of many who say that + they are not Christians, nor ever were. As at my instance they + invoked the gods, and made supplication with frankincense and wine to + your image, which I had ordered for that purpose to be brought, + together with the statues of the gods, and as moreover they reviled + Christ, none of which things, it is said, real Christians can be + induced to do, I thought they might be let go. Others, being accused + by a witness, admitted that they were Christians, and presently said + that they had been, some three years before, some many years, and + some even twenty, but were no longer. All venerated your image and + the statues of the gods, and reviled Christ. But they alleged that + the utmost of their fault or error was this: They were accustomed to + meet before dawn on a stated day, and addressed themselves in a + certain form <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg + 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + Christ as to a god, binding themselves by oath not to any crime, but + not to commit theft, robbery, adultery, the breaking of their word, + or the refusal to restore a deposit. After this they were wont to + separate, and then reassemble to take a common and harmless meal. + This, however, they had ceased to do from the publication of my edict + forbidding, according to your command, private assemblies. I + therefore thought it the more necessary to examine into the truth by + putting to the torture two female slaves, who were said to be + deaconesses among them. I found, however, nothing but a perverse and + immoderate superstition, and so, adjourning the inquiry, I took + refuge in consulting you. For the matter seemed to me worthy of + consultation, specially on account of the number of those involved in + danger. For many of every age, every rank, both sexes, have been + already, and will be endangered, since the contagion of this + superstition has spread not only through cities but through villages + and country. And it seems capable of being arrested and corrected. At + all events there is proof that the almost deserted temples have begun + to be frequented, and the long intermitted rites renewed, and victims + for sacrifice are found ready, whereof hitherto there were very few + purchasers. Hence it is easy to form an opinion what a number of + persons may be reclaimed if pardon be allowed.”</span><a id= + "noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To which the + emperor replies: <span class="tei tei-q">“You have pursued the right + course, my dear Secundus, in examining the causes of those delated to + you as Christians. For no universal rule can be laid down in a + certain formula. They are not to be searched after; but if brought + before you and convicted, they must be punished. Yet with this + condition, that whoever denies himself to be a Christian, and makes + it plain in fact, that is, by supplicating our gods, though he has + been in past time suspected, shall obtain pardon for his repentance. + But anonymous delations must not be admitted for any accusation. This + is at once the very worst precedent, and unworthy of our + time.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A great difficulty + in tracing the progress of the Christian Faith in these three + centuries is that we possess nothing like a consecutive secular or + religious history of them. We only catch glimpses of what passes at + intervals. Incidents are recorded which, like a flash of lightning, + suddenly reveal the landscape and the actors. Such an incident is + this letter of Pliny to Trajan, and his reply. We have here the + governor of a province before whom Christians are brought as + criminals. We find that if they acknowledge their faith and persist + in professing it, he sentences them to death. But embarrassed by + their numbers, and perplexed also by the fact, that, save the + profession of their faith, there appeared nothing criminal in their + conduct, he refers the matter to the emperor. The emperor, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" + id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> no Nero or Domitian, but one + renowned for his justice and moderation, praises what the governor + has done; pronounces that Christians as such are guilty of a capital + crime, and that Pliny was right in so interpreting the existing law; + that, however, it is not desirable to seek them out; that even when + brought before justice they are to be released if they deny their + faith, but that if they persist in it, they are to be punished with + death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, then, is the + law—an original law of Rome before the Christian Faith began—under + which the martyrs suffered at different times, throughout every + province and city, without anything which could be called a general + persecution on the part of the emperor directed to the destruction of + the whole religion. This perpetual liability to punishment might be + called into action anywhere in the empire for various causes. The + first in time, and one of the most constant, was the enmity of the + Jews; then the dislike of the heathens to Christians and their ways, + which was further sharpened by local calamities or distress + irritating the mind of the population, or by the jealousy of the + heathen priests and worshippers at the desertion of their temples. + Then, again, there was the ascription to Christian godlessness, as it + was called, that is their refusal to acknowledge the Roman gods, of + famines, pestilences, and whatever troubled the popular mind. To + these we must add a copious harvest of private grudges, and a host of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" + id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> calumnies, which seem now + almost grotesque, but then found wide belief. But it was the + existence of such a law as this, acted on by Pliny before he referred + to the emperor, and confirmed by Trajan, that gave force and effect + to all these causes of persecution. And it would appear that when + Christians were brought before the magistrates, as guilty of the + Christian Faith, it was not in the magistrates' power to decline + hearing the case, any more than any other accusation of sacrilege or + treason, for it had been determined that Christians were not a mere + Jewish sect, and therefore could not in security worship one God, as + the Jews did. It was a ruled point that their worship was + unauthorised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The practice of + Trajan himself was in accordance with his answer to Pliny.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The very ancient + and genuine acts of the martyrdom of S. Ignatius state that having + struggled with difficulty through the persecution of Domitian, he had + carefully governed his church of Antioch, grieving only that he had + not yet reached the rank of a perfect disciple by the sacrifice of + his life, for he considered that the confession which is made by + martyrdom brings into closer union with the Lord. Trajan then having + come to the East, full of exultation at the victories which he had + gained, and considering that the subjugation of the Christians was + all that was wanting to the perfect obedience of his empire, began to + threaten them with the alternative of sacrifice or death. Then + Ignatius <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg + 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fearing for his church caused himself to be brought before the + emperor, and being in the presence was thus addressed by him. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Who are you, evil spirit, who are zealous to + transgress our commands, besides persuading others to come to an evil + end?”</span> Ignatius replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“No one calls + the bearer of God an evil spirit, for the demons fly away from the + servants of God. But if you mean that I am a trouble to these, and so + call me evil to them, I admit it, for having Christ my Heavenly King, + I continually dissolve their plots.”</span> Trajan said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Who is a bearer of God?”</span> Ignatius replied, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He who has Christ in his breast.”</span> + Trajan said, <span class="tei tei-q">“We then appear to you not to + have gods in our minds, whom we use to help us against our + enemies.”</span> Ignatius answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“You in + your error call gods the demons of the nations, for there is one God + who made the heaven, the earth, and the sea, and all that is in them; + and one Christ Jesus, the only-begotten Son of God, of whose + friendship may I partake.”</span> Trajan said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You mean him who was crucified under Pontius + Pilate?”</span> Ignatius answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“Him who + crucifies my sin, with its inventor, and condemns all the error and + the malice of the demons under the feet of those who carry him in + their heart.”</span> Trajan said, <span class="tei tei-q">“You then + carry the Crucified in your heart?”</span> Ignatius replied, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes; for it is written, I will dwell in + them, and walk in them.”</span> Trajan gave sentence: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is our command that Ignatius, who says that he + carries <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name= + "Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the crucified one + about in him, be taken in chains by soldiers to the great Rome to + become the food of wild beasts, for the pleasure of the + people.”</span> The holy martyr, when he heard this sentence, cried + out with joy, <span class="tei tei-q">“I thank Thee, O Lord, who hast + thought me worthy to be honoured with perfect charity towards Thee, + and to be bound in iron chains together with Thy Apostle + Paul.”</span><a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href= + "#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So, with great + eagerness and joy, through desire of his passion, having commended + his church to God, he set out on that long journey, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fighting, as he says, with wild beasts all the way from + Syria to Rome, over land and sea, by day and by night,”</span> a + captive under sentence of death, in the hands of soldiers, but + receiving at each city a deputation from the bishop and people, who + came forth to honour him as their champion. And he has but one + anxiety, expressed again and again in that fervent letter to the + Roman Christians, that they should not by their prayers intercept his + martyrdom. <span class="tei tei-q">“I entreat you not to be untimely + kind to me. Suffer me to be the food of the beasts, since by them I + may enjoy God. I am God's grain: let me be ground by their teeth, + that I may be found the pure bread of Christ:”</span><a id= + "noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> and + then, presently, <span class="tei tei-q">“I do not command you, as + Peter and Paul;”</span> thus giving an incidental but most powerful + witness of the special relation which those Apostles bore to the + Roman Church.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And it may be + remarked that while he has words of honour, praise, and affection for + the other five churches which he addresses, yet in speaking of Rome + his heart overflows with emotion. Upon this church he pours out + epithet upon epithet, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the beloved and + enlightened in the will of Him who has willed all things which are + according to the charity of Jesus Christ our God,”</span> whose + people are <span class="tei tei-q">“united to every command of His in + flesh and spirit, filled undividedly with the grace of God, and + thoroughly cleansed from every spot of foreign doctrine.”</span> She + is not only the Church <span class="tei tei-q">“which presides in the + fortress of Roman power,”</span> but likewise, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“worthy of God, and of all honour and blessing and + praise, worthy to receive that which she wishes, chaste, bearing the + name of Christ and the name of the Father, and presiding over + charity.”</span> What is the meaning of this last phrase? As she + presides in the fortress of Roman power, so she presides over + charity. May we thus interpret the mind of the martyr? God in His + Triune Being is Charity; the Holy Spirit, the ineffable embrace of + the Father and His Image, their Love, or Delight, or Joy, or + Blessedness, or whatever human name we may dare to give to what is + most divine, is charity: by charity God became man; charity is the + individual Christian's state; charity makes men one in the Body of + the God-man; charity is the condition of angels and men in the great + kingdom to come, the God-formed kingdom. Thus charity is the + distinctive <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg + 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mark of the Christian religion, that from which it springs, that + which it is, that which it points to, and in which it will be + consummated. When, then, S. Ignatius said of the Roman Church, using + the same word in one sentence,<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" + href="#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> that as + she presided over the country of the Romans, so she presided over + charity, does he not with equal delicacy and emphasis indicate her + primacy? she presides over that in which the Unity of the Church + consists, in which its truth, its grace, and its holiness + coinhere.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The desire of the + martyr was accomplished: he reached Rome on the last day of the great + games, and was thrown in the Colosseum before the beasts, which, + according to his repeated prayers, so entirely devoured him that only + the greater bones remained. These, says the contemporary account, + <span class="tei tei-q">“a priceless treasure,”</span> were carried + back to Antioch. Somewhat less than three hundred years afterwards S. + Chrysostom, preaching on his day in his city, thus speaks of him: + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was a divine benefaction to bring him + back again to us, and to distribute the martyr to the cities:—Rome + received his dripping blood, but you are honoured with his + relics.—From that time he enriches your city, and like a perpetual + treasure, drawn upon every day and never failing, gives his bounty to + all. So this happy Ignatius, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> blessing all that come to him, sends them home + full of confidence, bold resolution, and fortitude. Not, then, to-day + only but every day go to him, reaping spiritual fruits from him. For, + indeed, he who comes hither with faith may reap great goods. Not the + bodies only, but the very coffins of the saints are full of spiritual + grace. For if in the case of Eliseus this happened, and the dead man + who touched his bier broke through the bonds of death, how much more + now, when grace is more abundant, and the energy of the Spirit + fuller?—So, I beseech you, if any one be in despondency, in sickness, + in the depth of sin, in any circumstance of life, to come here with + faith, and he will put off all these.”</span><a id="noteref_174" + name="noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before S. Ignatius + reached that completion of his faith to which he aspired, he was + cheered with the account that his sacrifice had produced its effect, + and peace had been restored to his church, with the completeness of + its body.<a id="noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href= + "#note_175"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now in all this—in + Pliny's conduct as governor, in his reference to Trajan, in the + emperor's reply, in his treatment of S. Ignatius, and in the + restoration of peace afterwards—there is, we conceive, a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> very exact sample of what the position of + Christians was in Trajan's time. His answer ruled the question of + Roman law for the following two hundred years. It declared the + profession of Christianity to be illicit and a capital offence; but + to call this law into action, or to leave it suspended as a threat + over the heads of Christians, was a matter of expedience. When the + latter took place, the churches were said to be at peace; when the + former, a persecution was said to rage; but at any time and place an + individual might suffer; while on the other hand a persecution + directed to root out the whole Christian name was not yet thought + of.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this state of + things seems to continue through Hadrian's principate. In his first + year, Alexander, fifth successor of S. Peter at Rome, having been + imprisoned under Trajan, suffers martyrdom; It would seem as if the + same hand had struck down about the same time the heads of the two + great churches of Rome and Antioch, the first and the third in rank, + and perhaps ordered the execution of the bishop of Antioch at Rome, + with that of the Roman bishop, in order to give greater force to the + example.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href= + "#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> Many + other martyrs at Rome and in the north of Italy are found at this + time. It is not at all necessary to suppose the personal action of + Hadrian in these.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg + 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After this he was + engaged during fifteen years in those splendid progresses, in which + he examined personally every part of his vast empire, from its + northern frontier between Carlisle and Newcastle to the Euphrates. + While he was so engaged, the governors of the various provinces would + apply the existing law in the cases brought before them. He would + have had to interfere, and that with the whole weight of the imperial + arm, if he wished to check the course of the law. We have, however, + recorded the most interesting fact that when he was at Athens in the + year 126, Christians for the first time approached a Roman emperor + with a public defence of their doctrines, and a persecution is said + to have been stopped by the apologies which Quadratus and Aristides + presented to him. Perhaps the rescript to Minucius Fundanus, + proconsul of the province of Asia, which Justin has preserved, was a + result of this. It runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have + received the letter written to me by your predecessor, the noble + Serenius Granianus. And indeed it seems to me that that affair should + not be passed by without a diligent examination, in order that + Christians may not be disturbed, nor an occasion of false accusation + be opened to informers. If, then, the provincials can present + themselves openly with their petitions against Christians, so as to + answer before the tribunal, let them do that, and not betake + themselves to mere requests and outcries. It would be much + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" + id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more just that you should take + cognisance of the matter, if any one be willing to accuse. If, then, + any one denounce them, and prove that they are doing anything + illegal, sentence them according to the gravity of the crime. But, by + Hercules, if it be a mere false accusation, punish the informer + according to its importance.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here would seem to + be a considerable modification of Trajan's rescript. The profession + of Christianity is not taken by itself as a capital offence. Proof + must be given that something illegal has been committed. So far it + approaches to an act of toleration. It plainly discourages anonymous + and malicious attacks. But on the other hand it was not difficult to + show that Christians did commit something illegal. Any real accuser + bringing them before the tribunal could prove by their own testimony + that they declared the gods worshipped by the Romans to be demons, + while they refused to swear by the emperor's genius. Thus, favourable + as this decree was to them, it fell far short of declaring their + religion to be allowable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the same + emperor who could thus write, whose curiosity made him acquainted + with all the religious sects of his empire, whose temper, as an + exceedingly accomplished man, having the widest experience of men and + things, and ruling an empire of the most diverse races with the most + various religions, led him to an eclectic indifference, and so far + toleration of all, yet showed by his personal <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> conduct at a later period of his life how + he would treat the profession of the Christian Faith if it thwarted a + ruling desire. When, after fifteen years of incessant travel, study, + and observation, he returned to Rome, and had enclosed at Tivoli a + space of eight miles in circumference, adorned with copies of the + most beautiful temples in his wide dominion, he offered sacrifices + and consulted the gods as to the duration of his work; but he + received for answer that the gods who inhabited their images were + tormented by the prayers which the widow Symphorosa and her seven + sons offered daily to their God.<a id="noteref_177" name= + "noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> If she + and her children would sacrifice, they promised to grant all his + demands. Upon this Hadrian ordered Symphorosa and her seven sons to + be brought before him, and endeavoured by kind words to bring them to + sacrifice. She replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“It was for not + consenting to what you ask that my husband Gætulius and his brother + Amantius, both tribunes in your army, suffered various tortures, and, + like generous champions, overcame your demons by a glorious death. If + their death was shameful before men, it was honourable in the sight + of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name= + "Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> angels, and now they + are crowned with immortal light. They live in heaven, and follow + everywhere the King who reigns there, covered with glory by the + trophies they have gained in dying for Him.”</span> Hadrian, stung by + this reply, could not contain himself, but said: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Either sacrifice this instant to the immortal gods, or I + will myself sacrifice you with your children to these gods whom you + despise.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“And how should I be so + happy,”</span> said Symphorosa, <span class="tei tei-q">“as to be + worthy with my children to be sacrificed to my God?”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“I tell you,”</span> said Hadrian, + <span class="tei tei-q">“I will have you sacrificed to my + gods.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Your gods,”</span> replied + she, <span class="tei tei-q">“cannot receive me in sacrifice. I am + not a victim for them; but if you order me to be burnt for the name + of Christ my God, know that the fire which consumes me will only + increase their punishment.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Choose, I + tell you,”</span> said the emperor; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sacrifice or die.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“You + think, doubtless, to frighten me,”</span> rejoined Symphorosa; + <span class="tei tei-q">“but I desire to be at rest with my husband, + whom you put to death for the name of Christ.”</span> Then the + emperor ordered her to be taken before the temple of Hercules, to be + struck in the face, and hung up by her hair. But finding that these + torments only served to strengthen her in the faith, he had her + thrown into the Anio. Her brother Eugenius, being one of the chief + men at Tibur, drew her body from the water, and buried her in the + suburbs of the town.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg + 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next day + Hadrian ordered the seven sons of Symphorosa to be brought before + him. And, seeing that neither his threats nor his promises, nor the + exhibition of the most fearful punishments, could shake their + constancy, nor induce them to sacrifice to idols, he caused seven + poles to be planted round the temple of Hercules, on which they were + raised by pulleys. Then Crescentius, the eldest, had his throat cut; + Julian, the second, was run through the breast; Nemesius was struck + in the heart; Primitivus in the stomach; Justin in the back; Stactæus + in the side; while the youngest, Eugenius, was cleft to the + middle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The day following + the death of these brethren Hadrian came to the temple and ordered + their bodies to be removed, and to be cast into a deep hole. The + priests and sacrificers of the temple called this spot the place of + the Seven Executed. Their blood stopped the persecution, which was + only rekindled eighteen months afterwards.<a id="noteref_178" name= + "noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the rescript to + Minucius Fundanus did not prevent the emperor from thus acting, + neither was it an obstacle to such an incident as this occurring in + any part of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That it was so + likewise in the principate of his successor, of all down to this + period the most tranquil and the least persecuting, we have strong + and clear evidence in the earliest of the extant apologies, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" + id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that of Justin Martyr, + presented to the emperor Antoninus Pius about the year 150. He who + would breathe the atmosphere in which the early Christians lived will + find it in this work of a distinguished convert from heathen + philosophy, which is the more interesting as being composed at a + moment when the empire seems to have reached its highest point, and + the ruler of it was its most moderate spirit. We may cite a few + passages bearing on the condition of Christians.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“To the Emperor Titus Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius + Augustus Cæsar, and to his son Verissimus the Philosopher, and to + Lucius the Philosopher, son of Cæsar by birth, and of Pius by + adoption, the lover of learning, and to the sacred Senate, and to all + the Roman people, in behalf of those out of every race of men who are + unjustly hated and persecuted, I, that am one of such myself, Justin, + son of Priscus, and grandson of Baccheius, natives of Flavia + Neapolis, of Palestine, in Syria, offer this address and + supplication.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Reason dictates that those who are really pious and + philosophers should love and honour truth alone, declining to follow + the opinions of the ancients if they be corrupt. For right reason not + only forbids us to assent to those who are unjust either in practice + or in principle, but commands the lover of truth to choose that which + is just in word and deed in every way, even before his own life, and + with death threatening him. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg + 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Now + you hear yourselves called on all sides Pious, Philosophers, + Guardians of Justice, and Lovers of Learning; but, whether you be + such in truth, the event will show. For we have come before you, not + to flatter you in this address, nor to gain your favour, but to + demand of you to pass judgment according to strict and well-weighed + reason, not influenced by prejudice, nor by the desire of pleasing + superstitious men, nor by inconsiderate passion, nor by the long + prevalence of an evil report, in giving a sentence which would turn + against yourselves. For, as to us, we are fully persuaded that we can + suffer no injury from anyone, unless we be found guilty of some + wickedness, or proved to be bad men; and, as to you, kill us you may, + but hurt us you cannot.<a id="noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href= + "#note_179"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“We ask, then, that the actions of those who are accused + before you may be examined, that he who is convicted may be punished + as an evildoer, but not as a Christian. And, if anyone appears to be + innocent, that he may be dismissed as a Christian who has done no + evil. For we do not require you to punish our accusers: they are + sufficiently recompensed by their own malice, and their ignorance of + what is good. Moreover, bear in mind that it is for your sakes that + we thus speak, since it is in our power to deny when we are + questioned. But we choose not to live by falsehood.<a id= + "noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a></span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“And you, when you hear that we are expecting a kingdom, + rashly conceive that we mean a human one, whereas we speak of that + with God, as is evident even from those who are under examination by + you confessing that they are Christians, whilst they know that death + is the penalty of the confession. For if we expected a human kingdom, + we should deny in order to obtain our expectations; but, since our + hopes are not of the present, we do not regard those who kill us, + knowing that death is an inevitable debt to all.<a id="noteref_181" + name="noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“We adore God only, but in all other matters joyfully + serve you, confessing that you are kings and rulers, and praying that + you may be found to possess, together with your royal power, a sound + and discerning mind. If, however, notwithstanding that we thus pray + and openly lay everything before you, you treat us with contempt, we + shall receive no injury; believing, or rather, being convinced, that + every one, if his deeds shall so deserve, shall receive the + punishment of eternal fire, and that an account will be required of + him in proportion to the powers which he has received from God, as + Christ has declared in those words, <span class="tei tei-q">‘To + whomsoever God has given much, of him shall be much + required.’</span><a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href= + "#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Though death be the penalty to those who teach or even + who confess the name of Christ, we everywhere accept it, and teach + it. And if you <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg + 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + enemies meet these words, you can do no more, as we have already + said, than kill us, which brings no hurt to us, but to you, and to + all who hate unjustly, and do not repent, the chastisement of eternal + fire.”</span><a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href= + "#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And his concluding + words are: <span class="tei tei-q">“If now what we have said appears + to be reasonable and true, honour it accordingly; but if folly, + despise it as foolish; yet pass not sentence of death against those + as enemies, who have done no evil. For we tell you beforehand that + you will not escape the future judgment of God, if you continue in + injustice, and we shall cry, Let the will of God be + done.”</span><a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href= + "#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such then is the + testimony of a Christian as to the way in which the confessors of his + religion were treated; and it is corroborated by that of the heathen + philosopher Celsus, who writes his books against Christianity about + this time, and imputes the secrecy practised by Christians in their + teaching and their actions to their attempts to escape the punishment + of death hanging over their heads.<a id="noteref_185" name= + "noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> And + again having put into the mouth of Christians the remark, that if + they blaspheme or strike a statue of Jupiter or Apollo, these gods + cannot defend themselves, he subjoins: <span class="tei tei-q">“Do + you not, then, see that your own demon is not merely blasphemed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" + id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> but expelled from every land + and sea, while you, his consecrated image,<a id="noteref_186" name= + "noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> are + chained, and led away to prison, and crucified; and the demon, or as + you call him, the Son of God, gives you no protection.”</span> And in + another place, comparing Christians with Jews, to whom God had made + so many promises: <span class="tei tei-q">“See,”</span> he says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“what good has He done to them and to you? To + them, instead of being lords of all the earth, not a clod of soil or + a hearth remains;<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href= + "#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> while + of you, if any one still wanders about in hiding, yet justice pursues + him with the doom of death.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, we know + that at this time at least the bold words of Justin drew down no + punishment from Antoninus, and a rescript of this emperor, dated + about two years after the presentation of this first apology, has + been preserved, which is more favourable to Christians than that of + Hadrian. It is addressed to that province of Asia which contained so + many flourishing Christian churches, and which accordingly was so + bitter against them. They had written to complain of the Christians, + and to accuse them as the cause of the earthquakes which had + happened. The emperor replies: <span class="tei tei-q">“It was my + belief that the gods would take care that such men as you describe + should not escape. For much rather would they, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> if they could, punish such as will not + worship them. Now these men you are annoying, and accusing their + opinion as atheistical, and charging them with sundry other things + which we cannot prove. Yet it would be serviceable to them to seem to + meet their death for such an accusation; and they surpass you in + giving up their lives rather than comply with what you call upon them + to do. But as to the earthquakes which have happened or are happening + now, it is not reasonable that you should mention them, you who lose + heart when they take place, comparing your conduct with theirs, who + have more confidence than you towards God. And you indeed in such a + time seem to have no knowledge of the gods, and neglect the temples, + and know nothing of worshipping God; whence it is that you are + jealous of those who do worship him, and that you persecute them to + death. Respecting such men various other rulers of provinces wrote to + my divine father, and his reply was, not to trouble such men, except + they appear to be contriving something against the Roman empire. Many + too have referred to me about such, and my reply was in agreement to + my father's decision. Now if anyone has an accusation to bring + against such a one as such, let the accused be released from the + charge, even though he appear to be such, and let the accuser be + punished.”</span><a id="noteref_188" name="noteref_188" href= + "#note_188"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here we reach the + highest point of toleration which Christians received in the first + 130 years. Instead of Trajan's somewhat reluctant order to punish + Christians as Christians, when once convicted, instead of Hadrian's + decision that something contrary to Roman law must be proved against + them, Antoninus, while quoting the latter, goes far beyond it, and + lays down that as Christians they were blameless, and were only to be + punished in case some hostility to the Roman empire could be proved + in their conduct. Moreover, their accuser was to be punished. And + this rescript being repeated to several places, amounted to an + assurance that Christians should be left in tranquillity during the + principate of Pius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Putting ourselves + into the position of a Roman emperor at this middle of the second + century, let us endeavour to form a notion of what Christianity would + appear to him. In the first place, he who had all the threads of + Roman organisation gathered in his hand, would certainly recognise it + as a sect spread throughout the empire, the Jewish origin of which + was known to him, and the author as one crucified by order of a Roman + governor under Tiberius.<a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href= + "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> Yet he + would hardly distinguish accurately the Church from the different + heresies which everywhere sprang up around it, holding more or less + of its doctrines and mixing them up with corruptions <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and abuses.<a id="noteref_190" name= + "noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> And it + would scarcely appear to him as a power in the State, either from its + numbers or the influence of the people belonging to it; yet on the + other hand it would appear as something not inconsiderable in either + of these respects. Moreover, we may suppose it would come before him + as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">belief</span></em>, and not as an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">institution</span></em>. It had as yet no public + churches.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href= + "#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> A + heathen would say of Christians at this time that they had no + temples, altars, or statues;<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" + href="#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> no + ceremonial worship, for he could not, as a heathen, get admittance to + Christian rites, which moreover were carried on in private houses, + and carefully concealed. The emperor would be well aware that + Christians had rulers of their own;<a id="noteref_193" name= + "noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> it was + as such that Trajan had fixed upon the bishop third in rank among + Christian communities for punishment the most severe and degrading, + to be thrown as food for wild beasts, for the pleasure of the people. + But nevertheless, the internal constitution of the Church would lie + hidden from him: the link which bound together the bishops of the + various local communities, and so formed the Catholicism of the + Church, would be quite invisible to all outside. Jealous as Trajan + was of secret societies, so <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg + 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that he could hardly tolerate a guild of firemen in a provincial + town, he had no suspicion of a society which had become even in his + time conterminous with his empire, and was bound together not only by + the profession of one faith, but by the living links of one + government. Nor, fifty years later, could Antoninus have had any such + knowledge. The persecution which we have seen arose from simpler + causes; the faith of Christians in one God who had made heaven and + earth, and in one Son of God who had become Man and redeemed them, + and with this, and indeed as part of this, their summary rejection, + their utter intolerance of all the heathen gods; this it was that had + drawn down the Roman sword upon them in answer to the popular + cry,<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href= + "#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> Away + with the godless! And again, their standing aloof from heathen life, + their refusal to take part in heathen festivals, their withdrawal as + far as possible from all public concerns: this was part of the hatred + of the human race imputed to them, which made them objects of + suspicion first, and then, when any special excitement arose, of + persecution. These peculiarities also, and the secrecy with which + their worship was necessarily conducted because it was not allowed, + had led to calumnies concerning them, imputing the grossest + immorality as well as cruelty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The apologies of + Quadratus, Aristides, and Justin, were probably the first connected + revelation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg + 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the Christian doctrines which the emperor could have; but these would + be very far from conveying to him the character of the Church as an + institution. They were intended to obviate the persecutions arising + from the causes above described, to show the purity of Christian + morality, the reasonableness of Christian belief, the fidelity of + Christian sentiment to the imperial rule as established by a divine + providence. They were not in the least intended to lay before him the + Christian Church as a whole. Thus Justin, replying to the accusation + that they were expecting a kingdom, says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You rashly conceive that we mean a human one, whereas we + speak of that with God.”</span> We may then, it seems, conclude with + certainty that Antoninus was only partially aware of what + Christianity was. That discipline of the secret, which was itself the + result of persecution—of the Christian Faith having to make itself a + place in a world utterly opposed to it,—became at once its + protection, and the cause of further persecution; of persecution, in + so far as it put Christians under general suspicion, but of + protection, inasmuch as it covered with a veil that complete moral + revolution to which the Christian Faith was tending from the first, + and towards which it was continually advancing. Could Trajan have + foreseen what was apparent under Constantine, his treatment of + Christians would have had no forbearance or hesitation in it, his + blows no intermission or doubtfulness. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> As it is, up to the time we are now + considering, there are no traces of a general persecution against the + Christian name organised by the emperor as head of the State. There + are numberless local and individual persecutions starting up in this + city and in that, and arising from the fundamental contrariety of + Christian belief to the existing heathen worship and the ordinary + heathen life. Such we have and no more. And so a great host of + martyrs in single combat won their crown. But the emperor did not set + himself to destroy a unity which he did not see.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now as to the + character in Christians which their condition in these hundred and + thirty years tended to produce, we can form a clear conclusion. Of + the relative proportion of actual martyrs to the whole mass of + believers, we can indeed have no accurate notion; but it is plain + that all were liable to suffering as Christians in every various + degree up to that ultimate point of witnessing by death. Thus the + acceptance of the Christian Faith itself involved at least the spirit + of confession, if not that of martyrdom. A man lived for years, + perhaps a whole generation, with the prospect of suffering, which it + may be never came, or came as the crown of a long period in which + heroic virtues had been called forth. Thus S. Ignatius had been more + than forty years bishop of Antioch, and had carried his church hardly + through the bad times of Domitian, when he gained at last what he + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" + id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> deemed perfect union with his + Lord, by being ground under the teeth of lions, as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the pure bread of God.”</span> What is here expressed + with so sublime a confidence by one actual martyr, must have made the + tissue of Christian life in general. Those early disciples of the + cross put in the cross their victory. The habitual danger which hung + about their life must have scared away the timid, the insincere, the + half-hearted. Yet alternations of peace rapidly succeeded times of + suffering. Throughout these hundred and thirty years there is no + long-continued even local persecution. Breathing-times of comparative + tranquillity come, wherein Christians can grow, propagate, and mature + for the conflict which may at any time arise. Thus while the + opposition made to the infant faith is quite sufficient to have + destroyed an untrue religion, born of earth or human device, to have + scattered and eradicated its professors, it was precisely what would + favour the real advance of a faith rooted upon a suffering God, and + in which suffering with Him was made the means of union with Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And here we halt + at the accession of Marcus Aurelius, as a middle point between the + day of Pentecost and the time of Constantine.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name= + "Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XI. The Second Age Of The + Martyr Church.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Magnus ab + integro sæclorum nascitur ordo.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Jam nova progenies cœlo demittitur + alto.</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Ingredere, O magnos, aderit jam + tempus, honores,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Cara Dei soboles, magnum Jovis + incrementum.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is a moment + in the history of the Roman empire when it comes before us with the + most imposing grandeur. The imperial rule has been definitively + accepted by that proud old aristocracy under which the city of the + seven hills was built up from a robber fortress to be the centre of a + world-wide confederation; while on their side the nations all round + the Mediterranean bow with an almost voluntary homage before the + sceptre of their queen. If the north be still untameable, it has + learnt to dread the talons of the Roman eagle, and cowers murmuring + in its forests and morasses; if the Parthian still shoot as he flies + from the western Cæsar's hosts, he has at least expiated in the ruin + of Ctesiphon the capture of Crassus and the dishonour of Mark Antony. + But far more than this. On the Cæsar in his undisputed greatness has + dawned the real sublimity of the task which Providence had assigned + to him; to mould, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg + 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that is, under one rule of equal beneficence the many tongues and + many nations which a course of conquest often the most unjust had + brought to own his sway. And this point of time is when after the + great warrior Trajan comes Hadrian the man of culture; in whom seems + implanted the most restless curiosity, carrying him with the speed of + a soldier and the power of a prince over every climate from Carlisle + to Alexandria, from Morocco to Armenia, in order that he may see in + each the good of which so many varying races of men are capable, and + use them all for his grand design. To him Rome is still the head; but + he has learnt to esteem at their due value the members of her great + body. The first fifteen years of his reign are almost entirely spent + away from Rome, in those truly imperial progresses wherein the master + of this mighty realm, when he would relieve himself of his helmet, + walks like the simple legionary,<a id="noteref_195" name= + "noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> + bareheaded in front of his soldiers, under the suns of the south, + examining, wherever he comes, the whole civil and military + organisation, promoting the capable and censuring the unworthy, + scattering benefits with unsparing hand. York has known him as a + protecting genius; Athens blends his name with that of her own + Theseus as a second founder; wayward Alexandria exalts him, at least + for the time, as a granter <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg + 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + privileges; the extreme north and utmost south acknowledge alike the + unsparing zeal and majestic presence of their ruler. At that moment + Rome is still Roman. While the Augustan discipline still animates her + legions, the sense of the subordination of the military power to the + civil spirit of a free state is not wholly lost; her proconsuls and + præfects have passed out of those plundering magnates, who + replenished in the tyranny of a year or two from a drained province + the treasures they had squandered in a life of corruption at Rome, + into the orderly and yet dignified magistrates accountable to the + Republic's life-president<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href= + "#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> for + their high delegated power. Perhaps the world had never yet seen + anything at once so great and so beneficent as the government of + Hadrian. But one thing was wanting to the many-tongued and + many-tempered peoples ruled by him, that they should of their own + will accept the worship of one God, and so the matchless empire + receive the only true principle of coherence and permanence in the + common possession of one religion. And the thoughtful student of + history can hardly restrain himself from indulging his fancy as to + what might then have been the result, and into how great a structure + provinces worthy of being kingdoms might then have grown by the + process of an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg + 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + unbroken civilisation instinct with the principles of the pure + Christian Faith. Then the northern flood of barbarism and the eastern + tempest of a false religion, which together were to break up the + fabric of a thousand years, might have been beaten back from its + boundaries, and from them the messengers of light have so penetrated + the world in all directions that the advance of the truth should not + have been impeded by any great civil destruction, but the nations of + Europe have developed themselves from their Roman cradle by a + continuous growth, in which there had been no ages of conquest, + violence, and confusion, no relapse into chaos, no struggle back into + an intricate and yet imperfect order, but the serene advance from + dawn to day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So, however, it + was not to be. The time of probation in the reigns of Hadrian and + Antoninus Pius, wherein a sort of toleration had seemed to be allowed + to Christians, passed away, and the beginning of a far different + destiny broke upon the empire. With the accession of Marcus Aurelius + the great old enemies, the North and the East, awoke from their + trance in fresh vigour. A Parthian war of four years, a German war of + twelve, with pestilence, earthquakes, and famines through a large + part of the empire, try to the utmost the vigour and temper of one of + the most upright sovereigns known to heathenism. Marcus Aurelius + meets both enemies with equal courage and <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> ability, but he dies prematurely, and leaves + the rule carried so temperately by four great sovereigns successively + adopted to empire at mature age, in the untried hands of the heir of + his blood, a youth of nineteen, born in the purple. In this at least + the great Roman was wanting both to Stoic greatness and to Roman + duty. And it was a fatal error. During thirteen years this son of the + most virtuous heathen shows himself the most vicious of tyrants. At a + single bound Rome passes from a ruler more just than Trajan to a + ruler more abandoned than Nero; and in the palace of Marcus Aurelius + endures an emperor who has a double harem of three hundred + victims;<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href= + "#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> who + spares the blood of no senator, and respects the worth of no + officer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a revolution, + similar to that which swept away Domitian, has removed Commodus, the + Roman world is not so fortunate as to find a second Trajan to take + his place. Three great officers who command in Syria, Illyricum, and + Britain, contend for the prize, and when victory has determined in + favour of Septimius Severus, he rules for eighteen years with a force + and capacity which may indeed be compared with Trajan's, but with a + deceit and remorseless severity all his own. At one time forty + senators are slaughtered for the crime of having looked with favour + upon that pretender to the empire who did not succeed. Nor is this a + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" + id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> passing cruelty, but the fixed + spirit of his reign. The sway of the sword is openly proclaimed. That + the army is everything is not only acted on, but laid down as a + guiding principle of state to his children. The unbroken discipline + of her legionaries had hitherto indeed proved the salvation of the + state; but this Septimius fatally tampers with, and in so doing sows + the seeds of future anarchy and dissolution.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His death in 211 + places the empire in the hands of a youth of twenty-three, all but + born in the purple, like Commodus, and his rival in tyranny and + dissoluteness of every kind. Caracalla is endured for six years, and + being killed by a plot in the camp, is succeeded by his murderer + Macrinus. He again, after a year, gives place to a Syrian boy of + fourteen, who took at his accession the honoured name of Marcus + Aurelius Antoninus, but is known to posterity as Heliogabalus. Once + more during a space of four years the crimes of Commodus and + Caracalla are repeated, or even exceeded. Indeed in these years from + 218 to 222 the story of shame and degradation reaches its lowest + point. But the soldiers of the prætorian camp themselves rise against + Heliogabalus, massacre him with his mother, and place on the throne + his cousin Alexander Severus, at the age of fourteen. Now Alexander + has for his mother Mammæa, if not a Christian, at least a hearer of + Origen, who gives her son from his earliest youth a virtuous + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" + id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> education, who surrounds him + on the perilous height of the Roman throne with the arms of her + affection and her practical wisdom. Alexander rules for thirteen + years, a period equal to that of Commodus, and little less than that + of Nero. Younger than both at his accession and his death, his reign + offers the most striking contrast to theirs. Of all heathen rulers he + stands forth as the most blameless. It is a reign which, after the + obscene domination of Commodus, Caracalla, and Heliogabalus, with the + savagery between them of Septimius Severus immediately preceding it, + seems like a romance of goodness. Simple and admirable in his private + life, he rivals Marcus Aurelius in his zeal for the administration of + justice, for the choice of good governors, for devotion to the public + service; and, happier than Marcus Aurelius, on his name rests no + stain of persecution. <span class="tei tei-q">“He suffered the + Christians to be,”</span><a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href= + "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> are the + emphatic words of his biographer; concerning which it has been well + remarked that little as this seems to say, it had been said of no one + of his predecessors, though several had not persecuted the + Church.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href= + "#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> And + therefore this expression must mean that he left them in an entire + liberty as to religion. It is indeed the exact contradiction of what, + thirty years before, Tertullian had stated respecting the law in the + time of Septimius Severus; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg + 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for + one of his complaints in pleading for Christians was, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“your harsh sentence <span class="tei tei-q">‘that we are + not allowed to exist,’</span> is an open appeal to brute + force.”</span><a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href= + "#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexander Severus, + the darling of his people, perished by the hands of some treacherous + soldiers suborned by his successor Maximin; and with him ends this + period of seventy-four years, which we will consider together, in + order to estimate the progress of the Christian Faith. A time of more + remarkable contrasts in rulers cannot be found. It begins with Marcus + Aurelius, and it ends with Alexander Severus, the two most virtuous + of heathen princes; between them it contains Commodus, Caracalla, and + Heliogabalus, the three generally reputed the most vicious; while the + definitive course which the history of the empire took is given to it + by another, Septimius Severus, of great abilities and mixed + character, who gained the empire as a successful soldier, and was + true to his origin in that he established the ultimate victory of + pure force over every restriction of a civil constitution: an African + unsparing of blood, who sat on the throne of Augustus, and worked out + the problem of government which the founder of the empire had started + by preparing the result of Diocletian.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rule of + Commodus and his successors fully revealed the fatal truth, that the + five princes who from the accession of Nerva had governed as if they + were really responsible to the senate, had only been a fortunate + chance; that this time of prosperity rested upon no legal limitation + of rights between those things wont to exist only in severance,<a id= + "noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> the + sovereign's power and the subject's freedom; that it was no result of + a constitution which had grown up under a mutual sense of benefit + arising from authority exercised conscientiously, and obedience + cordially rendered. The age which Tacitus<a id="noteref_202" name= + "noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> at its + commencement had called <span class="tei tei-q">“most blessed”</span> + was indeed over, and as soon as the second Antonine left the scene, a + state of things ensued in which tyranny and cruelty were as unchecked + as under Nero or Domitian at their worst. It became evident that all + had depended on the sovereign's personal character. From Marcus to + Commodus the leap was instantaneous; and so, again, afterwards the + short-lived serenity and order of Alexander's rule passed at his + death into a confusion lasting for more than forty years, which + threatened to break up the very existence of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in Rome from + the accession of Commodus in 180 to the death of Heliogabalus in 222 + we find a profound corruption of morals, an excess of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cruelty, and a disregard of civil rights, + which could scarcely be exceeded. Tacitus, at the beginning of + Trajan's reign, burst forth into indignation at the thought that it + had cost Rusticus and Senecio their lives, in Domitian's time, to + have praised Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus, and that their very + writings had been publicly burned, as if that fire could extinguish + the voice of the Roman people, the liberty of the senate, and the + conscience of mankind. <span class="tei tei-q">“Truly great,”</span> + he cried, <span class="tei tei-q">“was the specimen of patient + endurance which we exhibited.”</span><a id="noteref_203" name= + "noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> What + words, then, would he have found to express the degradation of + servile spirit in that selfsame city a hundred years later, when + Plautianus, the favourite minister of Septimius Severus, at the + marriage of his daughter with Caracalla, caused a hundred persons of + good family, some of them already fathers, secretly to be made + eunuchs, in order that they might serve as chamberlains to the + imperial bride.<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href= + "#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> Or to + take another example; as Quintillus, one of the chiefs of the senate, + both by birth and by the employments which he had held, a man of + advanced years and living retired in the country, was seized in order + to be put to death, he declared that his only surprise was that he + had been suffered to live so long, and that he had made every + preparation for <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg + 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> his + burial. A third incident will show both the sort of crimes for which + men were punished, the protection given by the law to the individual, + and the spirit and temper of the senate. It had condemned Apronianus, + proconsul of Asia, without giving him a hearing, because his nurse + had dreamt that he was one day to reign, concerning which he was + reported to have consulted a magician. Now, in reading the + informations laid against him, it was found that a witness deposed + that during the consultation some senator who was bald had stretched + out his head to listen. Upon this all the bald senators, even those + who had never gone to the house of Apronianus, began to tremble, + while the rest put their hands to their heads to make sure that they + had still their hair. However, a certain Marcellinus fell under + special suspicion, whereupon he demanded that the witness should be + brought in, who could not fail to recognise him if guilty. The + witness looked round upon them all for a long time without saying a + word, until upon a sign that a certain senator made him, he declared + it was Marcellinus, who forthwith was hurried out of the senate to be + beheaded, before Severus was even informed of it. As he went to + execution he met four of his children, to whom he said that his + greatest grief was to leave them living after him in so miserable a + time.<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href= + "#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> It was + not without reason that Tertullian <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> at this very moment encouraged the martyrs to + be constant, with the reflection that there was no one who might not, + for the cause of man, be made to suffer whatever nature would most + shrink from suffering in the cause of God. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The times we live in are proofs,”</span> he cried, + <span class="tei tei-q">“of this. How many and how great are the + instances we have seen, in which no height of birth, no degree of + rank, no personal dignity, no time of life, have saved men from + coming to the most unexpected end, for some man's cause, either at + his own hands, if they stood against him, or if for him, by the hands + of his adversaries.”</span><a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" + href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a time at + which the extremes of reckless cruelty, of profuse luxury, of + shameless dissoluteness, met together; in which women were forbidden + by an express law to expose themselves on the arena as gladiators; in + which, when the emperor Severus would legislate against adultery, a + memorial was handed to him with the names of three thousand persons + whom his law would touch.<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href= + "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> Such + was the character of the time which followed at once on the empire's + golden age; the time in which the Church of God was lengthening her + cords and strengthening her stakes, and building up her divine polity + amid the worthlessness of the world's greatest empire, and the + instability of all earthly things.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. In the last + review which we took of her material progress we said that to the eye + of Pius Antoninus she would not yet appear from her multitude as a + power in the state. But before the end of the seventy-four years + which we are here considering as one period, it was otherwise. + Already in the reign of Commodus, Eusebius states that the word of + salvation was bringing to the worship of the one God men out of every + race, so that in Rome itself many distinguished for wealth and rank + embraced it with their whole families.<a id="noteref_208" name= + "noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> A few + years later, when Tertullian writes his apology, he makes the heathen + complain <span class="tei tei-q">“that the state is overrun with us, + that Christians are found in the country, in forts, in islands; that + every sex and age and condition and rank come over to + them.”</span><a id="noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href= + "#note_209"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> And + again; <span class="tei tei-q">“we are of yesterday, and have already + filled every place you have, your cities, islands, forts, boroughs, + councils, your very camps, tribes, corporations, the palace, senate, + and forum. Your temples only we leave you. For what war should we not + be equal, we who are so ready to be slaughtered, if our religion did + not command us rather to suffer death than to inflict it.”</span> + Elsewhere he speaks of Christians as <span class="tei tei-q">“so + great a multitude of men as to be almost the majority in every + city.”</span> Now make whatsoever allowance we will for Tertullian's + vehemence, such statements, laid before <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> adversaries, if they had not a great amount of + truth in them, would bring ridicule on his cause rather than + strengthen it. Tertullian besides wrote at the time of the general + persecution set on foot by Septimius Severus against the Christian + Faith, which itself was a proof of what importance it had assumed. We + may perhaps put the first twenty years of the third century as the + point at which, having passed through the period when it was embraced + by individuals with a several choice, it was become the faith of + families, and one step only remained, that it should become the faith + of nations.<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href= + "#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us consider a + moment the mode of its increase. It was twofold. The plant of which a + root was fixed by the Apostles and their successors in each of the + cities of the empire grew, gathering to itself in every place the + better minds of heathenism, and exercising from the beginning a + marked attraction upon the more religious sex and upon the most + down-trodden portion of society; women were ever won to it by the + purity which its doctrines inculcated, slaves by its tender charity: + it gave a moral emancipation to both. If we possessed a continuous + and detailed history of the Christian Faith in any one city, say + Rome, or Alexandria, or Antioch, or Ephesus, or Carthage, or Corinth, + for the first three centuries, what a wonderful exhibition of + spiritual power and material <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> weakness it would offer. By fixing the mind on + Christianity as merely one object, as an abstraction, we lose in + large part the sense of the moral force to which its propagation + bears witness. It was in each city a community,<a id="noteref_211" + name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> which + had its centre and representative in its Bishop, which had its + worship, discipline, and rule of life presided over by him; its + presbytery, diaconate, and deaconesses; its sisterhoods and works of + charity, spiritual and temporal: a complete government and a complete + society held together by purely spiritual bonds, which the state + sometimes ignored, not unfrequently persecuted, but never favoured. + Such was the grain of mustard-seed, from north to south, from east to + west, in presence of the political Roman, the sensitive and lettered + Greek, the sensuous African, the volatile and disputatious + Alexandrian, the corrupt Antiochene. It had one sort of population to + deal with at Rome, quite another in the capital of Egypt, a third at + Ephesus, which belonged to the great goddess Diana, and the statue + which had fallen down from heaven, a fourth at Carthage, where the + hot Numidian blood came in contact with the civilisation of Rome, a + fifth at Corinth, the mistress of all art and luxury. And so on. Now + in each and all of these cities and a hundred others the divine plant + met with various <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg + 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + soils and temperatures; but in them all it grew. It had its distinct + experiences, encountering many a withering heat and many a stormy + blast, and watered full oft with blood, but in them all the seed, + dropped so imperceptibly that the mightiest and most jealous of + empires was unconscious of what was cast into its bosom, became a + tree. It was an organic growth of vital power. Christianity, during + the ten ages of persecution, is the upspringing of several hundred + such communities, distinct as we see here, and as described above by + S. Ignatius, but at the same time coinherent, as we saw in the + beginning, and as we shall find presently. As, then, all the cities + of the Roman empire had a secular political and social life, and a + municipal government of their own, so had the Christian Faith in each + of them a corresponding life of spiritual government and inward + thought; and if we had the materials to construct the history of this + Faith in any one, it would give us a wonderful insight into the + course of that prodigious victory over the world which the whole + result presents. We cannot do so. The data for it do not exist, and + because they do not, we allude here to this first mode of growth made + by the Christian Faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its second mode + was thus. The Apostolical Churches, as they severally grew, scattered + from their bosoms a seed as prolific as their own. They sent out + those who founded communities such as <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> their own. Thus the Christian plant was + communicated from Rome to all the west. With every decade of years it + crept silently over the vast regions of Gaul and Spain, advancing + further west and north. This extension was not a chance springing up + of Christians in different localities. It always took place by the + founding<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href= + "#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> of + sees, with the apostolic authority, after the apostolic model. If the + Roman colonia had its rites of inauguration, and was a transcript of + the great city, its senate and its forum, so much more the Christian + city had its prototype and derived its authority from the great + citadel of the Faith, wherein Peter's prerogative was stored + up,<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href= + "#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> and + whence it had a derivation wider in extent and more ample in + character than that of Rome the natural city. But we will take from + another quarter what is as perfect a specimen of this extension as + any that can be found. In the great city of Alexandria, the centre of + intellectual and commercial life to all the East and the whole Greek + name, S. Peter set up the chair of his disciple Mark. There the + evangelist taught and there in due time suffered. Dragged by an + infuriated populace through the streets he thus gave up his + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" + id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> soul. But the plant which he + so watered with his blood was of extraordinary vigour. It not only + grew amid the intensest intellectual rivalry of Greek and Jew in the + capital, but likewise in course of time occupied the whole civil + government which obeyed the præfect of Egypt. From Alexandria, Egypt + and the Pentapolis of Cyrene derived their Christian faith and + government; and so powerful was this bond that the bishop of the + capital exercised control over all the bishops of the civil diocese, + as it was then termed. He was in power a patriarch long before he had + that name, or even the name of archbishop. How great and strict this + rule was we may judge from an incident preserved by Photius,<a id= + "noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> which + occurred in the very last year of the period we are considering, in + 235. Heraclas, bishop of Alexandria, a former pupil of Origen, had + inflicted upon that great writer a second expulsion from the Church + for his erroneous teaching. Origen on his way to Syria came to the + city of Thmuis, where bishop Ammonius allowed him, in spite of the + above-mentioned censure of Heraclas, to preach. When Heraclas heard + this, he came to Thmuis and deposed Ammonius, and appointed in his + stead Philippus as bishop. Afterwards, on the earnest request of the + people of the city, he restored Ammonius to the office of bishop, and + ordained that he and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg + 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Philippus should be bishops together. The latter, however, + voluntarily gave way to Ammonius, and succeeded him at his death. + Such, ninety years before the Nicene Council, which recognised and + approved these powers of the bishop of Alexandria, as being after the + model of those exercised by the bishop of Rome,<a id="noteref_215" + name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> was his + authority by the natural force of the hierarchic principle which + built up the Church. And so little were these Christian communities, + which we have seen so complete in their own organic growth, + independent of the bond which held the whole Church together, and of + which the authority of the Egyptian primate was itself a + derivation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These, then, were + the two modes in which the Christian Faith pursued and attained its + orderly increase; as a seed it grew to a plant in each city, and as a + plant it ramified, or as Tertullian says, carried <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the vine-layer of the faith”</span><a id="noteref_216" + name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> from + city to city, from province to province. In the meantime the last + disciples of the Apostles, those who from the especial veneration + with which they were regarded as teachers of the Faith and + <span class="tei tei-q">“second links in the chain of + tradition,”</span> were termed Presbyters,<a id="noteref_217" name= + "noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> had + died out. S. Polycarp, at the time <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of his martyrdom in 167, was probably the sole + remaining one, though his pupil S. Irenæus had known others. When the + latter, upon the martyrdom of S. Pothinus in 177, is raised to the + government of the See of Lyons, we may consider that no one survived + in possession of that great personal authority which belonged to + those who had themselves been taught by Apostles; and so at the third + generation from the last of these the Church throughout the world + stood without any such support, simply upon that basis of the + tradition and teaching of the truth, and of the succession of rulers, + on which the Apostles had placed it, to last for ever. Now in this + position it had already, throughout the whole course of the second + century, been violently assaulted by a family of heresies, which + growing upon one root—a natural philosophy confusing the being of God + with the world—burst forth into an astonishing variety of outward + forms. Gnosticism completely altered and defaced Christian doctrine + under each of the four great heads, the Being of God, the Person of + Christ, the nature of man, the office and function of the Church. + Into the Godhead it introduced a dualism, recognising with the + absolute good an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg + 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + absolute evil represented by matter: it denied the reality of the + Incarnation; it made the body a principle of evil in man's nature: + but we will here limit ourselves to the characteristic and formal + principle of the system from which it derived its name, to Gnosis as + the means of acquiring divine truth. Now the Christian religion + taught that revealed truth was to be attained by the individual + through receiving, upon the ground of the divine veracity, those + mysterious doctrines superior but not contrary to reason which it + unfolded; and that the communication of such doctrines might continue + unimpaired and unchanging, it taught that our Lord had established a + never-failing authority charged with the execution of this office, + and assisted by the perpetual presence of His Spirit with it to the + end. But the Gnostics admitted only in the case of the imperfect or + natural man that faith was the means for acquiring religious truth; + to the spiritual, the proper gnostic, gnosis should take the place of + faith: for to many a heathen, accustomed to unlimited philosophical + speculation, the absolute subjection of the intellect to divine + authority, required by the principle of faith, was repugnant. Now + this Gnosis was in their mind not knowledge grounded upon faith, but + either philosophic science, or a supposed intuition of truth, which + was not only to replace faith, but the whole moral life, inasmuch as + the completion and sanctification of man were to be wrought by + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" + id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it. And thus instead of an + external authority the individual reason was set up as the highest + standard of religious truth, the issue of which could only be + rationalism in belief and sectarianism in practice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This formal + principle of Gnosticism when duly carried out would deny the idea of + the Church, its divine institution, its properties and prerogatives. + For the gnostic mode of attaining divine truth, as above stated, + contains in it such a denial. Besides this, the gnostic doctrine that + matter was the seat of evil, destroyed the belief that Christ had + assumed a body: the gnostic doctrine that the supreme God could enter + into no communion with man made their Æon Christ no member of human + society, but a phantom which had enlightened the man Jesus, and then + returned back to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Light-realm.”</span> + Not being really the Son of God, he could have no Church which was + his body: not really redeeming, for sin to the gnostic had only a + physical, not a moral cause, he was but a teacher, and therefore had + created no institution to convey grace; which, moreover, was + superfluous, for whatever elements of good human nature had were + derived from creation and not from redemption. Nor was such an + universal institution wanted, since not all men but only the + spiritual were capable of being drawn up to the Light-realm. The + Gnostic therefore required neither hierarchy nor priesthood, since + the soul of this system was the gnosis <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the individual. For this a body enjoying + infallibility through the assistance of the Holy Ghost was not + needed. It was enough for enthusiasts and dreamers to pursue their + speculations without any limit to free inquiry, save what themselves + chose to impose as the interpretation of such scriptures as they + acknowledged, or as the exhibition of a private tradition with which + they held themselves to be favoured.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lastly, the idea + of Sacraments, as conveying grace under a covering of sense, would be + superfluous to the gnostic, inasmuch as the spiritual elements in man + belong to him by nature, and are not communicated by a Redeemer, and + would be repulsive to him because matter is a product of the evil + principle, and cannot be the channel of grace from out the + Light-realm.<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href= + "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">My purpose here + has only been to say just so much of Gnosticism as may show how the + whole Christian truth was attacked by it, and especially the + existence and functions of the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this may + indeed be termed the first heresy in that it struck its roots right + up into Apostolic times. Irenæus, Eusebius, and Epiphanius account + Simon Magus to be its father, and the father of all heresy. As such + it is not without significance that he encountered the first of the + Apostles in Samaria, endeavouring to purchase from him the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" + id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> gifts of grace and miraculous + power, and that he likewise afterwards encountered him at Rome. To + this the first manifestation of Gnosticism succeed heretical + doctrines concerning the Person of our Lord, which sprung out of + Judaism; but no sooner are these overcome than Gnosticism in its + later forms spreads from Syria and Alexandria over the whole empire, + everywhere confronting the Church, seducing her members, and tempting + especially speculative minds within her. A mixture itself of + Platonic, Philonic, Pythagorean, and Parsic philosophy, affecting to + gather the best out of all philosophies and religions, in which it + exactly represented the eclectic spirit of its age, arraying itself + in the most fantastic garb of imagination, but at the bottom no + dubious product of the old heathen pantheism, it set itself to the + work, while it assumed Christian names, of confusing and distracting + Christian truth. From the beginning of the second century it was the + great enemy which beset the Church. It may, then, well represent to + us the principle of heresy itself, and as such let us consider on + what principles it was met by the Church's teachers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now to form a + correct notion of the danger to which the Christian people at this + time was exposed, we must have before us that it was contained in + several hundred communities, each of them forming a complete + spiritual society and government. These had arisen under the pressure + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" + id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of such hostility on the part + of the empire that it is only in the time of the last emperor during + this period, Alexander Severus, that churches are known to have + publicly existed at Rome.<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href= + "#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> For a + very long time all meetings of Christians and all celebration of + their worship was secret. It is obvious what an absolute freedom of + choice on the part of all those who became Christians this fact + involved. Nor did that freedom cease when they had been initiated + into the new religion. Their fidelity to the Christian faith was all + through their subsequent life solicited by the danger in which as + Christians they stood. Only a continuous freedom of choice on their + part could maintain it. And not only did every temporal interest turn + against it, but in the case at least of the more intellectual + converts the activity of thought implied in their voluntary + acceptance of a new belief served as a material on which the + seductions of false teachers might afterwards act, unless it was + controlled by an everliving faith, and penetrated by an active + charity. The more these Christian communities multiplied, the more it + was to be expected that some of them would yield to the assaults of + false teachers. It is in just such a state of things that a great + dogmatic treatise was written against Gnosticism by one who stood at + only a single remove from the Apostle John, being the disciple of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" + id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> his disciple Polycarp. + Irenæus, by birth a native of lesser Asia, enjoyed when young the + instructions and intimate friendship of the bishop of Smyrna. In his + old age he delighted to remember how Polycarp had described his + intercourse with John, and with those who had seen the Lord: how he + repeated their discourse, and what he had heard from them respecting + the teaching and the miracles of that Word of life whom they had seen + with their own eyes. <span class="tei tei-q">“These things,”</span> + says Irenæus, <span class="tei tei-q">“through the mercy of God I + then diligently listened to, writing them down not on paper, but on + my heart, and by His grace I ruminate upon them + perpetually.”</span><a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href= + "#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> Later + in life he left Smyrna, and settled in Lyons, of which Church he was + a presbyter when the terrible persecution of 177 broke out there. + Elected thereupon to succeed a martyr as bishop, he crowned an + episcopate of twenty-five years with a similar martyrdom. He wrote, + as he says, during the episcopate of Eleutherius, who was the twelfth + bishop of Rome from Peter, and sat from 177 to 192. After describing + at length the Gnostic errors concerning the divine nature, he sets + forth in contrast the unity of the truth as declared by the Church in + the following words:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Church, though she be spread abroad through the + whole world unto the ends of the earth, has received from the + Apostles and their disciples <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> faith in one God;”</span> and he proceeds to + recite her creed, in substance the same as that now held: then he + adds, dwelling with emphasis on the very point which I have been + noting, the sprinkling about, that is, of distinct communities so + widely dispersed, which yet are one in their belief.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This proclamation and this faith the Church having + received, though she be disseminated through the whole world, + carefully guards, as the inhabitant of one house, and equally + believes these things as having one soul and the same heart, and in + exact agreement these things she proclaims and teaches and hands + down, as having one mouth. For, though the languages through the + world be dissimilar, the power of the tradition is one and the same. + Nor have the churches founded in Germany otherwise believed or + otherwise handed down, nor those in Spain, nor in Gaul, nor in the + East, nor in Egypt, nor those in the middle of the world. But as the + sun, God's creature, in all the world is one and the same, so too the + proclamation of the truth shines everywhere, and lights all men that + are willing to come to the knowledge of the truth. Nor will he among + the Church's rulers who is most powerful in word say other than this, + for no one is above his teacher;<a id="noteref_221" name= + "noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> nor + will he that is weak in word diminish the tradition, for the Faith + being one and the same, neither he that can <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> say much on it has gathered too much, nor he + that can say little is deficient.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Against the + gnostic claim to possess a private tradition, in virtue of which each + of them <span class="tei tei-q">“depraving the rule of the truth was + not ashamed to preach himself,”</span> he sets forth the one original + tradition which the Apostles,<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" + href="#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> only + <span class="tei tei-q">“when they had first been invested with the + power of the Holy Ghost coming down on them, and endued with perfect + knowledge,”</span> delivered to the churches founded by them. + <span class="tei tei-q">“And this tradition of the Apostles, + manifested in the whole world, may be seen in every church by all who + have the will to see what is true, and we can give the chain of those + who by the Apostles were appointed bishops in the churches, and their + successors down to our time, who have neither taught nor known any + such delirious dream as these imagine. For, had the Apostles known + any reserved mysteries, which they taught to the perfect separately + and secretly from the rest, assuredly they would have delivered them + to those especially to whom they intrusted the churches themselves. + For very perfect and irreprehensible in all respects did they wish + those to be whom they left for their own successors,<a id= + "noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> + delivering over to them their own office of teaching, by correct + conduct on whose part great advantage <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> would accrue, as from their fall the utmost + calamity. But since it were very long, in a volume like this, to + enumerate the succession of all the churches, we take the church the + greatest, the most ancient, and known to all, founded and established + at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles Peter and Paul, and + pointing out the tradition which it has received from the Apostles, + and the faith which it has announced to men, reaching down to us by + the succession of its bishops, we confound all those who form + societies other than they ought, in any way, whether for the sake of + self-fancied doctrines, or through blindness and an evil mind. For, + with this church, on account of its superior principate, it is + necessary that every church agree, that is, the faithful everywhere + (every church) in which by the (faithful) everywhere, the apostolic + tradition is preserved.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The blessed Apostles, then, having founded and built up + the church, committed to Linus the administration of its + episcopate.... Anencletus succeeds him, from whom in the third place + from the Apostles Clemens inherits the episcopate.... He is succeeded + by Evaristus; Evaristus by Alexander, who is followed by Xystus sixth + from the Apostles. Then Telesphorus, who was gloriously martyred; + next Hyginus; then Pius; after whom Anicetus. Soter followed + Anicetus; and now in the twelfth degree from the Apostles Eleutherius + holds the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg + 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + place of bishop. By this order and succession the tradition from the + Apostles in the Church and the teaching of the truth have come down + to us. And this proof is most complete that it is one and the same + life-giving Faith which has been preserved in the Church from the + Apostles up to this time, and handed down in truth.... With such + proofs, then, before us, we ought not still to search among others + for the truth, which it is easy to take from the Church, since the + Apostles most fully committed unto this, as unto a rich storehouse, + all which is of the truth, so that everyone, whoever will, may draw + from it the draught of life. For this is the gate of life: all the + rest are thieves and robbers. They must therefore be avoided; but + whatever is of the Church we must love with the utmost diligence, and + lay hold of the tradition of the truth. For how? if on any small + matter question arose, ought we not to recur to the most ancient + churches in which the Apostles lived, and take from them on the + matter in hand what is certain and plain. And suppose the Apostles + had not even left us writings, ought we not to follow that order of + tradition which they delivered to those to whom they intrusted the + churches? To this order many barbarous nations of believers in Christ + assent, having salvation written upon their hearts by the Holy Spirit + without paper and ink, and diligently guarding the old + tradition.”</span><a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href= + "#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This capital point + of the ever-living teaching office he further dwells on:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Faith received in the Church we guard in it, which + being always from the Spirit of God, like an admirable deposit in a + good vessel, is young itself, and makes young the vessel in which it + is. For this office on the part of God<a id="noteref_225" name= + "noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> is + intrusted to the Church, as the breath of life was given to the body, + in order that all the members receiving may be quickened, and in this + is placed the communication of Christ, that is, the Holy Spirit, the + earnest of incorruption, the confirmation of our faith, and the + ladder by which we ascend to God. For, says he, in the Church God has + placed Apostles, Prophets, Teachers, and all the remaining operation + of the Spirit; of whom all those are not partakers who do not run to + the Church, but deprive themselves of life by an evil opinion and a + still worse conduct. For where the Church is, there also is the + Spirit of God: and where the Spirit of God is, there is the Church + and all grace: but the Spirit is Truth. Wherefore they who are not + partakers of Him are neither nourished unto life from the breasts of + the mother, nor receive that most pure fountain which proceeds from + the Body of Christ, but dig out for themselves broken cisterns from + earthly ditches, and from the filth drink foul water, avoiding the + Faith of the Church lest they be brought back, and rejecting the + Spirit <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name= + "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that they may not be + taught. So estranged from the truth they deservedly wallow in every + error, tossed about by it, having different opinions on the same + subjects at different times, and never holding one firm mind, + choosing rather to be sophists of words than disciples of the truth; + for they are not founded upon the one rock, but on the sand, which + has in it a multitude of pebbles.”</span><a id="noteref_226" name= + "noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And he elsewhere + contrasts the certainty within, and the uncertainty without, this + teaching power:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The said heretics, then, being blind to the truth, + cannot help walking out of the track into one path after another, and + hence it is that the vestiges of their doctrine are scattered about + without any rule or sequence. Whereas the road of those who are of + the Church goes round the whole world, because it possesses a firm + tradition from the Apostles, and gives us to see that all have one + and the same faith, where all enjoin one and the same God the Father, + believe one disposition of the Son of God's incarnation, know the + same gift of the Spirit, meditate on the same precepts, guard the + same regimen of ecclesiastical rule, await the same advent of the + Lord, and support the same salvation of the whole man, body and soul + alike. Now the Church's preaching is true and firm, in whom one and + the same way of salvation is shown <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> through the whole world. For to her is + intrusted the light of God; and hence the wisdom of God, by which He + saves all men, <span class="tei tei-q">‘is sung at her entrance, acts + with confidence in her streets, is proclaimed on her walls, and + speaks ever in the gates of the city.’</span> For everywhere the + Church proclaims the truth: she is the seven-branched candlestick + bearing Christ's light.”</span><a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" + href="#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been + necessary to give at considerable length the very words of S. + Irenæus, because they are stronger and more perspicuous than any + summary of them can be, and because they exhibit a complete answer + not to this particular heresy only, but to all heresy for ever. Such + an answer, coming from one who stood at the second generation from S. + John, is of the highest value. Thus he meets the gnostic principle + that divine truth is acquired by the individual through some process + of his own mind, which in this particular case is termed gnosis, but + which may bear many other names, by appealing to an external + standard, the Rule of Faith in the Church from the beginning, which + by its unity points to its origin and lineage from the apostles and + Christ. And this serves to bring out the central idea which rules his + whole mind, that <span class="tei tei-q">“where the Church is, there + also is the Spirit of God; and where the Spirit of God is, there is + the Church and all grace: but the Spirit is Truth.”</span> The + deposit of which he spoke is not a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> dead mass, or lump of ore, requiring only safe + custody, but a living Spirit dwelling in the Church, the source + within her of unity, truth, and grace, using her teaching office, + which is set up in her episcopate, for the drawing out and + propagation of the deposit from the double fountain of Tradition and + Scripture, for these her teachers as such have a divine gift of + truth.<a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href= + "#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> It is + thus that he expands without altering the doctrine of his teacher + Polycarp's fellow-disciple, <span class="tei tei-q">“Where Jesus + Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.”</span><a id="noteref_229" + name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> And + from it he proceeds to what follows necessarily on such a conception, + that this Church must have a visible point of unity. As then he + appeals to the churches founded by Apostles as the principal centres + of living tradition, so before yet one of these churches had fallen + into possession of heretics,<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" + href="#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> before + yet there was any disagreement between them, he singles out one for + its superior principate, on account of which it was necessary for + every church to agree with it, which he grounds on its descent from + S. Peter and S. Paul, giving every link in the chain of succession + during the hundred and ten years which had elapsed between their + martyrdom and his own episcopate. He sees an especial prerogative + lodged in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg + 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that church as the means of securing the whole Church's organic + unity; and this prerogative is, that it is among churches what S. + Peter and S. Paul were among Apostles;<a id="noteref_231" name= + "noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> as the + first general western council expressed it, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in it the Apostles sit daily, and their blood without + intermission bears witness to the glory of God.”</span><a id= + "noteref_232" name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + conception expressed by Irenæus, with the greatest emphasis and + continual repetition, in order to refute heresy, is that all truth + and grace are stored up in the one body of the Church; to which his + doctrine of the Roman Primacy is as the keystone to the arch. For + everything in his view depends on the unity, the intrinsic harmony, + of the truth which he is describing as lodged in the episcopate: the + means therefore of securing that unity are part of its conception. + Accordingly, to see in its due force his statement that every church + must agree with the Roman Church, it must not be severed from the + context and taken by itself, but viewed in connexion with the + argument as part of which it stands. If the Church is to speak one + truth with one mouth, which is his main idea, she must have an + organic provision for such a result, which he places in the necessary + agreement of all churches with one: <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and this is his second idea, subsidiary to the + first, and completing it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Irenæus by birth + and education represents in all this the witness of the Asiatic + churches; as bishop of Lyons, the churches of Gaul.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few years after + Irenæus, Tertullian in a professed treatise against heresy lays down + exactly the same principles. With him, too, the main idea is the + possession of all truth and grace by the one Body which Christ formed + and the Apostles established. This he thus exhibits:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“We must not appeal to the Scriptures, nor try the issue + on points on which the victory is either none, or doubtful, or too + little doubtful. For though the debate on the Scriptures should not + so turn out as to place each party on an equal footing, the order of + things requires that that question should be first proposed which is + the only one now to be discussed, To whom does the Faith itself + belong? Whose are the Scriptures? From whom and through whom, when + and to whom, was that discipline by which men become Christians + delivered? For wherever the truth of that which is the Christian + discipline at once and faith be shown to be, there will be the truth + of the Scriptures, of their exposition, and of all Christian + traditions. Our Lord Jesus Christ (may He suffer me so to speak for + the present), whoever He is, of whatever God the Son, of whatever + substance God and Man, of whatever reward <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the promiser, Himself declared so long as He + was on earth, whether to the people openly, or to the disciples + apart, what He was, what He had been, what will of the Father He + administered, what duty of man He laid down. Of whom He had attached + to his own side twelve in chief, the destined teachers of the + nations. One of these having fallen off from Him, He bade the other + eleven, on his departure to the Father after the resurrection, go and + teach the nations, who were to be baptised into the Father, into the + Son, and into the Holy Ghost. The Apostles then forthwith, the + meaning of their title being the Sent, assuming by lot Matthias as a + twelfth into the place of Judas, by the authority of the prophecy in + the psalm of David, when they had obtained the promised power of the + Holy Ghost for miracles and utterance, first through Judea bore + witness to the Faith in Christ Jesus, and established churches, + thence proceeding into the world promulgated the same doctrine of the + same Faith to the nations, and thereupon founded churches in every + city, from which the other churches thenceforth borrowed the + vine-layer of the Faith and the seeds of the doctrine, and are daily + borrowing them that they may become churches. And for this cause they + are themselves also counted apostolical, as being the offspring of + apostolical churches. The whole kind must be classed under its + original. And thus these churches so many and so great are that one + first from the Apostles, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg + 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + whence they all spring. Thus all are the first, and all apostolical, + while all being the one prove unity: whilst there is between them + communication of peace, and the title of brotherhood, and the token + of hospitality.<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href= + "#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> And no + other principle rules these rights than the one tradition of the same + sacrament.”</span><a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href= + "#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here is the + summing up of what Irenæus had said with the force, brevity, and + incisiveness which characterise Tertullian. Further on he rejects any + appeal on the part of heretics to scripture:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“If the truth be in our possession, as many as walk by + the rule which the Church has handed down from the Apostles, the + Apostles from Christ, and Christ from God, the reasonableness of our + proposition is manifest, which lays down that heretics are not to be + allowed to enter an appeal to scriptures, since without scriptures we + prove them to have no concern with scriptures. For if they are + heretics, they cannot be Christians, inasmuch as they do not hold + from Christ what they follow by their own choice, and in consequence + admit the name of heretics.<a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" + href="#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> + Therefore not being Christians, they have no right to Christian + writings. To whom we may well say, Who are you? when did <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> you come? and whence? What are you, who + are not mine, doing in my property? By what right dost thou, Marcion, + cut down my wood? By what license dost thou, Valentinus, turn the + course of my waters? By what power remove my landmarks? This is my + possession: how are you sowing it and feeding on it at your pleasure? + It is mine, I repeat: I had it of old; I had it first: I have the + unquestioned title-deeds from the first proprietors. I am the heir of + the Apostles. According to their will, according to their trust, + according to the oath I took from them, I hold it. You, assuredly, + they have ever disinherited and renounced, as aliens, as enemies. But + why are heretics aliens and enemies to Apostles, save from difference + of doctrine, which each at his own pleasure has either brought + forward or received against Apostles?”</span><a id="noteref_236" + name="noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus Tertullian + adds the witness of the African church to that of the Asiatic and + Gallic churches in Irenæus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have noted the + great church of Alexandria as a most complete instance of the growth + whereby from the mother see the hierarchy took possession of a land. + But the principle of such growth was the ecclesiastical rule, and its + strength the energy with which that rule was preserved. This rule was + twofold: the rule of discipline, or outward regimen, what we now call + a constitution; and the rule of Faith. What the church of Alexandria + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" + id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was in discipline has been + seen above: and now just at this time we have in the first great + teacher of this church, who has come down to us, the most decisive + exhibition of this rule as a defence against this same gnostic + heresy. <span class="tei tei-q">“As,”</span> says Clement, + <span class="tei tei-q">“a man like those under the enchantment of + Circe should become a beast, so whoever has kicked against the + tradition of the Church, and started aside into the opinions of human + heresies, has ceased to be a man of God, and faithful to the + Lord.”</span> ... <span class="tei tei-q">“There are three states of + the soul, ignorance, opinion, knowledge. Those who are in ignorance, + are the Gentiles; those in knowledge, the true Church; those in + opinion, the adherents of heresies.”</span> ... <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We have learnt that bodily pleasure is one thing, which + we give to the Gentiles; strife a second, which we adjudge to + heresies; joy a third, which is the property of the Church.”</span> + Again, he speaks of those who <span class="tei tei-q">“not using the + divine words well, but perversely, neither enter themselves into the + kingdom of heaven, nor suffer those whom they have deceived to attain + the truth. They have not indeed the key to the entrance, but rather a + false key, whereby they do not enter as we do through the Lord's + tradition, drawing back the veil, but cutting out a side way, and + secretly digging through the Church's wall, they transgress the + truth, and initiate into rites of error the soul of the irreligious. + For that they have made their human associations later than + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" + id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Catholic Church, it needs + not many words to show.”</span> Then, after referring to the origin + and propagation <span class="tei tei-q">“of the Lord's + teaching,”</span><a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href= + "#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> exactly + after the mode of Irenæus and Tertullian, he concludes, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“So it is clear from the most ancient and true Church, + that these heresies coming in subsequently to it, and others still + later, are innovations from it, as coins of adulterate stamp. From + what has been said, then, I consider it manifest that the true + Church, the really ancient Church, is one, in which are enrolled all + who are just according to (God's) purpose. For inasmuch as there is + one God and one Lord, therefore that which is most highly precious is + praised for being alone, since it is an imitation of the one + Principle. The one Church, then, which they try by force to cut up + into many heresies, falls under the same category as the nature of + the One. So then we assert that the ancient and Catholic Church is + one alone in its foundation, in its idea, in its origin, and in its + excellence, collecting by the will of the one God, through the one + Lord, into the unity of one Faith, according to the peculiar + covenants, or rather to the one covenant at different times, the + preordained whom God predestined, having known before the foundation + of the world that they would be just. But the excellence of the + Church, as the principle of the whole construction, is in unity, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" + id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> surpassing all other things, + and having nothing similar or equal to itself.”</span><a id= + "noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href="#note_238"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One other writer + remains, the larger part of whose life falls within this period, + greater in renown than either of the foregoing; and into whatever + particular errors Origen may have fallen, he did not swerve from + their doctrine as to the mode of meeting error itself. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Since,”</span> says he, <span class="tei tei-q">“there + are many who think that they hold the tenets of Christ, while some of + them hold different tenets from those who went before them, let the + ecclesiastical preaching as handed down by the order of succession + from the Apostles, and maintained even to the present time in the + churches, be preserved: that alone is to be believed as truth which + in nothing is discordant from the ecclesiastical and apostolical + tradition.”</span><a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href= + "#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> And the + ground for such a principle he has given elsewhere:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The divine words assert that the whole Church of God is + the Body of Christ, animated by the Son of God, while the limbs of + this Body as a whole are particular believers: since as the soul + quickens and moves the body, whose nature it is not to have the + movement of life from itself, so the Word moving to what is fitting, + and working in, the whole body, the Church, moves likewise + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" + id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> each member of the Church, who + does nothing without the Word.”</span><a id="noteref_240" name= + "noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The four great + writers, then, of this period, Irenæus, Tertullian, Clement, and + Origen, none of them indeed from Rome, but representing the churches + of Asia, Gaul, Africa, and Egypt, exactly concur in the principle by + which they refuted heresy, the propagation, that is, of the rule of + Faith in its purity and integrity, by those who possessed the + succession of the Apostles and their office of teaching, in which lay + a divine gift of the truth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But to those who + proceeded from this basis it was a further labour to set forth the + true knowledge against the false. And we may trace the following + results of heresy, quite unintended by itself, in its operation on + the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. In the first + place, S. Augustine continually remarks that the more accurate + enucleation of true doctrine usually proceeded from the attacks of + heresy; and this happened so continually that it seems to him a + special instance of that law of divine Providence which educes good + from evil. <span class="tei tei-q">“If the truth,”</span> says he, + <span class="tei tei-q">“had not lying adversaries, it would be + examined with less carefulness,”</span> and so <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a question started by an opponent becomes to the + disciple an occasion of learning.”</span><a id="noteref_241" name= + "noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> And he + observes that <span class="tei tei-q">“we have found by experience + that every heresy has brought into the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Church its own questions, against which the + divine Scripture was defended with greater care than if no such + necessity had existed.”</span><a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" + href="#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> Thus + the doctrine of the Trinity owed its perfect treatment to the Arian + assault on it; the doctrine of penance to that of Novatian; the + doctrine of baptism to those who wished to introduce the practice of + rebaptising; even the unity of Christ was brought out with greater + clearness by the attempt to rend it, and the doctrine of one Catholic + Church diffused through the whole world cleared from its objectors by + showing that the mixture of evil men in it does not prejudice the + good.<a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href= + "#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> And he + illustrates his meaning by a very picturesque image: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“When heretics calumniate, the young of the flock are + disturbed; in their disturbance they inquire; so the young lamb butts + its mother's udder till it gets sufficient nutriment for its + thirst.”</span><a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href= + "#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> For the + doctors of the Church being called upon for an answer supply the + truth which before was latent. And there is no more signal instance + of the great writer's remark than himself; for the attacks of the + most various heresies led him during forty years of unwearied mental + activity into almost every question of theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gnostic + heresy, then, presents us with the first instance of a law which will + run all through the Church's history. Peter, the first Apostle, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" + id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> meets and refutes Simon Magus, + the first propagator of falsehood, who receives divine sacraments and + then claims against the giver to be <span class="tei tei-q">“the + great power of God.”</span> This fact is likewise the symbol of a + long line of action, wherein it is part of the divine plan to make + the perpetual restlessness of error subserve the complete exhibition + of truth. The Gnostics denied the divine monarchy; at once mutilated + and misinterpreted Scripture; claimed to themselves a secret + tradition of truth. We owe to them in consequence the treatises of + Irenæus, Tertullian, and Clement, and a written exhibition of the + Church's divine order, succession, and unity, as well as a specific + mention of the tie which held that unity together; and the mention of + this tie at so early a period might otherwise have been wanting to + us. But these three writers do but represent to us partially an + universal result. The danger which from gnostic influence beset all + the chief centres of ecclesiastical teaching marks the transition + from the first state of simple faith to that of human learning, + inquiry, and thought, turned upon the objects of Christian belief. + The Gnostics had a merit which they little imagined for themselves. + They formed the first doctors of post-apostolic times. Irenæus, + Tertullian, and Clement are a great advance upon the more simple and + external exhibition of Christianity which we find in the apologists. + In them the Church is preparing to encounter the deepest questions + moved <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name= + "Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> against her by Greek + philosophy. They are her first champions in that contest with + Hellenic culture which was a real combat of mind, not a mere massacre + of unresisting victims, and which lasted for five hundred years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. Secondly, when + the gnostic attack began, the canon of the New Testament was still + unfixed. Nothing can be more certain than that the Apostles did not + set forth any official collection of their writings, and that no such + collection existed shortly after their death. This fact most plainly + shows that the Christian religion at their departure did not rest for + its maintenance upon writings. Not only had our Lord written no word + Himself, but He left no command to His Apostles to write. His command + was to propagate His Gospel and to found His kingdom by oral + teaching; and His promise was that the Holy Ghost should accompany, + follow upon, and continue with, this their action. What we find is, + that they did this, and that the writings which besides they left, + being from the first kept and venerated by the several churches to + which they were addressed, gradually became known through the whole + body of the Church. With the lapse of time they would become more and + more valuable. Moreover, when the Gnostics set themselves to + interpolate and corrupt them, and to fabricate false writings, the + need of a genuine collection became more and more urgent. It is from + the three writers above mentioned, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> towards the end of the second century, that we + learn that such a collection existed, in forming which these + principles were followed: only to admit writings which tradition + attested to spring from an Apostle or a witness of our Lord's + life,<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href= + "#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> among + whom Paul was specially counted: secondly, only such writings as were + attested by some church of apostolical foundation: and thirdly, only + such writings the doctrine contained in which did not differ from the + rule of faith orally handed down in the churches of apostolic origin, + or in the one Catholic Church, excluding all such as were at variance + with the doctrine hitherto received. Thus in the settlement of the + Canon authority as well as tradition intervened; an authority which + felt itself in secure possession of the same Holy Spirit who had + inspired the Apostles, and of the same doctrine which they had + taught.<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href= + "#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the reception + of a book into the Canon of Scripture was joined a belief in its + inspiration, which rested on what was a part of oral tradition, that + is, that the Apostles as well in their oral as in their written + teaching had enjoyed the infallible guidance of the Holy Spirit. It + is evident that such a tradition reposes, in the last instance, upon + the authority of the Church.<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" + href="#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If by means of the + gnostic attacks the Canon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg + 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the New Testament, as we now possess it, was not absolutely + completed, it had at least advanced a very great way towards that + completion, which we have finally attested as of long standing in a + Council held at Carthage in 397.<a id="noteref_248" name= + "noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Another result + of the gnostic attack was the setting forth the tradition of the + Faith, seated and maintained in the apostolic churches, as the rule + for interpreting Scripture. The Gnostics in two ways impeached this + rule, by claiming a private tradition of their own, and by + interpreting such scripture as they chose to acknowledge after their + own pleasure. Irenæus, Tertullian, and Clement found an adequate + answer to both errors by showing that the Faith which the Apostles + had set forth in their writings could not contradict the Faith which + they had established in the Church. These were two sources of the + same doctrine; but it is by the permanent connection and + interpenetration of the two that the truth is maintained; and that + which holds both together, that which utters and propagates the truth + which they jointly contain, is the Teaching office, the mouth of the + Church. Hence the force of the appeal in Irenæus to the succession of + the episcopate, and to the divine gift of truth which the Apostles + had handed down therein with their teaching office. Hence + Tertullian's exclusion of heretics from the right to possess + scriptures which belong only to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Church. Hence Clement's description of the only + true Gnostic, as <span class="tei tei-q">“one who has grown old in + the study of the Scriptures, while he preserves the apostolic and + ecclesiastical standard of doctrine.”</span><a id="noteref_249" name= + "noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> For + neither in founding churches, nor in teaching orally, nor in writing, + did the Apostles exhaust or resign the authority committed to + them.<a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href= + "#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> The + authority itself, which was the source of all this their action, + after all that they had founded, taught, or written, continued + complete and entire in them, and was transmitted on to their + successors, for the maintenance of the work assigned to it. It is + this perpetual living power which Irenæus so strongly + testifies,<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href= + "#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> to + which he attaches the gift of the Spirit, not scripture, nor + tradition, but that which carries both scripture and tradition + through the ages, which is <span class="tei tei-q">“as the breath of + life to the body, which is always from the Spirit of God, wherein is + placed the communication of Christ, which is always young, and makes + young the vessel in which it is.”</span><a id="noteref_252" name= + "noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> The + writings which the Holy Ghost has inspired, and the tradition of the + Faith which He has established, would be subject, the one to + misinterpretation, the other to alteration and corruption, without + that particular presence of His, in which consists the divine gift + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" + id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of truth, the teaching office, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the making disciples all + nations.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. And the action + of heresy, which was so effective in bringing out the function of the + teaching church, was not without force in extending and corroborating + the function of the ruling church. The first synods of which we have + mention are those assembled in Asia Minor towards the end of the + second century against the diffusion of Montanism.<a id="noteref_253" + name="noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> But + what through the loss of records has been mentioned only in this one + case must have taken place generally, since it is obvious that as + soon as erroneous doctrines spread from one diocese to another, they + would call forth joint action against them. Since then heresies have + been the frequent, almost the exclusive, cause of councils. The + parallel is fruitful in thought, which is suggested between the + action of error in eliciting the more precise expression of the truth + which it abhors, and its action in strengthening the governing power + of the body which it assaults. In the one case and in the other the + result is that which it least desires and intends; heresy, + disbelieving and disobeying, is made to perfect the faith and build + up the hierarchy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now to sum up our + sketch of the internal history of the Christian Faith in the + seventy-four years which elapse from the accession of Marcus + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" + id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Aurelius to the death of + Alexander Severus. At the first-named date we find that it had spread + beyond the confines of the Roman empire, and taken incipient + possession of all the great centres of human intercourse by founding + its hierarchy in them. At the second date it has subdued the powerful + and widespread family of heresies which threatened to distort and + corrupt its doctrines, and has done this by the vigour of its + teaching office, which combined in one expression the yet fresh + apostolic tradition stored up in its churches, and the doctrine of + its sacred scriptures; while it has well-nigh determined the number + and genuineness of these, severing them off from all other writings. + The episcopate in which its teaching office resides appears not as a + number of bishops, each independent and severed, and merely governing + his diocese upon a similar rule, but with a bond recognised among + them, the superior principate of the Roman See. That is, as the + teaching office itself is in them all the voice of living teachers, + so its highest expression is the voice of the living Peter in his + see. And this bond as discerned and recognised by the Asiatic + disciple of S. Polycarp, the bishop of the chief city of Gaul, is so + strong that he uses for it rather the term denoting physical + necessity than moral fitness:<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" + href="#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> as if + he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name= + "Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> would say: As Christ + has made the Church, it must agree from one end to the other in + doctrine and communion with the doctrine and communion of the Church + in which Peter, to whom He has committed His sheep, speaks and rules. + And so powerful is the derivation of this authority that he who sits + in the place of Mark, whom Peter sent, punishes by degradation a + bishop who disregards his sentence in the case of a great writer, the + brightest genius of the Church in that day. And when we look at the + spiritual state of the world at the commencement of the third + century, we find that Christianity, having formed and made its place + in human society, is penetrating through it more and more in every + direction. It is then that we discern the first beginnings of that + great spiritual creation, in which Reason has been applied to Faith + under the guidance of Authority, which the Christian Church, alone + being in possession of these three constituents, could alone produce, + and has carried on from that day to this. Alexandria was at this time + the seat of a Jewish religious philosophy; it had just become the + seat likewise of a heathen religious philosophy; there was within its + church a great catechetical school, in which the Faith as taught by + the apostolical and ecclesiastical tradition according to the + scriptures <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg + 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was + communicated. It was to be expected that its teachers, such men as + Pantænus, Clement, and Origen, would be led on from the more + elementary work of imparting the rudiments of the Faith to the + scientific consideration of its deeper mysteries; and even the sight + of what was going on around them among Jews and Greeks would invite + them to attempt the construction of a Christian religious + philosophy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover + Gnosticism, of which Alexandria was the chief focus, had raised the + question of the unity and nature of the Godhead, and professed a + false gnosis as the perfection of religion. By this also thoughtful + minds were led to consider the true relation of knowledge to faith, + and hence to attempt the first rudiments of a Theology, the Science + of Faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To refute + heathenism both as a Philosophy and as a Religion, and to set forth + Christianity as the absolute truth, was the very function of such men + as Clement and Origen; and the former in his work entitled + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Pedagogue</span></span> exhibits the conduct of life according to the + principles and doctrines of Christianity; while his Stromata, or + Tapestries, exhibit the building up of science on the foundation of + faith.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href= + "#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> We can + hardly realise now the difficulties which beset his great pupil + Origen, when, carrying on the master's thought, he endeavoured to + found a theology. The fact that he was among <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the first to venture on such a deep, is the + best excuse that can be made for those speculative errors into which + he fell.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">III. And now we + turn to the conduct of the empire towards this religion which has + grown up in its bosom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At once with the + accession of Marcus Aurelius a temper of greater severity to + Christians is shown. The sort of toleration expressed in the rescript + of Pius to the province of Asia is withdrawn. No new law about them + is enacted, for none is needed, but the old law is let loose. The + almost sublime clemency of Marcus towards his revolted general + Cassius, his reign of nineteen years unstained with senatorial blood, + and the campaigns prolonged from year to year of one who loved his + philosophic studies above all things, and yet at the call of imperial + duty gave up night and day to the rudest toils of a weary conflict + with barbarous tribes on the frontier, have won for him immortal + honour: his regard for his subjects in general has sometimes given + him in Christian estimation the place of predilection among all + princes ancient and modern.<a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" + href="#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> It is + well, then, to consider his bearing towards Christians. Now among his + teachers was that Junius Rusticus, grandson of the man who perished + for the sake of liberty in Domitian's time, and in his day no doubt a + perfect specimen of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg + 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Roman gentleman and noble, a blending of all that was best in Cicero, + Lælius, and Cato, whom Marcus made Prefect of Rome, and to whom when + bearing that office he addressed a rescript containing the words, + <span class="tei tei-q">“to Junius Rusticus, Prefect of the city, our + friend.”</span> And what this friend of Marcus thought on the most + important subjects we may judge from the sentiments of another friend + and fellow-teacher of the emperor, Maximus of Tyre, who has left + written, <span class="tei tei-q">“how God rules a mighty and stable + kingdom having for its limits not river or lake or shore or ocean, + but the heaven above and the earth beneath, in which He, impassive as + law, bestows on those who obey him the security of which He is the + fountain: and the gods his children need not images any more than + good men statues. But just as our vocal speech requires not in itself + any particular characters, yet human weakness has invented the + alphabetical signs whereby to give expression to its remembrance, so + the nature of the gods needs not images, but man, removed from them + as far as heaven from earth, has devised these signs, by which to + give them names. There may be those strong enough to do without these + helps, but they are rare, and as schoolmasters guide their scholars + to write by first pencilling letters for them, so legislators have + invented these images as signs of the divine honour, and helps to + human memory. But God is the father and framer of all things, older + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" + id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> than heaven, superior to time + and all fleeting nature, legislator ineffable, unexpressed by voice, + unseen by eye; and we who cannot grasp his essence rest upon words + and names, and forms of gold, ivory, and silver, in our longing to + conceive Him, giving to His nature what is fair among ourselves. But + fix Him only in the mind; I care not whether the Greek is kindled + into remembrance of Him by the art of Phidias, or the Egyptian by the + worship of animals, that fire is his symbol to these, and water to + those; only let them understand, let them love, let them remember Him + alone.”</span><a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href= + "#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I doubt not that + Junius Rusticus was familiar with such thoughts as these, and as a + matter of philosophic reflection assented to them. And now let us + study the scene which was enacted in his presence and by his + command.<a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href= + "#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“At a time when the defenders of idolatry had proposed + edicts in every city and region to compel Christians to sacrifice, + Justin and his companions were seized and brought before the Prefect + of Rome, Rusticus. When they stood before his tribunal, the Prefect + Rusticus said: Well, be obedient to the gods and the emperor's + edicts. Justin answered: No man can ever be blamed or condemned who + obeys the precepts of our Saviour Jesus Christ. Then the Prefect + Rusticus asked: In <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg + 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + what sect's learning or discipline are you versed? Justin replied: I + endeavoured to learn every sort of sect, and tried every kind of + instruction; but at last I adhered to the Christian discipline, + though that is not acceptable to those who are led by the error of a + false opinion. Rusticus said: Wretch, is that the sect in which you + take delight? Assuredly, said Justin; since together with a right + belief I follow the example of Christians. What belief is that, I + pray? said the Prefect. Justin replied: The right belief which we as + Christians join with piety is this, to hold that there is one God, + the Maker and Creator of all things which are seen and which are not + seen by the body's eyes, and to confess one Lord Jesus Christ the Son + of God, foretold of old by the prophets, who will also come to judge + the human race, and who is the herald of salvation and the teacher of + those who learn of Him well. I indeed as a man am feeble, and far too + little to say anything great of His infinite Godhead: this I confess + to be the office of prophets, who many ages ago by inspiration + foretold the advent upon earth of the same whom I have called the Son + of God.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Prefect inquired where the Christians met. Justin + answered: Each where he will and can. Do you suppose that we are + accustomed all to meet in the same place? By no means, since the God + of the Christians is not circumscribed by place, but being invisible + fills heaven and earth, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg + 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + is everywhere adored, and His glory praised by the faithful. The + Prefect said: Come, tell me where you meet and assemble your + disciples. Justin answered: For myself I have hitherto lodged near + the house of a certain Martin, by the Timiotine bath. It is the + second time I have come to Rome, and I know no other place than the + one mentioned. And if anyone chose to come to me, I communicated to + him the doctrine of truth. You are, then, a Christian, said Rusticus. + Assuredly, said Justin, I am.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Then the Prefect asked Charito: Are you too a Christian? + Charito replied: By God's help I am a Christian. The Prefect asked + the woman Charitana whether she too followed the Faith of Christ. She + replied: I also by the gift of God am a Christian. Then Rusticus said + to Evelpistus: And who are you? He replied: I am Cæsar's slave, but a + Christian to whom Christ has given liberty, and by His favour and + grace made partaker of the same hope with those whom you see. The + Prefect then asked Hierax whether he too was a Christian; and he + replied: Certainly I am a Christian, since I worship and adore the + same God. The Prefect inquired: Was it Justin who made you + Christians? I, said Hierax, both was and will be a Christian. Pæon + likewise stood before him and said: I too am a Christian. Who taught + you? said the Prefect. He replied: I received this good confession + from my parents. Then <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg + 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Evelpistus said: I also was accustomed to hear with great delight + Justin's discourses, but it was from my parents that I learnt to be a + Christian. Then the Prefect: And where are your parents? In + Cappadocia, said Evelpistus. The Prefect likewise asked Hierax where + his parents were, and Hierax replied: Our true Father is Christ, and + our mother the Faith, by which we believe on Him. But my earthly + parents are dead. It was, however, from Iconium in Phrygia that I was + brought hither. The Prefect asked Liberianus whether he too was a + Christian and without piety towards the gods. He said: I also am a + Christian, for I worship and adore the only true God.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Then the Prefect turned to Justin and said: You fellow, + who are said to be eloquent, and think you hold the true discipline. + If you are beaten from head to foot, is it your persuasion that you + will go up to heaven? Justin answered: I hope if I suffer what you + say, that I shall have what those have who have kept the commands of + Christ. For I know that to all who live thus the divine grace is + preserved until the whole world have its consummation. The Prefect + Rusticus replied: It is, then, your opinion that you will go up to + heaven to receive some reward? I do not opine, said Justin, but I + know, and am so certain of this that I am incapable of doubt. + Rusticus said: Let us come at length to what is before us and urgent. + Agree together and with one mind sacrifice to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> gods. Justin replied: No one of right + mind deserts piety to fall into error and impiety. The Prefect + Rusticus said: Unless you be willing to obey our commands, you will + suffer torments without mercy. Justin answered: What we most desire + is to suffer torments for our Lord Jesus Christ and to be saved: for + this will procure for us salvation and confidence before that + terrible tribunal of the same our Lord and Saviour, at which by + divine command the whole world shall attend. The same likewise said + all the other martyrs, adding: What thou wilt do, do quickly; for we + are Christians and sacrifice not to idols.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Prefect hearing this pronounced the following + sentence: Let those who have refused to sacrifice to the gods, and to + obey the emperor's edict, be beaten with rods, and led away to + capital punishment, as the laws enjoin. And so the holy martyrs + praising God were led to the accustomed place, and after being beaten + were struck with the axe, and consummated their martyrdom in the + confession of the Saviour. After which certain of the faithful took + away their bodies, and laid them in a suitable place, by the help of + the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom be glory for ever and + ever.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the pillars of + Trajan and Antonine faithfully record the deeds of those whose names + they bear, and stand before posterity as a visible history, so, I + conceive, the judgment of Ignatius by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Trajan, and that of Justin by Rusticus, under + the eye as it were of Marcus Aurelius and in his name, embody to us + perfectly the mind and conduct of those great emperors towards + Christians. The marble of Phidias could present no more perfect + sculpture, the pencil of Apelles no more breathing picture, than the + simple transcription of the judicial record given above. In the mind + of Marcus the jealousy of the old Roman for his country's worship + joined with the philosopher's dislike of Christian principles to move + him from that more equable temper which dictated the later moderation + of his immediate predecessor. It scarcely needed the spirit which + ruled at Rome to kindle passionate outbreaks against Christians in + the various cities of the empire. We have just seen the impassive + majesty of Roman law declaring at the chief seat of power that to be + a Christian is a capital crime. If we go at the same time to Smyrna, + there the voices of a furious populace are demanding that an aged man + venerable through the whole region for his innocent life and his + virtues, be cast to the lions, because he is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the teacher of impiety, the father of the Christians, + the destroyer of our gods, who has instructed many not to sacrifice + to them or adore them.”</span> No grander scene among all the deeds + of men is preserved to us, as described by his own church at the + time, than the martyrdom of Polycarp, as after eighty-six years of + Christian service he stood bound at the stake <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> before the raging multitude in the + theatre, and uttered his last prayer: <span class="tei tei-q">“I + thank thee, O God of angels and powers, and all the generation of the + just who live before thee, that thou hast thought me worthy of this + day and hour to receive a portion in the number of thy martyrs, in + the chalice of thy Christ.”</span> Ten years later, in the great city + of Lyons a similar spectacle was offered on a far larger scale. The + Bishop Pothinus, more than ninety years old, is carried before the + tribunal, <span class="tei tei-q">“the magistrates of the city + following him, and all the multitude pursuing him with cries as if he + were Christ.”</span> But the triumph of the bishop is accompanied by + that of many among his flock, of whom while all were admirable, yet + the slave Blandina, poor and contemptible in appearance, surpassed + the rest. <span class="tei tei-q">“She was exposed to the beasts + raised as it were upon a cross, and so praying most contentedly to + God, she inspired the utmost ardour in her fellow combatants, who + with the eyes of the body saw in this their sister's person Him who + had been crucified for them in order to persuade those who should + believe in Him that whoever suffers for the glory of Christ shall + obtain companionship with the living God.”</span><a id="noteref_259" + name="noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> Since + the wild beasts refused to touch her, Blandina and the survivors + among her fellow-sufferers were remanded to prison, in order that the + pleasure of the emperor might be taken, one of them <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> being a Roman citizen. For this + persecution had arisen without any command of his, and the + punishments were inflicted in virtue of the ordinary law. After an + interval, as it would seem, of two months, a rescript was received + from Marcus Aurelius which ordered that those who confessed should be + punished ignominiously, those who denied, be dismissed. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“And so at the time of our great fair, when a vast + multitude from the various provinces flock thither, the governor + ordered the most blessed martyrs to be brought before his tribunal, + exhibiting them to the people as in theatric pomp; and after a last + interrogation those who were Roman citizens were beheaded, and the + rest given to the wild beasts.”</span><a id="noteref_260" name= + "noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> But + Blandina, after being every day brought to behold the sufferings of + her companions, <span class="tei tei-q">“the last of all, like a + noble mother who had kindled her children to the combat, and sent + them forward as conquerors to the king,—was eager to follow them, + rejoicing and exulting over her departure, as if invited to a nuptial + banquet, not cast before wild beasts. At length, after scourging and + tearing and burning, she was put in a net and exposed to the bull. + Tossed again and again by him, yet feeling now nothing which was done + to her, both from the intensity of hope with which she grasped the + rewards of faith, and from her intimate intercourse in prayer with + Christ, in the end she had her throat cut, as a victim, while + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" + id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the heathen themselves + confessed that never had they seen a woman who had borne so much and + so long.”</span><a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href= + "#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These three scenes + of martyrdom at Rome, at Smyrna, and at Lyons, will give a notion of + the grounds upon which Eusebius asserts that in the reign of Marcus + Aurelius innumerable martyrs suffered<a id="noteref_262" name= + "noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> + throughout the world through popular persecutions. Respecting the + following reign of Commodus he says, on the contrary, that the Church + enjoyed peace, for while the law which considered Christianity an + illicit religion had not been revoked, it was made capital to inform + against any one as Christian; and yet if the information took place, + and the crime was proved, the punishment of death ensued, as in the + case of the senator Apollonius recorded by him.<a id="noteref_263" + name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> This + state of things would seem to have lasted about seventeen years, + until the year 197, when Severus, some time after his accession, + became unfavourable to Christians. And it brings us to Tertullian, + whose writings are full of testimonies to the sufferings endured by + Christians for their Faith. For some time these sufferings would seem + to fall under the same sort of intermittent popular persecution, + which we have seen prevailing in the time of Marcus: but in the year + 202 Severus published an edict forbidding any to become Jews or + Christians. And forthwith <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg + 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + persecution broke out so severe and terrible, that many thought the + time of Antichrist was come. It was no longer the mere action of an + original law against all unauthorised religions, but an assault led + on by the emperor himself, who turned directly the imperial power + against Christianity as a whole. It raged especially at Alexandria, + where the master of the catechetical school writes: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we have before our eyes every day abundant instances of + martyrs, tortured by fire, impaled, beheaded: they are superior to + pleasure; they conquer suffering; they overcome the + world.”</span><a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href= + "#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> Then it + was that Origen, a youth of seventeen, desired to share the martyrdom + of his father Leonides, and that seven whom he had himself + instructed, gained this crown. Then it was that the slave Potamiæna, + in the bloom of youth and beauty, not only rejected every + blandishment of corruption, but suffered the extremest torture of + fire to preserve her innocence and faith, and gained at Alexandria + such a name as St. Lawrence afterwards gained at Rome. So at Carthage + Perpetua and Felicitas, young mothers, with their companions repeated + the example of those whom we have seen suffering at Lyons; in which + city a second persecution as vehement as the first breaking out + numbered Irenæus with his predecessor Pothinus, his people in this + case as in the other accompanying the pastor's sacrifice with their + own.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name= + "Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This state of + suffering continued during the life of Severus for nine years: and + splendid examples of Christian championship were shown in all the + churches.<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href= + "#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> It is + only with the accession of Caracalla that peace is restored, and then + ensues a period of comparative repose: that is, while the ordinary + law against the Christian Faith as an illicit religion still + continues, it is understood that the emperor does not wish it to be + put in action. In such intervals that Faith, strengthened by the + conflicts it had undergone, and admired by those before whose eyes it + had enabled its adherents to brave and endure every sort of + suffering, sprung up and shot out with redoubled vigour, and the seed + which the blood of the martyrs had shed abroad found time to + grow.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The summary of the + seventy-four years is this. From 161 to 180 there are nineteen years + of irregular but severe persecution, followed by seventeen, from 180 + to 197, wherein the denouncing of Christians is forbidden, though if + brought to trial, they are punishable with death. Five years succeed, + from 197 to 202, in which the favour of Severus seems lost, and the + state of intermittent persecution takes effect. Then breaks out a + general persecution, set on foot by the emperor himself, and we may + judge if he who slaughtered his senate spared Christians. This lasts + for nine years until his death in 211, whereon a time of peace + returns, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg + 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which is most complete during the reign of Alexander, but continues + more or less from 211 to the end of his reign in 235.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On a review of the + whole period it is evident that the Church has passed from its state + of concealment into almost full light. The fiery trial which it met + at the beginning of the third century from the hand of Severus is the + best proof that can be given how greatly it had increased, how it + could no longer be ignored or despised; how its organisation which + was hidden from Trajan was at least partially revealed to Severus, + and how he saw and attempted to meet the danger which the earlier + emperor would have tried to stamp out, had he divined it. But it is + evident also that in proportion as the Christian Faith had grown, the + heathen empire had been shaken in its foundations. Its period of just + government was over; its imperial power was to fall henceforth into + the hands of adventurers, with whom it would be more and more the + symbol of force alone, and not of law: henceforth they would seldom + even in blood be Roman, and more seldom still in principles. Marcus + was well nigh the last zealot for the Jupiter of the Capitol: within + a generation after him Heliogabalus will think of a fusion of all + religions in his god the sun, and Alexander Severus of a religious + syncretism wherein Orpheus, Abraham, and Christ testify together to + the divine unity.<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href= + "#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> Nor is + this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name= + "Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a fancy of the prince + alone. All the thinking minds of his time have become ashamed of + Olympus and its gods. The cross has wounded them to death. A new + philosophy—the last fortress into which retreating heathenism throws + itself—while it breaks up Roman life, prepares the way for the + Christian Faith which it strenuously combats. The Emperor Severus, + fixing the eye of a statesman and a soldier on that Faith, + contemplates its grasp upon society, and decrees from the height of + the throne a general assault upon it; while his wife encourages a + writer<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href= + "#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> to draw + an ideal heathen portrait as a counterpart to the character of + Christ, tacitly subtracting from the gospels an imitation which is to + supply the place of the reality. The time was not far distant when + Origen would already discern and prophesy the complete triumph of the + religion thus assailed; and if Celsus had objected, that were all to + do as Christians did, the emperor would be deserted, and his power + fall into the hands of the most savage and lawless barbarians, would + reply: <span class="tei tei-q">“If all did as I do, men would honour + the emperor as a divine command, and the barbarians drawing nigh to + the word of God would become most law-loving and most civilised; + their worship would be dissolved, and that of the Christians alone + prevail, as one day it will alone prevail, by means <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of that Word gathering to itself more and + more souls.”</span><a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href= + "#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But before such a + goal be reached, many a martyr's crown has yet to be won, and more + than barbarian lawlessness and cruelty have to be overcome.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name= + "Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XII. The Third Age Of The + Martyr Church.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Rex pacificus + magnificatus est, cujus vultum desiderat universa + terra.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third century + is that during which the Christian Church was making its way into + every relation of life, and taking possession of human society. + During this period it advances into full light, and becomes a + manifest power. In the second century Celsus had attacked it as + disclosed only to the yearning hearts of slaves, and fostered by the + devotion of the weaker sex. At the distance of three generations + Origen answered him, but the religion which he defended already stood + avowed alike before the inquiring gaze of philosophers, the corrupt + crowds of cities, and the jealous fear of rulers. Even in Rome, the + sceptered head of idolatry, whose nobles the great political + traditions of their city, and whose populace their sensual life, + having its root in a false worship, made the most difficult to + convert, the hated faith is known to have had public churches by the + time of Alexander Severus, two hundred years after its first + rise.<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href= + "#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> And + much <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name= + "Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more everywhere else + it had planted its foot openly on the soil of the empire. It is time, + then, to view the Church as an institution offering the strongest + contrast to the empire itself, to the barbarism which surrounded the + empire, and to the sectarianism which was everywhere aspiring to + counter-work and supplant that entire body of truth on some portion + of which nevertheless it was all the time feeding.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. And first the + empire during this century presents itself to us in a most unwonted + aspect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Septimius Severus + having destroyed the rivals who competed with him for what was now + become the great object of a successful general's ambition, based his + power avowedly on the sword. The secret of empire which he + transmitted to his children was to foster and indulge the army, and + to disregard all else. The senate, the representative of legal power, + he despised and decimated. He died in 211, not before his eldest son + had already lifted his hand against him, and the four princes of his + house all perished by the sword, one by the hand of a brother, the + other three by revolted soldiers. In the seventy-three years which + elapse from his death to the accession of Diocletian twenty-five + emperors are acknowledged at Rome, of whom twenty-three come to an + end by violent deaths, almost always by insurrections of soldiers, + under instigation of ambitious officers. Besides these, eight + associates of the empire, and nineteen <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> generals who during the reign of Gallienus + assume the purple in various provinces, are all slain. During + eighty-two years Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus, all at a + mature time of life, adopted by the actual ruler to succeed, had + governed a stable empire: but now it passes within a shorter period + of time, the term of a single human life, nay a term in one case + embraced by a single reign,<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" + href="#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> into + twenty-five different hands. And indeed it seemed after the capture + of the Emperor Valerian by the Persians, as if that great + confederacy, which had just celebrated the thousandth anniversary of + the imperial city's foundation, was about to break up and be resolved + into its component parts. At one moment two great princesses, + Victoria and Zenobia, worthy even by the avowal of Romans to wear the + Roman diadem, were on the point of establishing the one an empire of + the Gauls in the West, the other an empire of the East embracing just + those countries which Antony had ruled with Cleopatra at his side. A + succession of great generals, all from the province of Illyricum, at + last saves the empire and reasserts its unity. But the forty-nine + years following the murder of Alexander Severus are filled by the + struggles of twenty sovereigns and nineteen pretenders to + sovereignty, scarcely any of whom reign so much as five years. Many + of them are rulers of great ability and remarkable energy. Claudius, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" + id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Aurelian, Probus, and Carus, + and perhaps Decius, required but happier circumstances to be emperors + whose fame would have matched that of Trajan or Hadrian: but their + short tenure of power, occupied with the vast effort to restore unity + and beat back the barbarian, prevented their doing more than preserve + the imperial power and the empire itself. This whole time, then, in + civil society was one of fluctuation, anxiety, disaster, alarms from + beyond the frontiers and anarchy within them. The Roman peace seemed + departing, and the majesty of the empire irreparably violated. Men + could not tell what the morrow would bring forth. The fairest cities + of the Roman world, Alexandria and Antioch, narrowly escaped + perishing through internal discord or hostile surprise. Greece and + Asia Minor, after reposing for centuries under the safeguard of the + Roman name, found themselves swept through and desolated by barbarian + hordes. Italy itself was in imminent danger of the same lot. Towards + the end of this period the senate by the election of Tacitus seems to + make what may be termed its final effort to assert itself as the + depository of legitimate power, the representative of civil society: + and this time of confusion issues in a rejection of any such claim, + and the establishment of unlimited despotism in the empire as + reconstituted by Diocletian. To these straits, then, the first great + and haughty enemy of the Christian Church was reduced, so that the + power <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name= + "Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which a century before + could look down with proud indifference on the sufferings of + Christians now seemed to tremble for its own existence. And in such a + condition of human society the great advance of the Church was + carried on.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. But beyond the + empire to the north, advancing upon it like the multitudinous waves + of the ocean on an exposed coast, lay the ever-battling legions of + the northern tribes in their three great divisions of the Teutonic, + Slavic, and Finnish races. If Roman society suffered throes of + distress, its condition was peace compared with the instability which + may be said to have been the very life of these tribes. Once at least + in every century they gather themselves up for a concentrated effort + against the empire whose rich civilisation lies stretched out before + them as a continual prey. After the failure of Arminius to construct + a German kingdom, and of Marobod to construct a Suevian, in the time + of Augustus, Decebalus, in the time of Trajan, makes another effort + in behalf of his Dacians. But here the great Roman general forces + barbarism to retreat, and plants a fresh citadel in its very + stronghold by establishing a province north of the Danube. Then there + is comparative tranquillity for sixty years. It seems as if these two + generations were offered by divine Providence to the empire yet in + its unbroken strength as a time for its pacific conversion, which if + it had accepted, the eruption of the northern <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> nations might for ever have been kept + back by the unity which religious conviction would have bestowed on + civilisation, and the fresh and living force which it would have + imparted to society not yet exhausted by despotic power. But with + Marcus Aurelius the empire turns definitively away. A new religious + revolution under Odin in Scandinavia had wakened up with redoubled + force the destroying energy of barbarism. The Goths had migrated from + Sweden to the Black Sea; all the tribes in the interval had been + displaced and dashed upon each other by this removal. The war of the + Marcomans occupied during eighteen years, from 162 to 180, the whole + forces of the empire; Rome was obliged even to arm its slaves, and + Italy feared an invasion more terrible than that of the Cimbri, which + it cost Marcus Aurelius his life to avert.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, during the + captivity of Valerian, another grand assault of the northern tribes + takes place. The Franks attack western, the Alamans eastern Gaul; + they pass the Alps and advance to Ravenna, while Alamans and + Sarmatians throw themselves upon Pannonia, and the Goths seize upon + Thrace and Greece. The emperors Claudius, Aurelian, and Probus are + the saviours of Rome from this new flood. Of the last of these it is + recorded that he dealt successively with Franks, Burgundians, + Alamans, Vandals, the Bastarnæ, and the whole barbarian brood: and + seventy cities <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg + 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + raised from their ruins, and fortifications repaired upon a line of + fifteen hundred miles, were the fruits of his victories.<a id= + "noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much for the + north: while on the east the Persian empire, hereditary foe of the + Roman name, had found a new and more vigorous master in the race of + the Sassanidæ, who took the religion of Zoroaster to reanimate the + national spirit. Ardeschir claimed once more the whole realm which + Cyrus and Darius had ruled. Henceforth the Romans had a neighbour + more than ever threatening their eastern frontier, and never to be + wholly subdued, until the empire of Mohammed arose to detach a great + part of their dominion, and to move with redoubled force upon what + remained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the south of + the Roman provinces in Africa were tribes at least as savage as those + of the north. Thus the whole empire was enringed with enemies: on the + east an opposing civilisation and religion; on the north and south + barbarian tribes in perpetual confusion and conflict with each other. + Such was the great realm of disorder which surged and heaved to the + north and south of the empire; and such the second great enemy which + in future times was to occupy the Christian Church, and at present + offered the strongest contrast to that moral polity of peace and + goodwill, of loyal submission, patient endurance, and heroic + fortitude, which was spreading daily in the empire.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. But there was + yet another enemy within the empire itself, which from the beginning + tracked the footsteps of the Church, grew with its increase, and + everywhere attempted to dissolve its organisation and weaken its + influence. The whole second century is occupied with the rise and + tangled growth of the Gnostic sects. But these were not alone. From + the very time of the Apostles we find the evidence of a number of + sects, rising and falling, preying on and devouring each other, none + without some portion of Christian truth, on which it feeds, blended + with Jewish, Greek, Oriental, Egyptian, Libyan notions, prejudices, + and errors; domiciled in various parts of the empire in accordance + with the national or local character which they represent. They + reproduce with a Christian colour the sects and the sect-life of the + Greek schools of philosophy. As the wheat has its proper weed, which + springs up in the midst of it and counterfeits it, so error, + everywhere gathering round some portion of truth, forms itself into + an antagonistic life. The force and truth of the Christian Church + were shown not in the absence of these rivals, but in its triumph + over their variety, in its remaining one whilst they diverged + endlessly from that unchanging original type, in its continuous and + uniform growth whilst they rose and fell, domineered in certain times + and places, and then disappeared. In this its course the Church had + to master very great difficulties, which were inherent <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the manner of its rise. It had to + remain one society in spite of the isolation and self-government of + its local portions. It possessed in each place but a feeble minority + of members compared with the mass of unbelievers. Against its + assimilating power was ranged the force of national feelings which + underlay the Roman authority throughout the whole empire. It had to + deal entirely by moral means with the full liberty of error to which + its adherents were exposed. Lastly, it had to do all this amid the + continual strain of threatened or actual persecution, a state which + at its best was one of insecurity, and which any local trouble, the + ill-will of a mob, the greed or ambition or fear of provincial + rulers, not to speak of the imperial state-policy, might turn into + the pressure of severe suffering.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the face of + such difficulties, if the Christian Church continued one in its + doctrine, organisation, and manner of life, such unity was assuredly + the proof of a divine power residing it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I shall now + proceed to show by the testimony of eye-witnesses that such unity was + its distinguishing characteristic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there was not + a race or a religion in all this Roman empire, endless as the races + and religions comprehended in it were, out of which individuals were + not drawn into the bosom of the one great Christian society; and yet + within this there was a perfect union of all hearts and minds in the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" + id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> conviction that the multitude + so collected was one people apart from all other peoples. And this + conviction is itself the great marvel. How was it wrought? For it was + an utterly new thing upon the earth. The union of race, language, and + locality, with which sameness of religion was usually interwoven, had + been hitherto the bond of such nations as had as yet existed. The + great city itself had sprung up and flourished by the strict union of + these four things. After its career of foreign conquest had + substituted for the government of a city the great Roman + confederation, it had indeed, like the preceding world-empires, in + fact disregarded all these, being supported by a force independent of + them all. But that force was material power. The great statue was of + iron. It was a novelty unheard of as yet among the gentiles and + unimagined by poet or philosopher, to create a polity which, + disregarding sameness of race, of language, and of locality, should + exist and maintain itself throughout the whole earth solely by the + force of faith and charity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the idea + of Christians about themselves from the beginning. The idea preceded + the fact. The prophets foretold it; the Apostles proclaimed it:<a id= + "noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href="#note_272"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> let us + observe the fulfilment of the prophecy and the proclamation. We will + take our stand in the middle of the third century, when <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seven full generations have passed since + the day of Pentecost. In this time a people has been formed. Already + a hundred and fifty years before an eyewitness among themselves had + observed the nature of this people. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christians are not distinguished from other men either + by country, or by language, or by customs: for they have no cities + peculiar to themselves, nor any language different from others, nor + singularity in their mode of life.... But they dwell both in Greek + and in barbarous cities, as the lot of each may be, following local + customs as to raiment and food, and the rest of their life, but + exhibiting withal a polity of their own, marvellous and truly + incredible. They dwell in their own country, but it is as sojourners; + they share in everything as citizens, yet suffer everything as + strangers. Every foreign land is to them a country, and every country + a foreign land.... In a word, what the soul is in the body, that + Christians are in the world. The soul is diffused through all the + limbs of the body, and Christians through all the cities of the + world.... The soul is shut within the body, of which it is the bond, + and Christians are like a garrison in the world, which they hold + together.”</span><a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href= + "#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here a writer, + calling himself a disciple of Apostles, describes to us, at the + beginning of the second century, what the apostolic age of seventy + years had wrought. He puts his finger just upon <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the marvel which we are contemplating. + Fifty years later, at the moment the empire was culminating under the + serene rule of Antoninus, a convert from heathenism, a philosopher + who had spent his life in examining all the sects and races of the + empire, and who afterwards became a martyr, said of Christians that + being <span class="tei tei-q">“quarried out of the side of Christ, + they were the true Israelitic race,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“altogether being called the body, for both people and + church, being many in number, are called by one name as one + thing;”</span> they are in fact <span class="tei tei-q">“as one man + before the Maker of all things, through the name of His first-born + Son,”</span> the High-priest gathering up first in the prophetical + vision and then in the real fact <span class="tei tei-q">“the true + high-priestly race”</span><a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" + href="#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> in His + own Person. Thus Justin pointed out this conception of the Christian + people to the Jew of his time as both foretold in prophecy and + exhibited in fact. The longer that such a people as this endured, the + greater would be the marvel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A hundred years + after this, Origen uses the same language and points to the same + marvel. He had in the year 249, at the entreaty of a friend and + pupil, set himself in the maturity of life, and of a renown which + filled the Church as no man's before had filled it, to answer the + attack of a heathen philosopher, Celsus, upon Christianity. He + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" + id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was writing just at the end of + the longest period of peace which is found during those three + centuries. From the death of the Emperor Septimius Severus in 211 to + that of the Emperor Philip in this year 249, there had been, with the + exception of a short attack from Maximin, to which his death put a + stop, no general persecution of Christians. Thus thirty-eight years + had passed of such tranquillity as it was ever in those times the lot + of Christians to obtain. The mother of one emperor had been Origen's + disciple, and the emperor actually reigning was a Christian, however + unworthy of such a profession. Now in this work Origen speaks of the + superiority of the Christian churches in each several place, as, for + instance, at Athens, Corinth, Alexandria, to the heathen assemblies, + and of the Christian rulers to the heathen. He puts it as a mark of + divine power that God sending His Son, <span class="tei tei-q">“a God + come in human soul and body,”</span><a id="noteref_275" name= + "noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> should + have established everywhere churches offering the contrast of their + polity to the assemblies of the superstitious, the impure, and the + unjust. He considers that Christians do a greater benefit to their + country than all other men by teaching them piety to the one God, and + <span class="tei tei-q">“gathering up into a certain divine and + heavenly city those who have lived well in the smallest + cities.”</span><a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" href= + "#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“We,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“knowing that there is in each city another fabric + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" + id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of a country, founded by the + word of God, call those who are powerful in word and of a virtuous + life to the government of churches: we do not accept the covetous to + such a place, but force it against their will upon those who in their + moderation would decline taking on them this general care of the + Church of God.”</span><a id="noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href= + "#note_277"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> And the + compulsion thus exercised is that <span class="tei tei-q">“of the + great King, whom we are persuaded to be the Son of God, God the + Word.”</span> But this other form of country which he saw in each + city is <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole Church of God, which the + divine scriptures assert to be the Body of Christ, animated by the + Son of God, while the limbs of this Body are particular believers; + for as the soul quickens and moves the body, whose nature it is not + to have the movement of life from itself, so the Word moving to what + is fitting, and energising in the whole Body, the Church, moves + likewise each member of it, who does nothing without the + Word.”</span><a id="noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href= + "#note_278"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> And he + completes this view in another beautiful passage wherein he describes + Christ as the high-priest Aaron, who has received upon his single + body the whole chrism, from whom it flows down upon his beard, the + symbol of the complete man, and on to the utmost skirt of his + raiment. Every one who partakes of Him, partakes likewise of his + chrism, because Christ is the head of the Church, and the Church and + Christ <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name= + "Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one Body.<a id= + "noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> We have + here in Origen's thought one and the same divine power, proceeding + forth from the Incarnation, which forms first the Body of the Lord, + and then gathers into this Body every individual as a copy of the + Christ. The heathen scoffer had objected: why send forth one spirit + into one corner of the earth? It was needed to breathe that spirit + into many bodies, and to send them forth into all the world. Nay, + replied Origen, <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole Church of + God—animated by the Son of God as the soul quickens and moves the + body—was enough. It needed not that there should be many bodies and + many souls, like that of Jesus, in the way you suppose, for the one + Word as the sun of righteousness rising from Judea was sufficient to + send forth rays that should reach every soul that would receive + him.”</span> He has done far more than you suggest: every member of + that one Body has received according to his measure a due portion of + anointment: after the model of the Christ, they too are Christs; + <span class="tei tei-q">“so that beginning in the body He should dawn + in power and in spirit upon the universe of souls which would no + longer be destitute of God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Origen's mind, + then, the greatness of the King lies specifically in this, that out + of confusion He draws unity, out of those who were no people He forms + a people, out of nations and tribes at enmity He moulds an + indivisible kingdom, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg + 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + from His own Body a Body which shall embrace a universe of souls, + instinct with one life, and that His own. This was Origen's view of + the work and triumph of Christ, as he saw it before him, at the eve + of the great Decian persecution in 249.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Origen was writing + this at a moment of great interest. It was the last year which + preceded those two generations, in the course of which five great + persecutions should be directed by the emperors against the Church. + He was then a man of sixty-four. The son of a martyr, he had when a + youth of eighteen beheld his father imprisoned for the faith, and had + encouraged him to suffer the loss of all his goods, and death itself, + without regarding that large family which must be left in penury, of + whom Origen was the eldest. He was burning himself to share his + father's sufferings. In the persecution of which this was the opening + Eusebius tells us that seven of his disciples were martyrs: and, + lastly, he was to undergo such cruelties himself in the persecution + of Decius, then on the eve of breaking out, that he is believed to + have died of their results. Now it is in this work that he speaks of + the remarkable providence of God in preserving Christians, who by + their religion were bound not to defend themselves, against the + attacks of their enemies, for God, he says, had fought for them, and + from time to time had stopped those who had risen up with the purpose + of destroying them. Few and easily numbered were those who + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" + id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hitherto had suffered death + for the Christian Faith, samples chosen by God as champions to + encourage the rest, while He prevented their whole nation from being + rooted out: for it was His purpose that this nation should be firmly + rooted and consolidated, and the whole world be filled with its + saving doctrine and discipline.<a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" + href="#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> Thus it + was by His will alone that He scattered every plot directed against + them, so that neither emperors, nor local governors, nor the people + should be able to indulge their wrath beyond a certain point. Origen, + when he thus wrote, could look back on a period of thirty-eight + years, during which, with the exception of the severe but passing + storm raised by the Emperor Maximin, peace had reigned: years which + he had himself employed in unwearied labours of teaching, writing, + and converting; in which he had directed and advised an emperor's + mother, and seen a Christian emperor; in which he had witnessed a + wonderful increase of the Christian people, and indeed of this + increase his words above cited convey a faithful picture. He knew + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" + id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not the fearful trials which + were to be encountered before that triumph of the truth which he + already anticipated should be attained: or that God was about to + accept from the grayhaired man the sacrifice which the impetuous + youth had affronted without success. For scarcely has he written this + book when he has to fly for his life before the edict of Decius, who + will attempt to destroy the Christian religion, and to whose anger + Pope S. Fabian falls a victim. Amid great peril after long delay the + next Pope Cornelius is chosen. And now for the first time a new + danger from within assaults the Church. Novatian, a Roman presbyter + of great repute, attempts after the due election and consecration of + Cornelius to usurp his place, and to divide the one flock of Christ. + Under circumstances so wholly altered from those in which Origen + above was writing, we come to our next witness, the man in all the + Western Church the most renowned, as Origen was in the Eastern.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For it was on + occasion of the first antipope, an effort, that is, within the See of + Peter itself to arm the episcopal power at its very source against + itself, to set an altar up against the legitimate altar, and to + divide the sacraments of the Church from the Bride whose dowry they + are, that S. Cyprian wrote his treatise on the Unity of the Church. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was for the purpose of reminding his + brethren that unity is the first element of the Christian state, and + that those who break off from the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> principle of unity, which is lodged in the + episcopate, even though they be confessors and martyrs, have no + portion in the hopes of the gospel.”</span><a id="noteref_281" name= + "noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> This + definite purpose, so unlike that state of leisure and tranquillity in + which Origen answered by thought and learning a speculative attack, + will account for the very remarkable precision and force of S. + Cyprian's language.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The enemy,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“detected and down-fallen by the advent of Christ, now + that light is come to the nations—seeing his idols left—has made + heresies and schisms, wherewith to subvert faith, to corrupt truth, + and to rend unity.”</span> But this will all be in vain if men will + look to the Head, and keep to the doctrine of the Master. For the + truth may be quickly stated.<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" + href="#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord saith unto Peter: I say unto thee + that thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and + the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto + thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt + bind on earth shall be bound also in heaven, and whatsoever thou + shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. To him again, after + His resurrection, He says: Feed my sheep. Upon him, being one, He + builds His Church; and though He gives to all the Apostles an equal + power, and says: As my Father sent Me, even so send I you; receive ye + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" + id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Holy Ghost: whosesoever + sins ye remit, they shall be remitted to him, and whosesoever sins ye + retain, they shall be retained;—yet in order to manifest unity, He + has by His own authority so placed the source of the same unity as to + begin from one. Certainly the other Apostles also were what Peter + was, endued with an equal fellowship both of honour and power; but a + commencement is made from unity, that the Church may be set before us + as one: which one Church in the Canticle of Canticles doth the Holy + Spirit design and name in the Person of our Lord: My dove, my + spotless one is but one; she is the only one of her mother, elect of + her that bare her.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“He who holds not this unity of the Church, does he think + that he holds the faith? He who strives against and resists the + Church, is he assured that he is in the Church? For the blessed + Apostle Paul teaches this same thing, and manifests the sacrament of + unity thus speaking: There is one Body and one Spirit, even as ye are + called in one Hope of your calling; one Lord, one Faith, one Baptism, + one God. This unity firmly should we hold and maintain, especially we + bishops, presiding in the Church, in order that we may approve the + Episcopate itself to be one and undivided. Let no one deceive the + brotherhood by falsehood; no one corrupt the truth of our faith by a + faithless treachery. The Episcopate is one, of which a part is held + by each without division <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg + 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the whole. The Church is likewise one, though she be spread abroad, + and multiplies with the increase of her progeny: even as the sun has + rays many, yet one light, and the tree boughs many, yet its strength + is one, seated in the deep-lodged root; and as, when many streams + flow down from one source, though a multiplicity of waters seems to + be diffused from the bountifulness of the overflowing abundance, + unity is preserved in the source itself. Part a ray of the sun from + its orb, and its unity forbids this division of light; break a branch + from the tree, once broken it can bud no more; cut the stream from + its fountain, the remnant will be dried up. Thus the Church, flooded + with the light of the Lord, puts forth her rays through the whole + world, with yet one light, which is spread upon all places, while its + unity of body is not infringed. She stretches forth her branches over + the universal earth, in the riches of plenty, and pours abroad her + bountiful and onward streams; yet is there one head, one source, one + mother, abundant in the results of her fruitfulness.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is of her womb that we are born; our nourishing is + from her milk, our quickening from her breath. The Spouse of Christ + cannot become adulterate; she is undefiled and chaste; owning but one + home, and guarding with virtuous modesty the sanctity of one chamber. + She it is who keeps us for God, and appoints unto the kingdom the + sons she has borne. Whosoever parts company <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the Church and joins himself to an + adulteress, is estranged from the promises of the Church. He who + leaves the Church of Christ, attains not to Christ's rewards. He is + an alien, an outcast, an enemy. He can no longer have God for a + Father who has not the Church for a mother. If any man was able to + escape who remained without the ark of Noah, then will that man + escape who is out of doors beyond the Church. The Lord warns us and + says: He who is not with Me is against Me, and he who gathereth not + with Me, scattereth. He who breaks the peace and concord of Christ, + sets himself against Christ. He who gathers elsewhere but in the + Church, scatters the Church of Christ. The Lord says: I and the + Father are one; and again of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost + it is written: And these three are one. And does anyone think that + oneness, thus proceeding from the divine immutability, and cohering + in heavenly sacraments, admits of being sundered in the Church, and + split by the divorce of antagonist wills? He who holds not this unity + holds not the law of God, holds not the faith of Father and Son, + holds not the truth unto salvation.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This sacrament of unity, this bond of concord + inseparably cohering, is signified in the place in the Gospel where + the coat of our Lord Jesus Christ is in nowise parted or cut, but is + received a whole garment, by them who cast lots who should rather + wear it, and is possessed as an inviolate <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and individual robe. The divine scripture thus + speaks: But for the coat, because it was not sewed, but woven from + the top throughout, they said one to another, Let us not rend it, but + cast lots whose it shall be. It has with it a unity descending from + above, as coming, that is, from heaven and from the Father; which it + was not for the receiver and owner in anywise to sunder, but which he + received once for all and indivisibly as one unbroken whole. He + cannot own Christ's garment who splits and divides Christ's Church. + On the other hand, when on Solomon's death his kingdom and people + were split in parts, Ahijah the prophet, meeting King Jeroboam in the + field, rent his garment into twelve pieces, saying: Take thee ten + pieces; for thus saith the Lord: Behold, I will rend the kingdom out + of the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to thee; and two + tribes shall be to him for my servant David's sake, and for + Jerusalem, the city which I have chosen, to place my name there. When + the twelve tribes of Israel were torn asunder, the prophet Ahijah + rent his garment. But because Christ's people cannot be rent, His + coat, woven and conjoined throughout, was not divided by those to + whom it fell. Individual, conjoined, coentwined, it shows the + coherent concord of our people who put on Christ. In the sacrament + and sign of His garment, He has declared the unity of His + Church.</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg + 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Who, then, is the criminal and traitor, who so inflamed + by the madness of discord, as to think aught can rend, or to venture + on rending God's unity, the Lord's garment, Christ's Church? He + Himself warns us in His Gospel and teaches, saying: And there shall + be one Fold and one Shepherd.... Think you that any can stand and + live who withdraws from the Church, and forms for himself new homes + and different domiciles?... Believers have no house but the Church + only. This house, this hostelry of unanimity, the Holy Spirit designs + and betokens in the Psalms, thus speaking: God who makes men to dwell + with one mind in a house. In the house of God, in the Church of + Christ, men dwell with one mind, and persevere in concord and + simplicity.”</span> To this he adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“There + is one God, and one Christ, and His Church one, and the Faith one, + and one the people joined into the solid unity of a body by the + cement of concord. Unity cannot be sundered, nor can one body be + divided by a dissolution of its structure, nor be severed into pieces + with torn and lacerated vitals. Parted from the womb nothing can live + and breathe in its separated state: it loses its principle of + health;”</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“charity will ever exist + in the kingdom; she will abide evermore in the unity of a brotherhood + which entwines itself around her.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And he is more + specific still; for this <span class="tei tei-q">“one Church is + founded by the Lord Christ upon Peter, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> having its source and its principle in + unity,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“on whose person He built the + Church, and in whom He began and exhibited the source of + unity.”</span><a id="noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href= + "#note_283"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Certainly if any + idea has ever been put forth clearly and definitely, it would seem to + be the idea of organic unity here delineated by Cyprian, as necessary + not merely to the well-being but to the essence of the Church. Nor + does one see what words he could have found more expressly to reject + the notion that the individual bishop in his diocese was the unit on + the aggregation of which the Church was built, and to assert in + contradiction that the Church was built on the Primacy of Peter as + its generative, formative, controlling, and unifying power. According + to him the whole order and government of the Church are bound up in + the Lord's words to Peter: while as to the Church herself three ideas + are in his mind so compacted together, so running into and pervading + each other, that they cannot be severed; and these ideas are Unity, + Grace, and Truth. The symbols of the Sun, the Tree, and the Fountain, + the Lord's Coat, the one Flock tethered in one Fold under one + Shepherd, the one House as opposed to sundry self-chosen domiciles, + the Mother embracing her whole progeny in her womb, illustrate and + enforce each other, and all contain the three ideas, of which Grace + and Truth are as the warp and woof in which the substance of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" + id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one web consists. For Unity, + Truth, and Grace, viewed as attributes of the Church, are blended + together in the light and warmth of the sun, in the sap which + vivifies every branch of the tree, and gives it fruitfulness from the + root, in the fountain of water, under which image our Lord has so + often summed up His whole gift to man, in the flock which the + Shepherd has chosen, and for which He cares, in the house where the + master dwells and collects his family, in the one robe which + encompassed and contained the virtue of the Wearer, in the prolific + womb which gives birth to the whole sacred race. The force of all + these images lies in their unicity: plurality would not modify, but + destroy them. Yet even these symbols are surpassed by that argument + from the divine Unity which he sets forth as the type and cause of + the Church's unity. From created likenesses—the fairest and choicest + which the world presents—he passes to the uncreated nature, and from + the divine immutability, wherewith these three, the Father, the Son, + and the Holy Ghost, the divine Exemplar of Unity, Truth, and Grace, + are one, deduces the Unity of the Church their dwelling-place.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Cyprian, then, + cannot sever the Church of his heart, the Church for which he lived + and died, from Unity, or from Truth, or from Grace: and this Church + is to him founded on the Primacy of Peter, and developed from his + person. The one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg + 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Episcopate, whose golden chain he looks upon as surrounding the earth + in its embrace, <span class="tei tei-q">“of which a part is held by + each without division of the whole,”</span> wherein therefore joint + possession is dependent on unity, would have no existence without the + bond of the Primacy, from which it was developed and which keeps it + one. Take away this, and the office of each bishop is crystallised + into a separate mass, having no coherence or impact with its like: + bishops so conceived would hold indeed a similar office, but being + detached from each other would not hold joint possession of one + Episcopate. Separate crystals do not make one body; nor a heap of + pebbles a rock. But it was a Rock on which Christ built and builds + His Church, that Rock being His own Person, from which He + communicated this virtue, wherein the cohesion and impact of the + whole Episcopate lies, to the See of him whom He constituted His + Vicar. Finally, Cyprian contrasts pointedly the people of Christ + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">which + cannot be rent</span></em> with the twelve tribes of Israel, which + were torn asunder: as if he would beforehand repudiate that parallel + between the Synagogue and the Church, in the question of unity, which + has before now been resorted to as a refuge by minds in distress, who + failed to see the tokens of the Bride of Christ in the community to + which they belonged.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Origen and in + Cyprian we put ourselves back into the middle of the third century. + In the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name= + "Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> words of the latter we + see portrayed to the life that idea which had filled the hearts of + Christians through seven generations of labours and sorrows from the + day of Pentecost down to his time. But whence arose this perfect + union of all hearts and minds in the early Christians, who were + penetrated with the conviction that the Church was the home of truth + and grace? We may answer this question thus: No catechumen was + received into the fold without a clear and distinct belief in that + article of the earliest creed, and part of the baptismal profession, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Holy Catholic Church.”</span> A new word + was made to express a new idea, the glorious and unique work of that + ever-blessed Trinity whom the creed recited: the Home and House in + which the Triune God, whom the Christian glorified, by indwelling + made the fountain of that grace and that truth which God had become + Man in order to communicate. The catechumen's baptism into the one + Body was the foundation of all the hope in which his life + consisted;<a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href= + "#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> the + integrity, duration, sanctity of that Body being component parts of + the hope. And with regard at least to all gentile converts this + precise and definite catechetical instruction was reinforced by the + new sense which at their conversion was impressed on them of the + heathenism out of which they were then taken. In how many of them was + the remembrance of their past life connected with the guilt of deeds + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" + id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and habits which their new + Christian conscience taught them to regard as fearful sins. Nay, the + notion of sin itself—as a transgression of the eternal law and an + offence against the personal Majesty of God—was a Christian + acquisition to the corrupted heathen. Thus the passage into the one + Body and the divine Kingdom was contemporaneous in their case with a + total change of the moral life. It is Cyprian, again, who has given + us a vivid account of this change, which took place at a time of + mature manhood in his own life, and which will serve as a graphic + sketch of what had happened to the great mass of adult converts + besides himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us suppose a + man forty-five years of age speaking: <span class="tei tei-q">“For + me, while I yet lay in darkness and bewildering night, and was tossed + to and fro on the billows of this troublesome world, ignorant of my + true life, an outcast from light and truth, I used to think that + second birth, which divine mercy promised for my salvation, a hard + saying according to the life I then led: as if a man could be so + quickened to a new life in the laver of healing water as to put off + his natural self, and keep his former tabernacle, yet be changed in + heart and soul. How is it possible, said I, for so great a conversion + to be accomplished, so that both the obstinate defilement of our + natural substance, and old and ingrained habits, should suddenly and + rapidly be put off; evils whose roots are deeply <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seated within? When does he learn + frugality, to whom fine feasts and rich banquets have become a habit? + Or he who in gay sumptuous robes glisters with gold and purple, when + does he reduce himself to ordinary and simple raiment? Another whose + bent is to public distinctions and honours cannot bear to become a + private and unnoticed man; while one who is thronged by a phalanx of + dependents, and retinued by the overflowing attendance of an + obsequious host, thinks it punishment to be alone. The temptation + still unrelaxed, need is it that, as before, wine should entice, + pride inflate, anger inflame, covetousness disquiet, cruelty + stimulate, ambition delight, and lust lead headlong.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Such were my frequent musings; for whereas I was + encumbered with the many sins of my past life, which it seemed + impossible to be rid of, so I had used myself to give way to my + clinging infirmities, and, from despair of better things, to humour + the evils of my heart, as slaves born in my house and my proper + offspring. But after that life-giving water succoured me, washing + away the stain of former years, and pouring into my cleansed and + hallowed breast the light which comes from heaven, after that I drank + in the heavenly Spirit, and was created into a new man by a second + birth, then marvellously what before was doubtful became plain to me, + what was hidden was revealed, what was dark began to shine, what was + difficult now had a way and means, what had seemed <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> impossible now could be achieved, what + was in me of the guilty flesh now confessed that it was earthy, what + was quickened in me by the Holy Ghost now had a growth according to + God. Thou knowest well, thou canst recollect as well as I, what was + then taken from me, and what was given by that death of sin, that + quickening power of holiness. Thou knowest, I name it not; over my + own praises it were unwelcome to boast, though that is ground never + for boasting but for gratitude, which is not ascribed to man's virtue + but is confessed to be God's bounty; so that to sin no more has come + of faith, as heretofore to sin had come of human error. From God, I + say, from God is all we can be; from Him we live, from Him we grow, + and by that strength which is from Him accepted and ingathered we + learn beforehand, even in this present state, the foretokens of what + is yet to be. Let only fear be a guard upon innocency, that that Lord + who by the influence of His heavenly mercy has graciously shone into + our hearts, may be detained by righteous obedience in the hostelry of + a mind that pleases Him; that the security imparted to us may not + beget slothfulness, nor the former enemy steal upon us + anew.”</span><a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href= + "#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Add to this that + Christians were marked out as one Body by the Jewish and heathen + persecution which tracked them everywhere. But the sects were not + persecuted. The various schools of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Gnostics all agreed in this, that it was + not necessary or desirable to suffer martyrdom for the faith. Their + view was, that they could believe with their minds whatever they + pleased, though an enemy might force them by threats of suffering to + utter with the mouth what they abhorred; and with this convenient + distinction they escaped imprisonment, poverty, bereavement, and + death. But the Christian was bound—when the fitting circumstances + came—to repeat the confession of his Lord before Pilate. Joined + therefore to his baptismal belief, and to the utter change of life + involved in his conversion, was the bond of common suffering which + held together Christians as one Body throughout the world: whence an + old martyr bishop said: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Church, for that + love which she bears to God, in every place and at every time sends + forward a multitude of martyrs to the Father, whereas all the rest + not only have no such thing among themselves to show, but deem not + even such a witness necessary.”</span><a id="noteref_286" name= + "noteref_286" href="#note_286"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, as a + fourth cause, the historic origin of their name and belief led them + up to that day of Pentecost when the descent of the Spirit of God + constituted the formation of that body in belonging to which was all + their hope and trust; with the existence of which their faith was + identified; in the communion of which their charity was engendered. + As the birth and the life and the passion <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Christ were that subject-matter on which + their whole faith grew, so the creation of their existence as a + people was a definite act in which the Redeemer showed Himself the + Father of His Race, creating them as His children and generating them + by His Spirit. The loving thought of Christians in every age ran + along this line to its source. Nature herself presents us with an + image of what this idea of the Church was to them. As the great river + whose water is the symbol of blessing and the bearer of fertility + leaps down a giant birth from its parent lake, ever blazing under the + splendour of a tropical sun, yet ever fed by sources springing from + snow-crowned mountains, and changes in its course the desert into + earth's fruitfulest region, so the river of God, welling forth on the + day of Pentecost from the central abyss of the divine love, bore down + to all the nations the one water of salvation, and wheresoever it + spread, the desert retreated, and the earth brought forth corn and + wine in abundance. And the idea of this divine stream was from the + beginning as deep as it was clear in every Christian heart. It is one + of a very few doctrines, such as the unity of the Godhead, whereof + indeed it is the image and the result, of which there is not only an + implicit belief but a definite consciousness from the first. For the + thought of the kingdom is inseparable from that of the king: and he + could be no divine Sovereign whose realm was not one and indivisible: + and that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg + 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + this realm should break in pieces and consume all other + kingdoms,<a id="noteref_287" name="noteref_287" href= + "#note_287"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> but + itself stand for ever, was the trust on which the whole Christian + life of endurance and hope was built.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Christian + society through its whole structure was marked with the seal of that + great act on which it grew, the assumption of human nature by a + divine Person. Its whole government, its whole worship, and the whole + moral and spiritual being of its people radiate from that Person as + King, as Priest, and as Prophet. Take first the character of the + individual Christian. It is in all its gradations, in that marvellous + range of the same being which stretches from the highest saint + matured in acting and suffering to the most imperfect penitent + received into the bosom of the one mother, a copy, more or less + resembling, of our Lord Himself. He, the divine Image, is the + original from which every Christian lineament is traced, and every + one of His race repeats Him in some degree. Every virtue is such as a + transcript of some portion of His character; and the whole life of + the individual resolves itself into an imitation of Him. Thus He is + the Prophet not only declaring the whole divine will to men, but + leading them in it by His own example. The divine Painter is but + representing in every one of His children a copy in some sort of that + life, which He set forth in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg + 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + full in the thirty-three years: a thought which we have seen Origen + expressing in the chrism which descended from the head of Aaron to + the utmost skirt of his raiment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But likewise in + His Priesthood a parallel derivation ensues. First He multiplies + Himself in His Apostles: they again in the Bishops whom they create; + while each of these communicates himself in his priests. A triple + transfusion suffices to form the whole hierarchical order. Nothing + can be conceived more simple, yet nothing more efficient supposing + that He is what He proclaimed Himself to be. The victim which He + appoints to be offered by this priesthood is Himself, and His Body so + offered is the food, the life, and the bond of the whole spiritual + Body thus created. That Person with which He took the manhood is the + centre of all this worship, of which the manhood so taken is the + instrument. Thus it is that His second office of Priest, bound up so + entirely with Himself, is yet communicated through His divine manhood + to the whole Body which He forms. And this order remains through all + ages, as intimately connected with his Person now, as eighteen + centuries ago, and as it will be when all the centuries to come are + evolved.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One office + remains; His office of King. And here, again, the jurisdiction which + He created for His kingdom springs from His Person, and that not only + in its origin but in its perpetual derivation. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> He was Himself<a id="noteref_288" name= + "noteref_288" href="#note_288"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> the + Apostle: as such He first multiplied Himself in the Twelve, whom from + Himself He named Apostles. His public life on earth is an image of + the whole mission or government which He would set up after His + ascension. He lives with the Twelve: He teaches them: He is their + Instructor, Father, and Friend. When His Apostles afterwards created + Bishops, this form of our Lord's life on earth was exactly reproduced + in the earliest dioceses. Thus S. Mark went forth from the side of + Peter, and the mode of his living, and the family which he drew + around him at Alexandria was after this pattern. He, the Bishop, is + the image of Christ, and his twelve presbyters of the Apostles. This + model is continually set forth by S. Ignatius as a divine command and + institution, he being himself the occupant of the great Mother See of + the East, the third See of Peter, and that wherein he first + sat.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href= + "#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> Thus + the canonical life was formed by the exactest imitation of our Lord's + public life, and its reproduction throughout the various dioceses + formed the Church. Such was the life which S. Augustine afterwards + practised and reduced to rule; and those who planted the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Christian Faith throughout the north, + Apostles to new and barbarous races, had this model before them. The + diocese was first a family, in which the Bishop as a father presided + over his priests, and sent them forth to their work. The Eucharist + which he consecrated was from the beginning dispensed from his church + to all his flock. The diocese, then, in its earliest form was an + image of our Lord's intercourse with the Twelve, wherein the Bishop + represents Him, and the priesthood His Apostles.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the whole + Church in its episcopate or mass of dioceses no less represented that + His public life. For as He was the Head, the Living Teacher and Guide + of His Apostles, and as He came to establish one Kingdom, and one + only,<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href= + "#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> wherein + the Twelve represented the whole Episcopate, and contained in + themselves its powers, so the Primacy which He visibly exercised + among them, He delegated, when He left them, to one of their number. + Peter, when he received that commission to feed His sheep, took the + place on earth of the great Shepherd, and in him the flock remains + one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the double + power which expresses the divinely-established government of the + Church, the Primacy and the Episcopate, is as close a transcript of + the Lord's life on earth with His Apostles as the diocese taken by + itself. In His intercourse with His Apostles He is the germ of the + Bishop with his priests; in His Vicariate bestowed upon <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Peter He repeats or rather continues His + visible Headship on earth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But spiritual + jurisdiction is the expression of Christ's sovereignty on earth, and + in the order just described it is linked with His Person as strictly + as the worship exercised by means of His Priesthood, and the + spiritual character which every one of His children bears. Surely no + kingdom has ever been so contained in its king, no family in its + father, no worship in its object, as the Christian kingdom, family, + and worship, which together is the Church. Is it, then, any wonder + that all Christian hearts from the first were filled with the + blessing of belonging to such a creation as this, in which to them + their Redeemer lived and reigned, penetrated them with His own life, + and gathered them in His kingdom? Are not the words of S. Cyprian + just what we should expect those to utter who overflowed with this + conviction? At the same time that Cyprian was so writing, Dionysius, + the Archbishop of Alexandria, addressed Novatian the antipope in + these words: <span class="tei tei-q">“It was better to suffer any + extremity in order not to divide the Church of God. And martyrdom + endured to prevent schism were not less glorious than that endured to + refuse idolatry, but in my opinion more so. For in the one case a man + suffers martyrdom for his own single soul, but in the other for the + whole Church.”</span><a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href= + "#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But let us trace + the chronological sequence in history of that great institution, the + real as well as logical coherence of which has just been set forth. + The Church was a fact long before its theory became the subject of + reflection. It came forth from the mind of the divine Architect and + established itself among men through His power; and it is only when + this was done that the creative thought according to which it grew + could be delineated.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact, then, + exactly agrees with the theory, and history here interprets + dogma.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is during the + great forty days that our Lord founded the Primacy, when He made S. + John and the rest of the Apostles sheep of Peter's fold. The period + of thirty-eight years which follows is the carrying into effect His + design in the first stage. The Church grows around Peter. First in + Jerusalem he forms a mass of disciples; then for a certain number of + years at Antioch. In the second year of Claudius, the thirteenth + after the Ascension, he lays the foundations of the Roman Church. In + the sixtieth year of our era he sends forth S. Mark to found the + Christian society in Alexandria. Thus he takes possession of the + three great cities of the empire, of east, west, and south. In the + mean time the labours of S. Paul and the other Apostles, in + conjunction with those of Peter and in subordination to them, plant + the Christian root in a great number of cities. As S. Paul toils + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" + id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all round the northern circuit + of the empire, through Asia Minor, Macedonia, Illyricum, to Spain, + his work has a manifest reference to the work of Peter in the + metropolis of the east, of the south, and of the west. In the latter + he joins his elder brother, and the two Princes of the Apostles offer + up their lives together on the same day in that city which was to be + the perpetual citadel of the Christian Faith, the immovable Rock of a + divine Capitol. Thus was it Peter, <span class="tei tei-q">“from whom + the very Episcopate, and all the authority of this title + sprung,”</span><a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href= + "#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> and + what Pope Boniface wrote in 422 is a simple fact of history: that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the formation of the universal Church at its + birth took its beginning from the honour of blessed Peter, in whose + person its regimen and sum consists. For from his fountain the stream + of ecclesiastical discipline flowed forth into all churches, as the + culture of religion progressively advanced.”</span><a id= + "noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> Thus + the whole initial movement was from above downwards, and S. Cyprian + was not only enunciating dogma but speaking history when he wrote + that the Lord built the Church upon Peter. In one generation the + structure rose above the ground, and during all that time S. Peter's + hand directed the work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Just at the end of + this time, on the point of being thrown into prison, whence he only + emerged <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name= + "Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to martyrdom, Paul was + at Rome with Peter, and he describes in imperishable words the work + which had been already accomplished. Again it is not only dogma but + history, not only that which was always to be but that which already + was, which he set forth as it were with his dying voice: the one + Body, and the one Spirit, the one Lord, one Faith, and one Baptism, + as there is one God. That Body in which Apostles, Prophets, + Evangelists, Pastors and Teachers were fixed, that the visible + structure might grow up to its final stature, in whose accordant + unity was the perpetual safeguard against error. When Paul so + wrote,<a id="noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href= + "#note_294"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> the + Body was formed, and its headship was incontestably with Peter. He + had no need to remind them of the man with whom he was labouring, of + whose work the whole Church from Rome to Antioch and Alexandria was + the fruit. But he places the maintenance of truth, and the perpetual + fountain of grace, in the unity of the Church, which was before those + to whom he wrote an accomplished fact.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two generations + pass and the aged S. Ignatius, on his way to martyrdom, attests the + same fact. <span class="tei tei-q">“Where is Jesus Christ,”</span> he + says, <span class="tei tei-q">“there is the Catholic Church.”</span> + The King is in His Kingdom; the Master in His House; the Lord in His + Temple. The bishops throughout the world inseparably linked together + are His mind: and the presidency of charity, which is the inner life + of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name= + "Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all this spiritual + empire, is at Rome. S. Ignatius and the author of the letter to + Diognetus write just after the expiration of the apostolic period; + and they both regard Christians as one mass throughout the world, + living under a divine form of spiritual government. No one who + studies their words can doubt that the one Body and the one Spirit + were as visible to their eyes and as dear to their heart as to S. + Paul.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We pass two + generations further and S. Irenæus repeats the same testimony. The + interval has been filled by incessant attacks of heresies, and the + Bishop of Lyons dwells upon the fact that the Church speaks with one + voice through all the regions of the earth as being one House of God, + and that the seat of this its unity is in the great See founded by + the Princes of the Apostles at Rome. He reproduces at great length + the statements of S. Paul that the safeguard of truth lies in the one + apostolic ministry, for which he runs up to the fountain-head in + Rome. It is in the living voice and the teaching office of the Church + that he sees a perpetual preservative against whatever error may + arise. Thus it has been up to his time, and thus it will ever be.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another period of + seventy years runs on, and we come to the just-cited testimony of + Cyprian, who therefore said nothing new, nor anything exaggerated; + but when the truth was assailed in its very citadel, he spoke out and + described wherein <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg + 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> its + strength lay. He gathers up and gives expression to the two hundred + and twenty years between the day of Pentecost and his own time. Here + are the creative words of our Apostle and High-priest explained and + attested and exhibited as having passed into fact by four witnesses, + first S. Paul, then S. Ignatius, thirdly S. Irenæus, fourthly S. + Cyprian. Between all the five there is no shadow of divergence, + between the Master who designed the building and the servants who + described its erection; between the Prophet who foretold and the + historians who recorded. The one said, Upon this rock I will build my + Church; the others pointed out that the work was accomplished.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The original and + fundamental conception of all this work is expressed by S. Matthew + and S. Mark when they speak of our Lord at His first going forth as + <span class="tei tei-q">“proclaiming the gospel of the + kingdom.”</span> His three years' ministry is the germ and type of + the perpetual mission which He founded. It was to be from first to + last a work of personal ministry, beginning from above, not spreading + from below; its power and virtue descending from Him through those + whom He chose, the people being the work of the Prince, their + government a delegation from Him, as their moral condition lay in + following Him, and their life and support in feeding on Him. And He + declared that the original conception should be carried <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> out to the end, and that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the gospel of the kingdom”</span> should be proclaimed + through the whole world as a witness to all nations, until the + consummation should come.<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href= + "#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief events + of the third century brought out more and more the unity of the + Church and the Primacy of S. Peter's See as the power within the + Church by which that unity is produced and maintained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this century + the great persecutions begin. That of Septimius Severus arose in the + year 202. Now a persecution which assaulted the mass of Christians + was the occasion of fall and apostasy to some, of martyrdom to + others. Hence the question became urgent how those should be treated + by the Christian society who through fear of suffering had failed to + maintain the confession of their faith. It was necessary to lay down + more distinctly rules as to what crimes should be admitted to + penance, and what that penance should be. The practice here involved + doctrine; it raised immediately the question of the power which the + society itself had to grant pardon, and to receive the guilty back + into its bosom. And here the authority of the chief Bishop was at + once called out. We find as a matter of fact Pope Zephyrinus in the + first <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name= + "Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> years of this century + determining the rules of penance, and a small party of rigid + disciplinarians, among whom Tertullian was conspicuous, who + considered his rules as too indulgent. It is in the vehement pamphlet + with which Tertullian assails the Pope that we have one of the + earliest expressions of the great authority claimed by him. + <span class="tei tei-q">“I hear,”</span> he exclaims, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that an edict has been set forth, and a peremptory one. + The Pontifex Maximus, in sooth, that is, the Bishop of Bishops, + issues his edict: I pardon to those who have discharged their penance + the sins both of adultery and of fornication.”</span><a id= + "noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> Twenty + years later Pope Callistus carried the indulgence yet further, + receiving to penance those who had committed murder or + idolatry.<a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href= + "#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> Once + more, after a period of thirty years, the breaking out of the Decian + persecution raised afresh the question of admitting great sinners to + penance, and the actual discipline of the Roman Church, as + established under Zephyrinus and Callistus, is set forth in a letter + to Cyprian by Novatian, then one of the most esteemed presbyters of + that church. By the discipline which these facts attest it is + determined that the Church has lodged in her the power of pardoning + any sin whatsoever according to the rules of the penance which she + imposes. And it is the Roman Church which herein takes <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the guidance. She maintained the ancient + faith, severity, and discipline, yet tempered with that consideration + which the full possession of the truth alone bestows.<a id= + "noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> Thus + she received back without hesitation those who returned from heresy + or schism, as well as those who had fallen in the conflict with + persecution.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For another + question of great importance which her guidance determined was that + concerning the rebaptisation of heretics; and in this she went + against the judgment of Cyprian with his council, of Firmilian, and + of other bishops. It had been the custom that those who had received + baptism among heretics, provided it was with the proper rite, should, + when they sought admission into the Church, be received only by an + imposition of hands, not by the iteration of baptism. And though + Cyprian and a great majority of African bishops, through their horror + of schism and heresy, wished to modify this rule, and to insist that + baptism given outside the Church was invalid, Pope Stephen resisted, + and maintained the ancient rule, with the decision that nothing save + what had been handed down should be done.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is evident that + the question of penance and that of rebaptisation touched the whole + Christian society, and here accordingly we find the superior + Principate of the Roman Church exert itself. In fact, the right + decision as to both these questions involved the right conception of + the Church herself, her constitution, power, and prerogatives. The + rigorism<a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href= + "#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> with + which some had endeavoured to exclude certain sinners from the + faculty of receiving penance, and the view which led them to confine + the validity itself of baptism to its reception within the one + Church, led when fully developed in the following century to the + obstinate schism and heresy of the Donatists. These dangerous + tendencies were resisted, when they first appeared, by the Roman See, + and we owe to such resistance the application by Tertullian to the + Pope of the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Pontifex + Maximus”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“Bishop of + Bishops,”</span> about the year 202, as the expression of the power + which he then claimed and exercised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another question + likewise touching the whole Christian society, which the Roman + Pontiff had already decided against the practice of the influential + and ancient churches of Asia Minor, was the time of holding Easter. + Pope Victor insisted that the practice of the Roman Church must be + followed, which kept the day of the Crucifixion invariably on the + Friday, and that of the Resurrection on the Sunday, and not the + Jewish practice of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg + 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + Asiatics, which took the 14th and the 16th days of the month Nisan, + on whatever days of the week they might fall, for that purpose. And + here in the peremptory tone of Pope Victor, and in the threat of + excommunication which he issued, the consciousness was shown that the + right to determine lay with him, while subsequent times justified his + judgment and followed it. Nor was it of little importance that the + greatest festival of the Church should be celebrated by all her + children both on the same day and in the same spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have then now + traced up to the end of the third century the inner growth and + constituent principles of that great institution, which out of every + language, tribe, and religion in the empire or beyond it had formed + and welded together one people, the bearer of that Truth and that + Grace which the Son of God in assuming manhood had conveyed to the + world. It remains rapidly to review the relations of the empire with + this people during seventy-eight years, from the death of Alexander + Severus in 235 to the edict of toleration in 313.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. The seizure of + the empire by Maximin was accompanied by a violent attack upon + Christians, whom Alexander was held to have favoured. It is on this + occasion that we learn from Origen<a id="noteref_300" name= + "noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> that + churches were burnt, and thus their existence as public buildings is + attested. The clergy were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg + 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + especially threatened, and amongst them Ambrosius, the friend of + Origen, and Origen himself. But Maximin after reigning three years + with extraordinary cruelty was slain by his own soldiers. And then + during eleven years a period of comparative tranquillity for + Christians ensued.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is with the + accession of Decius that the severest trials of the Church commence. + In the sixty-four years which elapse from this to the edict of + toleration, the force of the empire is five times directed by its + rulers against the Christian name. The cause of this is disclosed to + us by S. Cyprian mentioning incidentally the very words of that + emperor whose name is associated with the bitterest hatred to + Christians. He praises Pope Cornelius,<a id="noteref_301" name= + "noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> who + when Pope <span class="tei tei-q">“Fabian's place, that is,”</span> + he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“the place of Peter and the rank of + the sacerdotal chair was vacant,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“sat + fearless in that chair at Rome at the moment when the tyrant who + hated God's priests uttered every horrible threat, and with much more + patience and endurance heard the rise of a rival prince than the + appointment of God's priest at Rome.”</span> But why should Decius + regard with such dislike the nomination of a Roman Bishop? Why, but + that the emperors had <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg + 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> now + come clearly to discern the organisation of the Church as a visible + kingdom of Christ, at the head of which the Roman Bishop stood. That + kingdom, the whole moral and religious doctrine of which, together + with the life founded upon it, they felt to be in contradiction with + the heathen life and the maxims of polity on which from time + immemorial the empire had been based, that kingdom Decius saw to be + summed up and represented in him who held, to use the words of + Cyprian, <span class="tei tei-q">“Peter's place.”</span> With that + religious association which Decius saw extending round him on every + side, and gradually drawing into its bosom the best of the two sexes, + there was no way of dealing but either to yield to those new maxims + which it set forth, or to destroy it. In proportion as the emperors + were zealous for the worship of the Roman gods, and instinct with the + old discipline of the state, they inclined to the latter alternative, + and none more decisively than Decius, who prided himself on following + the spirit of Trajan. The persecution which he set on foot reached + and slew Pope Fabian, and caused the election of a successor to be + deferred for sixteen months. When at the end of that time Cornelius + was chosen, Cyprian praises him <span class="tei tei-q">“as to be + reckoned among the glorious confessors and martyrs, who sat so long + awaiting his butchers, ready either to slay him with the sword, or + crucify him, or burn him, or tear open and maim his body with any + unheard-of kind of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg + 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + punishment.”</span><a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href= + "#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a> Decius + indeed was slain by the Goths in battle after less than two years' + reign, but the persecution was renewed by Gallus, and again by + Valerian, so that in ten years no less than five Pontiffs, holding + that place of Peter, Fabian, Cornelius, Lucius, Stephen, and Sistus, + offered up their lives for the faith. Then it was that the ten years' + noble episcopate of S. Cyprian after many minor sufferings ended in + martyrdom: and then too the deacon Laurence wore out in the agony of + fire all the malignity of the enemy, and gained his almost matchless + crown.<a id="noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href= + "#note_303"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state of + things which immediately preceded this grand attack of the empire on + the Church is thus described by Cyprian in the interval which + followed the persecution of Decius and preceded that of Gallus; and + the words of one who not only taught but died for his teaching carry + with them no common force. <span class="tei tei-q">“As long repose + had corrupted the discipline which had <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> come down to us from God, the divine judgment + awakened our faith from a declining, and if I may so speak an almost + slumbering state; and whereas we deserved yet more for our sins, the + most merciful Lord has so moderated all, that what has passed has + seemed rather a trial of what we were than an actual infliction. + Everyone was applying himself to the increase of wealth, and + forgetting both what was the conduct of believers under the Apostles, + and what ought to be their conduct in every age, they with insatiable + eagerness for gain devoted themselves to the multiplying of + possessions. The priests were wanting in religious devotedness; the + ministers in entireness of faith; there was no mercy in works, no + discipline in manners. Men wore their beards disfigured, and women + stained their complexion with a dye. The eyes were changed from what + God made them, and a lying colour was passed upon the hair. The + hearts of the simple were misled by treacherous artifices, and + brethren became entangled in seductive snares; ties of marriage were + formed with unbelievers; members of Christ abandoned to the heathen. + Not only rash swearing was heard, but even false; persons in high + place were swollen with contemptuousness; poisoned reproaches fell + from their mouths; and men were sundered by unabating quarrels. + Numerous bishops, who ought to be an encouragement and example to + others, despising their sacred calling, engaged themselves + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" + id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in secular vocations, + relinquished their chair, deserted their people, strayed among + foreign provinces, hunted the markets for mercantile profits, tried + to amass large sums of money, while they had brethren starving within + the Church, took possession of estates by fraudulent proceedings, and + multiplied their gains by accumulated usuries.”</span><a id= + "noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the end + of the long peace which succeeded the persecution of Septimius + Severus, and yet it was followed at once by that ten years' conflict + which if stained with apostasies at first, soon became rife in + martyrdoms. And as the former relaxation seems to prove that the + third century among Christians was no ideal time in which moral + corruptions and abuses did not largely exist, so the improvement + which trial and suffering at once produced, calling forth some of the + greatest triumphs which the Faith has ever known, seems to indicate + that the divine power of the Church lies not in forming a community + free from imperfections, or even secured from scandals, but in + building up a portion of her children to sanctity. At all times the + wheat and the chaff lie together on her threshing-floor, and the + flail of suffering winnows them. But those who seek for a time when + all professing believers were saints, will find it neither when the + Apostles taught nor afterwards.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Emperor + Valerian, after being during four <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> years more kindly disposed to Christians than + any preceding emperor, and after filling his palace with them, was + instigated by an Egyptian magician into becoming a most bitter + persecutor.<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" href= + "#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> This + was ended in less than three years through his capture by the Persian + monarch, when his son Gallienus restored the sacred places to the + Christians, and ordered the bishops not to be disturbed.<a id= + "noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> The + empire during the following eight years seemed through the supineness + of Gallienus to be on the point of dissolution; it is the time when + nineteen commanders in various provinces assume the purple, and + successively perish. At last Gallienus is put out of the way by a + council of officers, and the empire is restored by Claudius and by + Aurelian. The latter, after being for some years fair to Christians, + ends by persecuting them. But he too is speedily removed by death. It + is remarkable that all these persecutions, by Maximin, by Decius, by + Gallus, by Valerian, and by Aurelian, are of short duration: none of + them continue more than three years. After Aurelian's death in 275 a + whole generation ensues in which Christians by the ordinary operation + of the empire's laws, according to which their religion was illicit, + were liable to suffer much in individual cases. Thus it is in a time + not reckoned persecuting, shortly after Maximianus had been made his + colleague in the empire by Diocletian, that <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> one of the most merciless acts of tyrannical + cruelty took place, which gave an occasion for several thousand men + at once to offer up their lives. Unresisting victims, yet brave + soldiers with arms in their hands, they endured two decimations, and + when remonstrance had proved in vain, piled their arms, and let + themselves be massacred to the last man rather than violate their + conscience. The place where they suffered took the name of their + heroic captain, Maurice; the churches of that Alpine valley to this + day bear witness by his figure over their altars to that most + illustrious act of Christian sacrifice: and beside the place of their + repose rises still a monastery which for thirteen hundred and fifty + years has guarded the sepulture of a legion of martyrs, and is become + one of the most ancient Christian houses of prayer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It cannot be + doubted that in the last twenty-five years of the third century the + number of Christians was being largely increased, and moreover they + were daily gaining the higher ranks of society. Diocletian had + reigned for eighteen years, and seemed effectually to have stopped + that incessant succession of soldiers gaining the throne by + assassination and yielding it in turn to their assassins, which for + fifty years threatened to destroy the state. At such a moment it was + that Diocletian, belying all the past conduct of his life, let loose + against the Christian Church the last, the fiercest, and the longest + of the heathen persecutions.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in truth + scarcely less than the rending in pieces the whole social framework + when a proclamation of the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian, in the + year 303, declared that the Christian Faith should cease to exist. + How entirely that faith had now penetrated all ranks was shown in + Diocletian's own household, wherein his most trusted<a id= + "noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> + chamberlains, beloved as his children, were cruelly tortured because + they refused to worship the heathen gods, while his wife Prisca and + his daughter Valeria purchased immunity for the present by + compliance. We have the emperor described by an eye-witness of those + times as himself sitting in judgment,<a id="noteref_308" name= + "noteref_308" href="#note_308"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> and + putting men to the torture of fire. The same power was delegated to + the governors throughout the provinces. <span class="tei tei-q">“It + was,”</span> says Eusebius, <span class="tei tei-q">“the nineteenth + year of Diocletian's reign, in the month of March, when the festival + of the Lord's Passion was drawing near, that imperial edicts were + everywhere published, ordering the churches to be levelled, the + scriptures to be burnt, those of rank to be deprived of it, the + common people, if they remained faithful, to be reduced to slavery. + This was the first edict against us; another soon came enjoining that + all <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name= + "Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> those who ruled the + churches should first be imprisoned, and then by every means + compelled to sacrifice.”</span><a id="noteref_309" name="noteref_309" + href="#note_309"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> + Lactantius adds that every action at law was to proceed against + Christians, while they should not be allowed to claim the law for any + wrong inflicted, or spoliation suffered, or dishonour done to their + wives.<a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href= + "#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> Many in + consequence of these edicts suffered willingly terrible torments: + many others at first gave way. What these torments were Eusebius + describes: some were beaten; some torn with hooks.<a id="noteref_311" + name="noteref_311" href="#note_311"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is impossible to say how many and how + great martyrs of Christ might be seen in every city and + country.”</span> A man of the highest rank in Nicomedia from an + impulse of zeal when the edict first appeared tore it down: he was + seized, and not merely tortured but slowly roasted alive,<a id= + "noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href="#note_312"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> which + he bore with unflinching patience, preserving joyousness and + tranquillity to his last breath. The emperors polluted the provinces + subject to them, by the slaughter of men and women who worshipped + God, as if it had been in a civil war, with the exception of + Constantius,<a id="noteref_313" name="noteref_313" href= + "#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> who + ruled the Gauls and Britain, and preserved his soul pure from this + stain. But it was so much worse than a war in which the conquered + have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name= + "Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> only to suffer + servitude or at most death, whereas in this case what was committed + against those who refused to do wrong passes all description. They + used against them every imaginable torture, and thought it little to + slay those whom they hated, unless by cruelty having first exposed + their bodies to mockery. If they could persuade, by terror, any to + violate the faith to which they were bound, and to agree to the fatal + sacrifice, these they praised and with their honours destroyed, but + on the others they exhausted the whole ingenuity of their butchery, + calling them desperate as disregarding their own body.<a id= + "noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a> For two + years the whole Roman world ruled by Diocletian, Maximian, and + Galerius was exposed to this misery: when on the retirement of + Diocletian and Maximian in 305 Galerius became the chief emperor, the + persecution continued in all its intensity, save in the territory + subject to Constantius. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is impossible to + describe the individual scenes which took place throughout the world. + The several governors having received their commission carried it out + according to their own ferocity. Some through excess of fear did more + than their orders; some were inspired by personal enmity; some by + natural cruelty; some sought to advance themselves; some were + precipitate in the work of destruction, as one in + Phrygia,”</span><a id="noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href= + "#note_315"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> where, + says Eusebius, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg + 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + soldiers surrounded a Christian town and burnt it with all its + inhabitants, <span class="tei tei-q">“men, women, and children + calling upon the name of Christ, the God of all.”</span><a id= + "noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href="#note_316"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“And in devising various kinds of tortures + they aim at gaining a victory. They are well aware that it is a + struggle between champions. I myself saw in Bithynia a governor + beside himself in joy, as if he had subdued some barbarous nation, + because one who for two years had with great virtue resisted was seen + to fail. They inflict therefore exquisite pains, only avoiding to put + the tortured to death, as if it were only death that made them + blessed, and not likewise those torments which in proportion to their + severity produce a greater glory by the virtue which they + exhibit.”</span><a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href= + "#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Eusebius declares + that such cruelties were perpetrated not for a short time, but during + several years; that ten, twenty, thirty, sixty, and as many as a + hundred men, women, and children would be slain in a day by various + tortures. <span class="tei tei-q">“When I was in Egypt myself I saw a + crowd in one day, some beheaded, some burnt; with my own eyes I + beheld the marvellous ardour, the truly divine virtue and alacrity of + those who believed in Christ. Scarcely was sentence passed against + the first, when a fresh number hastened before the tribunal, + professing themselves Christians: with joy, gaiety, and smiles they + received the award of death, singing <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> hymns, and returning thanks to their last + breath.”</span><a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" href= + "#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among those + distinguished for their learning in all Grecian studies, and for the + universal honour in which they had been held, Eusebius mentions + especially a bishop of Thmuis named Phileas. While he lay in prison + under sentence of death, which was afterwards executed by beheading, + he wrote a letter to his people, detailing the scenes in which he + bore a part. This letter the historian has happily preserved for us. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Inasmuch,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“as the holy scriptures presented us with so many fair + ensamples and lessons, the blessed martyrs who are with me felt no + hesitation. They fixed their mind's eye steadily upon the God of all, + formed the conception of death suffered for piety's sake, and clung + firmly to that to which they were called. For they knew that our Lord + Jesus Christ had become man for our sakes in order to cut up all sin + by the root, and to supply us with food on that journey by which we + enter into eternal life. For He thought it not robbery to be equal + with God, but emptied Himself by taking the form of a slave, and + being found in fashion as a man humbled Himself to death, and that + death the cross. Hence it was that the martyrs, bearing Christ within + them, in their zeal for the greater gifts endured every suffering and + all the various inventions of torture not once, but <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> some of them a second time, and all the + threats of their guards, which did not stop with words in their zeal + to overcome them, without their resolution being broken, because + perfect charity casts out fear. What words can I find to enumerate + their virtue and their endurance in each particular trial? Since they + were left exposed to anyone's outrage, some being struck with clubs, + others with rods, others with scourges, some with lashes, some with + ropes. The sight of the tortures presented every variety, but great + suffering throughout. These with hands bound behind them were + distended on the wood, and had every limb stretched by machinery; and + thus their tormentors by command attacked the whole body, tearing + them not on the sides alone as murderers are treated, but on the + stomach, the knees, and the cheeks. Others were hung by one hand from + the portico, and this tension of the sinews and limbs caused a more + terrible pain than any. Others were bound to pillars face to face, + the feet not reaching the ground, but the weight of the body + tightening the bonds, and this they suffered not during the time of + examination only, or while the governor was engaged with them, but + almost the whole day. For when he went to others, he left his + officers watching over these, to see if the extremity of torture + should cause any to give way: and he charged them to be bound without + mercy, but when at their last gasp to be let down and dragged + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" + id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> along the ground. For he said + that no account at all was to be taken of us, but we were to be both + reputed and treated as non-existent. This last was a second torture + which they superadded to their blows. There were those also who after + their tortures were put in the stocks with their feet distended to + the fourth hole, where they must needs lie down, not being able to + hold themselves up through their wounds gaping over the whole body. + Others flung on the pavement lay there through the repeated violence + of their racking, the many signs of suffering over their body + presenting a more fearful spectacle to those who looked on than the + racking itself. Thus treated, some died under the torture, putting + their adversary to shame by their endurance; some shut up in prison + half-dead, after a few days expired through the extremity of their + pains; the rest having treatment applied became still more resolute + through the time spent in prison. And so when the choice was + presented to them either to touch the abominable sacrifice, and + depart unmolested, gaining by this course an execrable deliverance, + or, not sacrificing, to receive sentence of death, without any doubt + they joyfully went to death. For they knew what the sacred writings + enjoin: <span class="tei tei-q">‘he that sacrifices to other gods + shall be rooted out,’</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">‘thou shalt + have no other gods but me.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_319" name= + "noteref_319" href="#note_319"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This may suffice + as a specimen of what was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg + 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + done during a course of years throughout the dominion of Galerius, + Maximin, and Maxentius. It is in this persecution especially that the + virgin martyrs suffered the extremity of the heathen malignity in the + threatened loss of that purity which they valued more than life. And + here a fellow-Christian at Alexandria disguising himself as a soldier + was to S. Theodora the guardian which her angel himself became to S. + Agnes at Rome. In this persecution also S. Vincent repeats in Spain + the trial and the triumph of S. Laurence at Rome. The authentic + account of his martyrdom shows the utmost point to which the most + ingenious and the most ferocious cruelty could reach on the one side, + and the most enduring patience on the other. But the numberless + details concerning the sufferings of this time preserved to us show + that it was indeed a conflict prolonged during eight years, in which + the Roman state put forth the utmost strength which unlimited power + guided by unhesitating cruelty could exert to destroy the Christian + Church and name.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of this + time the conflict was terminated by the Emperor Galerius, the chief + mover of the whole persecution, being struck by a mortal disease, in + which reduced to impotence by his sufferings he withdrew his edicts + against the Christian Faith. One after another the persecuting + emperors are taken away by death. Constantine inheriting his father's + justice towards Christians, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> preserving them in his own territory from these + outrages, gradually appears as their champion. It is when advancing + to Rome against Maxentius that he sees in the Cross the token of + victory over all enemies: enrolling it on his banner he rules with + Licinius the Roman world, and by a decree issued at Milan in 313 + assures to all Christians the free exercise of their religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the year 64 + Nero had declared by initiating a persecution against Christians that + their religion was illicit, and fell under the ban of the old Roman + laws which forbade the exercise of any worship not approved by the + senate. From that time down to the edict of Constantine no Christian + could stand before a Roman tribunal plainly avowing his faith in one + God and one Christ without incurring the liability of capital + punishment. In this period of two hundred and forty-eight years it is + true that there were intervals of comparative peace when the emperors + did not themselves call into action the laws against Christians. + During the whole second century there would seem to be no emperor who + set himself to destroy the Christian name and people as a whole. In + the time of Commodus it was even forbidden to accuse a Christian of + his religion; yet even then, if the accusation was made and proved, + it was a capital offence, followed, and that too in the case of a + senator after defence before the senate, by the infliction of the + penalty. Alexander Severus is the first of whom <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it is said that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he suffered the Christians to be;”</span> Philip also + favoured them; so again Valerian at first; Gallienus gave back their + churches; Diocletian trusted them and filled his palace with them: + but no one of these emperors ventured to declare the Christian + religion to be according to the laws of Rome a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“licit”</span> religion, and no one therefore enabled + Christians to avow it without danger of suffering. The most + favourable suspended the action of the laws either by positive edict, + or by letting it be understood that they did not wish Christians to + be disturbed. A change either of the ruler, or of the ruler's + inclination, as was seen in the cases of Valerian, Aurelian, and + Diocletian, induced at once that full state of penality under which + Christianity was as much forbidden as homicide or treason, and in + virtue of which Roman magistrates could as little refuse to judge the + crime of being a Christian as those other crimes. Thus it is that we + find martyrdoms assigned to times at which there is not known to have + been any general persecution: and in unnumbered cases Christians won + their crown through private enmity or local tumults, when any one of + the thousand motives which awaken ill-will was sufficient to cause an + appeal to that great and unchanged enemy, the Law of Rome, which + proscribed them. To Constantine belongs the glory of having removed + this enemy. He made the profession of Christianity no longer a crime. + He accomplished <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg + 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that which Justin and Tertullian and every Christian apologist had + asked for in vain, that every Christian in the Roman empire might + profess and practise the Christian Faith without suffering punishment + for it.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name= + "Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XIII. The Christian Church And + The Greek Philosophy. Part I.</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Socrates.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">It is, then, necessary to wait until we + learn how we ought to be disposed towards gods and men.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Alcibiades.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">But when, Socrates, will that time + arrive? and who shall teach us it? For it seems to me that I should + with the greatest pleasure see that man.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Socrates.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">It is he who cares for + thee.</span><a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href= + "#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Second Alcib.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">§ 22.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the three + preceding chapters we have witnessed a great spectacle, a spectacle + in all history unique and without a rival, the encounter, that is, + with the forces of the great world-empire of a voluntary society + which bears in its bosom and propagates a body of truth, and this + encounter carried on without respite during ten generations of men. + The elements of this conflict are, on the one side, power, throned in + civilisation, and defended by that sword before which nothing + hitherto had stood; on the other, a belief testified by suffering and + patience, but which moreover appears only as the possession of a + society which is itself dropped as a seed into <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the earth's bosom and silently fills its + expanse. Attention must now be called to another aspect of the same + encounter. Rome, as we have said, preëminently wielded power; not the + power of her legions only, immense as that was, but the power of her + laws, and the power of that many-sided and as it seemed triumphant + all-embracing civilisation, of which she was the golden head. The + mind however, the thought of the world which she ruled, belonged to + the great Hellenic race: and it remains to consider what contest this + mind waged with the truth which the Christian Church sustained and + suffered for. The sword hews away limbs; the fire destroys bodies; + and the martyrs offered freely their limbs and their bodies to sword + and flame. But the martyrs were inspired with a mind; they carried + Christ in them; and a mind too was opposed to theirs; the mind which + animated that ancient civilisation; the mind which had erected such + shrines as Diana of Ephesus and the Parthenon at Athens; the mind + which dictated the laws of Solon and Lycurgus; the mind which taught + in the Academus, the Lyceum, the Portico, and the Garden; the mind + which built Alexandria for the world's emporium and university, and + raised Antioch to be the gorgeous throne of eastern magnificence. We + have to consider how this heathen mind encountered the Christian; in + short, how, <span class="tei tei-q">“after that in the wisdom of God + the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased Him through the folly of + Christian preaching to save <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg + 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + those that believed.”</span><a id="noteref_321" name="noteref_321" + href="#note_321"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a> Let us + trace the encounter of heathen wisdom—that is, Philosophy—with + Christian wisdom, that is, the truth of a God incarnate and + crucified, with all its consequences, as upborne by the Christian + Church and planted among men.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now the system of + polytheistic worship which was then in possession of the Græco-Roman + world had been subjected for many ages to all the analytic power of + human reason as exercised by the most gifted of races which have + hitherto embodied their genius in a corresponding civilisation. The + philosophy of Greece is in fact such an analysis, and the rise of + this philosophy is carried back by the ablest inquirers to the time + of Thales and Pythagoras in the sixth century before Christ, In the + beautiful climate of Ionia and Southern Italy there arose at this + time men who attempted by the efforts of their own reason to form a + physical and a moral theory of the world which surrounded them. + Philosophy is not merely thought, but methodical thinking, thinking + consciously directed upon the knowledge of things in their connection + with each other. Nor is it content merely with the collecting of + observations and the knowledge so derived, but proceeds to gather the + individual instances into a whole, to draw to a centre what was + scattered, and to form a view of the world resting upon clear + conceptions and at unity <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg + 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with itself.<a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href= + "#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> This + was the nature of that work which Thales and Pythagoras commenced. + Let us give a glance at the race which bore them, and of which they + were representative men.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This race had + dwelt for some ages in Greece, and from thence occupied by emigration + the shores of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, with a part of + Africa. Pythagoras, the father of Italian philosophy, had migrated + from Samos to Crotona, having visited Egypt, examined and gathered + from all the stores of its knowledge. A century later Herodotus, the + father of Greek history, migrated likewise from his country + Halicarnassus, and after spending many years in extensive travels + through Egypt and Western Asia settled at Thurii. In the succeeding + century Plato travelled in like manner with similar purposes. He was + familiar with Sicily as with his own Attica, not to speak of Egypt or + Phœnicia. These three great men, Pythagoras, Herodotus, and Plato, + are specimens herein of the cultured Greek, the gentleman, as we + should call him. Thus though Greece proper was a very small country, + the whole region from middle Italy, including Sicily, and the rich + coast-land of Northern Africa from Carthage to Egypt, with + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" + id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> again Phœnicia and Syria, and + the continent to the depth of perhaps a hundred miles round the three + sides of Asia Minor watered by the sea, were in a larger sense the + Greek's country, a field of Grecian thought, and enterprise, and + observation, a sphere in which his mind was enlarged, and his + judgment of men and things matured.<a id="noteref_323" name= + "noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> + Generally speaking these regions were singularly favoured as to + richness of soil and convenience of situation. Herodotus himself has + marked the climate of Ionia as the most beautiful and best-tempered + of the earth; and with a far wider knowledge of its regions we should + not venture to dispute the justness of his remark. Some modern + writers are wont to dwell on the effect which climate exercises upon + man's mind. However this may be, it is certain that the race whose + energies were diffused over this region was most highly gifted with + natural endowments. When out of the world which Christianity has + mainly formed, and from the bosom of nations which have grown through + the struggle of a thousand years, and with perpetual competition + among each other, into a rich civilisation, we look back on that + ancient and simpler world, we find in Hellenism the most perfect + expression of the natural man, as a plastic, artistic, poetical, + philosophical, and generally intellectual <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> race, wherein matter was most completely + permeated by mind. The language which they used even yet presents a + very perfect image of such a race, as not being formed from the + corruption of other idioms, but a mother tongue, the most brilliant + of the Aryan sisters. In its union of strength with beauty, of + pleasing sound with accurate sense, in its power to convey the most + subtle distinctions of philosophic thought, or the most radiant + images of sensuous loveliness, the gravest enunciations of law, or + the tenderest dreams of romance, it was well calculated to be the + organ of a people wherein bodily form and immaterial intellect alike + culminated. The language which we use ourselves is full of nerve and + vigor, with a certain northern force and a habit of appropriating the + material stores of other languages by incorporating their words, + which suits well the descendants of sea-kings, who have provinces all + over the world; but it is without inflexions, deprived of cases and + genders, defective in marking time, whereas the Greek in all these is + most rich and flexible: the one resembles the torso of a Hercules + without its limbs, the other an Apollo as he touches the earth in his + perfect symmetry. Then compare its sound with that of the old + Hellenic tongue, and we seem to hear the poet's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“stridor ferri tractæque catenæ,”</span> beside the voice + of a lute; while as to texture, it is like the train of a railway + matched with the golden network, fine as the spider's web, + indissoluble <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg + 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + adamant, which the poet feigns to have been wrought by Vulcan: the + English imprisons thought in a rude and cumbrous iron, while the + Greek exhibits it in a rich and ductile gold. As was the language, so + was the people. Fond of society and intercourse, skilful, crafty, + commercial, enterprising, with a most human and genial intellect, + with a keen and critical judgment, and a vivid imagination. When such + a race turned itself to a scientific consideration of the world, it + might well produce what we are now to pass in review, the Greek + philosophy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And here it is + well to lay down first the standing-point of the Greek mind. The + Hellenic religion was a natural religion, inasmuch as according to it + man had no need to raise himself above the surrounding world and his + own nature in order to connect himself with the Deity. As he was + originally constituted, he felt himself related to it: no inward + change in his mode of thought, no struggle with his natural impulses + and inclinations, was required of him for this purpose. All that to + him was humanly natural seemed to him to have its justification in + regard to the Deity likewise; and so the most godlike man was he who + worked out most completely his powers as man, and the essence of + religious duty consisted in that man should do for the honour of the + Deity what is in accordance with his own nature.<a id="noteref_324" + name="noteref_324" href="#note_324"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this natural + religion of the Greeks differed from that of others in that neither + outward nature as such, nor the sensuous being of man as such, but + human nature in its beauty, as illumined by mind, is its point of + excellence. The Greek did not, like the Eastern, lose his + independence before the powers of nature, nor revel like the northern + savage in boundless liberty, but in the full consciousness of his + freedom saw its highest fulfilment in obedience to the general order + as the law of his own nature. And as the purely Grecian deities are + the ideals of human activity, he thus stands to them in a calm and + free relation, such as no other nation of antiquity felt, because + they are the mirror of his own being, but his being exalted, so that + he is drawn to them without purchasing this at the cost of the pain + and toil of an inward struggle.<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325" + href="#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How the features + of his own land served to image out to his fancy the Greek's + religious attitude a poet has told us in exquisite verses, worthy of + the beauty which they describe; the apotheosis of nature.</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Where are + the Islands of the Blest?</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 5.40em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">They stud the Ægean sea;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And where the deep Elysian + rest?</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">It haunts the vale where Peneus + strong</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Pours his incessant stream + along,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">While craggy ridge and mountain + bare</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Cut keenly through the liquid + air,</span> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg + 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And in their own pure tints + arrayed,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Scorn earth's green robes which + change and fade,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">And stand in beauty + undecayed,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Guards of the bold and + free.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id= + "noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It seems to me + essential to bear in mind throughout our whole inquiry this + standing-point of the Greek mind, because through all the succession + of schools and the fluctuation of doctrines, it remains, so to say, + the ground-work on which they are embroidered. It is the very texture + of Hellenic thought upon which first Pythagoras, then Plato, + Aristotle, Epicurus, Zeno, Cleanthes, Panætius, and even Plotinus and + Porphyrius spin their web. They vary the decoration, but the + substance remains unaltered. This standing-point rules the conception + of virtue, and therefore of the whole moral world. It reaches also to + the final end of man, and determines it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover as the + intellectual power of man seems to have culminated in the Hellenic + race, so it would seem that a state of things existed among that + people which left the human reason practically more to its own + unaided resources than we find to have been the case elsewhere. No + doubt the Greek mind had lived and brooded for ages upon the remains + of original revelation, nor can any learning now completely unravel + the interwoven threads of tradition and reason so as to distinguish + their separate work. However, it is certain that in the sixth century + before Christ the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg + 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Greeks were without a hierarchy, and without a definite theology: not + indeed without individual priesthoods, traditionary rites, and an + existing worship, as well as certain mysteries which professed to + communicate a higher and more recondite doctrine than that exposed to + the vulgar gaze. But in the absence of any hierarchy holding this + priesthood together, and teaching anything like a specific doctrine + about divine and human things, a very large range indeed was given to + the mind, acting upon this shadowy religious belief, and reacted upon + by it, to form their philosophy. The Greeks did not, any more than + antiquity in general, use the acts of religious service for + instruction by religious discourse.<a id="noteref_327" name= + "noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> In + other words, there was no such thing as preaching among them. A + domain therefore was open to the philosopher on which he might stand + without directly impeaching the ancestral worship, while he examined + its grounds, and perhaps sapped its foundations. He was therein + taking up a position which their priests, the civil functionaries of + religious rites scarcely any longer retaining a spiritual meaning or + a moral cogency, had not occupied.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it was that + in the midst of a people who worshipped traditionally a multitude of + gods and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg + 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + goddesses, such as we have them exhibited in the Homeric and Hesiodic + poems, the chief, perhaps the only, and the yet unwritten literature + of that day, beings with a personal character and will, who were + supposed to divide the government of the world between them, with a + more or less recognised sovereignty of one chief, arose men who set + themselves by the light of reason to think steadily and continuously + how that world in which they were living had become what it was. Such + a movement of mind indicated in itself dissatisfaction with the + existing religion, wherein the gods were considered the causes of + things, and their wills the rulers of them, though in the background + even here loomed the idea of fate, the representative, as it were, of + brute matter, from which the Greek mind could never disengage itself. + Yet we do not find that these philosophers set themselves openly to + attack the existing religion; rather leaving it in possession, and + themselves usually complying with its forms, they pursued their own + train of thought, as it were by its side, not choosing to look + whither it would lead them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such very much + appears the position of inquirers in the first period of Greek + philosophy, which is generally made to extend from its rise under + Thales to the time of the Sophists and Socrates. Their thoughts were + mainly occupied with the appearances of the physical world: they + speculated <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg + 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> how + it could have arisen. Thus Thales, we are told, imagined its first + principle to be water; Anaximander, boundless matter; Anaximenes, + air; the Pythagoreans said, all is number; the Eleatic school, all is + the one unchangeable being.<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" + href="#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> On the + contrary Heracleitus conceived the one Being as ever in motion, + involved in perpetual change: in accordance with which he nowhere + finds true knowledge, and thinks the mass of men have no + understanding for eternal truth.<a id="noteref_329" name= + "noteref_329" href="#note_329"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> + Empedocles of Agrigentum sets forth the four elements, earth, water, + air, and fire, as the material principles or roots of things, + attaching to these two ideal principles as moving forces, Love as the + unitive, and Hatred as the severing.<a id="noteref_330" name= + "noteref_330" href="#note_330"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> + Anaxagoras, over and above mechanical causes, to which he limited + himself in the explanation of everything in particular, recognises a + divine spirit, which as the finest of all things is simple, unmixed, + passionless reason, which came upon chaos, forming and ordering the + world out of it.<a id="noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href= + "#note_331"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> + Democritus of Abdera takes for his principles the Full and the Empty, + identifying these with Being and Non-being, or Something and Nothing. + His Full consists of indivisible atoms.<a id="noteref_332" name= + "noteref_332" href="#note_332"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The remarkable + thing about all these systems, if we may so call them, is, that while + the existing popular religion teemed over, so to say, with the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" + id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> idea of a number of personal + agents directing human things, these philosophers nearly all + concurred in the attempt to find some one agent, and that material, + from which all should spring. As yet even the radical distinction of + matter and spirit was not clear to their minds:<a id="noteref_333" + name="noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a> the + soul of the individual man was to them merely a particle of the vital + power which disclosed itself through the universe, the purest + portion, but a portion still, of primal matter. In their conception + of the constituent cause while they advanced towards unity they + receded from personality. Even the world-forming Intelligence of + Anaxagoras, who first distinctly declares that spirit is not mixed + with matter, works only as a power of nature, and is portrayed to us + in a semi-sensuous form, as a finer matter.<a id="noteref_334" name= + "noteref_334" href="#note_334"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After Greek + philosophy had run out during about a hundred and fifty years in this + sort of vague and imaginative speculation upon the physical world, it + underwent a great change, which marks the transition to its second + period. These successive opinions of philosophers led a class of men + who arose at Athens about the middle age of Socrates to the + conclusion, that it would be more <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> profitable to turn the course of human thought + from such cosmological reveries to the question of the perception + itself of truth by man. He who accomplished this was Socrates, who + turned his reflexion by preference upon man himself as the subject + who thinks and wills.<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href= + "#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> And + herein his character had an influence over Greek philosophy which is + strikingly marked through the whole of its second period. This period + embraces the Sophists, Socrates himself, Plato and Aristotle, and the + Stoics and Epicureans; finally those Sceptic and Eclectic schools + which rose naturally from the criticism detecting what is untenable + in preceding systems. During the six hundred years which elapse from + the teaching career of Socrates to the death of Marcus Antoninus we + may say that one great line of inquiry occupied among philosophers + the human mind; it was man himself, as the subject of logical thought + and moral will.<a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href= + "#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> The + chief endeavour was to form a science of ethics, and a science of + reasoning, to which physical and mathematical studies, though at + times <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name= + "Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> warmly pursued and + never wholly neglected, were yet subordinate.<a id="noteref_337" + name="noteref_337" href="#note_337"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Who is this man of + singular ugliness, with a face like a Silenus, with a body enduring + hunger and impervious to heat and cold, who for thirty years + frequents from morning to night the agora, the streets, the porticoes + of Athens; who can drain the wine-cup through the night, and with + reason unimpaired discuss philosophy through the following day; never + alone, ready to converse with all in whom he discerned the germ of + inquiry; who neither courts the high nor despises the low, but beside + whom may be found the reckless beauty of Alcibiades and the staid + gravity of Nicias, the admiring gaze of Plato even in youth majestic, + and the sober homage of plainer Xenophon? Who is this, the man most + social of men where the whole population is a club, the club of + Athenian citizenship; whose tongue arrests the most volatile and + inconstant of peoples; whose reason attracts and by turns draws out + or silences the most opposite of characters; whose whole life is + publicity; of spirit at once homely and subtle, simple and critical, + parent both of philosophic certitude and philosophic scepticism? This + is Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, to whom Greek philosophy will + look <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name= + "Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> back as on one that + had given its bent and directed its course during a thousand years, + until the last of its defenders<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" + href="#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> will + fight a hopeless battle with triumphant Christianity, as the gods of + Greece vanish, never more to return, and the lurid star of a false + prophet teaching a false monotheism appears above the horizon, and + takes the place, which they have left vacant, to be chief foe of the + Christian name.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The special + principle of Socrates is thus described to us by an historian of + Greek philosophy.<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href= + "#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not merely an already existing mode of + thought which was further developed by Socrates, but an essentially + new principle and proceeding which were introduced into philosophy. + Whilst all preceding philosophy had been directed immediately on the + object, so that the question of the essence and grounds of natural + appearances is in it the radical question, on which all others + depend, Socrates was the first to give utterance to the conviction + that nothing can be known respecting anything which meets our + thought, before its general essence, its conception, be determined: + that accordingly the trial of our own representations by the standard + of the conception is philosophical self-cognition, the beginning and + the condition of all true knowing: whilst those who preceded him had + arrived through the consideration <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of things only to distinguishing between the + representation of things and the knowing of them, he, reversing this, + makes all cognition of things dependent on the right view of the + nature of knowledge.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another<a id= + "noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is stated in Aristotle's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metaphysics</span></span><a id="noteref_341" + name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a> that + Socrates introduced the method of Induction and Definition, which + proceeds from the individual to the determination of the conception. + Aristotle marks<a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href= + "#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> the + domain of ethics as that on which Socrates applied this method. + According to him the fundamental view of Socrates was the indivisible + unity of theoretical prudence and practical ability on ethical + ground. Socrates conceived all the virtues to be prudences, inasmuch + as they are sciences.<a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" href= + "#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a> These + statements are fully borne out by the portraits of Xenophon and + Plato: Aristotle has only given point to their expression. Thus + Xenophon says,<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href= + "#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘he was ever conversing about human things, + inquiring what was piety and what impiety; what honour and what + turpitude; what just and what unjust; what sobermindedness and what + madness; what courage and what cowardice; what policy and what + politician; what the government of men and who capable of it; and + suchlike things; and those who knew these he esteemed men of honour + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" + id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and goodness, those who knew + them not to be justly called of servile mind.’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Never did he cease inquiring with those who frequented + him about what everything was.’</span><a id="noteref_345" name= + "noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘And he did not distinguish between wisdom + and temperance, but he asserted that justice and every other virtue + was wisdom.’</span><a id="noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href= + "#note_346"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> With + this view hang together the convictions that virtue can be taught, + that all virtue in truth is only one, and that no one is willingly + wicked, but only through ignorance.<a id="noteref_347" name= + "noteref_347" href="#note_347"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a> The + good is identical with the beautiful and the expedient. Right + dealing, grounded upon prudence and practice, is better than good + fortune. Self-knowledge, the fulfilment of the Delphic Apollo's + injunction, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Know thyself,’</span> is the + condition of practical ability. External goods do not advance. To + need nothing is godlike; to need the least possible comes nearest to + the divine perfection.<a id="noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href= + "#note_348"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> + Cicero's well-known expression is substantially correct,<a id= + "noteref_349" name="noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a> that + Socrates called down philosophy from heaven to earth, introduced it + into cities and houses, and required it to study life, morals, goods + and evils, which constituted a progress from the natural philosophy + pursued by his predecessors to ethics whose province is man. But + Socrates possessed no complete system of ethical doctrines, but only + the mainspring of inquiry; and so it was natural that he <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> could only reach definite ethical + statements in conversation with others. Thus his art was Mental + Midwifery,<a id="noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href= + "#note_350"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a> as + Plato designates it. His confessed non-knowledge, resting on the firm + consciousness of the essence of true knowledge, stood higher than the + imagined knowledge of those who conversed with him; and to it was + attached the Socratic Irony; that apparent recognition which is paid + to the superior wisdom and prudence of another until this is + dissolved into its nothingness by the dialectic examination which + measures what is maintained as a generalisation by the fixed point of + the particular case. Thus it was that Socrates exercised the charge + of examining men,<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" href= + "#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> which + he was convinced had been imposed upon him by the Delphic god in the + oracle elicited by Chærepho, that he was the wisest of + men.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The opinion, + practice, and teaching of Socrates concerning the gods and the + godhead are set forth most graphically by his disciple Xenophon in + two chapters of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memorabilia</span></span>. Scarcely could a + Christian moralist exhibit more lucidly the argument from design in + proof of a divine Providence which has formed and which rules the + world; more than this, which has produced the seasons of the year, + the plants, the animals, for the good of man. In the eyes of Socrates + the human body itself is a never-failing proof of the divine love of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" + id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> man. He details the wisdom + with which it is put together, and forces the opponent, who is + introduced as not sacrificing, nor praying to the gods, nor believing + in divination, to confess: <span class="tei tei-q">“When I consider + this, assuredly these things seem the device of some wise + world-maker, the lover of living things.”</span><a id="noteref_352" + name="noteref_352" href="#note_352"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a> Another + he compels by a long enumeration of divine benefits to man to come to + a similar conclusion.<a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href= + "#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Certainly, Socrates, the gods seem to have a + great care for men. Besides, he replies, when we cannot foresee in + the future what is good for us, they help us by revealing through + divination what is to come, and instructing us as to the best course. + Nay, Socrates, rejoins the other, they seem to treat you even more + kindly than other men; for without being asked by you they signify + before to you what you should do and what leave undone. That I say + true, answers Socrates, even you, O Euthydemus, will acknowledge, if + you do not wait until you see the forms of the gods, but are + contented, when you behold their works, to worship and honour them. + And consider that the gods themselves point this out to you: for not + only do the rest of them, when they give us good things, not exhibit + themselves to our senses in so doing, but he<a id="noteref_354" name= + "noteref_354" href="#note_354"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> who + coördinates <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg + 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + holds together the whole universe, in whom are all beautiful and good + things, and who provides them for the perpetual use of men free from + waste, disease, and old age, so that they help us unfailingly, + quicker than thought, is discerned in the greatness of his + operations, but while he administers these to us, is himself + invisible. And take thought that the sun, who seems to be manifest to + all, allows not men to examine him closely, but should anyone attempt + to look at him shamelessly, takes away his sight. And the ministers + of the gods too you will find evading our senses; the lightning + shoots from on high, and is master wherever it alights, but is seen + neither in its approach, nor in its stroke, nor in its departure. The + winds themselves are invisible, but their works are manifest, and we + feel them as they come. Nay and man's soul too, or if there be + anything else in man participating the divine, manifestly rules in us + as a king, but is not seen. Bearing in thought these things we must + not despise the invisible, but learning their power by their results, + honour that which is divine.<a id="noteref_355" name="noteref_355" + href="#note_355"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> Indeed, + Socrates, says Euthydemus, for my part I am quite resolved not the + least to neglect what is divine; but my trouble is, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that it seems to me that no single man + can ever be duly thankful for the kindnesses of the gods. Do not let + this trouble you, Euthydemus, for you see the god at Delphi, when + anyone asks him how to be grateful to the gods, answers, By your + country's law. Now it is surely law everywhere to please the gods by + sacrifices, as best you can. How then can anyone honour the gods + better or more piously than by doing what themselves bid? Only we + must not be behind our power: for anyone who is so behind surely is + manifest therein as not honouring the gods. Our duty is to honour + them to the utmost of our power, and then to take heart and hope from + them, the greatest goods: for a man cannot show a sound mind in + hoping from others greater goods than from those who have the power + to give the greatest aid; nor from those in any other way than by + pleasing them. And how can one better please them than by the most + unfailing obedience to them? Now by saying such things, and himself + doing them, he was ever bringing those who were in intercourse with + him to piety and a sound mind.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last words of + this man to his judges were: <span class="tei tei-q">“And now it is + time that we depart, I to death, and you to life; but which of us are + going unto the better thing is not clear to anyone save to + God.”</span><a id="noteref_356" name="noteref_356" href= + "#note_356"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> And + when the hemlock was reaching his heart,<a id="noteref_357" name= + "noteref_357" href="#note_357"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a> he + uncovered his head, and said with his <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> last utterance, <span class="tei tei-q">“O + Crito, we owe a cock to Æsculapius: pay it, and do not neglect + it.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have cited at + length these passages because I think that they exhibit clearly the + opinions and convictions of Socrates on the most important of all + subjects. We behold here a man of a very religious mind, holding with + the utmost tenacity the idea of a Providence, the Benefactor of men + and their Judge, since it discriminates between them by reward and + punishment: nor is it an impersonal Providence, an abstract Reason, + but <span class="tei tei-q">“a wise world-maker,”</span> who loves + man and does him good, and whose operations in this very purpose of + doing him good indicate unity of design and perfection of execution: + and yet in his conception of the godhead itself he halts between + unity and plurality, and beside a statement such as we might read in + a Pauline epistle of the one God who orders in harmony the universe + and holds it together, we find him passing to the recognition and + worship of many gods: beside words to his judges most sublime and + most pathetic, concerning the issue of life and of death, we find him + with his last breath directing his friend to discharge the sacrifice + of a cock which he had promised to Æsculapius. He does not attempt to + solve either the rational or the moral antagonism between many gods + and one; but practically he throws himself into the worship of his + country, referring to the law of each place as that which should + determine <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg + 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for + ever man the question how the gods are to be honoured. And in this I + believe that he is typical of the whole race of philosophers at whose + head he stands. Like him they spoke of one God, and they offered the + cock to Æsculapius. If we seek the highest expressions concerning the + divine unity, wisdom, and power which are to be found in their + writings, they approach S. Paul: if we consider other expressions, + and above all, their practice, it is in the main that other word of + Socrates, Worship according to the law of your country. In the + doctrine attributed to him both by Xenophon and Aristotle, that he + identified virtue and prudence, and believed that no man is willingly + wicked, but only out of ignorance, we have a proof which can scarcely + be exceeded in force how entirely the standing-point of Socrates was + that above attributed to the Greek mind in general, that of a + religion according to nature. It ignores in the most emphatic because + in the most unconscious way the inclination to evil in man. The + relation between God and man is simply that of greater and less. + There is a physical affinity and a numerical proportion between that + mighty nature which is ruled through all its length and breadth by a + pervading reason, and the portion of it contained in man's body and + soul.<a id="noteref_358" name="noteref_358" href= + "#note_358"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is curious to + imagine what would have been the effect of the life and the death of + Socrates had he lived and died just as he did with one sole + exception, that Plato and Xenophon had not been his disciples. + Socrates wrote nothing: oral discourse was his sole instrument of + teaching. When its last memories had faded away, we might have known + as little of him as we really know of Pythagoras. He would still + indeed have been the greatest of heathen names because he died for + his moral convictions. This might have been all, and it would have + been very much. This, however, was not to be. In Xenophon's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memorabilia</span></span> we have an accurate + life-portrait of the man, while in the great genius of Plato we have + the application of what may be termed Socratic principles to the + formation of an ethical, logical, and physical system. The + Megaric<a id="noteref_359" name="noteref_359" href= + "#note_359"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a> school + of Euclides, and Phædo's school of Elis, took indeed one side of his + doctrine, the dialectic, for their special subject of inquiry; the + Cynic school of Antisthenes and the Cyrenian school of Aristippus + another side, the ethical: but it was Plato who embraced in one + comprehensive scheme the whole grasp of his master's thought, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" + id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as well as the collective + approved elements of former systems.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principle of + Socrates concerning the union of knowledge and virtue invited his + followers to work out a system of dialectics and ethics.<a id= + "noteref_360" name="noteref_360" href="#note_360"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a> And + further the dialectic process of induction and definition, which + Aristotle tells us that Socrates introduced, was made by Plato the + foundation of his philosophy.<a id="noteref_361" name="noteref_361" + href="#note_361"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a> Its + central point is the doctrine of Ideas. Now the Platonic Idea is the + object of the conception. As a single object becomes known by its + representation, so the Idea becomes known by its conception. It is + not the essence as such which dwells in many similar individual + objects, but that essence as represented perfectly in its kind, + unalterably, in unity, independence, and self-existence. The Idea + points to the general, but is represented by Plato as an original + image of the individual projected as it were outside of time and + space. Conceive individuals which have a similar being, or belong to + the same class, delivered from the limits of time and space, of + materiality and individual imperfections, and so reduced to that + unity which is the groundwork of their existence, and such unity is + the Platonic Idea. The highest Idea is the Idea of the good,<a id= + "noteref_362" name="noteref_362" href="#note_362"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a> which + is as it were the sun in the realm of Ideas, viewed as the first + cause of being and of knowledge. Plato seems to identify <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it with the highest godhead. Thus the + method to attain the knowledge of Ideas is dialectics, which + comprehend the double path of rising to the general and returning + from the general to the particular.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the + generation<a id="noteref_363" name="noteref_363" href= + "#note_363"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a> of the + doctrine of Ideas, Aristotle states it as the common product of the + doctrine of Heracleitus that everything which meets the senses is + subject to change and flux, and of the Socratic view of the + conception. From Socrates Plato learnt that when once this is rightly + formed, it can be held fast unchangeably: he would not then apply it + to anything which meets the senses, but inferred that there must be + other beings which are the objects of the knowledge acquired by the + conception, and these objects he named Ideas. The filiation,<a id= + "noteref_364" name="noteref_364" href="#note_364"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a> then, + between Socrates and Plato is this: Socrates was the first to require + that all knowledge and all moral dealing should proceed from the + knowing of the conception, and endeavoured to execute this by his + inductive process, while with Plato the same conviction formed the + starting-point of a philosophical system: so that what with Socrates + was simply a rule of scientific procedure was carried out by Plato to + an objective intuition, and when Socrates said, Only the knowing of + the conception is true knowledge, Plato added, Only the being of the + conception is true being.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in Plato we + have a man of great original mind attempting with this instrument of + induction and definition to form a scheme of the universe, which + divides under his hand into a triple aspect of ethics, physics, and + dialectics.<a id="noteref_365" name="noteref_365" href= + "#note_365"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a> No + doubt his main intention was to offer to the cultured and reflective + few,—that inner circle to which his teaching and his writings were + directed,—a philosophy which should serve them as a religion,<a id= + "noteref_366" name="noteref_366" href="#note_366"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a> which + should fill up the gaps and remove the anomalies of the existing + worship, purifying and restoring it, while it preserved amity with it + notwithstanding. Such being his intention, the manner in which he + treats the doctrine of the Divine Being is the more remarkable. + Instead of basing his philosophy upon it, and showing its relation as + a part of his system of physics, ethics, and dialectics, he speaks of + it frequently indeed, but always incidentally.<a id="noteref_367" + name="noteref_367" href="#note_367"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a> It is + not so with other doctrines which he has at heart. Three of his + finest dialogues are dedicated to setting forth as many aspects of + his doctrine as to the soul's immortality; the Phædrus treats of its + preëxistence; the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg + 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Banquet of the influence of immortality on the relations of the + present life; the Phædo of death as the means of a happy + futurity.<a id="noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href= + "#note_368"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a> But no + one collects together and lucidly exhibits his view of the divine + nature. This has to be picked out of his writings, a bit here, and + another there, and put together by the student. No doubt he felt, as + he has said,<a id="noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href= + "#note_369"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“with regard to the Maker and the Father of + this universe it is hard to find him out, and when you have found him + impossible to describe him to all men.”</span> He was intimately + convinced that the great mass of mankind was quite unsuited to + receive the conception of the Divine Being which he had formed. But I + believe there to have been another reason of greater force with him + for his not having presented as a whole his conclusions on this + central doctrine of all. It was not merely that the fate of his + master Socrates was ever before him,<a id="noteref_370" name= + "noteref_370" href="#note_370"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a> but the + singular position which he held with regard to the established + worship. He wished to correct, not to destroy it; he wished to reduce + it to monotheism, and yet to preserve polytheism. The two are bound + together in his mind. If then his writings be carefully analysed, and + every reference to the Supreme Being put together <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> into a sort of mosaic,<a id="noteref_371" + name="noteref_371" href="#note_371"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a> we + should find the following picture. The everlasting essence of things, + with which Philosophy deals, is the highest object. Ideas are those + everlasting gods after the pattern of which the world and all things + which are in it are formed, and the Godhead, taken absolutely, is not + distinct from the highest Idea. Plato sets forth the causality of + Ideas and the sway of reason in the world together with the + impossibility to explain what is generated save by an Ingenerate, + motion save by a soul, and the ordered disposition of the world, + working out a purpose, save by reason; and in all which he declares + respecting the Godhead, the Idea of Good, of the highest metaphysical + and ethical perfection, is his guiding-point. As this highest Idea + stands at the head of all Ideas as the cause of all being and + knowledge, so the one everlasting invisible God, the Former and + Father of all things, stands at the head of all the gods, alike + difficult to find and to describe. Just as the above Idea is + distinguished by the conception of the Good, so Plato selects + goodness as God's most essential attribute. It is on this ground that + he maintains the Godhead to be absolutely good and upright, and its + operation to be merely good and upright; against the old notion which + imputed envy to it, and derived evil from it. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Again, in opposition to the fabulous + appearances of the gods, it is from the goodness of the Godhead that + he deduces its unchangeableness, inasmuch as what is perfect can + neither be changed by anything else, nor change itself, and so become + worse. He adds, the Godhead will never show itself to men other than + it is, since all falsehood is foreign to it; inasmuch as to falsehood + in the properest sense, that is, ignorance and self-deception, it is + not exposed, and has no need to deceive others. He extols the divine + perfection, to which no beauty and no excellence is wanting; the + divine power, which embraces everything and can do everything which + is possible, that is, which does not involve a moral or a + metaphysical contradiction: for instance, it is impossible for God to + wish to change Himself, for evil to cease, and from the doctrine + respecting the forming of the world and matter it is clear that the + divine activity in producing is limited by the nature of the + finite.<a id="noteref_372" name="noteref_372" href= + "#note_372"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a> He + extols the divine wisdom which disposes <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> all things to its purpose; its omniscience, + which nothing escapes; its justice, which leaves no transgression + unpunished and no virtue unrewarded; its goodness, which makes the + best provision for all. He rejects, as notions taken from man, not + merely the Godhead's having a body, but likewise all those tales + which impute passions, quarrels, crimes of every kind to the gods. He + declares them to be exalted above pleasure and displeasure, to be + untouched by any evil; and is full of moral indignation at the + thought that they allow themselves to be won over, or rather + corrupted, by prayers and offerings. Moreover he shows that + everything is ordered and ruled by Divine Providence, which extends + over the least as well as the greatest, and as regards men is + especially convinced that they are a carefully-tended possession of + the Godhead, and that all things must issue in good to those who + through virtue gain its goodwill. If the unequal and unjust + distribution of men's lot is objected, his reply is, that virtue + carries its reward and wickedness its punishment immediately in + itself; further, that both are sure of a complete retribution in the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" + id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> after-world, while already in + this life as a rule in the end the upright goes not without + recognition and thanks, nor the transgressor without universal hate + and detestation. As to the general fact that there is evil in the + world, it seemed to him so inevitable that it was not requisite + expressly to defend the Godhead on that score. All these statements + carry us back at last to one and the same point. It is the Idea of + the Good by applying which Plato produces so exalted a doctrine of + God. In the like spirit he will consider only the moral intention in + acts of worship. He alone can please the Godhead who is like it, and + he alone is like it who is pious, wise, and just. The gods cannot + receive the gifts of the wicked; the virtuous alone have a right to + invoke them. God is goodness; and he who bears not the image of that + goodness in himself stands in no communion with him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The doctrine here + set forth is the highest ever reached by purely heathen Greek + speculation; but we must remember that it is not thus collected into + a head by Plato himself, still less is it put into such a relation to + his physical, his logical, and his moral system as such a doctrine + ought to bear. A man who had reached so lofty a conviction of the + divine unity and moral perfection as this must, if he would make it + effectual, give to it in his system the place which it really holds + in the world. If there be indeed a Maker and Father of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg 407]</span><a name="Pg407" + id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> universe by whom all things + consist, all that Plato taught should have been subordinated to this + its first principle, and the sum of his teaching to men should have + been to set him forth. So far is this from the position which Plato + really took, that in his ideal Republic no other religion but the + traditional Greek religion was to subsist; he changes nothing in the + very forms of the polytheistic worship; he refers the decision on + many points to the Delphic Apollo.<a id="noteref_373" name= + "noteref_373" href="#note_373"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a> And + when in his last book on the Laws<a id="noteref_374" name= + "noteref_374" href="#note_374"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a> he sets + forth the notion of a second best state, one which can be realised + under actual circumstances, wherein he gives a mass of practical + directions for the needs of the lower classes, religion in its purely + polytheistic dress is the soul of his teaching, the groundwork of his + structure. Men are to worship first of all the Olympian gods, and the + gods who are the patrons of the city; then the gods of the earth; + then demons and heroes; and all these in the traditional way by + offerings, prayers, and vows. All good in public life is their gift; + everything is to be consecrated to them; to violate their shrines is + the greatest of crimes. In fact, after all, but few of mankind are + capable of understanding or receiving the philosophic God. However + imperfect<a id="noteref_375" name="noteref_375" href= + "#note_375"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a> the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name="Pg408" + id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> popular belief in the gods may + be, and however unsatisfactory to him the allegorical interpretations + of it then so much in vogue, yet is it in Plato's conviction + indispensable to all those who have not had a scientific education. + Men must first be taught with lies, and then with the truth: the + popular fables and the worship grounded on them is therefore for all + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">first</span></em>, and for most the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only</span></em> form + of religion.<a id="noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href= + "#note_376"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a> The + philosopher, it is true, sees deeper and despises them in his heart. + Thus the monotheist in speculation is a polytheist in practice: as + Socrates, the model and exemplar of Greek philosophy, with his dying + breath, so Plato, its most inspired teacher with all the voice of his + authority, sacrificed the cock to Æsculapius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But moreover, this + supreme God, who has to be disinterred from the recesses of the + Platonic teaching, and conciliated with the worship practically paid + to a host of subordinate gods, is in Plato's conception neither + absolutely personal nor free, and he is not the Creator but only the + Former of the world. In Plato's theory there is coeternal with him a + first matter, without form or quality, which exists independently of + him; which moreover is inhabited and swayed to and fro in disorderly + heavings by a sort of soul, the token of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that dark Necessity<a id="noteref_377" name= + "noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a> which + rises behind the figures of gods and men in Greek poetry. It is + indeed the work of the divine reason to come down upon this shapeless + mass and its inborn mover, and out of them to construct the + world-soul, with which and with his own reason he forms and maintains + and vivifies the ordered universe. As he is by this operation the + Father of the universe, so this First Matter is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Mother of all generation,”</span> the condition of + the existence of corporeal things. But in this original matter lies + the origin of evil, which, perpetuated in the corporeal structure of + man, can indeed be tamed and schooled, and in a certain degree + subdued, but never can be exterminated by the divine reason. The + power, the wisdom, and the providence of Plato's God are encountered + by this check, which stands eternally over against the Demiurgos in + his world-forming activity, which limits his freedom, and impairs his + personality, while it excludes the whole idea of creation. Students + of this philosophy<a id="noteref_378" name="noteref_378" href= + "#note_378"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a> attempt + to associate together his highest Idea, that of the Good, with the + supreme God, of whom he speaks with personal attributes, as the just, + the wise, the true, the good, but admit that Plato has not attempted + to solve the problem how the Idea, which by his hypothesis as it is + the highest is also the most general, is at the same time the most + individual, the one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg + 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + personal God. In fact, it is admitted that he fails—together with all + the ancient Greek writers—in the strict conception of + personality.<a id="noteref_379" name="noteref_379" href= + "#note_379"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a> As + according to him individual beings are what they are only by + participation of something higher, it is no wonder that in describing + that one Reason, the Idea of the Good, the highest and most general + of all, which forms and governs the world, his language oscillates + between the personal and the impersonal. But if his philosophical + reasons tend one way, it must be allowed that the heart and + affections of the man, and the whole moral sense of the teacher, + decide another.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ethical system + of Plato appears to be a strict deduction from his physical. As man + in his view is a compound of matter, vivified by a portion of the + world-soul, which the divine reason takes and unites with a portion + of itself, so his virtues correspond to this threefold + composition.<a id="noteref_380" name="noteref_380" href= + "#note_380"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a> For man + has an immortal portion in his soul, the reason, the godlike, in him, + but the divine reason, in joining a portion of the world-soul with + matter, invests it with two mortal parts, one the courageous, or + manly, the other, sensuous desire, or the female element, having + their seat in the body's <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg + 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + activity. To these answer respectively the virtues of prudence, of + courage, and of temperance, while justice comes in afterwards as a + right ordering of the three, or as prudence applied to practice. The + seat of all irregular desires, of all evil, in fact, is to Plato in + this union of the soul with matter. As this matter is primordial, + evil in its origin does not indeed spring from God, but it is beyond + his power: it springs from that state of things which existed before + the action of God on chaos:<a id="noteref_381" name="noteref_381" + href="#note_381"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a> it must + stand over against the good: and of necessity encompasses this mortal + nature and the place of its habitation: and to man it lies not in the + perverted use of free-will, but in his original composition, wherein + his body is its seat. But in this triple composition of man Plato + does not seem to have clearly apprehended a human personality at all: + he has not even attempted to explain<a id="noteref_382" name= + "noteref_382" href="#note_382"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a> in what + the unity of the soul consists besides these its three portions, two + of which, being tied to the body, drop off at death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in the + practice of Plato as a teacher that we can most fitly consider the + conception which the Greek philosophers in general had concerning the + method of studying and imparting philosophy <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> altogether. It was about the fortieth year of + his life, and twelve years after the death of his master Socrates, + that Plato, having already travelled widely, settled at Athens.<a id= + "noteref_383" name="noteref_383" href="#note_383"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a> Here he + purchased a fixed residence at the Academia, which became from that + time a philosophical school for study, conversation, oral lectures, + and friendly meetings. Here he drew around him an inner circle of + scholars to whom he addressed his unwritten doctrines,<a id= + "noteref_384" name="noteref_384" href="#note_384"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a> + especially his doctrine of Ideas, the key to his whole system, + according as they were able, after preparation, to receive them: and + here besides he gave lectures which might be attended not only by + that inner circle of choice disciples but by studious persons in + general. This residence of Plato served for three hundred years, from + 387 before Christ until the siege of Athens by Sylla in 87, as the + centre of Plato's philosophy viewed as a teaching power. Now in this + Plato had before him the great example of Pythagoras, in the first + age of Greek philosophy. Concerning the doctrines of that philosopher + we know little with certainty,<a id="noteref_385" name="noteref_385" + href="#note_385"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a> but all + are agreed as to his manner of teaching them. His attempt was to + establish a community which should carry in its bosom, propagate, and + perpetuate a doctrine in morals, politics, religion, and philosophy. + His whole procedure was by oral <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> teaching, for he left not a word written. It + was in fact a religious order of life which he first practised in his + own person, and then endeavoured to communicate to others. Into this + order trial for everyone preceded reception.<a id="noteref_386" name= + "noteref_386" href="#note_386"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a> His + scholars were for a long period required to practise silent obedience + and unconditional submission to the authority of the doctrine + delivered to them. Severe daily examination was imposed upon all. The + publishing of his doctrine, especially his speculation as to the + nature of God, was strictly forbidden. The upright life, the learning + which then could only be attained by personal inquiry, the + persuasiveness of Pythagoras, were together so effective that he + succeeded in establishing such a community both in Crotona and in + other cities of Southern Italy. It was persecuted and suffered + continual disasters, but still this Pythagorean community, bearing on + its founder's doctrines and manner of life, existed for several + generations after his death, during which many of the most + distinguished Greeks belonged to it. Such was the poet Æschylus, + whose mind was formed on Pythagorean principles. In Plato's time the + Pythagorean Archytas was at the head of the state of Tarentum: and + Plato himself was largely imbued with Pythagorean tenets.<a id= + "noteref_387" name="noteref_387" href="#note_387"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now Plato, it is + true, did not imitate the political part of the Pythagorean scheme. + It was only upon paper that he set forth his ideal republic. But the + same conception as to the manner of communicating a doctrine lay in + his mind as in that of Pythagoras. He did not look to writing as a + primary instrument of communicating thought. He places it himself in + a relation of dependence upon oral dialectic instruction. It is only + to serve as a reminder of what had been otherwise taught: and, + moreover, it is quite subordinate to his first postulate, the + earnestness of a life devoted to inquiry and education.<a id= + "noteref_388" name="noteref_388" href="#note_388"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a> These + principles are set forth with great lucidity in his dialogue Phædrus, + where he introduces by the mouth of Socrates the Egyptian god Thoth, + the inventor of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, drafts and dice, and + also of letters. With these inventions in his hand the god approached + the then king of Egypt Thamous, recommending him to make them known + to his subjects. But Thamous was by no means inclined to receive + these inventions unconditionally: he praises or blames them, as he + judges of them, and at last he comes to the letters.<a id= + "noteref_389" name="noteref_389" href="#note_389"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“This discovery,”</span> says Thoth, + <span class="tei tei-q">“O king, will make the Egyptians wiser, and + improve their memory. It is of sovereign effect in both + things.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Most ingenious + Thoth,”</span> replies the king, <span class="tei tei-q">“one man is + made to give birth to art, and another to <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> judge what good or what harm it will do to + those who use it. And now you, being the father of letters, out of + natural affection assert of them that which is just the contrary to + their real office. For they will breed forgetfulness in the minds of + those who learn them, who will slight the faculty of memory, inasmuch + as relying on what is written externally in the types of others they + do not exercise remembrance by an inward act of their own. The spell + you have found is good not for fixing in the mind, but for reminding. + And as to wisdom, you offer to those who learn them not its reality + but its appearance. For they will indeed hear much, but as this will + be without teaching, they will seem to have many minds but generally + no judgment, and be hard to comprehend, having become wiseacres + instead of wise men. O Socrates, says Phædrus, you are one who can + easily tell stories from Egypt or any other country. My dear Phædrus, + it was in the temple of Dodonean Jupiter that they made the first + oracular words to proceed from an oak. The men of that day, not being + wise as you young men, were satisfied in their simplicity to listen + to an oak or a rock, if they only spoke the truth. Perhaps it makes a + difference to you who the speaker is, and from what country; for you + do not look merely whether it is true or not. Your rebuke, says + Phædrus, is just, and what the Theban says about letters seems to me + to be right. Well then, says <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416" id="Pg416" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Socrates, the man who thinks to leave an art in + writing, and he also who receives it as being, when written, + something clear and certain, must be very simple, and be really + ignorant of Ammon's oracle, when he thinks that written words are + something more than a reminder to one who knows the subject of the + matters about which they are written. Exactly so, Socrates. For + surely, Phædrus, writing shares this troublesome characteristic with + painting. The productions of painting stand there as if they were + alive, but if you ask them a question, preserve a solemn silence. + Just so it is with writing. You may think that they speak with some + meaning, but if you ask what that meaning is, there they stand with + just the same word in their mouth. When once a thing is written, it + is tossed over and over by all who take it in, whether it concerns + them or not, and is unable to speak, or to be silent with the proper + persons. And if it is maltreated or slandered, it wants its father + always to help it, for it can neither defend nor help itself. What + you say now is also very true indeed. But, says Socrates, can we not + find another word, this one's lawful brother, and see the process by + which it arises, and how much better and abler than the former it is? + What word is this, and how does it arise? The word which is written + on the disciple's soul together with true knowledge, which is able to + defend itself, and knows how to speak and to be silent with the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name="Pg417" + id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> proper persons. You mean the + living and animated word of one who has knowledge, whereof the + written word may justly be called the shadow.<a id="noteref_390" + name="noteref_390" href="#note_390"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a> I mean + that indeed. Tell me now; an intelligent gardener, who had seeds that + he cared for, and wished to bear fruit, would he hurry with them in + summer to the gardens of Adonis, plant them, and rejoice to see them + springing up with a fair show in a week? or would he do this for + amusement, and in festival-time, if he did it at all, but when he + took pains would use his gardener's art, sow them at the fitting + time, and be too glad if, seven months afterwards, he saw them coming + to perfection? Certainly, Socrates, that would be the difference + between his sport and his earnest. Shall we, then, say that he who + possesses the science of justice, honour, and goodness, has less + intelligence than the gardener for his own seeds? Surely not. He will + not, then, hurry to write them with a pen in ink with words, which + cannot on the one hand help themselves with speech, and on the other + hand are incapable to teach the truth sufficiently. I should think he + would not. He will not; but as for these written flower-borders, he + will sow and write them, when he does write them, for amusement, + storing up reminders for himself, should he come to a forgetful old + age, and for every one who pursues the same footsteps, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418" + id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he will take pleasure in + seeing them springing up tenderly: so when other men fall to other + amusements, lubricating themselves at the banquet, or other such + things, he will take his amusement here. In this, Socrates, you would + substitute a very seemly amusement for a bad one, when the man who + can play with words sports upon the subject of justice and suchlike. + So it is, my dear Phædrus, but it is, I take it, earnest in a far + higher sense, when one, using the art of dialectics, takes hold of a + fitting soul, and plants and sows with true knowledge words able to + help both themselves and their planter, not fruitless, but having + seed, whence growing up in a succession of minds they will from age + to age produce an immortal line,<a id="noteref_391" name= + "noteref_391" href="#note_391"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a> and + will make their possessor happy as far as man can be.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these words, + put in his master's mouth, Plato, if I mistake not, has given us the + whole purpose of his life, and the manner in which he hoped to + accomplish it. It was in the Academia that he sought to establish + that immortal line of living words, who should speak as the + possessors of real knowledge upon justice, truth, and goodness. He is + describing a living culture by living teachers, of whom he aspired to + be himself the first; and the written dialogues which he has left are + in his intention, and so far as they enter at all <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419" id="Pg419" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon the higher points of his + doctrine,<a id="noteref_392" name="noteref_392" href= + "#note_392"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a> + reminders of that which he had set forth to chosen auditors by word + of mouth, the word which was able, as he says, to explain and defend + itself, and to answer a question put to it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This, then, was + the relation existing in the mind of the prince of Greek philosophers + between the written and the spoken word as instruments in imparting + true knowledge, or science. The written word he regarded as + subsidiary, as presupposing instruction by question and answer, and + still more the moral discipline of a life earnestly given up to the + study of the subjects in question. Without this a writing by itself + was like a figure in a picture, which makes an impression on the + beholder, but when asked if it is the true impression keeps, as he + says, a solemn face, and makes no reply; which is the same to all, + the earnest and the indifferent, and cannot treat them according to + their merits. He laughs at the notion of such a writing being by + itself any more than sport. And let us remember that he who said this + has enshrined his own philosophy in the most finished specimens of + dramatic dialogues which the Greek mind produced. These are the + statements of the man who wrote Greek in his countrymen's opinion as + Jupiter would have spoken it. There are, then, in Plato's mind three + constituents of teaching: <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg + 420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + first, the choice of fitting subjects for it, and what is therein + implied, the imposition of a moral discipline upon them regulating + their life to the end in view; secondly, the master's oral + instruction conveying gradually and with authority to minds so + prepared the doctrine to be received; and thirdly, the committing + such doctrine to writing, which shall serve to <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">remind</span></em> + the disciple of what he has been taught. And this was what he carried + into effect.<a id="noteref_393" name="noteref_393" href= + "#note_393"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a> He + fixed himself at the Academia, over which he presided for forty + years: he was succeeded therein by his nephew Speusippus, who held + his chair for eight years; Xenocrates followed in the same post + during twenty-five years; and the line was continued afterwards by + Polemon, Crantor, Crates, Arcesilaus, and others in uninterrupted + series. Plato thus established the method of Greek philosophy, and + his example herein was followed by Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His great disciple + Aristotle came to him at the age of seventeen, and studied under him + during twenty years. At a later age, when, after completing the + education of Alexander, he fixed himself in middle life at Athens, he + set up there a second philosophical school at the Lyceum on its + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page421">[pg 421]</span><a name="Pg421" + id="Pg421" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> eastern side, and on the model + of that of Plato. Attached to this museum were a portico, a hall with + seats, one seat especially for the lecturing professor, a garden, and + a walk, together with a residence, all permanently appropriated to + the teacher and the process of instruction.<a id="noteref_394" name= + "noteref_394" href="#note_394"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a> When + Aristotle died in the year 322 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, his friend + Theophrastus presided over his school during five and thirty years, + and the line continued on. We learn that there were periodical + meetings, convivial and conversational, among the members both of the + Academic and Peripatetic schools, and laws for their regulation + established by Xenocrates and Aristotle. It was in the shady walks of + his garden that this great philosopher taught by word of mouth the + choicer circle of his disciples: for the more general hearers he gave + lectures sitting.<a id="noteref_395" name="noteref_395" href= + "#note_395"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a> His + instructions were divided into two classes, those which he gave on + rhetoric, the art of discussion, knowledge of civil matters, and + suchlike, which were exoteric, and those which touched the finer and + more subtle points of philosophy, which were termed acroatic, as + addressed to the ears.<a id="noteref_396" name="noteref_396" href= + "#note_396"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a> Again, + his dialogues he called <span class="tei tei-q">“public”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“issued”</span> discourses, things made over + to the general public, in distinction from what was not so disclosed, + but reserved for the philosopher's own meditation, to be subsequently + communicated either by oral lecture <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page422">[pg 422]</span><a name="Pg422" id="Pg422" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> or by writing to the private circle of scholars + who gave themselves up entirely to his philosophy. These Aristotle + called <span class="tei tei-q">“philosophical”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“teaching”</span> discourses, proceeding, that is, from + the principles proper to each branch of learning, and not from the + opinions of the lecturer. These latter were termed <span class= + "tei tei-q">“tentative,”</span> as belonging to the exoteric. + Simplicius, one of the latest writers on Greek philosophy, defines + exoteric as <span class="tei tei-q">“the common, and what concludes + by arguments which are matter of opinion;”</span> and Philoponus, as + discourses <span class="tei tei-q">“not of strict proof, and not + directed to lawfully-begotten hearers,”</span> that is, trained and + prepared, <span class="tei tei-q">“but to the public, and springing + from probabilities.”</span><a id="noteref_397" name="noteref_397" + href="#note_397"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a> Thus in + Aristotle, the largest in grasp of mind, the most observant of facts, + the most accurate in definition among Greek writers, the philosopher + in fact and <span class="tei tei-q">“master of those who + know,”</span><a id="noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href= + "#note_398"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a> for all + future ages, we find the same three constituents of teaching as in + Plato, and in the same order of importance: first, hearers selected + for their natural aptitude, and then submitted to a moral discipline + and a common life; secondly, the instruction of such hearers by word + of mouth, question and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page423">[pg + 423]</span><a name="Pg423" id="Pg423" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + answer, discussion and cross-examination; and lastly, the committing + of doctrines to writing. With him too his written philosophical + discourses were <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">reminders</span></em> of his oral teaching, + which they presupposed and required as a key to their full meaning, + and especially for the comprehension of their harmony as a + system.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The order of + teaching which I have thus sketched as being followed in practice by + the two most eminent Greek philosophers belonged to them all. They + had no other conception respecting the method of communicating a + doctrine efficiently to men. None of them considered philosophy + merely or chiefly as a literature: none of them attributed to a book + the power of teaching it. Their conception was, a master and his + scholars, and the living together, the moral subordination and + discipline which this involved. This school of education or training + in knowledge<a id="noteref_399" name="noteref_399" href= + "#note_399"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a> was + their primary thought: the committing of their doctrine to writing + was both subsequent and secondary. Their writings were intended, as + Plato says, to be recollections<a id="noteref_400" name="noteref_400" + href="#note_400"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a> of + their teaching, and failed to convey the real knowledge to those who + had not the stamp of this teaching impressed on their minds.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As Plato made a + local habitation for himself and his doctrine in the Academia, and + Aristotle in the Lyceum, so Zeno, the founder of the third great + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page424">[pg 424]</span><a name="Pg424" + id="Pg424" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> philosophic school, took up + his abode in the Portico at Athens, a court surrounded with pillars, + and adorned with the paintings of Polygnotus. Here he began to teach + about 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, and here he continued + teaching as some say for fifty-eight years. It is said that the + character of Socrates, as drawn by Xenophon and by Plato in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apology</span></span>, filled him with + astonishment and admiration:<a id="noteref_401" name="noteref_401" + href="#note_401"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a> and the + Stoics afterwards drew their doctrine of the wise man, which they + endeavoured to image out and realise, from that living example of + it,<a id="noteref_402" name="noteref_402" href= + "#note_402"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a> an + instance of the connection of doctrine with person which is full of + interest and suggestion. Zeno was succeeded in his office of teaching + by Cleanthes, and Cleanthes by Chrysippus and a long line of + teachers, who for several hundred years continued, with variations, + the same general doctrine of ethics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Just in the same + way and at the same time Zeno's great rival Epicurus fixed the seat + of his school in the Garden at Athens, which thenceforth became for + thirty-six years the central point of the teacher's activity. About + him gathered a circle of friends whom similarity of principles and + the enjoyment of cultivated intercourse bound together with unusual + intimacy. It speaks for the special character of his philosophy that + from the beginning women and even hetæræ formed a part of this + society. But he succeeded during this long period <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page425">[pg 425]</span><a name="Pg425" id="Pg425" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of teaching in impressing upon his school + so strong a character that it is recognised without essential change + during hundreds of years.<a id="noteref_403" name="noteref_403" href= + "#note_403"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We should do + injustice to the character and the work of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, + and Epicurus, the founders of the four great schools of Greek + philosophy, if we did not take into account what was in their day no + doubt of greater influence than their writings, that is, their + function as teachers, their oral teaching itself, and those + fundamental principles of philosophic education which lay at the + bottom of it. Plato has left us very little of doctrine put out in + his own name. He is not a speaker in his dialogues. He puts what he + would say in the mouth of others, especially of Socrates. He tells us + that he has purposely done this in order that men might not say, here + is Plato's philosophy:<a id="noteref_404" name="noteref_404" href= + "#note_404"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a> and the + reason of this was that he utterly distrusted his own or any man's + power to disclose to others such a system in a set form of words. It + is, then, the more remarkable <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page426">[pg 426]</span><a name="Pg426" id="Pg426" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that he has said in his own person what were + his most settled convictions as to intercourse by word of mouth, and + continuous written discourse, viewed as instruments for attaining and + communicating truth. He expresses his absolute disbelief that men can + reach true conceptions by their being set forth in the immutable form + of writing. It is a far other and more difficult work which has to be + accomplished. In a word, not even aptness for learning and memory + will give the power to see the truth as to virtue and vice to one who + is not kin to the subject; nor, again, this kinship without such + aptitude and memory: but when both are joined, then out of living + together, after much time,<a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" + href="#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a> by the + continual friction of name, definition, acts of sight and perception, + by thought and meditation, the hearing and answering the objections + of others, the process of mutual cross-examination discharged without + envy or jealousy, and with sincere love of the truth, a sudden flash + of fire kindles in the mind, and nourishes itself, disclosing the + knowledge required. Thus it is that prudence and intelligence on each + subject, shining out in this beam of light, go forward as far as man + may reach. The view here propounded, if reflected upon, will convey + to us what the living <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page427">[pg + 427]</span><a name="Pg427" id="Pg427" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + work first of Pythagoras, and then of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, + Epicurus, and their successors, was. Both the conception indeed and + the realisation seem to have been most complete in Pythagoras. The + philosophic living together was its basis. Instruction was oral. + Learning was effected by the collision of mind with mind, by + objection and answer. It was the Socratic principle inherited from + these schools that nothing passed muster for knowledge which did not + stand the test of cross-examination:<a id="noteref_406" name= + "noteref_406" href="#note_406"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a> but an + unchangeable text was utterly unsuited, according to Plato, to debate + the question under treatment in such fashion, while on the other hand + the mind of the reader was passive in receiving the impression which + it conveyed. On neither side therefore did the conditions of + knowledge exist, but this was reached under the circumstances of + personal intercourse above mentioned, and might be recalled in the + written form to the minds of those who had thus first attained + it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Down to the end of + Greek philosophy the same conception as to the method of teaching + prevailed. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page428">[pg + 428]</span><a name="Pg428" id="Pg428" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Ammonius Sakkas, the founder of Neoplatonism, delivered his doctrine + only by word of mouth, which his chief disciples, Erennius, Origines, + and Plotinus, engaged not to make public.<a id="noteref_407" name= + "noteref_407" href="#note_407"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a> It was + when one of them, Erennius, had broken this promise, that another, + Plotinus, after delivering lectures at Rome, wrote down his + philosophy; but his scheme was to carry it out by collecting his + disciples together in one city, and thus realising Plato's + republic.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page429">[pg 429]</span><a name= + "Pg429" id="Pg429" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XIV. The Christian Church And + The Greek Philosophy. Part II.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mind of the + next great teacher who arose in Greece after Plato presented an + almost complete contrast to that of the master under whom he had so + long studied. Aristotle's power consisted in a parallel development + of two forces which do not often coexist.<a id="noteref_408" name= + "noteref_408" href="#note_408"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> He + joined together a rare degree of consistent philosophic thinking with + an equally rare degree of accurate observation. This double faculty + is shown in what he effected. He made the sciences of logic, ethics, + and psychology: he built up those of natural history and politics + with the wealth of knowledge which his experience had + accumulated.<a id="noteref_409" name="noteref_409" href= + "#note_409"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a> Thus + his analytic and synthetic genius embraced the whole range of human + knowledge then existing. As Plato threw his vivid fancy and + imagination and his religious temper into everything which concerned + the human spirit, so Aristotle fixed his gaze upon nature, which with + him in all its manifestations was the ultimate fact. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page430">[pg 430]</span><a name="Pg430" id="Pg430" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> As Plato rose from the single being to + his conception of the true, the good, the beautiful, of which the + Idea to him was everything, so Aristotle, steadfastly discarding his + master's doctrine of Ideas, took his stand on the single being, + examining it with the closest observation and the subtlest thought, + and the knowledge thus conveyed to him is everything. Plato's + conception of God is that of the great world-former, orderer, and + ruler: Aristotle's conception of God is that of a pure intelligence, + without power, an eternal, ever-active, endless, incorporeal + substance, who never steps out of that everlasting rest into action: + who is the world's first cause, but is unconscious of it, his action + upon the world being likened to the influence of the beloved object + upon the lover. Plato's dualism is summed up in the expression, God + and Matter; Aristotle's dualism, in God and the World. Plato + represents the action of the Deity as the working-up of the original + matter into the millions of forms which the world exhibits: but these + millions of forms are taken by Aristotle as if they had existed for + ever; the World, as it is, and the Deity, are coeternal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Aristotle's + doctrine of the human soul is that it exists only as that which + animates the body, without which its being cannot be known.<a id= + "noteref_410" name="noteref_410" href="#note_410"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> It is + the principle which forms, moves, and developes the body; the + substance which only appears in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page431">[pg 431]</span><a name="Pg431" id="Pg431" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the body formed and penetrated by it, and which + works continuously in it, as the life which determines and prevails + over its matter. Thus the body is of itself nothing; what it is, it + is only through the soul, whose being and nature it expresses, to + which it is related as the medium in which the purpose, which is the + soul, realises itself. Thus the soul cannot be thought of without the + body, nor the body without the soul: both come into their actual + state together. In the soul Aristotle distinguishes three parts, the + vegetative, the sensitive, and the thinking. This last, the peculiar + property of man, is further divisible into the passive and the + active, of which the former is linked to the soul as the soul is to + the body, as form is to matter, multiplies itself with individuals, + and is extinguished with them. But the reason, or pure intelligence, + has nothing in common with matter, comes from without into man, and + exists in him as a self-consisting indestructible being, without + multiplying or dividing itself. Accordingly this intellect or reason + suffers the soul to sink back with the body into the nothing from + which both have been together produced. It alone continues to subsist + as what is ever the same and unchangeable, since it is nothing but + the divine intelligence in an individual existence, enlightening the + darkness of the human subject in the passive part of the + understanding, and so must be considered as the first mover in man of + his discursive thinking <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page432">[pg + 432]</span><a name="Pg432" id="Pg432" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + knowing, as well as of his willing.<a id="noteref_411" name= + "noteref_411" href="#note_411"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a> As that + which is properly human in the soul, that which has had a beginning, + must also pass away, even the understanding, and only the divine + reason is immortal, and as memory belongs to the sensitive soul, and + individual thinking only takes place by means of the passive + intellect, all consciousness must cease with death. And again, + clearly as Aristotle maintains that man is the mover and master of + his own actions, and has it in his power to be good or evil, and + thence repudiates the assumption of Socrates and Plato that no one is + willingly evil, yet he cannot find a place for real freedom of the + will between the motion which arises from sensitive desire, and that + which proceeds from the divine intelligence dwelling in the soul. + Necessity arises on both sides, from the things which determine the + passive understanding, and from the divine intelligence.<a id= + "noteref_412" name="noteref_412" href="#note_412"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a> Thus + his physical theory, as in the case of Plato noted above,<a id= + "noteref_413" name="noteref_413" href="#note_413"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> + prevents a clear conception of the human personality. His notion of + man in this point corresponds to his notion of God: he does not + concern himself with questions respecting the goodness, justice, and + freedom of God, inasmuch as his God is not really personal:<a id= + "noteref_414" name="noteref_414" href="#note_414"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a> so with + regard to man we find in him no elucidation as to the question of + moral freedom, nor of the origin and nature of wickedness in man. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page433">[pg 433]</span><a name="Pg433" + id="Pg433" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Wickedness is with Aristotle + the impotence to hold the mean between too much and too little: it + presents itself therefore only in this world of contingency and + change, and has no relation to God, since the first or absolute good + has nothing opposed to it. He has not the sense of moral perversion + with regard to evil. In accordance with which the end of all moral + activity with him is happiness, which consists in the well-being + arising from an energy according to nature; as virtue is the + observing a proper mean between two extremes. And the highest + happiness is contemplative thought, the function of the divine in + man, the turning away from everything external to the inner world of + the conceptions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The religious + character, which belongs conspicuously to Plato's philosophy, fails, + it will be seen, in that of Aristotle. Whereas Plato strove to purify + the popular belief, and urged as the highest point of virtue to + become like to God by the conjunction of justice and sanctity with + prudence,<a id="noteref_415" name="noteref_415" href= + "#note_415"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a> + Aristotle divides morality from religion as his God is separated off + from the world.<a id="noteref_416" name="noteref_416" href= + "#note_416"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a> His + scientific inquiries have not that immediate relation to the personal + life and the destiny of man in which the religiousness of Platonism + most consists. His whole view of the world goes to explain things + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page434">[pg 434]</span><a name="Pg434" + id="Pg434" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as far as possible from their + natural causes.<a id="noteref_417" name="noteref_417" href= + "#note_417"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a> Thus he + admits in the whole direction of the world the ruling of a divine + power, of a reason which reaches its purpose; he believes in + particular that the gods care for men, take an interest in him who + lives in accordance with reason; that happiness is their gift; he + contradicts the notion that the godhead is envious, and so could + withhold from man knowledge, the best of its gifts; but this divine + providence coincides for him entirely with the working of natural + causes. In his view the godhead stands in solitary self-contemplation + outside the world, the object of admiration and reverence to man. The + knowledge of it is the highest task for his intellect. It is the good + to which in common with everything that is finite he is struggling; + whose perfection calls forth his love: but little as he can expect a + return of love from it, so little does he find in it any coöperation + distinct from the natural connection of things, and his reason is the + only point of immediate contact with it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religion<a id= + "noteref_418" name="noteref_418" href="#note_418"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> itself + Aristotle treats as an unconditional moral necessity. The man who + doubts whether the gods should be honoured is a subject fit not for + instruction but for punishment, just as the man who asks whether he + should love his parents. As the natural system of the world cannot be + imagined without God, so neither can man in it be imagined without + religion. But he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page435">[pg + 435]</span><a name="Pg435" id="Pg435" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> can + give us no other ground save political expediency for resting + religion upon fables so apparent as the stories of the popular + belief. He sometimes himself uses these fables, like other popular + opinions, to illustrate some general proposition, as, for instance, + Homer's verses on the golden chain show the immobility of the first + mover: just as in other cases he likes to pursue his scientific + assumptions to their least apparent beginnings, and to take account + of sayings and proverbs. But if we except the few general principles + of religious belief, he ascribes to these fables no deeper meaning, + and as little does he seem to care about purifying their character. + For his state he presupposes the existing religion, as in his + personal conduct he did not withdraw from its usages, and expressed + his attachment to friends and relations in the forms consecrated by + it. But no trace is found in him of Plato's desire to reform religion + by means of philosophy: and in his politics he allows in the existing + worship even what in itself he disapproves, as the case of unseemly + words, inscriptions, and statues. Thus the relation of the + Aristotelic philosophy to the actual religion is generally a very + loose one. It does not disdain indeed to use the points of connection + which the other presents, but has no need of it whatever for itself: + nor does it seek on its own side to purify and transform religion, + the imperfection of which it rather seems to take as something + unavoidable. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page436">[pg + 436]</span><a name="Pg436" id="Pg436" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + two are indifferent to each other; philosophy pursues its way without + troubling itself about religion, without fearing any interruption + from it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + seventy-seven years which elapsed from the death of Socrates, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 399, to that of + Aristotle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 322, Greek life had + suffered a great change. That dear-loved independence which every + state had cultivated, and which concentrated every energy of the mind + in civil life, had vanished. During the forty years of Plato's work + as a teacher it was becoming less and less: Chæronea gave it the + death-blow; while Aristotle is the son of a time at which scientific + study had already begun to take the place of active political + life.<a id="noteref_419" name="noteref_419" href= + "#note_419"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a> But the + conquest effected by his great pupil Alexander completed this change. + He opened the East to the Greek mind, bringing it into close contact + with Asiatic thought, beliefs, and customs. Under his successors + Alexandria, Antioch, and Seleucia, Tarsus, Pergamus, and Rhodes + became great centres of Greek culture: but Greek self-government was + gone. Athens with the rest of the Greek cities had lost its political + independence, but it remained the metropolis of Greek philosophy. + From the last decade of the fourth century before Christ four great + schools, the Platonic, Peripatetic, Stoic, and Epicurean, all seated + here, as embodied in the dwelling-place and oral teaching of their + masters, stand over against each other. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page437">[pg 437]</span><a name="Pg437" id="Pg437" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> The point most interesting to our present + subject is this, that all these schools take up a common ground, one + which we consider to belong properly to religion, that is, the + question wherein the happiness of man consists, and how to attain + it.<a id="noteref_420" name="noteref_420" href= + "#note_420"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a> Thus + the political circumstances of the land gave the tone to its + philosophy. What the time required was something which would + compensate men for the lost position of a free citizen and a + self-governed fatherland. The cultivated classes looked to philosophy + for consolation and support. The answers to this question which the + various systems gave were very different from each other, but an + answer they all attempted. What they have in common is, the + drawing-back of man upon himself, his inner mind, his consciousness, + as a being who thinks and wills:<a id="noteref_421" name= + "noteref_421" href="#note_421"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a> while + on the other hand the mental view was widened from the boundaries of + a narrow state to that which touches man in general. The field of + morality opened out beyond the range of this or that city, territory, + or monarchy. Thus two hundred full years were occupied with the + struggles of the Stoic and Epicurean schools, and the sceptical + opposition to them of the middle and later Academy. At the very + beginning of this time the man who sat first in Aristotle's chair + after him, and therefore the head of the most speculative school, + Theophrastus, had shocked the students of philosophy by declaring + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page438">[pg 438]</span><a name="Pg438" + id="Pg438" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that fortune, not wisdom, was + the ruler of the world. But it was precisely against the despondence + which such a conviction would work in the mind that the Stoics + struggled with their doctrine of apathy, Epicurus with his + self-contentment, the Sceptics with their tranquillity of + indifference.<a id="noteref_422" name="noteref_422" href= + "#note_422"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a> These + all sought to cure those whom the fables of the popular religion were + insufficient to satisfy, those who felt the evils and trials of life + and knew not whither to turn in their need. But the Stoic and the + Epicurean cures stood in the strongest contrast to each other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Zeno<a id= + "noteref_423" name="noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> of + Cittium in Cyprus, after listening for twenty years to the teaching + of various Socratic masters in Athens, founded a school himself, and + wished it to be a school of virtuous men rather than of speculative + philosophers. It was a system of complete materialism rigorously + carried out. He admitted only corporeal causes, and two principles, + matter, and a force eternally indwelling in it and shaping it. These + two principles, matter and force, were in fact to the stoic mind only + one eternal being viewed in a twofold aspect. Matter for its + subsistence needs a principle of unity to form and hold it together: + and this, the active element, is inconceivable without matter as the + subject in which it dwells, works, and moves. Thus the positive + element is matter viewed as being as yet <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page439">[pg 439]</span><a name="Pg439" id="Pg439" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> without qualities, while the active element + which runs through and quickens everything is God in matter. In real + truth God and matter are one thing, or, in other words, the stoic + doctrine is a pantheism which views matter as instinct with + life.<a id="noteref_424" name="noteref_424" href= + "#note_424"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> God is + the unity of that force which embraces and interpenetrates the + universe, assuming all forms, and as such is a subtle fluid, fire, + ether, or breath, in which are contained all forms of existence + belonging to the world-body which it animates, and from which they + develop themselves in order: it lives and moves in all, and is the + common source of all effect and all desire. God, then, is the + world-soul, and the world itself no aggregate of independent + elements, but a being, organised, living, filled and animated by a + single soul, that is to say, by one original fire manifesting itself + in various degrees of tension and heat. If in Aristotle's theory the + world is a total of single beings, which are only bound together unto + a higher aim by a community of effort, in the stoic system on the + contrary these beings all viewed together are members of a + surpassingly perfect organisation, and as such, so bound in one, that + nothing can happen to the individual being, which does not by + sympathy extend its operation to all others. Thus on his physical + side, God is the world-fire, the vital all-interpenetrating heat, the + sole cause of all life and motion, and the necessity <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page440">[pg 440]</span><a name="Pg440" id="Pg440" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which rules the world: while on his moral + side, inasmuch as the first general cause can only be a soul full of + reason and wisdom, he is the world-reason, a blessed being, the + originator of the moral law, ever occupied with the government of the + world, being in fact himself the world. Thus everything is subject to + the law of absolute necessity; everything eternally determined + through an endless series of preceding causes, since nothing happens + without a cause, and that again is the working of a cause before it. + What, then, is called, or seems to be, chance, is merely the working + of a cause unknown to us. The will of man is accordingly mere + spontaneity. He wills, but what he wills is inevitable: he determines + himself, but always in consequence of preceding causes. And since + here every cause is something subject to the conditions of matter, + something purely inside the world, it becomes unalterable destiny. + But inasmuch as the series of causes leads back to the first, and + this first cause has not only a physical side, but includes + intelligence with it, and so everything in it is foreseen and + predetermined, therefore that which considered under the aspect of + inevitable necessity is called fate or destiny, viewed as thought may + be termed Providence, a divine arrangement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With such a + doctrine it is evident that all morality was reduced to a matter of + physics: and yet no sect of Greek philosophers struggled so + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page441">[pg 441]</span><a name="Pg441" + id="Pg441" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hard to solve the great + problem of moral freedom as the Stoics.<a id="noteref_425" name= + "noteref_425" href="#note_425"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a> But the + iron grasp of their leading tenet was ever too much for them. Man's + soul is of the same substance as the world-soul, that is, breath or + fire, of which it is a portion: in man it manifests itself as the + force from which knowledge and action proceed, as at once + intelligence, will, and consciousness. It is, then, closely allied + with the Divine Being, but at the same time corporeal, a being which + stands in perpetual action and reaction with the human body. It is + that heat-matter bound to the blood, which communicates life and + motion: it is perishable, though it lasts beyond the body, perhaps to + the general conflagration. It has therefore, in the most favourable + view, the duration of a world-period, with the outrun of which it + must return to the universal ether or godhead: its individual + existence and consciousness end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the popular + religion,<a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" href= + "#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a> the + Stoics admitted that it was filled with pretended deities, false + doctrines, and rank superstition; that its wilderness of fables about + the gods was simply contemptible: but that it was well to retain the + names of gods consecrated in public opinion, who were merely + descriptions of particular incorporations of the one world-god.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Stoics did not + represent the component elements of human nature as struggling with + each <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page442">[pg 442]</span><a name= + "Pg442" id="Pg442" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> other, like + Plato.<a id="noteref_427" name="noteref_427" href= + "#note_427"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a> With + them nature and reason is one thing. Their virtue,<a id="noteref_428" + name="noteref_428" href="#note_428"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a> or + highest good, is life in accordance with nature, that is, the + concurrence of human conduct with the all-ruling law of nature, or of + man's will with God's will. Thus it was that the Stoic sought to + reach his doctrine of philosophical impassibility: and to this system + the majority of earnest and thinking minds in the two centuries + before Christ inclined.<a id="noteref_429" name="noteref_429" href= + "#note_429"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the very same + time as Zeno, Epicurus set up at Athens a school destined through all + its existence to wage a battle with stoicism, yet aiming by different + means at the same end, the freedom of the individual man from anxiety + and disturbance.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" href= + "#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> If + Zeno's world was an intelligent animal, that of Epicurus was a + machine formed and kept in action by chance. He assumed the atomic + theory of Democritus, that all bodies—and there are nothing else but + corporeal things—have arisen originally from atoms moving themselves + in empty space. They are eternal and indestructible, without quality, + but not without quantity, and endlessly various in figure. As these + from mere weight and impulse would fall like an everlasting rain in + empty space without meeting each other, Epicurus devised a third + motion, a slight declension from the perpendicular, in virtue of + which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page443">[pg 443]</span><a name= + "Pg443" id="Pg443" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their agglomeration is + produced: and thus it is a work of pure chance that out of these, the + countless worlds which frame the universe began to be. Any order or + higher guidance of the universe, as directed to a purpose, is not to + be thought of, any more than necessary laws, according to which the + appearances of nature reproduce themselves. For a law would + ultimately lead to a lawgiver, and this might reawaken fear, and + disturb the wise man's repose. He utterly denied the intervention + either of one god or of many gods in the forming or the maintenance + of the world: the main purpose indeed of his philosophy was to + overthrow that religious view which saw in the argument from design a + sure proof of a divine Providence.<a id="noteref_431" name= + "noteref_431" href="#note_431"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a> + Nothing, he thought, was more perverted than that the opinion that + nature was directed for the good of man, or generally for any object + at all; that we have tongues in order to speak, or ears in order to + hear, for in fact just the reverse is true. We speak because we have + tongues, and hear because we have ears. The powers of nature have + worked purely under the law of necessity. Among their manifold + productions some were necessarily composed in accordance with an end: + hence resulted for man in particular many means and powers; but such + result must not be viewed as intentional, rather as a purely casual + consequence of naturally necessary operations. Gods, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page444">[pg 444]</span><a name="Pg444" id="Pg444" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> such as the people believed, he utterly + repudiated. Not he who denied such gods, but he who assumed their + existence, was godless. He allowed, indeed, that there existed an + immense multitude of gods, beings of human form, but endued with + subtle, ethereal, transparent, indestructible bodies, who occupied + the intermundial spaces, free from care, regardless of human things, + enjoying their own blissful repose.<a id="noteref_432" name= + "noteref_432" href="#note_432"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a> His + gods are in fact a company of Epicurean philosophers, possessing + everything which they can desire, eternal life, no care, and + perpetual opportunity of agreeable entertainment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The soul of man is + a body made out of the finest round and fiery atoms; a body which, + like heated air, most rapidly penetrates the whole material frame. + The finest portion of the soul, the feeling and thinking spirit, + which as a fourth element is added to the fiery, aerial, and vaporous + portions, dwells in the breast. In these elements all the soul's + passions and impulses are rooted. When death destroys the body, the + sheltering and protecting home of the soul's atoms, these evaporate + at once. It was clear that in such a system the soul could not + outlive the body, but Epicurus laid a special stress on this, since + thereby only could men be delivered from the greatest impediment to + repose and undisturbed enjoyment of life, the torturing fear of the + world below, and of punishments after death. It was the crown of his + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page445">[pg 445]</span><a name="Pg445" + id="Pg445" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> system, to which ethics, + physics, and such logic as he admitted were entirely subordinate, to + emancipate men from four fears, the fear of death, the fear of + natural things, the fear of the gods, the fear of a divine + Providence, which was the same thing as fate.<a id="noteref_433" + name="noteref_433" href="#note_433"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> + Nevertheless, the followers of Epicurus had no scruple, after the + manner of their master, who had spoken of the worship of the gods + like a priest, to visit temples and take part in religious + ceremonies. These, it is true, were useless, since they had nothing + to fear and nothing to hope from the gods, but it was an act of + reason, and could do no harm, to honour beings naturally so high and + excellent.<a id="noteref_434" name="noteref_434" href= + "#note_434"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of this school we + learn that it gradually became the most numerous of all. Its social + force really lay in setting forth as a model the undisturbed security + of individual life. It agreed at the bottom with stoicism that man's + wisdom and highest end was to live in accordance with nature. Zeno, + it is true, called this living in accordance with nature, virtue, + man's highest and only good; Epicurus called it pleasure; but Zeno's + virtue consisted essentially in the absence of passions, the pleasure + of Epicurus in the mind's undisturbedness.<a id="noteref_435" name= + "noteref_435" href="#note_435"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> The + Epicureans were more attached to their master's memory than any other + school. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page446">[pg 446]</span><a name= + "Pg446" id="Pg446" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> They were renowned for + their friendship with each other. Epicurus's Garden at Athens meant + the highest refinement of Athenian life, the enjoyment of everything + that was pleasant in the society of likeminded men.<a id= + "noteref_436" name="noteref_436" href="#note_436"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a> It was + this side of his philosophy which made it popular.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the schools + of Zeno and Epicurus seated at Athens were powerfully influencing + Grecian thought, the former especially drawing to it the stronger and + more thinking minds, resistance arose to them both in the chair of + Plato. First Arcesilaus and then Carneades, who had succeeded to this + office, set up in the middle Academy the school of Scepticism. While + Stoics and Epicureans alike sought peace of mind through knowledge of + the world and its laws, they on the contrary maintained that this + same peace of mind could only be attained by renouncing all such + knowledge.<a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" href= + "#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a> They + held that no truth and no certainty were given to man by the + representations of his senses, by his feelings, and by his + consciousness of these, which do not enable him to know the real + being of anything.<a id="noteref_438" name="noteref_438" href= + "#note_438"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a> Those + who held this view would not say downright that what they + contradicted was untrue: they were of opinion that it might be true, + only there was no certitude of this, and therefore it must be left + undetermined. The uncertainty was as great on the one side as on the + other. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page447">[pg 447]</span><a name= + "Pg447" id="Pg447" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Sextus Empiricus + defined the state of skepsis to be <span class= + "tei tei-q">“skilfulness in so setting forth appearances and + reflections against each other, as to be brought through the + equilibrium of opposing facts and grounds in their favour first to a + suspension of judgment, and then to imperturbable + tranquillity.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Carneades, whose + life occupied the greater part of the second century before Christ, + and who is extolled by Cicero as the keenest and most copious of + disputants, was the man in whom this school of thought reached its + highest point. He had appeared at Rome among a deputation of + philosophers in the year 155, when his eloquence and earnestness made + a great impression on his Roman hearers. This scepticism of the + younger Academy however ran in accordance with the direction which + the collective philosophy of the Greeks naturally took, and was + carried out with an acuteness and a scientific ability which makes us + recognise in it an important member of philosophical + development.<a id="noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href= + "#note_439"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a> + Carneades subjected the stoic doctrine as to God in particular to a + criticism the range of which went far beyond the dogmas of this + school, and in fact tended to represent every conviction as to the + existence of the godhead, and every religious belief, as something + impossible and untenable.<a id="noteref_440" name="noteref_440" href= + "#note_440"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a> This, + however, as Cicero repeatedly assures us, was not done for the + purpose of destroying belief in the gods, but only to point out + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page448">[pg 448]</span><a name="Pg448" + id="Pg448" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the weakness and + groundlessness of stoic doctrines. It is chiefly in his assaults on + the assertions and assumptions of his adversaries that Carneades is + victorious: when he attempts anything positive on his own side, it + amounts to this, that a rational man will take probability for his + guide, when he cannot be assured of truth: and his chief merit + appears to have been in more accurately determining the degrees of + probability.<a id="noteref_441" name="noteref_441" href= + "#note_441"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The contests of + these schools bring us down to the middle of the second century + before Christ, when Greece fell under the dominion of Rome. From this + time forth not only were Greek philosophers of eminence drawn to live + themselves at Rome, and so to meet her statesmen and nobles in habits + of intercourse, but the higher classes of the great capital commonly + completed their education by visiting and studying at Athens, Rhodes, + and other centres of Grecian thought. Thus by the fusion of Greece + with the empire, while her political importance dwindled away, her + influence upon the mind of her subjugators was immensely increased. + But the Roman on his side obtained a sort of victory. As a rule he + was anything but an original thinker. He was an essentially practical + man: he had a steady instinct which led him to distrust first causes + and general principles. The Greek schools were to him of value only + as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page449">[pg 449]</span><a name= + "Pg449" id="Pg449" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> they might fit into + his daily life, not as coherent systems of thought. The spirit + therefore in which he regarded their differences was to select from + them what best suited his tastes and feelings. If he had no power to + originate, he could choose. But such likewise had been the result + among the Greeks themselves of two centuries of conflict, in which + the rival systems of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Scepticism had stood + over against each other. They sprung from the same soil; they might + even be termed three branches of one stem,<a id="noteref_442" name= + "noteref_442" href="#note_442"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> + inasmuch as their common root was the desire to find for the + individual man something which would give him tranquillity of mind, + happiness in fact, independent of his civil circumstances. In this + they all took up a practical rather than a theoretical ground, the + ground indeed which is now assigned to religion. Utterly opposed, + then, as they were in their means, they sought the same end, and it + was not in nature that the collision of their various arguments + should not at length kindle the spirit of eclecticism. Thus the + temper of the Roman statesman and noble, and the course of Greek + philosophy itself, combined to produce this spirit, which from the + beginning of the first century before Christ pervaded the thinkers of + the Greco-Roman world.<a id="noteref_443" name="noteref_443" href= + "#note_443"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a> But + eclecticism betokens a weakening of the philosophic mind, that + weariness which is unable to take a firm grasp of truth, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page450">[pg 450]</span><a name="Pg450" id="Pg450" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an absence of the keen aim and high + desire which such a grasp betokens. It is a confession that no one + system possesses the truth: in which state of things nothing remains + for the individual but to choose for himself out of different systems + those morsels of truth which approve themselves most to his taste or + tact, or, as he would term it, his truth-seeking sincerity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not too + much to say that the whole spirit of later antiquity, so far as it + interested itself in the discovery of truth, from the time that Greek + philosophy was diffused over the Roman world, leant more or less to + eclecticism. Its most able, most distinguished, and most interesting + representative is Cicero.<a id="noteref_444" name="noteref_444" href= + "#note_444"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> He + lived at a time when rival criticism had searched out and exposed + every weak point in the different systems of thought. To found new + systems there was no further creative force; his eclectic position + was the necessary result. His genius supplied him with no means to + overcome it. His philosophical writings are scarcely more than + transcripts from various Grecian sources, wherein he uses his skill + as a rhetorician and his unfailing wealth of words to set forth with + lawyerlike balancing the arguments of different schools. We can yet + detect the originals, from which in the short intervals of enforced + absence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page451">[pg 451]</span><a name= + "Pg451" id="Pg451" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from political life + before and after the death of Cæsar he transfused with such rapidity + into a Latin shape the products of Greek discussion.<a id= + "noteref_445" name="noteref_445" href="#note_445"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a> Thus + his treatise on the Republic and on Laws are in form imitations of + Plato's writings with the same title, while for their contents Cicero + applies Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic doctrines to his own + political experiences, making also much use of Polybius. His + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paradoxa</span></span> explain Stoic + propositions. The groundwork of his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Consolatio</span></span> is Crantor's writing + upon Grief. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lost Hortensius</span></span> is drawn from an + exhortation of Aristotle to Themison, a prince of a city of Cyprus, + or from a similar work of the academician Philo of Larissa; his books + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Finibus</span></span> from works of Phædrus, Chrysippus, Carneades, + Antiochus, as well as the studies which Cicero himself in his youth + made while attending lectures; his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Academica</span></span> + from the writings and partly also from the lectures of the best-known + Academicians: his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tusculan Disputations</span></span> from Plato + and Crantor, from Stoics and Peripatetics. The first book on the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nature of + the Gods</span></span> from the writing of an Epicurean, which has + been discovered in the rolls of Herculaneum, and was first supposed + to be a treatise of Phædrus, but is now known to be a work of + Philodemus: his critique on the Epicurean standing-point is drawn + from the stoic Posidonius; the second book from Cleanthes and + Chrysippus; the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page452">[pg + 452]</span><a name="Pg452" id="Pg452" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + third from Carneades and Clitomachus. Of his books on <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Divination</span></span>, the first is taken + from Chrysippus, Posidonius, Diogenes, and Antipater; the second from + Carneades, and the stoic Panætius. His treatise on <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fate</span></span> from + the writings of Chrysippus, Posidonius, Cleanthes, and Carneades: his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elder + Cato</span></span> from Plato, Xenophon, Hippocrates, and Aristo of + Chius: his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lælius</span></span> mainly from a writing of + Theophrastus on Friendship. His main authority for the first two + books on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Offices</span></span> is Panætius; and for the + third Posidonius; while besides Plato and Aristotle he has made use + of Diogenes of Babylon, Antipater of Tyre, and Hecato.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now in this + selection from rival and antagonistic schools—this oscillation + between the positive and sceptical tone of thought, this sitting as a + judge rather than obeying as a disciple—Cicero very exactly + represented the tone and attitude of the cultivated classes in his + own time and in the century following his death. Originality of mind + in philosophic studies was gone; nor was any system as a whole + believed in. The sceptic and eclectic turn of mind are but the + reverse sides of the same mental coinage: he who selects from all is + convinced by none. Neither his doubts nor his choices satisfied + Cicero, or any one of those who followed him in that most important + century, the eighth of the Roman city, fifty years of which preceded + and fifty followed the coming of Christ. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page453">[pg 453]</span><a name="Pg453" id="Pg453" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> In its philosophical productions no preceding + century had been so poor as this. It had only to show the school of + the Sextii, which arose at Rome about the beginning of our era, and + took a sort of middle standing between Pythagorean, Cynic, and Stoic + principles.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href= + "#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a> This + school was of small importance, and soon became extinct. With this + exception from Cicero to Seneca no names of distinction appear. There + is a gap in philosophical thought. A period so influential on the + destinies of man in its events, so celebrated for its polite + literature, on which the world has since been feeding, is barren in + the highest realm of inquiry. For this reason there is a particular + justice in taking Cicero as an exponent of heathen thought and + spirit, the living specimen of the kind, inasmuch as he is the last + philosophic writer before Christian thought appears in the world, and + chose for himself the function of summing up what he thought of value + in the ages before him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We omit therefore + nothing in our review if we place ourselves at the end of this + century, in the reign of Claudius, and cast a glance backward over + that prodigious labour of human reason through which we have hastily + travelled, and which had then lasted six hundred years. The problem + was, given the universe, what will man's reason in the most gifted, + cultivated, inquiring, dialectic race of the ancient world do with + it? <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page454">[pg 454]</span><a name= + "Pg454" id="Pg454" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> And more particularly, + to what results will reason come as to the power which has formed, or + which rules it: as to its chief inhabitant, his nature, and the + purpose for which he exists, and the end to which he is ever + advancing: as to the duties by which he is bound to this creating, or + at least maintaining and ruling power: as to those offices which he + owes to his fellow, the individual to the individual, the civil + community to the community. It was to these points especially that + the greatest character in the whole movement—the single heathen who + knew how to die for his convictions—turned the thoughts of those who + followed him. Again, at the very starting-point of Greek philosophy a + man of most virtuous conduct, gifted likewise with great powers of + attraction, had sought to realise in a society the philosophic life. + And we have seen this conception of the mode of propagating truth to + lie at the bottom of Greek teaching, and to have been pursued by + Plato, by Aristotle, by Zeno, by Epicurus, to have been the original + and even the only form of teaching which they recognised. What was + the result in this respect also? In the four hundred and forty years + following the death of Socrates had reason produced a consistent + doctrine, and a society of which that doctrine should be the law and + bond, a fitting body for its soul to tenant, the immortal race of + that living word which Plato contemplated? Time there had been + enough, and even a superfluity of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page455">[pg 455]</span><a name="Pg455" id="Pg455" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> genius: but there were also two great outward + events which might be expected to favour and advance such a + result.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these + was the subjection of the whole East to the influence of the Greek + mind by the conquest of Alexander, the effect of which continued in + the kingdoms carried on by his successors. Originally the civil + position of the Greek, as the free citizen of a free state, had been + all in all to him. His country was his single measure. But during the + lifetime of Plato and Aristotle this position had been more and more + altering. The philosophy of Zeno and Epicurus was set up by men who + had lost it altogether, who were thrown back on themselves, on the + intrinsic nature of man, for support. Their inmost thought was how to + produce tranquillity of mind, and so far as might be, happiness, for + man, in something independent of his civil position. The loss of + self-government had opened to them perforce a field far wider than + the narrow confines of a provincial citizenship. Henceforth the + schools of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus issued their mental + legislation not for the inhabitant of Attica, but for all that fusion + of races which occupied the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, was + ruled by Greek potentates, and spoke the Hellenic tongue. Thus the + ground taken up by philosophy was at once religious and cosmopolitan; + the former because it attempted to deal with the nature of man as + man, and to give <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page456">[pg + 456]</span><a name="Pg456" id="Pg456" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> him + inward contentment, the latter because the mind, which used as its + organ the Greek language, swayed large and independent empires, + embracing various races of men. Then, if ever, it might have been + expected that heathenism would make a great spring,<a id= + "noteref_447" name="noteref_447" href="#note_447"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a> would + cast aside what was local and accidental in the various customs, + races, and beliefs brought under the fusing influence of one spirit, + and idealise out of them a religion bearing the stamp and showing the + force of that human reason of which Greece was the great + representative. But the three centuries which witnessed the birth, + the vigorous growth, and the incessant contests of the schools of + Zeno and Epicurus, together with the scepticism which from Plato's + chair passed judgment on them both, produced no such result, but + rather terminated in that balancing of opposite systems, and the + selection of fragments from each, which we have seen in Cicero.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second great + event which we have to note is that when the Greek mind had thus been + for three hundred years in possession of society throughout the East, + the Roman empire came to bind in unity of government not only all + those races which the successors of Alexander had ruled, but the wide + regions of the West as well, and their yet uncivilised inhabitants. + Here, again, the Greek mind was not dethroned, but married, as it + were, to Roman power. Philosophy made a sort of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page457">[pg 457]</span><a name="Pg457" id="Pg457" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> triumphal entry into Rome in spite of + Cato and all the conservative force of the old Roman spirit. And if + fusion had been the thought, the desire, and the attempt of the + Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ, even more certainly was it the only + spirit by which Augustus and Tiberius could hope to rule in peace the + world made subject to them. And not less than the extinction of Greek + autonomy did the loss of self-government accompanying the institution + of the empire force the Roman also back upon himself. When Cicero + could no longer sway the senate, he studied philosophic systems at + Tusculum: and certainly his book of Offices has been more valued by + all posterity than his speeches against Catiline or his defence of + Milo. A long train of writers from the Fathers downwards have seen in + the civil unity of the Roman empire a providential preparation for a + great religion. But the field on which that empire arose had already, + so far as concerns the thinking classes, long been occupied by the + Greek philosophy. The two forces come into operation now together: + and seventy years after the battle of Actium, when Augustus and + Tiberius had completely established one ruling authority, and when + this second outward revolution had had full time to give its impulse + to thought, and had set before the eyes of men for two whole + generations the vision of an empire which seemed conterminous with + civilisation itself, we may fairly ask what philosophy had + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page458">[pg 458]</span><a name="Pg458" + id="Pg458" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> done towards producing a + corresponding unity of doctrine, and a society sustaining and + propagating it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, then, we take + our stand at the moment when Claudius began to reign, and count a + century backwards, it is impossible to mention a time when philosophy + was more impotent for good, and when the higher classes of the Roman + empire were more thoroughly irreligious and unbelieving. To + understand the reason of this we must take into account first the + negative and then the positive action of philosophy up to that time. + As to the former, there can be no doubt that the effect of philosophy + in all its schools and through all its shades of thought had been + hostile to a simple belief in polytheism and its mythology. Human + reason had been turned with pitiless severity on its mass of fables, + its discreditable stories, its manifold contradictions. As early as + the sixth century before Christ it had used the key of allegory in + order to infuse into these some better meaning, and this was carried + out into full detail by Metrodorus, a follower of Anaxagoras. Thus if + Homer, the mirror in which the Greek saw his religion reflected, + described Jupiter as suspending Juno between heaven and earth, + Heracleitus was indignant with the atheists who did not see that it + meant how the world and the elements were formed.<a id="noteref_448" + name="noteref_448" href="#note_448"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a> By this + process indecent personal agencies melted away <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page459">[pg 459]</span><a name="Pg459" id="Pg459" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> into physical effects, or were even + sublimated into moral lessons. Men were told that only soft Phæacians + could see in the loves of Mars and Venus a consecration of adultery: + to the man of sense it meant that valour and beauty were worthy of + each other. Through all the following centuries this tone of mind + continued. As to the stoical philosophers in particular, this + physical allegorising was the perpetual instrument by which they + reconciled their stern system of material Pantheism with all the + stage scenery of the poet's Olympus. Epicurus, on the contrary, + recognised the existence of gods in countless numbers, but they were + beings who lived in the enjoyment of his philosophy, far removed from + the cares of providence and the thought of human things. On the other + hand, Plato's attempt to purify, while he recognised, polytheism, and + to sweep away all its fables as purveyors of evil thoughts and + desires, found little success, though his conception of the godhead + as the Idea of goodness, remained the highest ever reached in that + long process of thought; and through all this period the best and + purest minds found in him a support against that bewilderment of the + reason which the vulgar religion inflicted on them. But few and far + between were those who followed Plato in this his highest conception, + while the literature of that last century, in the midst of which + Christ appeared, remains an abiding proof that the critical, + scoffing, negative spirit of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page460">[pg 460]</span><a name="Pg460" id="Pg460" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> philosophy had spread itself over all the + cultured classes. We seek in vain in Julius Cæsar and Cicero, in + Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil, Manilius, Horace, Ovid, in Polybius, + Dionysius, Diodorus, or Strabo, for any real belief in the immortal + gods whose names appear in their writings. The poets use them for + stage-effect, the statesmen as part of the machinery of government, + the historians as names interwoven with the events which they + recount: yet the life of all these men was filled with the + frequentation of rites and ceremonies, as a matter of law and custom, + having reference to a multitude of gods, concerning whom they had a + contemptuous disbelief, though none of them were without many a dark + superstition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the + negative influence of philosophy; but what inward support had it + given to minds whose ancestral belief, still entertained by the mass + of men all around, was thus eaten out? What substitute had it + provided for this discredited polytheism with its ridiculed + mythology?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. First, did the + Greek philosophy teach the unity of the Godhead? If by this question + be meant, did philosophy ever go forth into the midst of the temples + and smoking sacrifices with which every city teemed, and proclaim, + These gods which you worship are no gods: there is one Maker and + Ruler of the universe, and the homage due to him alone is usurped by + a multitude of pretended deities;—then there is no doubt about the + answer, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page461">[pg 461]</span><a name= + "Pg461" id="Pg461" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that this is what + neither Socrates, nor Plato, nor Aristotle, nor Zeno, nor any other + philosopher thought of doing. The philosophic god was never set in + the forefront of the battle after this fashion. He dwelt in the most + secret shrine of Plato's mind, hard to be discovered, and to be + confessed, if at all, in secret. If with Aristotle he was a pure + spirit, yet he abode apart from the world, working on it indeed, as + the magnet on the iron, but unconscious of it, not ruling it with + free will.<a id="noteref_449" name="noteref_449" href= + "#note_449"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> And, + save so far as this is an exception, the Greek mind from beginning to + end never succeeded in absolutely separating God from matter. And as + time went on, this original defect showed itself more and more, until + in the stoic system, which, as to the conception of the power ruling + the world, prevailed over all the rest, that which was called God was + simply a force pervading all matter.<a id="noteref_450" name= + "noteref_450" href="#note_450"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a> The + Stoics could, indeed, as in the hymn of Cleanthes, invest this god of + theirs with many beautiful, grand, and attractive attributes. His was + almighty power;<a id="noteref_451" name="noteref_451" href= + "#note_451"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a> he was + the author of nature; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page462">[pg + 462]</span><a name="Pg462" id="Pg462" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he + ruled all things with law; and the world willingly obeyed his will. + And this common law passed through all things, so that evil mixed + with good resulted in a general order. Thus they could address him as + Father and as King, guiding all things with justice; and this being + they termed Jupiter. But this is only a poetic<a id="noteref_452" + name="noteref_452" href="#note_452"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> + exhibition of their genuine thought and meaning, which was, that + <span class="tei tei-q">“all which was real was corporeal; matter and + force are the two chief principles; matter in itself is motionless + and formless, but capable of assuming every motion and every form. + Force is the active, moving, and forming principle; it is indivisibly + joined with matter: the operating force in the whole of the world is + the Godhead.”</span><a id="noteref_453" name="noteref_453" href= + "#note_453"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“By the names World-soul, World-reason, + Nature, Universal Law, Providence, Fate, the same thing is indicated, + the one Primal Force determining everything with absolute regularity, + interpenetrating the whole world.”</span> And even the opposition + between the material and the spiritual description of the Godhead + disappears upon closer examination, for on Stoic principles the + Godhead can only then be considered as real when considered as + body.<a id="noteref_454" name="noteref_454" href= + "#note_454"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a> It was + to such a unity that Greek philosophy <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page463">[pg 463]</span><a name="Pg463" id="Pg463" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> advanced, receding more and more from that + imperfect conception of personality with which it had started. + Further, the idea of creation is wanting to Greek philosophy from its + beginning to its end. The power which it contemplates is evermore + confronted with matter, which it can permeate, fashion, move through + a natural alchemy of endless changes, but in face of which it is not + free to create or not to create, not even free to prevent the evil + which lies therein as a sort of blind necessity. As there was always + Force, so was there always Matter. To the conception of a free + Creator of spirit and of matter the Greek mind never rose: nor + accordingly to that of a free Ruler of the universe: and this is only + to say in other words, that the conception of personality—that is, of + self-consciousness and moral freedom, as applied to a Being of + infinite power, wisdom, and goodness—was imperfect and confused. + Plato in his highest flight had seemed to recognise one God, whom to + enjoy is the happiness of man; but Plato and all who followed him had + endured, had countenanced, had taken part in the polytheistic + worship. And again, neither he, nor Aristotle, nor Zeno showed any + inclination to suffer for their doctrines. This philosophic god, + gradually evolved by the reasoning mind, produced the very smallest + effect upon the unphilosophic world. The stoic argument from final + causes, which Cicero has preserved for us, and the force of which he + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page464">[pg 464]</span><a name="Pg464" + id="Pg464" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has acknowledged in very + remarkable words,<a id="noteref_455" name="noteref_455" href= + "#note_455"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a> + generated no martyrs. Was it merely from want of earnestness that the + philosophers tolerated and practised the polytheism which surrounded + them, and avoided all suffering for their opinions by compliance with + a worship which they disbelieved? or was it that their + standing-ground, in all more or less pantheistic, was identical with + that which they impugned?<a id="noteref_456" name="noteref_456" href= + "#note_456"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a> that + the gods of Olympus were powers of nature personified, while their + god was simply one power inhabiting nature? that they never reached + the one personal creating God, and were consequently unable to + maintain his absolute distinction from the world together with his + relation to it as Creator and Ruler? That which they cherished as a + private philosophical good, which they cared so little to exhibit to + the world, was in fact incapable of conquering the world, for the + human heart cannot live upon an impersonal god, and will not suffer + for a conception of the reason. But it was in this conception + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page465">[pg 465]</span><a name="Pg465" + id="Pg465" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that philosophic thought had + terminated. And here we find the chief cause of its powerlessness to + improve and purify the mythology which it attacked, and much more to + affect the lives and conduct of those who professed its tenets. For + the old mythology had at least a strong consciousness of personality + in its gods. In Homer himself the original tradition, of which his + religion was a corruption, still spoke of the father of gods and men + as the ruler and judge of the world. In the heathen mind generally + such a conception still existed; nor is it too much to say that the + common people among the Greeks and Romans were nearer to the truth of + one personal God than the philosopher; and the philosopher himself + when he listened at any moment of danger and anxiety to the + promptings <span class="tei tei-q">“of the soul naturally + Christian”</span> within him, than when he indulged in his esoteric + problems.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. But the + conception of personality in God rules the conception of personality + in man. As throughout the Greek philosophy the former was weak and + imperfect, until in the Stoic system it vanished, so the latter. The + physical theory of the Greek overmastered and excluded the conception + of freewill in his mind, first as to God and then as to man. As evil + existed throughout the world, for which he had no better solution + than to place its seat in that matter which was coexistent with the + divine reason, and which that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page466">[pg 466]</span><a name="Pg466" id="Pg466" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> reason was powerless wholly to subdue, so in + the smaller world of man. In him a portion of the divine reason was + united with matter. If Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics arranged + somewhat differently the mode of this composition, yet to all of them + alike from the one side and the other the notion of physical + necessity came in. The material constituent tended to evil, the + reasoning constituent to good: in the man who was made up of the two + there was a perpetual jar. There was no room left in their theory for + the conception of the soul as a self-originating cause of action. No + sect struggled so hard and so persistently to maintain a doctrine of + freewill as the Stoic: but it went down before that central tenet of + their system, physical necessity, the inexorable sequence of cause + and effect, which made up their <span class="tei tei-q">“common + law,”</span> by which the world was ruled. The conception of an + all-wise, all-good, and all-powerful personal Creator, in whose + nature the eternal law is based, not being clear to their minds, so + neither was the conception of sin, as the infringement of that law. + The law of physical necessity took the place of the eternal moral + law: that which man did he did by virtue of the physical constituents + out of which he was composed. The evil which he did was physical + rather than moral: and he was not responsible for what he could not + prevent. The questions of freewill, of evil viewed as sin, and of + responsibility, are inextricably bound up <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page467">[pg 467]</span><a name="Pg467" id="Pg467" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the doctrine of the human personality; and + on all these the philosophic mind was dark and confused.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the Greek's + physical theory stood in the way of his conceiving clearly the human + personality in this life, much more did it impede his conception of + that personality as continuing after death. For as the union of a + portion of the divine reason with matter constituted man, and as + death put an end to that union, the compound being ceased to exist, + the portion of the divine reason reverted to its source, but the + sensitive soul, as well as the body, was dissolved and came to + nothing. There was in his mind no <span class="tei tei-q">“individual + substance of a rational nature”</span> to form the basis of identity, + and maintain the conception of personality. In the absence of this, + he who had felt, thought, and acted, was no more. He could not + therefore receive retribution for his deeds, since there was no + personal agent on whom the retribution was to fall.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. A god who was + not personal and did not make man,—man in whom freewill, the mark of + personality, was not recognised, so long as he lived, and in whom + after death no personal agent continued to exist,—these correspond to + each other, and these were the last result of Græco-Roman philosophic + thought up to the time of Claudius. But what sort of duty did man, + being such, owe to such a god? Cicero's book on Offices had been + written upwards of eighty years, but nothing <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page468">[pg 468]</span><a name="Pg468" id="Pg468" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that followed it during that time equalled it + in reputation or ability. It was the best product that his Roman + thought could draw from all the preceding Grecian schools: and it was + accepted for centuries as the standard of heathen morality. Let us, + then, first note that in this book<a id="noteref_457" name= + "noteref_457" href="#note_457"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a> there + is nothing like a recognition of God as the Creator and Common + Father; no call upon the human soul to love him as such, and for his + own perfections; no thought that the duty of man consists in becoming + like to him, nor his reward in attaining that likeness. The absence + of such a thought gives its character to the whole book, and measures + its level. The second point to be noted is, that the happiness of man + consists not in being like God, and consequently, in union with him, + but in virtue, which is living according to nature. In his reasonable + nature everyone possesses a sufficient standard of moral action under + every circumstance which may arise. Thirdly, throughout the whole of + his treatise Cicero makes no use of the doctrine of man's + immortality. His happiness, then, is left to consist in virtue—life + according to reason, which again is life according to nature—without + respect to any future state of existence. Now, if Cicero stood alone + in these three points, his book would only represent his <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page469">[pg 469]</span><a name="Pg469" id="Pg469" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> own authority, but he is in fact the + mouthpiece herein of that whole preceding heathen philosophy which he + criticised, and from which he selected. Even Plato himself, by far + the highest and best of Greek philosophers in this respect, though he + had in single expressions indicated that the happiness of man was to + be made like to God, constructed no system of ethics in dependence on + that conception, which, if it be true, is of all-constraining + influence, and is to the whole moral system what the law of gravity + is to the material universe. Plato's ethical system was a strict + deduction from his physical theory of the three parts in man, to each + of which he assigned its virtue. Far less did Aristotle connect + morality with God. The Stoics, indeed, who occupy by far the largest + space in Greek philosophy, seem to be an exception. It is said that + <span class="tei tei-q">“their whole view of the world springs from + the thought of the Divine Being who generates all finite beings from + himself, and includes them all in himself, who penetrates them with + his power, rules them with his unchangeable law, and thus merely + manifests himself in them all;”</span> so that their system + <span class="tei tei-q">“is fundamentally religious, and scarcely an + important statement in it which is not in connection with their + doctrine of God;”</span> and so with them <span class= + "tei tei-q">“all moral duties rest on a religious ground, all + virtuous actions are a fulfilment of the divine will and + law;”</span><a id="noteref_458" name="noteref_458" href= + "#note_458"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a> but + then this God is but a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page470">[pg + 470]</span><a name="Pg470" id="Pg470" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + name for the sternest and most absolute system of material necessity: + a God without a moral nature; without freedom; without personality; + under that name, in fact, force and matter making up one thing are + substituted for a living God, who, in virtue of the laws of nature, + is swept out of his own universe. So, again, Cicero's statement that + man's happiness consists in virtue, which virtue is life according to + nature, is the general doctrine of philosophy, which the Stoics in + particular had elaborated. If there be any one expression which would + sum-up in a point the whole heathen conception of what man should do, + it would be <span class="tei tei-q">“Life according to + nature.”</span> So, again, the exclusion of any thought of + immortality, and a consequent retribution, in its bearing on + morality, was common to all the schools of Grecian thought, if we + except the faltering accents and yearning heart of Plato, and most of + all was truly stoic. The imperfection and unclearness of their view + as to the divine personality, and as to the human, in the reasonable + being, the image and reflection of the divine, accords but too truly, + while it accounts for, this detachment of man from God in the field + of moral duty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. What, then, + remained to man after such deductions? There remained the earthly + city, the human commonwealth. And when, passing beyond the bounds of + any particular nation, and man's civil position therein, philosophy + grasped <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page471">[pg 471]</span><a name= + "Pg471" id="Pg471" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the moral life as the + relation between man as man,<a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" + href="#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> and + conceived human society itself as one universal kingdom of gods and + men, it made a real progress and reached its highest point. But this + was the proper merit of the Stoics.<a id="noteref_460" name= + "noteref_460" href="#note_460"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a> + Plutarch attributes to Zeno, their founder, this precise idea, that + we ought not to live in cities and towns, each divided by peculiar + notions of justice, but esteem all men as tribesmen and citizens, who + should make up one flock feeding in a common pasture under a common + law. The grandest passages of Cicero are those in which he clothes in + his Roman diction this stoic idea, as for instance:<a id= + "noteref_461" name="noteref_461" href="#note_461"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“They judge the world to be ruled by the + power and will of the gods, and to be a sort of city and polity + common to gods and men, and that everyone of us is part of this + world.”</span> The bond of this community is the common possession of + reason,<a id="noteref_462" name="noteref_462" href= + "#note_462"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“in which consists the primal society of man + with God. But they who have reason in common, have also right reason + in common. And as this is law, we are as men to be considered as + associated with the gods by law also. Now they who have community of + law, have likewise community of rights. This latter makes them also + to belong <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page472">[pg + 472]</span><a name="Pg472" id="Pg472" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + the same polity. But if such pay obedience to the same commands and + authorities, then are they even much more obedient to this supernal + allotment, this divine mind and all-powerful God. So that this + universal world is to be considered one commonwealth of gods and + men.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Law is the supreme reason, + implanted in nature, which commands all things that are to be done, + and prohibits their contraries.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The + radical idea of right I derive from nature, under whose guidance we + have to draw out the whole of this subject-matter.”</span> Thus the + great Roman lawyer and statesman, robing philosophy in his toga, + propounded to his countrymen, full of the greed of universal + conquest, with no less lucidity than truth and beauty, the result of + stoic thought, that human society in general rested on the similarity + of reason in the individual, that we have no ground for restricting + this common possession to one people, or to consider ourselves more + nearly related to one than another. All men, apart from what they + have done for themselves, stand equally near to each other, since all + equally partake of reason. All are members of one body, since the + same nature has formed them out of one stuff, for the same + destination.<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463" href= + "#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Greek philosophy + has undoubtedly the merit of bringing out into clear conception this + purely human and natural society. It thus expressed in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page473">[pg 473]</span><a name="Pg473" id="Pg473" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> language the work of Alexander, and still + more the work of the Roman empire, as it was to be; and more than + this, it herein supplied a point of future contact with Christian + morality. The advance from the narrowness of the Greek mind in its + proud rejection of all non-hellenic nations, and no less from the + revolting selfishness of Roman conquest, is remarkable. And it is an + advance of philosophic thought. As the older thinkers considered the + political life of the city to be an immediate demand of human nature, + so the Stoics considered the unitedness of man as a whole together, + the dilatation of the particular political community to the whole + race, in the same light. Its ground was the common possession of + reason. The common law which ruled this human commonwealth was to + live according to the dictation of reason, that is, according to + nature, in which therefore virtue consists,<a id="noteref_464" name= + "noteref_464" href="#note_464"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> being + one and the same in God and in man, and in them alone.<a id= + "noteref_465" name="noteref_465" href="#note_465"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a> Such + virtue branches into four parts, the prudence which discerns and + practises the truth; the justice which assigns his own to each; the + courage which prevails over all difficulties; the self-restraint and + order which preserves temperance in all things. These being bound up + together cover the whole moral domain, and embrace all those + relations <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page474">[pg + 474]</span><a name="Pg474" id="Pg474" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + within which human society moves, and, as having their root in the + moral nature of man, are a duty to everyone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This human + commonwealth enfolds in idea the whole earth. It is the society of + man with man. But it closes with this life. It has no respect to + anything beyond. It was the Stoics who most completely worked out + this system of moral philosophy; who urged the duty of man's + obedience to nature, of his voluntary subjection to that one + universal law and power which held all things from the highest to the + lowest in its grasp; and who likewise most absolutely cut him off + from any personal existence in a future state. The virtue in which + they placed his happiness was to be complete in itself; it was the + work of man without any assistance on the part of God.<a id= + "noteref_466" name="noteref_466" href="#note_466"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a> It made + man equal to God. It found its reward in itself. If it was objected + that the highest virtue in this life sometimes met with the greatest + disasters, sorrows, pains, and bereavements, the system had no reply + to this mystery. It did not attempt to assert a recompense beyond the + grave.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As little did it + attempt to account for or to correct the conflict between man's + reason and his animal nature. That perpetual approval of the better + and choice of the worse part stood before the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page475">[pg 475]</span><a name="Pg475" id="Pg475" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Stoic as before us all. He admitted that + the vast majority of men were bad, and his wise man was an ideal + never reached. But he had no answer whatever to the question, why, if + vice is so evil in the eye of our reason, it so clings to our nature; + why, if so contrary to the good of the mass, it dwells within every + individual.<a id="noteref_467" name="noteref_467" href= + "#note_467"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The human city or + community of men is the highest point which this moral philosophy + contemplates. Each particular commonwealth should be herein the image + of the one universal commonwealth which their thought had + constructed. But what, then, is the relation of the individual man to + the whole of which he is a part? This nature, which is the standard + to the whole ideal commonwealth, is, as we have seen so often, in + fact a law of the strictest necessity. If virtuous, man follows it + willingly; if vicious, he must follow it against his will. There was + no real freedom for the individual in the system as philosophy. What + was disguised under the name of law, reason, and God, was a + relentless necessity before which everyone was to bow. But transfer + this philosophy to any political community, and consider in what + position it placed the individual with regard to the civil + government. Human society is considered as supreme: but his own state + represents to him that society, and as all things end with this life, + no part of man remains withdrawn from that despotism <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page476">[pg 476]</span><a name="Pg476" id="Pg476" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which requires the sacrifice of the part + for the good of the whole. Man's conscience had no refuge in the + thought of a future life; no reserve which the abuse of human power + could not touch. And so we find that in matter of fact there was no + issue out of such a difficulty but in the doctrine of + self-destruction. They termed it in truth <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Issue</span></span>,<a id="noteref_468" name="noteref_468" href= + "#note_468"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a> when + disease, or disaster, or pain, or the abuse of human power, rendered + it impossible any longer to lead a life in accordance with nature. In + this case all the Stoic authorities justified it, praised it, and + termed it the Door which divine Providence had benignantly left ever + open.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While therefore it + must be acknowledged that the stoical conception of the whole earth + as one city<a id="noteref_469" name="noteref_469" href= + "#note_469"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a> was a + true result of Greek thought, and at the same time the highest point + it reached, and a positive result of great value, yet it must also be + said that it was one rather big with rich promises for the future + than of any great present advantage: for it required to be + impregnated and filled with another conception of which its framers + had lost their hold, the doctrine, that is, of a future retribution, + redressing the inequality, the injustice, the undeserved suffering so + often falling upon virtue in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page477">[pg 477]</span><a name="Pg477" id="Pg477" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the present life. When that conception came to + complete and exalt the Stoic idea, the need of self-destruction as an + issue of the wise man, as soon as he could not live according to + nature, ceased, for man himself ceased to be a part of a physical + whole governed by necessity. The human city relaxed its right over + the individual in presence of a divine city, which embraced indeed + man in his present life, but taught him to look for its complete + realisation in another.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The human + commonwealth, however, extended in idea to the race itself, as + possessing reason in common, and individual man therein, as well as + the whole aggregate, viewed as being ruled by the cardinal virtues of + prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance, but both the + commonwealth and the individual terminating with this life, was the + last word of heathen philosophy up to the time of Claudius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen that + from the time the Greek race was absorbed in the Roman empire the + systems of philosophy were broken up by the eclectic spirit, which, + engendered within already by the ferment of opinions, was + strengthened and developed by the accession of the practical Roman + mind. Variety of belief is indeed marked as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the essential feature of Greek philosophy”</span> from + its outset, and <span class="tei tei-q">“the antagonist force of + suspensive scepticism”</span> as including some of its most powerful + intellects from Xenophanes five hundred years before <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page478">[pg 478]</span><a name="Pg478" id="Pg478" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to Sextus Empiricus two hundred years + after the Christian era. One of its historians stamps it as + <span class="tei tei-q">“a collection of dissenters, small sects each + with its own following, each springing from a special individual as + authority, each knowing itself to be only one among + many.”</span><a id="noteref_470" name="noteref_470" href= + "#note_470"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> It is + therefore no wonder that if Plato's grand conception of an immortal + line of the living word thus came to nought, philosophy proved itself + much more incapable of founding a society impregnated with its + principles than it had even been of constructing a coherent doctrine + which should obtain general reception. And to judge of the actual + impotence of philosophy in the century ending with the principate of + Claudius, we must rest a moment on this second fact. Philosophers + calling themselves Platonic, Peripatetic, Sceptic, Stoic, Epicurean, + or these in various mixtures, were to be found at the various seats + of learning, Athens, Rhodes, Alexandria, for instance, or at Rome as + the seat of empire, or travelling like wandering stars over her vast + territory, but these scattered, nebular, and disjointed luminaries + shone with a varying as well as a feeble light, which rather confused + than satisfied human reason. They were utterly powerless to transfer + their doctrine into any number of human hearts living in accordance + therein. The only exception to this statement seems to prove its real + truth. By far the most united of the sects was that of the + Epicureans, who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page479">[pg + 479]</span><a name="Pg479" id="Pg479" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + held with great tenacity to their founder's views and mode of life, + which may be summed up in denial of God and Providence, and enjoyment + to the utmost of this world's goods; the fair side of it being a + general benevolence, courtesy, friendship, in short, a genial + appreciation of what we understand by the word civilisation. These + antagonists of Stoic principles and of the highest morality which + heathen thought had constructed were the most numerous of existing + sects, and we are told that hundreds of years after their founder's + death they presented the appearance of a well-ordered republic, ruled + without uproar or dissension by one spirit, in which they formed a + favourable contrast to the Stoics. With the exception of a single + fugitive, Metrodorus, never had an Epicurean detached himself from + his school.<a id="noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href= + "#note_471"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> We must + give philosophy the credit of this single instance of a capacity to + create a social life in accordance with its tenets in a sect whose + doctrines were a reproach among the heathens themselves. The failure + of Pythagoras, of Plato, of Aristotle, of Zeno, was the success of + Epicurus, and at the same time the announcement that the age of + Augustus and Tiberius was ready to expire in sensuality and unbelief, + and even in exhaustion of the philosophic mind, for no period is so + barren of scientific <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page480">[pg + 480]</span><a name="Pg480" id="Pg480" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + names, which carry any weight, as the fifty years preceding + Claudius.<a id="noteref_472" name="noteref_472" href= + "#note_472"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> We have + seen above that all these philosophers aimed at forming a society + which should carry out their principles; that this was their original + and their only idea of teaching; that with a view to make it + permanent they created a chair of teaching, a living authority who + was to continue on their doctrine. But the chair of Plato alone + presented<a id="noteref_473" name="noteref_473" href= + "#note_473"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> five + Academies with dissentient doctrines; and a Platonic or Stoic city no + one had seen. Thus viewing their united action upon the polytheistic + idolatry we may say that while they could discredit its fables in + reflecting minds, while they could even raise an altar in their + thoughts <span class="tei tei-q">“to the unknown God,”</span> they + left society in possession of the temples and observant of a worship + which they pronounced to be immoral, monstrous, and ridiculous. They + had destroyed in many the ancestral belief; they had awakened perhaps + in some a sense of one great Power ruling the universe; but having + taken up the religious ground and professed to satisfy man's desire + for happiness, they had been utterly powerless to construct + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page481">[pg 481]</span><a name="Pg481" + id="Pg481" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a religion. They failed + entirely in the union of three things,<a id="noteref_474" name= + "noteref_474" href="#note_474"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a> a dogma + and a morality founded on that dogma, both of which should be + exhibited, brought before the eyes and worked into the hearts of men + by a corresponding worship. To unite these three things was needed an + authority of which above all they were destitute. Their dogma was + without the principle of faith; their morality without binding power; + but the worship which should blend the two they had not at all. And + so they presented no semblance of the society which should carry + these three things in its bosom, and they could not in the least + satisfy the doubts or the yearnings which they had raised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the period + beginning with the rise of Greek philosophy and ending with the + principate of Claudius will ever remain of the highest interest and + importance as showing what human reason, putting forth its highest + powers in the race in which it culminated, but at the same time more + thoroughly separated from belief, tradition, and authority than + anywhere else, did actually achieve. It is in this respect that the + heathen philosophers, together with the poets and historians who + precede <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page482">[pg 482]</span><a name= + "Pg482" id="Pg482" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the publication of the + Christian religion in the Roman world, possess a value far beyond any + intrinsic merit of their own. It is a study of pathology the results + of which are far as yet from being gathered in. It is only by + carefully examining what the philosophers taught in theology and + morals—for they aspired to be and were both the theologians and the + moralists of those ages—that we can at all form an adequate judgment + of the real work which the Christian Church has wrought in the world. + It is only by using the historians and poets as a mirror of that + general society to whose cultured classes the philosophers spoke, + that we can estimate what the great mass of mankind then was, and + what effect the philosophers produced on them. The difference between + their world and their society and ours is the measure of Christian + work. The hundred years preceding Claudius, which include in them + almost all the greatest names of Roman literature, are the most + important of all in this point of view, both as containing the result + of scientific thought in the five preceding centuries, and as giving + the depth of the moral and intellectual descent. We learn from this + whole long period the fulness of the truth conveyed in those words of + the angelic doctor at the commencement of his great work: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Even for those things which can be + investigated concerning God by the force of human reason, it was + necessary for man to be instructed by a divine <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page483">[pg 483]</span><a name="Pg483" id="Pg483" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> revelation, because few only, and they + after long inquiries, and with the admixture of many errors, would + convey to man the truth concerning God as searched out by + reason.”</span><a id="noteref_475" name="noteref_475" href= + "#note_475"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What the + philosophers from the time of Thales had taken as their special work + was to measure and estimate the visible world. And for the last four + centuries of this period especially they made the nature and the + needs, the supreme good and the happiness of man their chief concern, + in subordination to which they continued their physical inquiries. + And surely the judgment which an inspired writer formed of their + travail must recur to the mind with great force at the end of the + preceding review: <span class="tei tei-q">“If they knew so much as to + be able to estimate the visible world, why did they not more easily + discover its Lord?”</span><a id="noteref_476" name="noteref_476" + href="#note_476"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a> Why + from the goods which they beheld had they not power to know the sole + possessor of being, nor when they gave attention to his works, + recognised their artificer? Why did they esteem fire or breath, rapid + air or circling stars, or the force of water, or the lights of heaven + rulers of the universe? For if the visible beauty of these delighted + them so that they conceived them to be gods, how did they not draw + the conclusion that the Lord of these was so much better than they? + for it was the Author of beauty who created them. If they were struck + dumb with the sense of their power <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page484">[pg 484]</span><a name="Pg484" id="Pg484" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and operation, why did they not conceive how + much more powerful He who made them was? For from the greatness and + the beauty of creatures the parent of them is by the force of reason + discerned.<a id="noteref_477" name="noteref_477" href= + "#note_477"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From their capital + error in this—which the same writer declares to be inexcusable<a id= + "noteref_478" name="noteref_478" href="#note_478"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a>—proceeded + their other errors concerning man, his nature, his supreme good, and + his final end. It is here sufficient to note that down to the age of + Claudius there is no appearance that either of these great errors + would be corrected: and still less any appearance of the rise of a + great religion which would cause the multitudinous altars of + heathenism to disappear before the altar of the unknown God, and + would construct a City of God in the midst of that population in the + thinking minds of which divergent systems of philosophy had eaten out + belief in the babel of false gods without implanting belief in a + personal Creator, the author and the end of man.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page487">[pg 487]</span><a name= + "Pg487" id="Pg487" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Academies</span></span>, the five, of + Plato's school, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">480</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adam</span></span>, his headship, <a href= + "#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, + <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">65</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its result seen in his fall, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">67</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alexander</span></span> the Great, effects + of his conquests on Greek life, <a href="#Pg436" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>, <a href="#Pg455" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alexander Severus</span></span>, his + treatment of Christians, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">244</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antoninus Pius</span></span>, extension of + the Church in his reign, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">197</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + treatment of it under him, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">227-233</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + what aspect the Church bore to him, <a href="#Pg233" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233-7</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apollonius</span></span>, a senator, + martyred under Commodus, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">302</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, note 37. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apostolic age</span></span>, result of, + <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">186-7</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristotle</span></span>, his character as a + philosopher, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">429</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his view of the soul, <a href="#Pg430" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">430</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + relation of his philosophy to religion, <a href="#Pg433" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conception of the method of teaching, <a href="#Pg420" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + what he says of Socrates, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">390</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his account of the generation of the Platonic doctrine of Ideas, + <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">400</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Athanasius, S.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, + <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">32</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg098" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Athenagoras</span></span>, <a href="#Pg182" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Athens</span></span>, worship at, <a href= + "#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustine, S.</span></span>, his contrast of + Heathenism with Christianity, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + on the moral influence of Polytheism, <a href="#Pg021" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21-4</a>, <a href="#Pg027" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href= + "#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, + <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + how the Second Divine Person is the Truth, <a href="#Pg051" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Adam and Christ, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg110" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Church Christ's Body, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">99</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + and at once his Temple, House, and City, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + also the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men, <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dowered with Christ's Blood, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">144</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Christ and the Church one Man, <a href="#Pg057" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg144" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + believing Christ, without believing the Church, is decapitating + Christ, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">105</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + crime of denying that the Catholic Church will for ever continue + in its unity, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">106</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Word made flesh that He might become the Head of the Church, + <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">107</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Holy Spirit Vicarius Redemptoris, <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href="#Pg119" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href= + "#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>, + <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">139</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + asserts the perpetual Principatus of the Roman See from the + beginning, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">290</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + describes the uses of heresy, <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + admits of no charity but in the unity of the Body, <a href= + "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, + <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + coherence of the natural and mystical Body of Christ in the + Eucharist, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">103</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + what the Church will be hereafter, <a href="#Pg112" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustus</span></span>, his idea of the + Roman empire, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + prospects of Polytheism at the end of his reign, <a href="#Pg046" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aulus Gellius</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beugnot</span></span>, Destruction du + Paganisme, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">44</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page488">[pg 488]</span><a name= + "Pg488" id="Pg488" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Captivity</span></span> of man to the devil, + <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27-30</a>, <a href="#Pg033" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33-8</a>, <a href="#Pg069" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its full reversal as seen in the Body of Christ, <a href="#Pg112" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Carneades</span></span>, <a href="#Pg447" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">447</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catholic</span></span>, term used of the + Church by S. Ignatius about <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 115, and by the + Church of Polycarp fifty years later, <a href="#Pg206" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Celsus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg179" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>, <a href= + "#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, + <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">230</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg234" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Champagny</span></span>, <a href="#Pg016" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href= + "#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, + <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>, <a href="#Pg475" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>, <a href= + "#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">480</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christ</span></span>, declares Himself to be + a king, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His kingdom that of Truth, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">50-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the counterpart of Adam as an individual, <a href="#Pg076" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as Head of a race, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as making one Body with His people, <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + parallel in His natural and mystical Body, <a href="#Pg096" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + analogies between them, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + coherence of both in the Eucharist, <a href="#Pg103" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His action permanent in His kingdom, <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in His House, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">86</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in His Body, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in His Bride, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in the Mother of His race, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">92</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His five distinct loves, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">93</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His Body imperishable, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">104</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + crime of imputing falsehood to it, <a href="#Pg105" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + force of its corporate unity, <a href="#Pg110" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + gifts which He bestows on it, <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + connection of Truth with His Person the principle of persecution, + <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His Passion repeated in His people, <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His work summed up by S. Augustine, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172-5</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chrysostom, S.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>, + <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">109</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg224" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Church</span></span>, the, the Kingdom of + Truth, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the House of Christ, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">86</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Body of Christ, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Bride of Christ, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Mother of His race, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">92</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men, <a href="#Pg097" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as such, the treasure-house of Truth and Grace, <a href="#Pg100" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href= + "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conveys the fruits of the Incarnation, <a href="#Pg101" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg143" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is imperishable and incorruptible, <a href="#Pg105" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + possesses Unity, Truth, Charity, and Sanctity as coinherent gifts + of the Spirit, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + bestows forgiveness of sins, faith, adoption, and sanctification + on the individual, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">128-31</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + unity of its jurisdiction, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">146</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + analogy between it and the relation of soul and body, <a href= + "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + between it and the human commonwealth, <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + between it and the natural unity of man's race, <a href="#Pg135" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + transmission of truth in it, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by a triple succession, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">156-161</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + development of the Truth its proper work, <a href="#Pg168" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its divine life as opposed to heathenism, <a href="#Pg171" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its witness of Christ's confession in the first ten generations, + <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">184</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its first persecution by Nero, <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + growth in the time of Antoninus Pius, <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + picture of it by S. Ignatius, <a href="#Pg199" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its treatment of heresies, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">204</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg258" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href= + "#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>, + <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + bearing of Trajan to it, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg215" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Hadrian, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">221</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Antoninus Pius, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">226</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Commodus, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">302</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Septimius Severus, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">302</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its position in the third century, <a href="#Pg308" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its organic unity as set forth by S. Cyprian, <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325-334</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + power of its idea on Christians, <a href="#Pg340" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">340</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + expresses Christ in its moral character, its worship, and its + government, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">341-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + persecuted by Decius, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">356</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Valerian and Aurelian, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">361</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Diocletian, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">362</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + obtains freedom from Constantine, <a href="#Pg371" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + how affected by Roman law between <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 64 and 313, + <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">371-3</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Church</span></span>, a mother or cathedral + church only so called, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">253</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Churches</span></span>, public, when first + known to exist at Rome, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">308</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>, states the work of + Socrates, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">391</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + representative of Eclecticism, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page489">[pg 489]</span><a name="Pg489" id="Pg489" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> <a href="#Pg450" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">450</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sources of his philosophical works, <a href="#Pg451" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">451</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + what he says of the atomic theory, <a href="#Pg464" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">464</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his book <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Officiis</span></span> the standard of heathen morality for + centuries after him, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">468</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his statement of the Stoic idea of the world as one republic of + gods and men, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">471</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his conception of virtue in general, <a href="#Pg471" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">471</a>, <a href="#Pg473" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his partition of the cardinal virtues, <a href="#Pg473" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">473</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + virtue not a gift of God, but the work of man, <a href="#Pg474" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">474</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cleanthes</span></span>, his hymn quoted, + <a href="#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">461</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clement</span></span>, Pope S., <a href= + "#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, + <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clement</span></span>, of Alexandria, + <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Commodus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg243" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>, <a href= + "#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cyprian, S.</span></span>, his statement of + the Church's organic unity founded on the Primacy given to Peter, + <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">326-331</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + puts the force of the Episcopate in its unity, <a href="#Pg147" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href= + "#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + repudiates a parallel between the twelve tribes of Israel and the + Church, on the question of unity, <a href="#Pg334" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + agreement of his witness with that of S. Paul, S. Ignatius, and + S. Irenæus, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">349</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his conversion, described by himself, a type of heathen + conversion in general, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">336-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + describes the relaxation produced by the long peace of the Church + before the Decian persecution, <a href="#Pg350" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his martyrdom, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">358</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + says the Emperor Decius would much rather endure the appointment + of a rival emperor than of a Bishop of Rome, <a href="#Pg356" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cyril, S.</span></span>, of Alexandria, + <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">55</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + on the Fall and the Restoration, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + to become a Christian is to enter into unity with Christ both + physical and spiritual, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">137</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dante</span></span>, <a href="#Pg422" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">422</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decius</span></span>, <a href="#Pg356" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Rossi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg252" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diocletian</span></span>, <a href="#Pg362" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diognetus</span></span>, author of letter + to, marks the Christians as one body and people, but diffused + everywhere, circ. <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 100, <a href= + "#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dionysius, S.</span></span>, archbishop of + Alexandria, prizes martyrdom for the unity of the Church more + highly than for resistance to idolatry, <a href="#Pg345" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Döllinger</span></span>, Heidenthum und + Judenthum, quoted or referred to, <a href="#Pg005" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5-13</a>, <a href="#Pg025" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href= + "#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, + <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">401</a>, <a href="#Pg402" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>, <a href="#Pg407" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>, <a href= + "#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>, + <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">410</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">429-31</a>, <a href="#Pg438" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438</a>, <a href="#Pg441" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">441</a>, <a href= + "#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>, + <a href="#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">445-47</a>, <a href="#Pg456" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>, <a href="#Pg458" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">458</a>, <a href= + "#Pg461" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461</a>, + <a href="#Pg479" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">479</a>, <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">480</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Hippolytus und Kallistus, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">248</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href="#Pg257" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Domitian</span></span>, his persecution, + <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">94</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eclecticism</span></span>, how it arose in + Greek Philosophy, <a href="#Pg448" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">448</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + becomes universal, <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">450</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epicurus</span></span>, his conception of + the method of teaching, <a href="#Pg424" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">424</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his doctrine, <a href="#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">442</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Episcopate</span></span>, the, triply + defended by scripture, by institutions, and by continuous + personal descent, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + one and undivided, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">327</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + like the unity of the Godhead, <a href="#Pg333" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + which is effected by the Primacy, <a href="#Pg334" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eucharist</span></span>, coherence of + natural and mystical Body of Christ in, <a href="#Pg102" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102-3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + called by S. Ignatius that flesh of our Saviour Christ which + suffered for our sins, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">202</a>, note. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eusebius</span></span>, <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, <a href= + "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, + <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">251</a>, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">253</a>, <a href="#Pg302" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>, <a href="#Pg304" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href= + "#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>, + <a href="#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">363</a>, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">364</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>, <a href="#Pg367" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>, <a href= + "#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page490">[pg 490]</span><a name= + "Pg490" id="Pg490" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Forgiveness of sins</span></span>, doctrine + of, guarded by triple succession of teaching, of men, and of + sacraments, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Freewill</span></span>, no room for it in + the physical theory of Greek philosophy, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> in Plato, <a href= + "#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>, + <a href="#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">411</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in Aristotle, <a href="#Pg432" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">432</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in Stoicism, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">440-1</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in all the schools, as to God, <a href="#Pg461" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to man, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">465-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + bearing of this on civil government, <a href="#Pg475" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">475</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Future life</span></span> of man as a + personal being, why not held by Greek philosophy, <a href= + "#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>, + <a href="#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">470</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + absence of it from Cicero's <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Officiis</span></span>, <a href="#Pg468" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">468</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grace</span></span>, Adam created in, + <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">64</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + loss of this gift in the Fall, <a href="#Pg066" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace as restored in Christ, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">136</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace in the God-man, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as in Adam and as in the God-man compared, <a href="#Pg053" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as bestowed through the headship of the God-man, <a href="#Pg078" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as seen in the Body of Christ, the counterpart of the body of + Adam, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">79</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace, with truth, makes <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon + men,”</span> <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">117</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the human fountain of this double power in the created nature of + Christ, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">121</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + whence it is transfused into the Church, His Body, <a href= + "#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, + <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">123-6</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace, as given to the Church complete and indefeasible, <a href= + "#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as given to the individual may be withdrawn, <a href="#Pg131" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + actual bestowal of this grace on the Church, <a href="#Pg138" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138-142</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace necessary for the acceptance and maintenance of truth, + <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">155-6</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170-2</a>, <a href= + "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grace, truth, and unity, viewed by S. Cyprian as inseparable, + <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">332-3</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Greek mind</span></span>, its + standing-point, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">380</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + represents human reason more than any other ancient race, + <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">382</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + aided by a matchless language, <a href="#Pg379" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ripens in the most beautiful of climates, <a href="#Pg378" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + pervades the whole East from the time of Alexander, <a href= + "#Pg455" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">455</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is married to Roman power in the empire, <a href="#Pg456" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">456</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is the great intellectual opponent of the Christian mind and + Church, <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">375</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + criticises polytheism for six hundred years, <a href="#Pg376" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">376</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its outcome up to the time of S. Peter's founding the Roman + Church, <a href="#Pg475" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">475-484</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + why its philosophy disbelieved a future life, <a href="#Pg467" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">467</a>, <a href= + "#Pg470" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grote</span></span>, Plato, <a href="#Pg377" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href= + "#Pg402" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">402</a>, + <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg413" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">413</a>, <a href="#Pg420" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">420</a>, <a href="#Pg421" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">421</a>, <a href= + "#Pg427" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">427</a>, + <a href="#Pg478" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">478</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hadrian</span></span>, grandeur of Rome in + his days, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">240</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + treatment of the Church, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">221-3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + puts to death S. Symphorosa and her sons, <a href="#Pg224" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224-6</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hagemann</span></span>, die römische Kirche + in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg257" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href= + "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>, + <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">352</a>, <a href="#Pg354" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hasler</span></span>, Verhältniss der + heidnischen und christlichen Ethik, <a href="#Pg468" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heathenism</span></span>, what it is, + <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + contrasted with Christianity, <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by S. Augustine, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">172-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its disregard of the value of moral truths, <a href="#Pg177" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177-9</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heresy</span></span>, subserves the + enucleation of doctrine, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">281</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the determining the Canon of the New Testament, <a href="#Pg284" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + brings out full statements of the principle of tradition, + <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">286</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + promotes extension and corroboration of the hierarchy, <a href= + "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + temper of, described by Irenæus, <a href="#Pg270" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Tertullian, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg279" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by S. Augustine, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">282</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Herodotus</span></span>, the travelled Greek + gentleman, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">377</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page491">[pg 491]</span><a name= + "Pg491" id="Pg491" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Idolatry</span></span>, Asiatic, its + turpitude, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + division of gods, how far it could go, <a href="#Pg027" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ignatius, S.</span></span>, Bishop of + Antioch, his picture of the Church in his day, <a href="#Pg199" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199-203</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his martyrdom, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">215</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his recognition of the Roman Primacy, <a href="#Pg218" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + power of his intercession attested by S. Chrysostom, <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Eucharist, that flesh of our Saviour Christ which suffered + for our sins, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">202</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Wherever Jesus + Christ is, there is the Catholic Church”</span>, <a href="#Pg206" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + completeness of a diocesan church called τὸ ἴδιον σωματεῖον, of + the whole church τὸ ἒν σῶμα τῆς ἐκκλησίας, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Innocent I.</span></span> Pope S., <a href= + "#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a>, + <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">347</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Irenæus, S.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg113" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>, <a href= + "#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + guilt of those who divide the great and glorious Body of Christ, + <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">138</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + on the Church's unity of belief, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264-6</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + gives the descent of the Roman See to his time, <a href="#Pg267" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + affirms its superior principality, <a href="#Pg267" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sets forth the Church as the treasure-house of truth and grace, + <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">268-9</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + distinguishes the perpetual teaching office in her, <a href= + "#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, + <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">287</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + contrasts her truth with the variation of heresies, <a href= + "#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + summary of his doctrine on the Church, heresy, the Primacy, + tradition, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + one of a chain between S. Paul, S. Ignatius, and S. Cyprian, + <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">349</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + speaks of the number of martyrs, <a href="#Pg339" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + himself martyred with many of his people, <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + speaks of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the + tradition of the Apostles”</span> as the whole body of truth + which they communicated, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">198</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + speaks of the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“founding and building”</span> of Sees, + <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">255</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Junius Rusticus</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jurisdiction</span></span>, spiritual, its + unity, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">146</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + emanates from Christ's Person, <a href="#Pg342" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is the expression of His sovereignty, <a href="#Pg345" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Justin, S.</span></span>, his martyrdom, + <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Apologia</span></span> + quoted, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">227-30</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + marks Christians as one people and body, <a href="#Pg319" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + censures Jewish conduct in defaming Christians, <a href="#Pg189" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + describes the extension of Christianity in his time, <a href= + "#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kellner</span></span>, Hellenismus und + Christenthum, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">197</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kleutgen</span></span>, die Theologie der + Vorzeit, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">62</a>, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kuhn</span></span>, Einleitung in die + katholische Dogmatik, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">291</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lactantius</span></span>, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>, <a href= + "#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>, + <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">366</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lasaulæ</span></span>, Fall des Hellenismus, + <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laurence, S.</span></span>, his martyrdom, + compared with a contemporaneous incident, <a href="#Pg358" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liguori, S. Alphonso</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Man</span></span>, various states of: state + of pure nature, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">60</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + state of integrity, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + state of original justice, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">62</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + state of, after the fall, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">67</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + how summed up in Adam, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + effect of his being a race, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">59</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + force of his social nature, when fallen, <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + when restored, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">108-110</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his corruption viewed as a fact of modern science, <a href= + "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Marcus Aurelius</span></span>, treatment of + the Church, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">299-301</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page492">[pg 492]</span><a name= + "Pg492" id="Pg492" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Martyrdom</span></span>, said by S. Irenæus + to be frequent in the Church, but not deemed necessary by the + sects, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">339</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + losses to the Christian body by it contrasted with those of civil + war, by Origen, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + a continuation of Christ's confession before Pilate, <a href= + "#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">184</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its spirit the tissue of early Christian life, <a href="#Pg238" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + identified with <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“perfect charity”</span> by S. Ignatius, + <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">217</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + termed <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the + chalice of Christ”</span> by S. Polycarp, <a href="#Pg300" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maximus of Tyre</span></span>, a teacher of + Marcus Aurelius, his notions of God, <a href="#Pg293" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Merivale</span></span>, History of the + Romans, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Möhler</span></span>, <a href="#Pg059" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href= + "#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>, + <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">159</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nero</span></span>, importance of his act in + raising the first persecution, <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Newman, Dr.</span></span>, the natural + beauty of Greece, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">381</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the martyrs soldiers of Christ, <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oral teaching</span></span>, viewed as the + only adequate instrument for conveying doctrine by Pythagoras, + Plato, Aristotle, and all subsequent Greek philosophers, <a href= + "#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">411-425</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the means by which the Word of God declared that His kingdom + should be propagated for ever, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + which, as a fact, is fulfilled in the apostolic age, <a href= + "#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + and in all subsequent times, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">157</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Origen</span></span>, his heroic conduct in + youth, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">303</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + agrees with Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian, in + the principle of tradition, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">280</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + states the unity of the Church, <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + treats the Church as a polity, and compares it with other + polities, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">320</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Christian people one people, formed on the imitation of + Christ, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">322</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies of ill-treatment under the Decian persecution, <a href= + "#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + how Christ leaves His Father and Mother to espouse the Church, + <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">114</a>, note 43; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + anticipates the universal prevalence of Christianity, <a href= + "#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + on the number of martyrs, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">324</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pantheism</span></span>, Stoic, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Polytheism</span></span>, how they fitted + into each other, Zeller, <a href="#Pg464" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">464</a>, note. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Passaglia</span></span>, <a href="#Pg092" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Patriarchal Sees</span></span>, the three + original all Sees of Peter, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">343</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Penance</span></span>, doctrine and practice + of, in first half of third century, <a href="#Pg351" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Personality</span></span>, defective + conception of, by Plato, in God, <a href="#Pg409" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">409</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in man, <a href="#Pg411" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">411</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Aristotle, in both, <a href="#Pg432" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">432</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Stoicism, in both, <a href="#Pg439" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">439</a>, <a href="#Pg440" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">440</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by all the Greek schools as to God, <a href="#Pg460" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">460-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to man, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">465-7</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Petavius</span></span>, <a href="#Pg090" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href= + "#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, + <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">123</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peter, S.</span></span>, his personal work + in building the Church, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">346</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Peter and Paul, SS.</span></span>, their + martyrdom, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phileas</span></span>, Bishop of Thmuis, his + account of persecution in Egypt, <a href="#Pg367" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367-9</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophy</span></span>, what it is, + <a href="#Pg376" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">376</a>, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">377</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Presocratic, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">384</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its second period opened by Socrates, <a href="#Pg386" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its four great schools at Athens, <a href="#Pg436" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + effect of the empire's establishment on it, <a href="#Pg457" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">457</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its negative effect, <a href="#Pg458" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">458</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its positive effect, <a href="#Pg460" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">460</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to the divine unity and personality, <a href="#Pg461" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">461-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to man's personality, <a href="#Pg465" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">465-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to man's duties to God, <a href="#Pg467" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">467</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + as to the duties of man to man, <a href="#Pg470" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">470</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its conception of the human commonwealth, <a href="#Pg472" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>; + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page493">[pg 493]</span><a name= + "Pg493" id="Pg493" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its failure to construct a society ruled by its principles, + <a href="#Pg477" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">477</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philostratus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg306" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, applies Socratic + principles to an ethical, logical, and physical system, <a href= + "#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his doctrine of Ideas, <a href="#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">399</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his filiation with Socrates, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">400</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his philosophy, and his idea of God, <a href="#Pg401" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">401-6</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + with which, however, he retains the inculcation and practice of + the popular religion, <a href="#Pg406" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">406</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his God not absolutely personal, nor free, nor a creator, + <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">408</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his ethical system, <a href="#Pg410" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">410</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his conception of the method of teaching, <a href="#Pg411" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his contrast between oral teaching and writing, as means of + imparting doctrine, <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">414-18</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his account in his own person of how real knowledge, ἐπιστήμη, is + to be attained, <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">425</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + calls the art of Socrates mental midwifery, <a href="#Pg392" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the highest point of virtue to become like to God, <a href= + "#Pg433" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pliny</span></span>, the younger, his report + of Christians to Trajan, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">210</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + compared in his conduct to them with Trajan and Junius Rusticus, + <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">210</a>, note 38. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plutarch</span></span>, his statement of + Zeno's Politeia, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">471</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Polytheism</span></span>, of the Græco-Roman + world, its multiplicity, <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + universality, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + grasp on daily life, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + moral influence, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + absence of moral teaching in it, <a href="#Pg023" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its internal cause in man, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">26</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its external cause, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its injuriousness to man, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">30</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + illogical character, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">31</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + superhuman power, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + relation to civilisation, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">38</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + to the empire's constitution, <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + to national feelings, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">44</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + to despotism and slavery, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">45</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its prospects about <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.u.c.</span></span> 750, <a href= + "#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is the summing-up of human history before Christ, <a href= + "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Primacy</span></span>, S. Peter's, defended + by specific scriptural proof, unbroken succession, and perpetual + recognition, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attested by S. Ignatius, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">218</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by S. Irenæus, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Tertullian, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">352</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by S. Cyprian, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">326-331</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + necessary to the Church's unity, <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + is linked with jurisdiction, and is the expression of Christ's + sovereignty, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">345</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + brought out by the questions of penance, rebaptising heretics, + and keeping Easter, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">351-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in it lies the unity of the Episcopate, <a href="#Pg334" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">334</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pythagoras</span></span>, <a href="#Pg377" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his attempt to construct a philosophic religious community, + <a href="#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">412</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his conception influences Plato, and all subsequent Greek + philosophy, <a href="#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">414</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Real Presence</span></span>, defended by the + succession of doctrine, of men, and of institutions, <a href= + "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rebaptisation</span></span> of heretics, + <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">353</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ruinart</span></span>, Acta Sincera + Martyrum, quoted, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">184</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg226" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, + <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">301</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, the day changed, and + the observance modified, by authority of the Church alone, + <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">165</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schmidt</span></span>, Geschichte der Denk- + und Glaubensfreiheit, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwane</span></span>, Dogmengeschichte der + vornicänischen Zeit, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg288" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scripture</span></span>, not used as the + means for the first foundation of Christianity, <a href="#Pg148" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148-50</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + introduced as subsidiary to oral teaching, <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its great value in this light, <a href="#Pg152" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + relation hence arising of Scripture to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page494">[pg 494]</span><a name="Pg494" id= + "Pg494" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> + Church, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">154</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + instances of this relation, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">161-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + this relation set forth by our Lord for perpetual guidance of His + Church, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the same, urged by Tertullian, <a href="#Pg274" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by S. Irenæus, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">269</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sects</span></span>, their multitude in + early times, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">204</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg270" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>, <a href="#Pg315" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Septimius Severus</span></span>, maxims of + government, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">243</a>, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">248-50</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his persecution, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">302</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Socrates</span></span>, his person, <a href= + "#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + influence on Greek philosophy, <a href="#Pg387" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">387</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Stoic type of the wise man, <a href="#Pg424" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Zeller's account of his special principle, <a href="#Pg389" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + that of Ueberweg, <a href="#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">390</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his opinion on the gods and the Godhead, <a href="#Pg392" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his last words to his judges, <a href="#Pg395" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + last words of his life, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">396</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + halts between unity and plurality in the Godhead, <a href= + "#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a>, + <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">397</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + absence from his mind of the sense of impurity, <a href="#Pg397" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>, note. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plato makes an ethical, logical, and physical system from his + principles, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">398</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the filiation between them, <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">400</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his art termed mental midwifery by Plato, <a href="#Pg392" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + one of his statements compared with that of S. Paul, <a href= + "#Pg393" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">393</a>, + note. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stoicism</span></span>, Epicureanism, + Scepticism, three branches on one stem, <a href="#Pg449" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Suarez</span></span>, <a href="#Pg060" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60-2</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Suicide</span></span>, termed the + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Issue</span></span> in Stoic philosophy, + <a href="#Pg476" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">476</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tacitus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href= + "#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>, + <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">248</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Teaching office</span></span>, created by + Christ, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + witnessed by S. Ignatius, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">202</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + by S. Irenæus, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">268</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg272" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + by Tertullian, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + by Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + by Origen, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">280</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + alone carries both Tradition and Scripture as a living gift of + the Spirit, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">287</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tertullian</span></span>, <a href="#Pg004" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href= + "#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>, + <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>, <a href="#Pg194" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>, <a href= + "#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, + <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">246</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>, <a href= + "#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, + <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg352" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">352</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thierry</span></span>, Amadée, <a href= + "#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>, + <a href="#Pg481" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">481</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thomas Aquinas, S.</span></span>, <a href= + "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, + <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg483" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">483</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tillemont</span></span>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href= + "#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, + <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">249</a>, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">263</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tradition</span></span>, the whole body of + Apostolic teaching so called, <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>, <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ἡ παράδοσις, by S. Irenæus, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">198</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Tertullian, <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">274-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Origen, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">280</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Trajan</span></span>, his treatment of + Christians, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">213</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of S. Ignatius, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">215</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + importance of his answer to Pliny, <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Truth</span></span>, as meaning the whole + body of the divine revelation, <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + committed for its propagation to a society, <a href="#Pg155" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href= + "#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + secured in it by a triple succession, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156-60</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its root in the Person of Christ, <a href="#Pg051" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg121" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href= + "#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the gift of His Spirit, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg127" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + development of, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">168</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in the hall of Pilate, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">49</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + its first transmission by oral teaching only, <a href="#Pg148" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ueberweg</span></span>, Grundriss der + Geschichte der Philosophie des Alterthums, quoted or referred to, + <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg387" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">387</a>, <a href="#Pg390" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a>, <a href="#Pg398" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a>, <a href= + "#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a>, + <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">401</a>, <a href="#Pg412" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, <a href="#Pg413" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">413</a>, <a href= + "#Pg414" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">414</a>, + <a href="#Pg421" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">421</a>, <a href="#Pg422" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">422</a>, <a href="#Pg424" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>, <a href="#Pg428" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">428</a>, <a href= + "#Pg442" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">442</a>, + <a href="#Pg450" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">450</a>, <a href="#Pg451" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">451</a>, <a href="#Pg453" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">453</a>, <a href="#Pg462" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>, <a href= + "#Pg479" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">479</a>, + <a href="#Pg480" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">480</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Varro</span></span>, divides theology into + fabulous, natural, and civil, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page495">[pg 495]</span><a name= + "Pg495" id="Pg495" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Xenophon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg390" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390-5</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeller</span></span>, Philosophie der + Griechen, quoted or referred to, <a href="#Pg377" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a>, <a href="#Pg380" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href= + "#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>, + <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">383</a>, <a href="#Pg385" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">385</a>, <a href="#Pg386" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>, <a href="#Pg388" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>, <a href= + "#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, + <a href="#Pg400" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">400</a>, <a href="#Pg401" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">401</a>, <a href="#Pg403" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">403-6</a>; <a href= + "#Pg407" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">407</a>, + <a href="#Pg408" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">408</a>, <a href="#Pg409" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">409</a>, <a href="#Pg410" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">410</a>, <a href="#Pg411" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">411</a>, <a href= + "#Pg412" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">412</a>, + <a href="#Pg425" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">425</a>, <a href="#Pg429" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">429</a>, <a href="#Pg433" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">433</a>, <a href="#Pg434" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">434</a>, <a href= + "#Pg436" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">436</a>, + <a href="#Pg437" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">437</a>, <a href="#Pg438" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">438</a>, <a href="#Pg443" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">443</a>, <a href="#Pg444" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">444</a>, <a href= + "#Pg445" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">445</a>, + <a href="#Pg446" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">446</a>, <a href="#Pg447" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">447</a>, <a href="#Pg448" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">448</a>, <a href="#Pg449" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">449</a>, <a href= + "#Pg462" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">462</a>, + <a href="#Pg469" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">469</a>, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">471</a>, <a href="#Pg472" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">472</a>, <a href="#Pg476" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">476</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeno</span></span>, the Stoic, his + conception of the method of teaching, <a href="#Pg424" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">424</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his doctrine upon God and the soul, <a href="#Pg438" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">438-442</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his conception of men as one flock feeding in a common pasture + under a common law, <a href="#Pg471" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">471</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zukrigl</span></span>, <a href="#Pg468" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">468</a>. + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertull. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apolog.</span></span> + xxiv, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ideo et Ægyptiis permissa est tam + vanæ superstitionis potestas, avibus et bestiis consecrandis, et + capite damnandis qui aliquem hujusmodi Deum occiderint. Unicuique + etiam provinciæ et civitati suus Deus est, ut Syriæ Astartes, ut + Arabiæ Disares, ut Noricis Belenus, ut Africæ Cælestis, ut + Mauritaniæ Reguli sui,”</span> &c.; and Minucius Felix, + Octavius vi., in like manner.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Civ. + Dei</span></span>, l. viii. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heidenthum und + Judenthum</span></span>, pp. 528, 529.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heidenthum und + Judenthum</span></span>, pp. 101-2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heidenthum und Judenthum</span></span>, p. + 480.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heidenthum und Judenthum</span></span>, p. + 107.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heidenthum und Judenthum</span></span>, p. + 469.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 468, 480.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heidenthum und Judenthum</span></span>, p. + 344.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 312.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Epulæ, + lectisternia, nudipedalia.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These incidents are taken from various + places in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heidenthum und Judenthum</span></span>, pp. + 531, 549, 550, &c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Antonins</span></span>, liv. v. c. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Divinat.</span></span> ii. 72.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Valerius Max. i. c. 2, 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Merivale's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Romans</span></span>, ii. 447.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Varro, quoted by S. Aug. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, lib. vi. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, l. vi. 5, 6, + 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Illam + theatricam et fabulosam theologiam ab ista civili pendere noverunt, + et ei de carminibus poetarum tanquam de speculo resultare: et ideo + ista exposita, quam damnare non audent, illam ejus imaginem + liberius arguunt.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, vi. 9; id. vi. + 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quæ sunt ergo + illa sacra quibus agendis tales elegit sanctitas quales nec + thymelica in se admittit obscœnitas.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, vi. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Omnes + cultores talium deorum—magis intuentur quid Jupiter fecerit, quam + quid docuerit Plato vel censuerit Cato.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, ii. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, ii. 6. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Demonstrentur vel commemorentur loca—ubi populi + audirent quid dii præciperent de cohibenda avaritia, ambitione + frangenda, luxuria refrænanda.”</span> See also sec. 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heidenthum und + Judenthum</span></span>, p. 398. Herodotus, i. 199. Baruch, vi. + 42-3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. Athan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">con. + Gentes</span></span>, 5-9. In like manner S. Theophilus, lib. i. ad + Autolyc. c. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In order to form a notion how far this + division of gods could descend, and what an incredible depth of + turpitude it reached, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, l. vi. c. 9, de + officiis singulorum deorum. Its foulness prevents any adequate + representation of it.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. Thomas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa</span></span>, + 2, 2, q. 94, a. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Of this whole polytheism in the mass + S. Paul pronounces the judgment: Οἵτινες μετήλλαξαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν + τοῦ Θεοῦ ἐν τῷ ψεύδει, καὶ ἐσεβάσθησαν καὶ ἐλάτρευσαν τῇ κτίσει + παρὰ τὸν κτίσαντα. Rom. i. 25. And the Psalmist adds: Ὅτι πάντες οἱ + θεοὶ τῶν ἐθνῶν δαιμόνια; ὁ δὲ Κύριος τοὺς οὐρανοὺς ἐποίησεν. Sept. + xcv. 5. See also Ps. cv. 37.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See John xii. 31; xiv. 30; xvi. 11; + Luke xxii. 53; x. 19; Apoc. xii. 9; Heb. ii. 14; 1 John v. 18; + Ephes. vi. 12; ii. 2; 2 Cor. iv. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These two subjects occupy respectively + the first five and the second five books of S. Augustine's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">City of + God</span></span>, where the argument is carried out in great + detail.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rom. i. 20. See the Stoical argument + for the unity of the deity in Cic. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Nat. + Deor.</span></span> 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Testimonio + Animæ</span></span>, 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Οὔτω τοίνυν ἀλογωθέντων τῶν ἀνθρώπων, + καὶ οὕτω τῆς δαιμονικῆς πλάνης ἐπισκιαζούσης τὰ πανταχοῦ, καὶ + κρυπτούσης τὴν περὶ τοῦ ἀληθινοῦ Θεοῦ γνῶσιν. S. Athan. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Incar.</span></span> 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. August. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Civ. + Dei</span></span>, viii. 24. <span class="tei tei-q">“Immundi + spiritus, eisdem simulacris arte illa nefaria colligati, cultorum + suorum animas in suam societatem redigendo miserabiliter + captivaverant.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Called by S. Athan. ἡ τῶν δαιμόνων + ἀπάτη—μανία—φαντασίαι. Thus <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Inc.</span></span> 47. πάλαι μὲν δαίμονες + ἐφαντασιασκόπουν τοὺς ἀνθρώπους. προκαταλαμβάνοντες πηγὰς ἢ + ποταμοὺς, ἢ ξύλα, ἢ λίθους, καὶ οὕτω ταῖς μαγγανείαις ἐξέπληττον + τοὺς ἄφρονας. Νῦν δὲ τῆς θείας ἐπιφανείας τοῦ Λόγου γεγενημένης. + πέπαυται τούτων ἡ φαντασία.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Humana ante oculos fœde quam vita jaceret<br /> + In terris, oppressa gravi sub religione,”</span> &c. Lucret. + i. 63.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas,<br /> + Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum<br /> + Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Virg. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geo.</span></span> ii. 491.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts xvi. 16.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Cor. x. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apologeticus</span></span>, 23; S. Athanas. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Inc.</span></span> 48; S. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Civ. + Dei</span></span>, xxi. 6, who says, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ut + autem demones illiciantur ab hominibus, prius eos ipsi astutissima + calliditate seducunt, vel inspirando eorum cordibus virus occultum, + vel étiam fallacibus amicitiis apparendo, eorumque paucos + discipulos suos faciunt, plurimorumque doctores. Neque enim potuit, + nisi primum ipsis docentibus, disci quid quisque illorum appetat, + quid exhorreat, quo invitetur nomine, quo cogatur, unde magicæ + artes carumque artifices exstiterunt.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Merivale, iii. 496.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Beugnot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Destruction du + Paganisme</span></span>, i. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ῥώμη, strength; <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ruma</span></span>, a mother's breast.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Beugnot, i. 17.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Οἱ ἐγχώριοι θεοί.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Trin.</span></span> l. xv. c. 14, tom. viii. 984.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Cyril. Alex. tom. v. 1, pp. 544, + 557 a.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Cyril. Alex. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in Joh.</span></span> + x. p. 858 b.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Petav. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Trin.</span></span> lib. viii. c. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">An exception must be made in favour of + Persia, where the original monotheism was preserved with more or + less corruption.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Das + Heidenthum ist nichts anderes als der gefallene und nicht + wiedergeborne Mensch im Grossen.”</span> Möhler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kirchengeschichte</span></span>, i. 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suarez, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Gratia</span></span>, Proleg. 4, cap. i. sec. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suarez, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Gratia</span></span>, Proleg. cap. ii. sec. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kleutgen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">die Theologie der + Vorzeit</span></span>, ii. p. 559.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suarez, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Grat.</span></span> Proleg. 4, cap. v. sec. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kleutgen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">die Theologie der + Vorzeit</span></span>, vol. ii. 650.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is called by S. Peter 1. i. 18 ἡ + ματαία ἀναστροφὴ πατροπαράδοτος.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The apostle speaks here not of + <span class="tei tei-q">“wickedness,”</span> but of a personal + agent, <span class="tei tei-q">“the wicked or malignant + one;”</span> as the context shows. <span class="tei tei-q">“He who + is born of God keeps himself, and the malignant one touches him + not. We know that we are of God, and the whole world lies in the + malignant one.”</span> 1 John v. 18, 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gal. iv. 4. τὸ πλήρωμα τοῦ + χρόνου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">τύπος τοῦ μέλλοντος. Rom. v. 14. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Forma futuri e contrario Christus + ostenditur.”</span> S. Aug. tom. x. 1335.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Adam unus + est, in quo omnes peccaverunt, quia non solum ejus imitatio + peccatores facit, sed per carnem generans pœna: Christus unus est, + in quo omnes justificentur, quia non solum ejus imitatio justos + facit, sed per spiritum regenerans gratia.”</span> S. Aug. tom. x. + p. 12 c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John xvii. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Thomas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa contra + Gentiles</span></span>, l. i. c. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John xviii. 37. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou sayest that I am a king. To this end was I born, + and for this cause came I into the world, to bear witness unto the + truth.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts i. 8; Luke xxiv. 49.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. Aug. tom. iv. 1039 e. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ipse ergo Adam,”</span> &c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Οἴδαμεν ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ Θεοῦ ἐσμὲν, καὶ ὁ + κόσμος ὅλος ἐν τῷ πονηρῷ κεῖται; οἴδαμεν δὲ ὅτι ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ Θεοῦ + ἥκει, καὶ δέδωκεν ἡμῖν διάνοιαν ἵνα γινώσκωμεν τὸν ἀληθινόν; καὶ + ἐσμὲν ἐν τῷ ἀληθινῷ, ἐν τῷ υἱῷ αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ. 1 Joh. v. 19. + Two persons are here opposed to each other, ὁ πονηρός and ὁ + ἀληθινός. Compare the Lord's Prayer, ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. + Matt. vi. 13 and Joh. xvii. 14, 15. ἐγὼ δέδωκα αὐτοῖς τὸν λόγον + σου, καὶ ὁ κόσμος ἐμίσησεν αὐτοὺς, ὅτι οὐκ εἰσὶν ἐκ τοῦ κόσμου, + καθὼς ἐγὼ οὐκ εἰμὶ ἐκ τοῦ κόσμου. οὐκ ἐρωτῶ ἵνα ἀρῇς αὐτοὺς ἐκ τοῦ + κόσμου, ἀλλ᾽ ἵνα τηρησῇς αὐτοὺς ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heb. iii. 1-6; Ephes. ii. 19-22; 1 + Cor. iii. 9, 10-15; 2 Cor. vi. 16; 1 Peter ii. 4, 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Τοῦτο γὰρ ἐστὶ τὸ συνέχον τὴν πίστιν + καὶ τὸ κήρυγμα. S. Chrys. in loc. Compare S. Irenæus, lib. i. c. + 10. Τοῦτο τὸ κήρυγμα παρειληφυῖα, καὶ ταύτην τὴν πίστιν, ὡς + προέφαμεν, ἡ Ἐκκλησία, καίπερ ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κόσμῳ διεσπαρμένη, ἐπιμελῶς + φυλάσσει, ὡς ἕνα οἶκον οἰκοῦσα.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. in Ps. ix. tom. iv. 51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. in Ps. cxxxi. tom. iv. + 1473.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Petavius on the Headship of + Christ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Passaglia <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Ecclesia</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Cyprian <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Unitate</span></span>, 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">All these five relations between + Christ and the Church are mentioned in one passage of S. Paul, + Ephes. v. 22-33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Luke i. 35. Πνεῦμα ἅγιον ἐπελεύσεται + ἐπί σε, καὶ δύναμις ὑψίστου ἐπισκιάσει σοι. Acts i. 8. λήψεσθε + δύναμιν, ἐπελθόντος τοῦ ἁγίου Πνεύματος ἐφ᾽ ὑμᾶς. Luke xxiv. 49. + ἕως οὗ ἐνδύσησθε δύναμιν ἐξ ὕψους.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Church is so called by S. + Augustine.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These five are taken from Passaglia + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Ecclesia</span></span>, lib. i. cap. 3, p. 34, 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare S. Athanasius <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cont. Arian. de + Incarn.</span></span> p. 877 c.—καὶ ὅταν λέγῃ ὁ Πέτρος, ἀσφαλῶς οὖν + γινωσκέτω πᾶς οἶκος Ἰσραὴλ ὅτι καὶ Κύριον καὶ Χριστὸν αὐτον + ἐποίησεν ὁ Θεὸς τοῦτον τὸν Ἰησοῦν ὂν ὑμεῖς ἐσταυρώσατε, οὐ περὶ τῆς + Θεότητος αὐτοῦ λέγει, ὅτι καὶ Κύριον αὐτὸν καὶ Χριστὸν ἐποίησεν, + ἀλλὰ περὶ τῆς ἀνθρωπότητος αὐτοῦ, ἥτις ἐστι πᾶσα ἡ ἐκκλησία, ἡ ἐν + αὐτῷ κυριεύουσα καὶ βασιλεύουσα, μετὰ τὸ αὐτὸν σταυρωθῆναι; καὶ + χριομένη εἰς βασίλειαν οὐρανῶν, ἵνα συμβασιλεύσῃ αὐτῷ, τῷ δι᾽ αὐτὴν + ἑαυτὸν κενώσαντι, καὶ ἀναλαβόντι αὐτὴν διὰ τῆς δουλικῆς + μορφῆς.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. serm. 267, tom. v. p. 1090 + e.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Luke xxiv. 49 and John xvi. 13. + ἐκεῖνος, τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς ἀληθείας, ὁδηγήσει ὑμᾶς εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν + ἀλήθειαν; and 14, 15. ἐγὼ ἐρωτήσω τὸν Πατέρα, καὶ ἄλλον παράκλητον + δώσει ὑμῖν, ἵνα μένῃ μεθ᾽ ὑμῶν εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα, τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς + ἀληθείας.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">πανταχοῦ συνάπτει καὶ συγκολλᾷ τὴν + πίστιν καὶ τὴν ἀγάπην, θαυμαστήν τινα ξυνωρίδα. S. Chrys. 3d Hom. + on Ephes. tom. xi. p. 16.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. serm. 272, tom. v. p. 1104 + c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quid tibi + fecit Ecclesia, ut eam velis quodammodo decollare? Tollere vis + Ecclesiæ caput et capiti credere, corpus relinquere, quasi exanime + corpus. Sine caussa capiti quasi famulus devotus blandiris. Qui + decollare vult, et caput et corpus conatur occidere.”</span> S. + Aug. tom. v. p. 636.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. in Ps. ci. tom. iv. p. 1105 + d.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Augustine, tom. iv. p. 1677. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Elegit hic sibi thalamum castum, ubi + conjungeretur Sponsus Sponsæ. Verbum caro factum est, ut fieret + caput Ecclesiæ.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By the <span class="tei tei-q">“Gloria + in excelsis,”</span> &c. in the Mass.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Οὐδὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν καθ᾽ ἑαυτὸ σῶμα + δύναται ποιεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὁμοίως ἕκαστον λείπεται εἰς τὸ ποιεῖν σῶμα, + καὶ δεῖ τῆς συνόδου; ὅταν γὰρ τὰ πολλὰ ἓν γίνηται, τότε ἐστὶν ἓν + σῶμα.... τὸ γὰρ εἶναι ἢ μὴ εἶναι σῶμα ἐκ τοῦ ἡνῶσθαι ἢ μὴ ἡνῶσθαι + γίνεται.... τῶν γὰρ μελῶν ἡμῶν ἕκαστον καὶ ἴδιαν ἐνέργειαν ἔχει καὶ + κοινήν; καὶ κάλλος ὁμοίως καὶ ἴδιον καὶ κοινόν ἐστιν ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ + δοκεῖ μὲν διηρῆσθαι ταῦτα, συμπέπλεκται δὲ ἀκιβῶς, καὶ θατέρου + διαφθαρέντος καὶ τὸ ἕτερον συναπόλλυται. S. Chrys. on 1 Cor. xii. + tom. x. pp. 269, 271, 273.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Op. imp. contr. + Julian.</span></span> lib. ii. tom. x. p. 1018 d.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Grana illa + quæ modo gemunt inter paleas, quæ massam unam factura sunt, quando + area in fine fuerit ventilata.”</span> S. Aug. in Ps. cxxvi. tom. + iv. p. 1429.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Origen on Matt. xiv. 17. καὶ ὁ + κτίσας γε ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς τὸν κατ᾽ εἰκόνα ὃς ἐν μορφῇ Θεοῦ ὑπάρχων ἄῤῥεν + αὐτὸν ἐποίησε, καὶ θῆλυ τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, ἓν τὸ κατ᾽ εἰκόνα ἀμφοτέροις + χαρισάμενος; καὶ καταλέλοιπέ γε διὰ τὴν ἐκκλήσιαν κύριος ὁ ἀνὴρ + πατέρα ὃν ἑώρα, ὅτε ἐν μορφῇ Θεοῦ ὑπῆρχε, καταλέλοιπε δὲ καὶ τὴν + μητέρα καὶ αὐτὸς υἱὸς ὢν τῆς ἂνω Ἱερουσαλὴμ, καὶ ἐκολλήθη τῇ + ἐνταῦθα καταπεσούσῃ γυναικὶ αὐτοῦ, καὶ γεγόνασιν ἐνθάδε οἱ δύο εἰς + σάρκα μίαν. διὰ γὰρ αὐτὴν γέγονε καὶ αὐτὸς σὰρξ, ὅτε ὁ λόγος σὰρξ + ἐγένετο καὶ ἐσκήνωσεν ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ οὐκέτι γέ εἰσι δύο, ἀλλὰ νῦν μία + γέ ἐστι σὰρξ, ἔπει τῇ γυναικὶ λέγεται τὸ, ὑμεῖς δέ ἐστε σῶμα + Χριστοῦ καὶ μέλη ἐκ μέρους, οὐ γάρ ἐστί τι ἰδιᾳ Χριστοῦ σῶμα ἕτερον + παρὰ τὴν ἐκκλησίαν οὖσαν σῶμα αὐτοῦ, καὶ μέλη ἐκ μέρους. καὶ ὁ Θεός + γε τούτους τοὺς μη δύο ἀλλὰ γεγομένους σάρκα μίαν συνέζευζεν, + ἐντελλόμενος ἵνα ἄνθρωπος μὴ χωρίζη τὴν ἐκκλησίαν ἀπὸ τοῦ + κυρίου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As S. Irenæus, v. 20. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Omnibus unum et eundem Deum Patrem præcipientibus, et + eamdem dispositionem incarnationis Filii Dei credentibus, et eamdem + donationem Spiritus scientibus;”</span> and S. Aug. tom. v. app. p. + 307 f. <span class="tei tei-q">“Ecce iterum humanis divina + miscentur, id est, Vicarius Redemtoris: ut beneficia quæ Salvator + Dominus inchoavit peculiari Spiritus Sancti virtute consummet, et + quod ille redemit, iste sanctificet, quod ille acquisivit, iste + custodiat.”</span> This striking sermon is quoted by Petavius as + genuine, but placed by the Benedictines in the appendix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is in the original words here + something which is lost both in the Vulgate and in the English + translation. First, c. xiv. 6. ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ὁδὸς, καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια, καὶ + ἡ ζωή; then c. xvi. 13. ὅταν δὲ ἔλθη ἐκεῖνος τὸ Πνεῦμα τῆς + ἀληθείας, ὁδηγίσει ὑμᾶς εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν. As Christ is the + ὁδὸς, so His Spirit is the ὁδηγῶν. <span class="tei tei-q">“Ego sum + via et veritas; ille vos docebit omnem veritatem,”</span> does not + render this: and as little, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the + way</span></em>, the truth, and the life; He shall <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lead</span></em> + you into all truth.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug., quoted above in note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This word is used as the equivalent of + λόγος, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">ratio</span></span>, + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vernunft</span></span>, in man.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Petavius <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Trin.</span></span> vii. 7, where he states it to be the general + belief of the ancient writers that a new and <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">substantial</span></em> presence of the Holy + Ghost began at the day of Pentecost.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. tom. v. 398 g.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. tom. iii. pp. 2, 527.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. tom. v. 47.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. tom. v. 392 e.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Thomas in Joh. i. lec. 10: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Nam unitas Spiritus Sancti facit in + Ecclesia unitatem.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ὁδηγεῖν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Epist. 185. tom. ii. p. 663. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Proinde Ecclesia Catholica sola corpus est + Christi, cujus ille caput est, Salvator corporis sui. Extra hoc + corpus neminem vivificat Spiritus Sanctus, quia sicut ipse dicit + Apostolus; Caritas Dei diffusa est in cordibus nostris per Spiritum + Sanctum, qui datus est nobis. Non est autem particeps divinæ + caritatis, qui hostis est unitatis. Non habent itaque Spiritum + Sanctum qui sunt extra Ecclesiam.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matt. xxiv. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Möhler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Einheit in der + Kirche</span></span>, p. 176. <span class="tei tei-q">“Der Körper + des Menschen ist eine Offenbarung des Geistes, der in ihm sein + Dasein bekundet, und sich entwickelt. Der Staat ist eine + nothwendige Erscheinung, eine Bildung und Gestaltung des von Gott + gegebenen κοινωνικόν.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Möhler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Einheit</span></span>, &c. p. 8. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Wie das Leben des sinnlichen Menschen nur + einmal unmittelbar aus der Hand des Schöpfers kam, und wo nun + sinnliches Leben werden soll, es durch die Mittheilung der + Lebenskraft eines schon Lebenden bedingt ist, so sollte das neue + göttliche Leben ein Auströmen aus den schon Belebten, die Erzeugung + desselben sollte ein Ueberzeugung sein.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For instance, two passages on the + Incarnation in S. Cyril of Alexandria, tom. iv. pp. 819-824 and + 918-920, set forth the whole sequence of the Fall and the + Restoration, and how wonderfully the gift of the Spirit replaces + what was lost in Adam.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. Cyril. Alex. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in + Joan.</span></span> p. 997 e. ἐν δὲ τούτοις ἤδη πως καὶ φυσικὴν τὴν + ἑνότητα δεικνῦναι σπουδάζομεν, καθ᾽ ἢν ἡμεῖς τε ἀλλήλοισ καὶ οἱ + πάντες Θεῷ συνδούμεθα; κ.τ.λ.; and p. 998. τίς γὰρ ἂν καὶ διέλοι + καὶ τῆς εἰς ἀλλήλους φυσικῆς ἑνώσεως ἐξοικέοι τοὺς δι᾽ ἑνὸς τοῦ + ἁγίου σώματος πρὸς ἑνότητα τὴν εἰς Χριστὸν ἀναδεσμουμένουσ?</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Iren. iv. c. 33, 7. ἀνακρινεῖ τοὺς + τὰ σχίσματα ἐργαζομένους, κένους ὄντας τῆς τοῦ Θεοῦ ἀγάπης, καὶ τὸ + ἴδιον λυσιτελὲς σκοποῦντας, ἀλλὰ μὴ τὴν ἕνωσιν τῆς ἐκκλησίας; καὶ + διὰ μικρὰς καὶ τὰς ὑψούσας αἰτίας τὸ μέγα καὶ ἔνδοξον σῶμα τοῦ + Χριστοῦ τέμνοντας καὶ διαιροῦντας, καὶ ὅσον τὸ ἐπ᾽ αὐτοῖς + ἀναιροῦντας, τοὺς εἰρήνην λαλοῦντας καὶ πόλεμον ἐργαζομένους, + ἀληθῶς διυλίζοντας τὸν κώνωπα, καὶ τὸν κάμηλον καταπίνοντας.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts ii. 3. ὤφθησαν αὐτοῖς + διαμεριζόμεναι γλῶσσαι ὡσεὶ πυρὸς, ἐκάθισέ τε ἐφ᾽ ἕνα ἕκαστον + αὐτῶν, καὶ ἐπλήσθησαν ἅπαντες Πνεύματος ἁγίου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Non jam + visitator subitus, sed perpetuus consolator et habitator + æternus.”</span> S. Aug. tom. v. d. app. p. 307.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Con. Crescou. lib. ii. c. 14, tom. ix. + p. 418. <span class="tei tei-q">“Hic Spiritus sanctus veniens in + eos tale signum primitus dedit, ut qui eum acciperent linguis + omnium gentium loquerentur, quia portendebat Ecclesiam per omnes + gentes futuram, nec quemquam accepturum Spiritum sanctum nisi qui + ejus unitati copularetur. Hujus fontis largo atque invisibili + flumine lætificat Deus civitatem suam, quia Propheta dixit: + Fluminis impetus lætificat civitatem Dei. Ad hunc enim fontem + nullus extraneus, quia nullus nisi vita æterna dignus accedit. Hic + est proprius Ecclesiæ Christi.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ἡ ἀλήθεια: + there seems to be no one word in the New Testament of more + pregnant signification than this, which in a great number of + instances bears the sense of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the whole body of + the divine revelation</span></em>. The root of this meaning would + seem to lie in Christ Himself, who as the Divine Word is the + αὐτοαλήθεια, the εἰκὼν of the Father; on which title S. + Athanasius and S. Cyril of Alexandria specially dwell, while S. + Hilary expresses the Blessed Trinity by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Æternitas in Patre, Species in Imagine, Usus in + Munere,”</span> on which see S. Augustine's magnificent comment, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Trin.</span></span> l. vi. 10, p. 850; and as our Lord is from + eternity the Truth, so in and by His Incarnation He becomes in a + special sense the Truth to man: ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ὁδὸς, καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια, + καὶ ἡ ζωή: and so the Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the + Son, <span class="tei tei-q">“ille ineffabilis quidam complexus + Patris et Imaginis”</span> (S. Aug.), is τὸ Πνεῦμα τῆς ἀληθείας, + who ὁδηγήσει ὑμᾶς εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν: and again, 1 John v. 6, + τὸ Πνεῦμά ἐστι τὸ μαρτυροῦν, ὅτι τὸ Πνεῦμά ἐστιν ἡ ἀλήθεια. This + is the first meaning. Secondly, as derived from it, the Truth is + the whole body of the divine revelation. In this sense it is used + in a great many places of S. John's Gospel and the Apostolic + Epistles, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> John i. 14, 17; viii. 31; + xvi. 13; xvii. 17; xviii. 37; 1 John ii. 21; iii. 19; 2 John i. + 1-3; 3 John 3, 4, 8, 12; 1 Tim. iii. 15, where, because this + whole body of truth dwells in the Church of Christ and there + alone, it is emphatically called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“House of God, which is the Church of the living God, + the pillar and ground of the Truth;”</span> 1 Tim. ii. 3; Rom. + xv. 8; 2 Cor, iv. 2; xiii. 8; Gal. iii. 1; v. 7; Ephes. i. 13; + iv. 21-24 (in which passage the Apostle contrasts heathen man + with Christian, the one, τὸν φθειρόμενον κατὰ τὰς ἐπιθυμίας τῆς + ἁπάτης; the other, τὸν κατὰ Θεὸν κτισθέντα ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ καὶ + ὁσιότητι τῆς ἀληθείας, and again, the mass of the Gentiles, as τὰ + ἔθνη περιπατεῖ ἐν ματαιότητι τοῦ νοὸς αὐτῶν, ἐσκοτισμένοι τῇ + διανοίᾳ, while Christians ἐν αὐτῷ ἐδιδάχθητε, καθώς ἐστιν ἀλήθεια + ἐν τῷ Ἰησοῦ); 2 Thess. ii. 8-13; 1 Tim. iv. 3; vi. 5; 2 Tim. ii. + 15, 25; iii. 7, 8; iv. 4; Titus i. 1 and 14; Heb. x. 26; Jac. v. + 19; 1 Pet. i. 22; 2 Pet. ii. 2. In this second sense, as + signifying the whole body of the divine revelation, the + expression has been searched for, but without success, in the + Gospels of S. Matthew, S. Mark, and S. Luke, and in the Acts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thirdly, as + the effect of this revelation to man, the Truth signifies + uprightness, as equivalent to justice or sanctity, in the + individual.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fourthly, it + means sincerity, absence of hypocrisy: and Fifthly, + correspondence to fact.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + Apocalypse our Lord is designated <span class="tei tei-q">“the + holy, the true,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Amen, the + Witness faithful and true,”</span> the rider of the white horse, + <span class="tei tei-q">“called faithful and true,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“whose name is the Word of God.”</span> + iii. 7, 14; xix. 11.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“La creatura, + la più amabile, la più amata, e la più amante di Dio.”</span> S. + Alfonso, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gran Mezzo della Preghiera</span></span>, p. + 280.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts ii. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Non te + fefellit sponsus tuus: non te fefellit qui suo sanguine te + dotavit.”</span> S. Aug. tom. v. 1090 b.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quod tunc + faciebat unus homo accepto Spiritu sancto, ut unus homo linguis + omnium loqueretur, hoc modo ipsa unitas facit, linguis omnibus + loquitur. Et modo unus homo in omnibus gentibus linguis omnibus + loquitur, unus homo, caput et corpus, unus homo, Christus et + Ecclesia, vir perfectus, ille sponsus, illa sponsa. Sed erunt, + inquit, duo in carne una; judicia Dei vera, justificata in idipsum: + propter unitatem.”</span> S. Aug. in Ps. xviii. 2, tom. iv. 85 + f.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ephes. iv. 11-16. ἀληθεύοντες ἐν + ἀγάπῃ. Joh. xvii. 19. ἡγιασμένοι ἐν ἀληθείᾳ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Cor. xii. 12. οὕτω καὶ ὁ + Χριστός.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So says the great maintainer of + episcopal power, S. Cyprian, in his famous aphorism: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Episcopatus unus est, cujus a singulis in solidum pars + tenetur.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matt. xxiv. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rom. x. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἡ παράδοσις. It will be shown + hereafter that the four great writers, Irenæus, Tertullian, Clement + of Alexandria, and Origen, unanimously refer to Tradition in this + sense.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See S. Irenæus, ii. 1. expressly + stating this of S. Mark's and S. Luke's Gospel, and of the Apostles + generally: <span class="tei tei-q">“quod (Evangelium) quidem tunc + præconaverunt, postea vero per Dei voluntatem in Scripturis nobis + tradiderunt;”</span> which is repeated by Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + ii. 15, who declares that the Roman Christians, not content τῇ + ἀγράφῳ τοῦ θείου κηρύγματος διδασκαλία, besought Mark with many + prayers ὡς ἂν καὶ διὰ γραφῆς ὑπόμνημα τῆς διὰ λόγου παραδοθείσης + αὐτοῖς καταλείψοι διδασκαλίας, which S. Peter afterwards + approved.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Luke i. 2-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John xx. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As one instance out of many take the + words of S. Paul, 2 Cor. i. 22: <span class="tei tei-q">“He that + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">confirms</span></em> us with you is Christ, + and that has <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">anointed</span></em> us is God; who has also + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sealed</span></em> us, and given the pledge of + the Spirit in our hearts.”</span> How differently would this + passage appear to one who had received the confirming chrism, with + the words conveying it, <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Signo</span></em> + te signo crucis, et <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">confirmo</span></em> te <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chrismate</span></em> salutis;”</span> and to + one who had lost the possession of this Sacrament. Those who have + deserted the ecclesiastical tradition and practice read the + Scriptures with a negative mind, and so fail to draw out the truth + which is in them.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eine Gnadenanstalt: our language does + not supply the expression.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heb. iv. 2; Acts xvi. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By Möhler.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Macaulay's Essays.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Trin.</span></span> iv. 11, 12, tom. viii. 817.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + 50. <span class="tei tei-q">“O gloriam licitam, quia humanam, cui + nec præsumptio perdita nec persuasio desperata deputatur in + contemptu mortis et atrocitatis omnimodæ, cui tantum pro patria, + pro imperio, pro amicitia pati permissum est, quantum pro Deo non + licet.”</span> See again the instances he collects <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Martyres</span></span>, 4; and Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + 5</span></span>, proœm., draws the same contrast.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Celsus only alleges the suffering of + Socrates as a parallel to that of the martyrs. Origen <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c. + Cels.</span></span> i. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">With an appeal to this fact + Athenagoras begins his apology to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and + Commodus, about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 177. ἑνὶ λόγῳ κατὰ + ἔθνη καὶ δήμους θυσίας κατάγουσιν ἂς ἂν ἐθέλωσιν ἄνθρωποι καὶ + μυστήρια. οἱ δὲ Αἰγύπτιοι καὶ αἰλούρους καὶ κροκοδείλους καὶ ὄφεις + καὶ ἀσπίδας καὶ κύνας θεούς νομίζουσι. καὶ τούτοις πᾶσιν ἐπετρέπετε + καὶ ὑμεῖς καὶ οἱ νόμοι ... ἡμῖν δὲ (καὶ μὴ παρακρουσθῆτε, ὡς οἱ + πολλοὶ, ἐξ ἀκοῆς) τῷ ὀνόματι ἀπεχθάνεσθε. Ch. i. See also Kellner's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hellenismus und Christenthum</span></span>, p. + 79; and Champagny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Antonins</span></span>, ii. 189.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Tim. vi. 13; ii. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Æmulos nos + ergo Sibi esse voluit, ac primus virtute cœlesti injustorum justus + obtemperavit arbitrio; dans scilicet secuturis viam, ut pius + Dominus exemplum famulis Se præbendo, ne onerosus præceptor a + quodam putaretur. Pertulit ante illa quæ aliis perferenda + mandavit.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epist. Ecc. Smyr.</span></span> i. Ruinart, p. + 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apoc. ii. 2, 10, 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is what Tertullian calls + <span class="tei tei-q">“sub umbraculo insignissimæ religionis, + certe licitæ,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apolog.</span></span> 21; and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Nationes</span></span>, i. 11, <span class="tei tei-q">“Nos quoque + ut Judaicæ religionis propinquos.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Justin Martyr, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial. c. + Tryph.</span></span> 17, who speaks of the Jews as sending + everywhere deputies in order to defame Christians.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts xxviii. 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span> + xv. 44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ὁ Παῦλος, μαρτυρήσας ἐπὶ τῶν + ἡγουμένων, οὕτως ἀπηλλάγη τοῦ κόσμου. S. Clem. Rom. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad Cor.</span></span> + 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertull. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + 10. <span class="tei tei-q">“Sacrilegii et majestatis rei + convenimur: summa hæc causa, immo tota est.”</span> Lassaulx says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“die beiden Hauptanklagen, die + Religion-verachtung, die Majestäts-beleidigung.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fall des + Hellenismus</span></span>, p. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matt. x. 22; xxiv. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Clemens Rom., writing just after + Domitian's time, associates as sufferers with S. Peter and S. Paul + in his own time πολὺ πλῆθος ἐκλεκτῶν, οἵτινες πολλὰς αἰκίας καὶ + βασάνους διὰ ζῆλον παθόντες ὑποδεῖγμα κάλλιστον ἐγένοντο ἐν ἡμῖν. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Cor.</span></span> 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + iv. 25; Tertull. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Tertullian's words, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“debellator Christianorum,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus a late Protestant writer, Schmidt + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte der Denk- und + Glaubensfreiheit</span></span>, p. 165), remarks of the condition + of Christians, <span class="tei tei-q">“Vollkommen gewiss ist, dass + unter Domitian eine neue Drangperiode für die Christen begann, die + sich in Verfolgungen, in Hinrichtungen, und Verbannungen äusserte. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dio.</span></span> 67, 14, und die Ausleger.) + Damals soll auch der Apostel Johannes nach Pathmos verwiesen worden + sein. Erst Nerva lüftete wiederum diesen Druck, indem er den + Verhafteten die Freiheit gab, und die Verbannten zurückberief. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dio.</span></span> 68, 1.) <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Es war dies aber + doch nur als eine Amnestie, als ein Gnadenact anzusehen, nicht als + eine Anerkennung der Unsträflichkeit, wie das schwankende Verhalten + des nicht minder hochherzigen und freisinnigen Trajan zur Genüge + darthut.</span></em>”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heidenthum und + Judenthum</span></span>, Vorwort, iv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Justin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dialog. with + Tryphon</span></span>, 117. Tertullian, 50 years later, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">adv. + Judæos</span></span>, 7, goes beyond this.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kellner, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hellenismus und + Christenthum</span></span>, p. 85.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Origen <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cont. + Cels.</span></span> i. 27.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lib. iii.3. Ἔτι ἔναυλον τὸ κήρυγμα τῶν + ἀποστόλων καὶ τὴν παράδοσιν πρὸ ὀφθαλμῶν ἔχων, οὐ μόνος, ἔτι γὰρ + πολλοὶ ἐπελείποντο τότε ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποστόλων δεδιδαγμένοι: where τὸ + κήρυγμα and ἡ παράδοσις τῶν ἀποστόλων indicate the whole body of + truth which they communicated to the Church, whether written or + unwritten.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Ign. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Smyrn.</span></span> 1 and 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Ignat. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Ephes.</span></span> i.-iv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Ephes.</span></span> xix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Another point on which S. Ignatius + dwells repeatedly is the receiving the flesh of Christ in the + Eucharist: thus he says of the heterodox, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Smyrn.</span></span> 6: <span class="tei tei-q">“They abstain from + the Eucharist and prayer, because they do not confess that the + Eucharist is that flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ which suffered + for our sins, which in His goodness the Father raised.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He says, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad Rom.</span></span> + ii.: Ὅτι τὸν ἐπίσκοπον Συρίας ὁ Θεὸς κατηξίωσεν εὑρεθῆναι εἰς δύσιν + ἀπὸ ἀνατολῆς μεταπεμψάμενος. Merivale, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + c. lxv. p. 150, note 1, says, <span class="tei tei-q">“We are at a + loss to account for the bishop being sent to suffer martyrdom at + Rome.”</span> This passage in the epistle confirms the acts of + martyrdom. It was the wish of Trajan to make a great example, and + the Bishop of Rome, S. Alexander, was at this time in prison, and + shortly afterwards martyred.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist. ad + Magnes.</span></span> 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Trall.</span></span> 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Smyrn.</span></span> viii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare with this expression of S. + Ignatius that of the Church of Polycarp, fifty years later, + describing how after his martyrdom, σὺν τοῖς Ἀποστόλοις καὶ πᾶσι + δικαίοις ἀγαλλιώμενος, δοξάζει τὸν Θεὸν καὶ Πατέρα, καὶ εὐλογεῖ τὸν + Κύριον ἡμῶν καὶ κυβερνήτην τῶν [ψυχῶν τε καὶ] σωμάτων ἡμῶν, καὶ + ποιμένα τῆς κατὰ τὴν οἰκουμένην καθολικῆς ἐκκλησίας. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acta + Polycarpi</span></span>, xix Ruinart, p. 45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ephes. iv. 4-16.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + iii. 37, who speaks exactly in this sense; and an important passage + in Döllinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kallistus und Hippolytus</span></span>, + 338-343, on the force of the word πρεσβύτερος, as Ecclesiæ Doctor, + one particularly charged with the magisterium veritatis. See also + Hagemann, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">die Römische Kirche</span></span>, pp. + 607-8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecc. + Hist.</span></span> ii. 132.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertull. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + 5, and Euseb. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> v. 21, assert the + existence of this law.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">E. H.</span></span> + ii. 182-3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the singular instance given by + Euseb. v. 21, in the reign of Commodus. An informer accuses + Apollonius of being a Christian, at a time when the imperial laws + made such an accusation a capital offence. The accuser is put to + death; but Apollonius, who is supposed to have been a senator, + having made a brilliant defence before the Senate, suffers + martyrdom.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Duci jussi (confer Acts xii. 19, + ἐκέλευσεν ἀπαχθῆναι). The extreme brevity with which the most + urbane, kind-hearted, and accomplished of Roman gentlemen, as Mr. + Merivale conceives him, describes himself as having ordered a + number of men and women to be put to death for the profession of + Christianity, is remarkable and significant. Compare it with the + bearing of his friend Trajan to S. Ignatius below. As soon as the + saint's confession of <span class="tei tei-q">“bearing the + Crucified in his heart”</span> is specific, Trajan without a word + of remark orders his execution. The <span class="tei tei-q">“duci + jussi”</span> of Pliny and Trajan's manner in sentencing perfectly + correspond and bear witness to each other's authenticity. So later + the like tone used by Junius Rusticus, prefect of the city under + Marcus Aurelius, to Justin Martyr, as will be seen further on.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> x. + 97, chiefly Melmoth's translation.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Acts of S. Ignatius</span></span>, Ruinart, + pp. 8, 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Rom.</span></span> iv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ἐκκλησίᾳ—ἥτις καὶ προκάθηται ἐν τότῳ + χωρίου Ῥωμαίων—προκαθημένη τῆς ἀγάπης.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Chrysostom, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hom. on S. + Ignatius</span></span>, tom. ii. 600.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" + href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Ignatius in the 11th sec. of his + epistle to the Smyrnæans requests them to send a messenger to + congratulate the church of Antioch, ὅτι εἰρηνεύουσιν, καὶ ἀπέλαβον + τὸ ἵδιον μέγαθος, ἀποκατεστάθη αὐτοῖς τὸ ἴδιον σωματεῖον. The word + σωματεῖον, or corpusculum, indicates the completeness of a diocesan + church with its bishop, the whole Church being σῶμα Χριστοῦ, as S. + Ignatius had said in sec. I of the same epistle, ἐν ἑνὶ σώματι τῆς + ἐκκλησίας αὐτοῦ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" + href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is some doubt about the time of + S. Ignatius's martyrdom. We suppose it to be at the end of Trajan's + reign. S. Alexander I. is reckoned a martyr, and placed in the + canon of the Mass next after S. Ignatius, which seems to indicate a + connection between their deaths.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" + href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So the persecution of Diocletian is + said to have arisen from Apollo declaring that the just who were + upon the earth prevented him from uttering true oracles; and a like + answer was received by Julian the Apostate at Antioch, where the + relics of S. Babylas had been translated by Gallus to Daphne, near + a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here Julian, offering in vain a + great number of sacrifices to the demon, was at length informed + that the body of the saint condemned him to silence, and ordered + the Christians to remove it. S. Chrys. tom. ii. 560.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" + href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Acts of S. Symphorosa, from Dom + Ruinart, pp. 23-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" + href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Justin. 1 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + 1, 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" + href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sec. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" + href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sec. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" + href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sec. 17.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" + href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sec. 45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" + href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sec. 68. Chevallier's translation, + sometimes altered.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" + href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Origen <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c. + Cels.</span></span> i. 3. Περὶ τοῦ κρύφα Χριστιανοὺς τὰ ἀρέσκοντα + αὐτοῖς ποιεῖν καὶ διδάσκειν εἰπὼν, καὶ ὅτι οὐ μάτην τοῦτο ποιοῦσιν, + ἅτε διωθούμενοι τὴν ἐπηρτημένην αὐτοῖς δίκην τοῦ θανάτου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" + href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Σὲ τὸν καθωσιωμένον ὥσπερ ἄγαλμα αὐτῷ + δήσας ἀπάγει καὶ ἀνασκολοπίζει. viii. 38, 39.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" + href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">viii. 69; by this we should judge that + the work of Celsus appeared not long after the punishment of the + Jews by Hadrian.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" + href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Attached to Justin's first + Apology.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" + href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Trajan's remark to S. Ignatius: + <span class="tei tei-q">“You mean him that was crucified under + Pontius Pilate.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" + href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the curious letter of Hadrian + about the Alexandrians, in which the Christians spoken of are + probably heretics.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" + href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">They are first mentioned at Rome in + the reign of Alexander Severus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" + href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Origen <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c. + Cels.</span></span> vii. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" + href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Trajan's question, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Who art thou who art zealous to transgress our + commands, besides persuading others to come to an evil + end?”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" + href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Αἷρε τοὺς ἀθέους.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" + href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Roman legionary, if he wished to + lay aside his helmet, was only allowed to go bareheaded.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" + href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny remarks, that the emperors + were never in the mind of the Romans <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sovereigns</span></em> in the modern + acceptation of the word, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">life-presidents</span></em> with absolute + power.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" + href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Antonins</span></span>, iii. 311.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" + href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Christianos + esse passus est.”</span> Lampridius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" + href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Ecc.</span></span> iii. 250.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" + href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apolog.</span></span> iv. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jampridem, cum dure definitis dicendo, non licet esse + vos, et hoc sine ullo retractatu humaniore describitis, vim + profitemini et iniquam ex arce dominationem, si ideo negatis licere + quia vultis, non quia debuit non licere.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" + href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Res olim + dissociabiles, principatum et libertatem.”</span> Tacit. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Agric.</span></span> 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" + href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Primo statim + beatissimi sæculi ortu.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" + href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Agricola</span></span>, 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" + href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Döllinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hippolytus und + Kattistus</span></span>, p. 187, who quotes from Dio Cassius, l. + 75, p. 1267, Reimar. This was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 203.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" + href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Severus</span></span>, iii. 75, from Dio: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 206.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" + href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Martyres</span></span>, 4: about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 196.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" + href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dio, quoted by Döllinger, ut + supra.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" + href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + v. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" + href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + i. 37; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + Scap.</span></span> 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" + href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">De Rossi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archeol. + Cristiana</span></span>, 1866, p. 33, makes this estimate.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" + href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From a passage in the account of the + Martyrs of Lyons, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 177 (Euseb. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> v. 1, p. 201, l. 3), it + appears that the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Church”</span> was + only given to a mother or cathedral church by writers of that + time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" + href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus S. Irenæus (iii. 3. 3) speaks of + S. Peter and S. Paul as θεμελιώσαντες καὶ οἰκοδομήσαντες the Church + of Rome, and of the Church of Ephesus (ibid. iv.) as τεθεμελιωμένη + ὑπὸ Παύλου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" + href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This S. Innocent states to S. + Augustine and the African bishops in 417 as a fact well known to + them: <span class="tei tei-q">“Scientes quid Apostolicæ Sedi, cum + omnes hoc loco positi ipsum sequi desideremus Apostolum, debeatur, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a quo + ipse episcopatus et tota auctoritas nominis hujus + emersit</span></em>.”</span> Coustant, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist. Rom. + Pontif.</span></span> 888.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" + href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Photius, συναγωγαὶ καὶ ἀποδείξεις, + quoted by Döllinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hippolytus und Kallistus</span></span>, p. + 264, 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" + href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Can. 6. Concil. Nic. τὰ ἀρχαῖα ἔθη + κρατείτω, τὰ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ καὶ Λιβύῃ καὶ Πενταπόλει, ὥστε τὸν + Ἀλεξανδρείας ἐπίσκοπον πάντων τούτων ἔχειν τὴν ἐξουσίαν, ἐπειδὴ και + τῷ εν Ῥωμῃ επισκοπῳ τοῦτο συνηθεσ εστιν. See Hagemann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">die Römische + Kirche</span></span>, 596-8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" + href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Traducem + fidei et semina doctrinæ.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Præscrip.</span></span> 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" + href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Döllinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hipp. u. + Kall.</span></span> p. 338-343, for the meaning of this word in the + time of S. Irenæus, as carrying with it a special magisterium + fidei. <span class="tei tei-q">“Presbyteros”</span> was added as a + title of honour to the name of Bishop. In S. Irenæus tho same + persons have as Bishops the succession of the Apostles, as + Presbyteri <span class="tei tei-q">“the charisma of the + truth.”</span> Papias marks the Asiatic Presbyteri as those who had + heard of S. John; and Clement of Alex. speaks of Presbyteri who, + occupied with the office of teaching, and deeming it diverse from + that of composition, did not write. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eclogæ</span></span> + xxvii. p. 996.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" + href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I am indebted for the above sketch of + Gnosticism mainly to Schwane, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dogmengeschichte der vornicänischen + Zeit</span></span>, p. 648-51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" + href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Emp.</span></span> iii. 281, deduces it from a passage of Origen on + S. Matt. tom. iii. p. 857 c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" + href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frag. Epist. ad Florin.</span></span> tom. i. + p. 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" + href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He seems to refer to Matt. x. 24: οὐκ + ἔστι μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" + href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Irenæus, lib. iii. c. 2; lib. iii. + c. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" + href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quos et + successores relinquebant, suum ipsorum locum magisterii + tradentes.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" + href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Irenæus, lib. iii. c. 3, 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" + href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Hoc enim + Ecclesiæ creditum est Dei munus.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" + href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lib. iii. c. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" + href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lib. v. c. 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" + href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Qui cum + episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum secundum placitum + Patris acceperunt.”</span> iv. 26, 2; and 5, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ubi igitur charismata Domini posita sunt, ibi discere + oportet veritatem, apud quos est ea quæ est ab apostolis ecclesiæ + successio.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" + href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Ignatius, quoted above, p. + 206.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" + href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schwane, p. 661.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" + href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hagemann, p. 622.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" + href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter of the Synod of Arles to Pope + Sylvester: <span class="tei tei-q">“Quoniam recedere a partibus + istis minime potuisti, in quibus et Apostoli quotidie sedent, et + cruor ipsorum sine intermissione Dei gloriam testatur.”</span> + Mansi, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Concilia</span></span>, ii. 469.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" + href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertull. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de + Præsc.</span></span> 19, 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" + href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The word here stands evidently for the + whole body of Christian truth, rites, and discipline, the + communication of which was a sacramentum.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" + href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That is, he opposes the word + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">choosers</span></em> to the word <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christians</span></em>; the one signifying + those who believe what they <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">choose</span></em>, the other those who + believe what Christ taught.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" + href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Præscrip.</span></span> 37.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" + href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἡ τοῦ κυρίου κατὰ τὴν παρουσίαν + διδασκαλία.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" + href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clem. Alex. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> + vii. 16, p. 890-894; 17, p. 897-900. The sections 15-17, p. + 886-900, treat of the spirit and conduct of heresy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" + href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Principiis</span></span>, pref. p. 47. See + also on Matt. tom. iii. 864, a passage equally decisive.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" + href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cont. Cels.</span></span> vi. 48, tom. i. + 670.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" + href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, xvi. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" + href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De dono persev.</span></span> 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" + href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Enarr. in Ps. 54, tom. iv. 513.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" + href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Serm. 51, tom. v. 288.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" + href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Mark's Gospel would be referred to + S. Peter, and S. Luke's writings to S. Paul.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" + href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schwane, p. 779-80.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" + href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schwane, p. 783-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" + href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quia a + patribus ista accepimus in ecclesia legenda.”</span> n. 47.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" + href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stromata, vii. c. 16, p. 896.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" + href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kleutgen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologie der + Vorzeit</span></span>, iii. 957; Schwane, vol. i. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" + href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. iv. 26. 2, p. 262. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quapropter <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">iis qui in Ecclesia sunt</span></em> + presbyteris obaudire oportet,”</span> &c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" + href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. iii. 24, p. 223.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" + href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schwane, p. 683.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" + href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Observed by Hagemann, p. 618, + referring to the words of S. Irenæus, <span class="tei tei-q">“ad + hanc enim Ecclesiam propter potiorem prinicipalitatem <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">necesse + est</span></em> omnem convenire Ecclesiam,”</span> &c. It must + be remembered that the proper word for the power which held + together the whole Roman empire was Principatus, the very word used + by S. Augustine to express the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">original</span></em> + authority of the Roman See: <span class="tei tei-q">“Romanæ + Ecclesiæ, in qua <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">semper</span></em> apostolicæ cathedræ viguit + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">principatus</span></em>.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + 43.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" + href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Einleitung in die + katholische Dogmatik</span></span>, i. 345-6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" + href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Guizot ranks Marcus Aurelius with S. + Louis, as the only rulers who preferred conscience to gain in all + their conduct.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" + href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Maximus Tyrius, diss. 17, 12; Reiske, + and diss, ii. 2. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" + href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Acta Martyrum sincera</span></span>, Ruinart, + p. 58-60.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" + href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ruinart, p. 67.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" + href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ruinart, p. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" + href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ruinart, p. 69.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" + href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> v. i. μυριάδας μαρτύρων + διαπρέψαι στοχασμῷ λαβεῖν ἔνεστιν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" + href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib, v. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" + href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clem. Alex. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> + ii. c. 20, p. 494.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" + href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + vi. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" + href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">les + Antonins</span></span>, iii. 326, 338.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" + href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philostratus in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Apollonius of + Tyana</span></span>, written at the request of the empress Julia + Domna. See Kellner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hellenismus und Christenthum</span></span>, c. + v. s. 4, 81-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" + href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Orig. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c. + Cels.</span></span> viii. 68, tom. i. p. 793.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" + href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Churches in private houses, under + cover of that great liberty which invested with a sort of sacred + independence the Roman household, it had from the beginning: the + church of S. Pudentiana in the house of the senator Pudens still + guards the altar on which S. Peter offered.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" + href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The reign of Louis XIV.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" + href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Am. Thierry, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tableau de l'Empire + Romain</span></span>, p. 412.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" + href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zach. ii. 11, Is. ii. 2, Mich. iv. 1, + compared with Titus ii. 14 and 1 Pet. ii. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" + href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep. ad Diognetum</span></span>, 5, 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" + href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Justin Martyr, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tryphon</span></span>, sec. 135, 42, 116; + where he refers to and explains the vision of the high-priest Jesus + in the prophet Zacharias iii. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" + href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ὡς υἱὸν Θεοῦ, Θεὸν ἐληλυθότα ἐν + ἀνθρωπίνῃ ψυχῇ καὶ σώματι. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cont. Cels.</span></span> iii. 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" + href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 74.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" + href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cont. Cels.</span></span> viii. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" + href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vi. 48, p. 670.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" + href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cont. Cels.</span></span> vi. 79, p. 692.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" + href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Κωλύοντος τοῦ Θεοῦ τὸ πᾶν + ἐκπολεμηθῆναι αὐτῶν ἔθνος; συστῆναι γὰρ αὐτὸ ἐβούλετο καὶ + πληρωθῆναι πᾶσαν τὴν γῆν τῆς σωτηρίου ταύτης καὶ εὐσεβεστάτης + διδασκαλίας. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cont. Cels.</span></span> iii. 8. It must be + remembered that Celsus in the passage to which this is an answer + had asserted that the Christians had arisen out of the Jews through + a sedition; which makes the train of thought pertinent. For Origen + is contrasting the losses which occur through exterminating wars, + such as a sedition, or civil war, excites, with the losses to the + Christian body through martyrdom. The comparison therefore lies + between the whole number of Christians viewed <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">en + masse</span></span> and the martyrs. Lasaulx remarks that this was + written before the Decian persecution.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" + href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Preface to the Oxford edition of S. + Cyprian's treatise on the Unity of the Church.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" + href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Unitate</span></span>, iii. &c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" + href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Epist. 70 and 73.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" + href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">τῇ γὰρ ἐλπίδι ἐσώθημεν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" + href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ep. 1, Oxford translation.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" + href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Irenæus, lib. iv. 33 g.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" + href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dan. ii. 44. Compare Apoc. i. 9. ὁ + ἀδελφὸς ὑμῶν καὶ συγκοινωνὸς ἐν τῇ θλίψει καὶ ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ καὶ + ὑπομονῇ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" + href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Κατανοήσατε τὸν ἀπόστολον καὶ ἀρχιερέα + τῆς ὁμολογίας ἡμῶν Χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν. Heb. iii. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" + href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus S. Gregory the Great wrote to + Eulogius, Patriarch of Alexandria, that the three original + patriarchal Sees were all Sees of Peter: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cum multi sint Apostoli, pro ipso tamen principatu + sola Apostolorum Principis Sedes in auctoritate convaluit, quæ in + tribus locis unius est.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> + lib. vii. 40. The Patriarchal authority is a derivation from the + Primacy, which is the well-head.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" + href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τῆς βασιλείας. + Matt. iv. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" + href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Dionys. Alex. Ep. 2. Gallandi, iii. + 512.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" + href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Answer of Pope Innocent I. to the + Council of Carthage in 416, among the letters of S. Augustine.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" + href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Constant. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist. Rom. + Pontif.</span></span> p. 1037.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" + href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ephes. iv., written during S. Paul's + imprisonment at Rome.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" + href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This text is continually used by S. + Augustine against the Donatists, as containing an express divine + prophecy that the one Catholic Church should continue to the end of + the world. The Gospel <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">of</span></em> the Kingdom, and the Gospel + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">without</span></em> the Kingdom, are ideas far + as the poles apart.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" + href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Pudicitia</span></span>, § 1. See Hagemann, + p. 54.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" + href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He is so represented by Hippolytus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophumen</span></span>, lib. ix. p. 209. + See Hagemann, p. 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" + href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nec hoc nobis + nunc nuper consilium cogitatum est, nec hæc apud nos adversus + improbos modo supervenerunt repentina subsidia: sed antiqua hæc + apud nos severitas, antiqua fides, disciplina legitur antiqua; + quoniam nec tantas de nobis laudes Apostolus protulisset dicendo: + Quia fides vestra prædicatur in toto mundo, nisi jam exinde vigor + iste radices fidei de temporibus illis mutuatus fuisset: quarum + laudum et gloriæ degenerem fuisse maximum crimen est.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist. + Cleri Rom. ad Cyprian.</span></span> 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" + href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hagemann, p. 77.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" + href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Matt. tom. iii. 857 c.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" + href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Cum Fabiani + locus, id est, cum locus Petri et gradus cathedræ sacerdotalis + vacaret.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> lii. p. 68. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sedisse intrepidum Romæ in sacerdotali cathedra eo + tempore cum tyrannus infestus sacerdotibus Dei fanda atque infanda + comminaretur, cum multo patientius et tolerabilius audiret levari + adversus se æmulum principem quam constitui Romæ Dei + sacerdotem.”</span> Ibid. p. 69.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" + href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> lii. p. 69.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" + href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare with the savageness of the + Prefect of Rome in torturing S. Laurence the following incident + which occurred five years later. Valerian had been captured by the + Persian monarch, and his son the Emperor Gallienus bore the + reproach with great tranquillity. In the great festival which he + held at Rome about 263, to commemorate the victory of Odenatus over + Sapor, some revellers mixed themselves with the pretended Persian + captives, and examined their faces closely. When asked what they + meant, they replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“We are looking for + the emperor's father.”</span> The jest so stung Gallienus that he + had them burnt alive. Weiss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte</span></span>, ii. + 224. It was for showing him the Church's spiritual treasures, the + poor, the helpless, and the suffering, instead of the coveted gold + and silver, that the Prefect burnt S. Laurence alive.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" + href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Lapsis</span></span>, iv. p. 182-3, Oxford + translation.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" + href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + l. vii. c. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" + href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. l. vii. c. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" + href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the martyrdom of the favourite + chamberlain Peter, who, says Eusebius (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + viii. 6), was violently scourged, and then slowly roasted + alive.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" + href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Diocletianus + ... excarnificare omnes suos protenus cœpit. Sedebat ipse atque + innocentes igne torrebat.... Omnis sexus et ætatis homines ad + exustionem rapti; nec singuli, quoniam tanta erat multitudo, sed + gregatim circumdato igni amburebantur,”</span> &c. Lactant. 14, + 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" + href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + viii. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" + href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lactantius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Morte + Persecutorum</span></span>, 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" + href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. viii. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" + href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Statim + productus non modo extortus sed etiam legitime coctus cum + admirabili patientia, postremo exustus est.”</span> Lact. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Mort. + Pers.</span></span> 13; Euseb. viii. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" + href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Vita + Constant</span></span>. 1. i. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" + href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lactant. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divin. + Institut.</span></span> 1. v. 9. Gallandi, tom. iv. 313-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" + href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. 1. v. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" + href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + viii. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" + href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lactantius, as above.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" + href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> viii. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" + href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + viii. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" + href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Σωκ. Ἀναγκαῖον + οὖν ἐστὶ περιμένειν ἕως ἄν τις μάθῃ ὡς δεῖ πρὸς θεοὺς καὶ πρὸς + ἀνθρώπους διακεῖσθαι.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Αλκ. Πότε οὖν + παρέσται ὁ χρόνος οὗτος, ὦ Σώκρατες? καὶ τίς ὁ παιδεύσων? ἥδιστα + γὰρ ἄν μοι δοκῶ ἰδεῖν τοῦτον τὸν ἄνθρωπον τίς ἐστιν.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Σωκ. Οὗτος + ἐστιν ᾧ μέλει περὶ σοῦ.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" + href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Cor. i. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" + href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">die Philosophie der + Griechen</span></span>, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">te</span></span> Aufl. vol. i. pp. 6 and + 35. <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophy,”</span> says Grote, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, vol. i. v. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is, or aims at becoming, reasoned truth: an aggregate + of matters believed or disbelieved after conscious process of + examination gone through by the mind and capable of being explained + to others:”</span> who quotes Cicero's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Philosophia ex rationum collatione + consistit.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" + href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus Herodotus says of Solon, τῆς + θεωρίης ἐκδημήσας εἵνεκεν, i. 30; and presently, ξεῖνε Ἀθηναῖε, + παρ᾽ ἡμέας γὰρ περὶ σέο λόγος ἀπῖκται πολλὸς, καὶ σοφίης εἵνεκεν + τῆς σῆς καὶ πλάνης, ὡς φιλοσοφέων γῆν πολλὴν θεωρίης εἵνεκεν + ἐπελήλυθας.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" + href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. 39, quoted.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" + href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. p. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" + href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Newman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verses on various + occasions</span></span>; Heathen Greece, p. 158.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" + href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. p. 43. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aber es liegt überhaupt nicht in der Weise des + Alterthums, die gottesdienstlichen Handlungen zur Belehrung durch + Religionsvorträge zu benützen. Ein Julian mochte in Nachahmung + christlicher Sitte dazu den Versuch machen, aus der klassischen + Zeit selbst ist uns kein Beispiel hievon überliefert.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" + href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. p. 141.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" + href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. i. pp. 449-452.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" + href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grundriss der + Geschichte der Philosophie</span></span>, drit. Aufl. i. p. + 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" + href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" + href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. i. 72.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" + href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heidenthum und + Judenthum</span></span>, p. 272, and Zeller, i. p. 139, who states + this of the Eleatics, Heracleitus, Democritus, and even the + Pythagoreans, who, though they put Number instead of Matter, yet + conceived incorporeal principles as material, and so considered + from the same point of view the soul and the body, the ethical and + the physical, in man.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" + href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, ibid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" + href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 75. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Die Sophistik bildet den Uebergang von der + kosmologischen zu der auf das denkende und wollende Subject + gerichteten Philosophie.”</span> p. 76. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sokrates... theilt mit den Sophisten die allgemeine + Tendenz der Reflexion auf das Subject, tritt aber zu ihnen dadurch + in Gegensatz, das seine Reflexion sich nicht bloss auf die + elementaren Functionen des Subjects, die Wahrnehmung und Meinung + und das sinnliche und egoistische Begehren, sondern auch auf die + höchsten gestigen, zur Objectivität in wesentlicher Beziehung + stehenden Functionen, nämlich auf das Wissen und die Tugend + richtet.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" + href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ib. i. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" + href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus Zeller throughout his great work + perpetually deplores that through this long period, and with + increasing force after Aristotle's time, pure science, <span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">die reine Wissenschaft</span></span>, was not + studied for its own sake, but was subordinate to a moral purpose, + the question, that is, of man's greatest good, and his + happiness.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" + href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Simplicius, in the sixth century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" + href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. p. 117.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" + href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 88.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" + href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">xiii. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" + href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metaph.</span></span> i. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" + href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Σωκράτης φρονήσεις ᾤετο εἶναι πάσας + τὰς ἀρετάς ... λόγους τὰς ἀρετὰς ᾤετο εἶναι; ἐπιστήμας γὰρ εἶναι + πάσας. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ethic. Nic.</span></span> vi. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" + href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xen. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem.</span></span> i. + 1. 16.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" + href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xen. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem.</span></span> + iv. 6. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" + href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iii. 4. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" + href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iii. 9, iv. 6; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sympos.</span></span> + ii. 12. Plat. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> 25 e; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Protag.</span></span> + p. 329 b.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" + href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memor.</span></span> i. 6, 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" + href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tusc.</span></span> v. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" + href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἡ μαιευτική, Plat. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theæt.</span></span> + p. 149.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" + href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἐξέτασις, Plat. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + p. 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" + href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xen. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem.</span></span> i. + 4. 7. σοφοῦ τινὸς δημιουργοῦ καὶ φιλοζώου.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" + href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" + href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ὁ τὸν ὅλον κόσμον συντάττων τὲ καὶ + συνέχων, ἐν ᾣ πάντα τὰ καλὰ καὶ ἀγαθά ἐστι, καὶ ἀεὶ μὲν χρωμένοις + ἀτριβῆ τε καὶ ὑγιᾶ καὶ ἀγήρατον παρέχων, θᾶττον δὲ νοήματος + ἀναμαρτήτως ὑπηρετοῦντα, οὗτος τὰ μέγιστα μὲν πράττων ὁρᾶται, τάδε + δὲ οἰκονομῶν ἀόρατος ἡμῖν ἐστι. Compare the famous passage of S. + Paul, Rom. i. 19, 20. διότι τὸ γνωστὸν τοῦ Θεοῦ φάνερόν ἐστιν ἐν + αὐτοῖς; ὁ γὰρ Θεὸς αὐτοῖς ἐφανέρωσε; τὰ γὰρ ἀόρατα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ + κτίσεως κόσμου τοῖς ποιήμασι νοούμενα καθορᾶται, ἥτε ἀΐδιος αὐτοῦ + δύναμις καὶ θειότης εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτοὺς ἀναπολογήτους. Socrates + draws precisely the conclusion which S. Paul asserts that the + premises warrant.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" + href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">τὸ δαιμόνιον.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" + href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span>, + at the end.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357" + href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phædo</span></span>, p. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358" + href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The view here taken would be + powerfully confirmed by citing at length the interview of Socrates + with the hetæra Theodote, as given by Xen. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mem.</span></span> + iii. 11. The unconscious absence from the mind of Socrates of any + notion of turpitude in the occupation of Theodote is very striking + indeed. One is reminded that Socrates took lessons in rhetoric of + that Aspasia, herself the hetæra of Pericles, who is recorded to + have educated a school of Theodotes. Thus Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span>, 24, says of her, + παιδίσκας ἑταιρούσας τρέφουσα. In the Meneximus, p. 235, Socrates + claims her as being his διδάσκαλος οὖσα οὐ πάνυ φαύλη περὶ + ῥητορικῆς, quoted by Wallon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">de l'Esclavage</span></span>, vol. i. p. + 190.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359" + href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 92, 93.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360" + href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 91.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361" + href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 117.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362" + href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363" + href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 120, from Aristotle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metaph.</span></span> i. 6 and 9, and xiii. + 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364" + href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, i. 119.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365" + href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 120, remarks: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Eintheilung der Philosophie in Ethik, + Physik und Dialektik (die Cicero <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acad. + pos.</span></span> i. 5, 19, Plato zugeschreibt), hat nach Sextus + Empir (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">adv. Math.</span></span> vii. 16) zuerst + Plato's Schüler Xenocrates förmlich aufgestellt: Plato aber sei, + sagt Sextus mit Recht, δυνάμει ihr Urheber, ἀρχηγός.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366" + href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 599. + Döllinger, p. 299, sec. 122; p. 279, sec. 87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367" + href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, ii. part 1, p. 598. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ueber diese beiden Gegenstände (die + Religion und die Kunst) hat sich Plato ziemlich häufig, aber immer + nur gelegenheitlich geäussert.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368" + href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 290, sec. 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369" + href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Timæus</span></span>, 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370" + href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. 230, speaks of <span class="tei tei-q">“the early caution + produced by the fate of Socrates,”</span> and believes <span class= + "tei tei-q">“such apprehension to have operated as one motive + deterring him from publishing any philosophical exposition under + his own name, any Πλάτωνος σύγγραμμα,”</span> p. 231.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371" + href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This has been done by Zeller, vol. ii. + part 1, pp. 599-602, from whom I take it. He supports his analysis + with a great number of references to various works of Plato.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372" + href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, p. 487, + remarks of Plato's doctrine: <span class="tei tei-q">“So far as + things are the appearance and the image of the Idea, they must be + determined by the Idea; so far as they have in themselves a proper + principle in matter, they must be determined likewise by necessity: + since, certain as it is that the world is the work of reason, it is + as little to be left out of mind that in its formation beside + reason another blindly working cause was in play, and that even the + Godhead could make its work not absolutely perfect, but only so + good as the nature of the finite permitted;”</span> and he refers + to many passages of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Timæus</span></span>, of which one will + suffice, wherein at the conclusion of a review of the physical + causes of things Plato says: ταῦτα δὴ πάντα τότε ταύτῃ πεφυκότα ἐξ + ἀνάγκης ὁ τοῦ καλλίστου τε καὶ ἀρίστου δημιουργὸς ἐν τοῖς + γιγνομένοις παρελάμβανεν ἡνίκα τὸν αὐτάρκη τε καὶ τὸν τελεώτατον + Θεὸν ἐγέννα, χρώμενος μὲν ταῖς περὶ ταῦτα αἰτίαις ὑπηρετούσαις, τὸ + δὲ εὖ τεκταινόμενος ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς γιγνομένοις αὐτὸς; διὸ δὴ χρὴ δὔ + αἰτίας εἴδη διορίζεσθαι, τὸ μὲν ἀναγκαῖον, τὸ δὲ θεῖον, καὶ τὸ μὲν + θεῖον ἐν ἅπασι ζητεῖν κτήσεως ἕνεκα εὐδαίμονος βίου, καθ᾽ ὅσον ἡμῶν + ἡ φύσις ἐνδέχεται, τὸ δὲ ἀναγκαῖον ἐκείνων χάριν, λογιζομένους ὡς + ἄνευ τούτων οὐ δυνατὰ αὐτὰ ἐκεῖνα, ἐφ᾽ οἷς σπουδάζομεν, μόνα + κατανοεῖν, οὐδ᾽ αὖ λαβεῖν, οὐδ᾽ ἄλλως πως μετασχεῖν. p. 68. Compare + p. 48. μεμιγμένη γὰρ οὖν ἡ τοῦδε τοῦ κόσμου γένεσις ἐξ ἀνάγκης τε + καὶ νοῦ συστάσεως ἐγεννήθη; κ.τ.λ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373" + href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 297, sec. 119, + quoted.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374" + href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So likewise Zeller remarks, vol. ii. + part 1, p. 604: <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Gesetze, welchen die + philosophischen Regenten fehlen, behandeln die Volks-religion + durchweg als die sittliche Grundlage des Staatswesens.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375" + href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 605.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376" + href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Here Zeller remarks: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Diese Voraussetzung liegt der ganzen Behandlung dieser + Gegenstände bei Plato zu Grunde.... Dass die philosophische + Erkenntniss immer auf eine kleine Minderheit beschränkt sein müsse + ist Plato's entschiedene Ueberzeugung.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377" + href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 293.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378" + href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. + 448-457.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379" + href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Wie es sich + aber in dieser Beziehung mit der Persönlichkeit verhalte, dies ist + eine Frage, welche sich Plato wohl schwerlich bestimmt vorgelegt + hat, wie ja dem Alterthum überhaupt der schärfere Begriff der + Persönlichkeit fehlt, und die Vernunft nicht selten als allgemeine + Weltvernunft in einer zwischen Persönlichem und Unpersönlichem + unsicher schwankenden Weise gedacht wird.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeller</span></span>, + p. 454.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380" + href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 286, sec. 103. Zeller, + vol. ii. part 1, p. 538.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381" + href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theætetus</span></span>, p. 176. Σωκ. Ἀλλ᾽ + οὔτ᾽ ἀπόλεσθαι τὰ κυκὰ δυνατόν, ὦ Θεόδωρε; ὑπενάντιον γὰρ τι τῷ + ἀγαθῷ ἀεὶ εἶναι ἀνάγκη; οὔτ᾽ ἐν θεοῖς αὐτὰ ἴδρυσθαι, τὴν δὲ θνητὴν + φύσιν καὶ τόνδε τὸν τόπον περιπολεῖ ἐξ ἀνάγκης.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382" + href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. + 541-4, who points out a string of difficulties on the subject of + personality, free-will, as maintained by Plato, and his doctrine + that no one is willingly wicked.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383" + href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Grote's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. pp. 133, 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384" + href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 116.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385" + href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So Zeller sets forth at length, i. p. + 206; and Ueberweg, i. p. 47.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386" + href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 50. Plato calls it + ὁδόν τινα βίου, for which Pythagoras αὐτός τε διαφερόντως ἠγαπήθη, + καὶ οἱ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ νῦν Πυθαγόρειον τρόπον ἐπονομάζοντες τοῦ + βίου διαφανεῖς πη δοκοῦσιν εἶναι. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polit.</span></span> + x. p. 600.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387" + href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. p. 221.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388" + href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 115.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389" + href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phæd.</span></span> sec. 135, p. 274.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390" + href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">τὸν τοῦ εἰδότος λόγον λέγεις ζῶντα καὶ + ἔμψυχον, οὗ ὁ γεγραμμένος εἴδωλον ἄν τι λέγοιτο δικαίως.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391" + href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἔχοντες σπέρμα, ὅθεν ἄλλοι ἐν ἄλλοις + ἤθεοι φυόμενοι τοῦτ᾽ ἀεὶ ἀθάνατον παρέχειν ἱκανοί.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392" + href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his averseness to write on such + doctrines at all set forth in his 7th epistle.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393" + href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote observes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. 216: <span class="tei tei-q">“Plato was not merely a composer of + dialogues. He was lecturer and chief of a school besides. The + presidency of that school, commencing about 386 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, and continued by him + with great celebrity for the last half (nearly forty years) of his + life, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">was + his most important function</span></em>. Among his contemporaries + he must have exerted greater influence through his school than + through his writings.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394" + href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. p. 138.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395" + href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 140, from + Diogenes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396" + href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aulus Gellius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">N. A.</span></span> + xx. 5, quoted by Ueberweg.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397" + href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ἐν κοινῷ γιγνόμενοι λόγοι ... + ἐκδεδομένοι λόγοι; οἱ κατὰ φιλοσοφίαν λόγοι, or διδασκαλικοὶ λόγοι, + οἱ ἐκ τῶν οἰκείων ἀρχῶν ἑκάστου μαθήματος καὶ οὐκ ἐκ τῶν τοῦ + ἀποκρινομένου δοξῶν συλλογιζόμενοι, which last are λόγοι + πειραστικοὶ. Simplicius calls τὰ ἐξωτερικὰ, τὰ κοινὰ καὶ δι᾽ + ἐνδόξων περαινόμενα; Philoponus, λόγοι μὴ ἀποδεικτικοὶ, μηδὲ πρὸς + τοὺς γνησίους τῶν ἀκροατῶν εἰρημένοι, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τοὺς πολλοὺς, ἐκ + πιθανῶν ὡρμημένοι. Quoted by Ueberweg, i. p. 146.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398" + href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Vidi il + maestro di color che sanuo<br /> + Seder tra filosofica famiglia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dante, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inf.</span></span> iv. 131.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399" + href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">διδασκαλία.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400" + href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ὑπόμνησις.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401" + href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 188, from Diogenes and + Themistius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402" + href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid, from Noack, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span>, + v. i. sec. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403" + href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol, iii. part 1, p. 343.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404" + href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ep. vii. p. 341. οὔκουν ἐμόν γε περὶ + αὐτῶν ἐστι σύγγραμμα, οὐδὲ μή ποτε γένηται; ῥητὸν γὰρ οὐδαμῶς ἐστὶν + ὡς ἄλλα μαθήματα, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ πολλῆς συνουσίας γιγνομένης περὶ τὸ + πρᾶγμα αὐτὸ καὶ τοῦ συζῇν ἐξαίφνης, οἷον ἀπὸ πυρὸς πηδήσαντος + ἐξαφθὲν φῶς, ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γενόμενον αὐτὸ ἑαυτὸ ἤδη τρέφει and much + more to the same effect; after which he says, ὧν ἕνεκα νοῦν ἔχων + οὐδεὶς τολμήσει ποτὲ εἰς αὐτὸ τιθέναι τὰ νενοημένα, καὶ ταῦτα εἰς + ἀμετακίνητον, ὃ δὴ πάσχει τὰ γεγραμμένα τύποις. So again in his + second letter, p. 314. πολλάκις δὲ λεγόμενα καὶ ἀεὶ ἀκουόμενα καὶ + πολλὰ ἔτη μόγις, ὥσπερ χρυσὸς, ἐκκαθαίρεται μετὰ πολλῆς + πραγματείας.... μεγίστη δὲ φυλακὴ τὸ μὴ γράφειν ἀλλ᾽ ἐκμανθάνειν; + οὐ γὰρ ἔστι τὰ γραφέντα μὴ οὐκ ἐκπεσεῖν. Grote seems to me fully + justified in counting these epistles as genuine, against the + attacks of some modern German sceptics.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405" + href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Μετὰ τριβῆς πάσης καὶ χρόνου πολλοῦ, + ὅπερ ἐν ἀρχαῖς εἶπον; μόγις δὲ τριβόμενα πρὸς ἄλληλα αὐτῶν ἕκαστα, + ὀνόματα καὶ λόγοι ὄψεις τε καὶ αἰσθήσεις, ἐν εὐμενέσιν ἐλέγχοις + ἐλεγχόμενα καὶ ἄνευ φθόνων ἐρωτήσεσι καὶ ἀποκρίσεσι χρωμένων, + ἐξέλαμψε φρόνησις περὶ ἕκαστον καὶ νοῦς, συντείνων ὅτι μάλιστ᾽ εἰς + δύναμιν ἀνθρωπίνην. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> vii. p. 344.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406" + href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + i. 229. <span class="tei tei-q">“When we see by what Standard Plato + tests the efficacy of any expository process, we shall see yet more + clearly how he came to consider written exposition unavailing. The + standard which he applies is, that the learner shall be rendered + able both to apply to others and himself to endure a Socratic + Elenchus or cross-examination as to the logical difficulties + involved in all the steps and helps to learning.”</span> Without + this <span class="tei tei-q">“Plato will not allow that he has + attained true knowledge”</span> (ἐπιστήμη). Compare the system + pursued in the mediæval schools and universities.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407" + href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. pp. 242, 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408" + href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 632.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409" + href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 304, 305.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410" + href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 309, 310, sec. 137, + 138.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411" + href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 310, sec. 139.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412" + href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 311, sec. 140.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413" + href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg411" class= + "tei tei-ref">411</a>, above.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414" + href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 307 and 311.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415" + href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Διὸ καὶ πειρᾶσθαι χρὴ ἐνθένδε ἐκεῖσε + φεύγειν ὅτι τάχιστα; φυγὴ δὲ ὁμοίωσις Θεῷ κατὰ τὸ δυνατόν; ὁμοίωσις + δὲ δίκαιον καὶ ὅσιον μετὰ φρονήσεως γενέσθαι. κ.τ.λ. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theætet.</span></span> p. 176.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416" + href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 623.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417" + href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, ii. 2, p. 625.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418" + href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 629.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419" + href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420" + href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421" + href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422" + href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 12. + Döllinger, p. 318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423" + href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 319-321.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424" + href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The doctrine of Hylozoismus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425" + href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 322-324.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426" + href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 324.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427" + href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 326.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428" + href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ὁμολογουμένως τῇ φύσει ζῆν. Ueberweg, + i. p. 198.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429" + href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430" + href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 330.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431" + href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 370.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432" + href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 398.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433" + href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, pp. 331-333. Zeller, vol. + iii. part 1, p. 392.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434" + href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 335.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435" + href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 427. + ἀπαθία and ἀταραξία.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436" + href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, i. p. + 107.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437" + href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 435.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438" + href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 336, who quotes Sextus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hypot.</span></span> i. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439" + href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 477.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440" + href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 338.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441" + href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a full account of the line of + thought followed by Carneades, see Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, pp. + 454-477.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442" + href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 436.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443" + href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 482, 492.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444" + href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 218; and Zeller, iii. + part 1, p. 593, calls him <span class="tei tei-q">“neben seinem + Lehrer Antiochus den eigentlichsten Vertreter des philosophischen + Eklekticismus in dem letzen Jahrhundert vor dem Anfang unserer + Zeitrechnung.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445" + href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. pp. 221-2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446" + href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. 219, 223.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447" + href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 313.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448" + href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 254.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449" + href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 307. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Er wirkt also zwar auf die Welt, aber ohne sie zu + kennen, wie der Magnet auf das Eisen, und seine Action auf die Welt + ist keine freiwollende.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450" + href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 340, 572.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451" + href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ζεῦ, φύσεως ἄρχηγε, νόμου μέτα πάντα + κυβερνῶν;—<br /> + Σοὶ δὴ πᾶς ὅδε κόσμος ἐλισσόμενος περὶ γαῖαν<br /> + Πείθεται ᾗ μὲν ἄγης, καὶ ἑκὼν ὑπὸ σεῖο κρατεῖται—<br /> + Ἀλλὰ σὺ καὶ τὰ περισσὰ, ἐπίστασαι ἄρτια θεῖναι,<br /> + Καὶ κοσμεῖς τὰ ἄκοσμα, καὶ οὐ φίλα σοὶ φίλα ἐστίν.<br /> + Ὧδε γὰρ εἰς ἓν ἅπαντα συνήρμοκας ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν,<br /> + Ὥσθ᾽ ἕνα γίγνεσθαι πάντων λόγον ἀὲν ἔοντα.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452" + href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cleanthes preferred expressly the + poetic form; see the note in Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 289: for + poetry and music are better suited to reach the truth of divine + contemplation than the bare philosophical expression.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453" + href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg, i. p. 195.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454" + href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, vol. iii. pp. 130, 131: see + the many authorities he produces, pp. 126-131.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455" + href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He says of the opposite theory of + Epicurus, the construction of the world from the chance + falling-together of atoms: <span class="tei tei-q">“Hoc qui + existimat fieri potuisse, non intelligo, cur non idem putet, si + innumerabiles unius et viginti formæ literarum, vel aureæ vel + quales libet, aliquo conjiciantur, posse ex his in terram excussis + annales Ennii, ut deinceps legi possint, effici: quod nescio an ne + in uno quidem versu possit tantum valere fortuna.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Nat. + Deor.</span></span> ii. 37.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456" + href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So Zeller remarks, iii. 1, p. 296: + <span class="tei tei-q">“A Pantheism, such as the stoic, could take + up into itself the most boundless polytheism, a double liberty only + being allowed, that of passing on to derived beings the name of + deity, from the Being to whom alone originally and in the strict + sense it belonged, and that of personifying as God the impersonal, + which is an appearance of divine power.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457" + href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hasler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhältniss der + heidnischen und christlichen Ethik</span></span>, p. 28; and + Zukrigl's commentary on the same, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tübingen theol. + Quartalschrift</span></span>, 1867, pp. 475-482.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458" + href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, iii. 1, pp. 288-9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459" + href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, iii. 1, 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460" + href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Καὶ μὴν ἡ πολὺ θαυμαζομένη πολιτεία + τοῦ τὴν Στωϊκῶν αἵρεσιν καταβαλλομένου Ζήνωνος εἰς ἓν τοῦτο + συντείνει κεφάλαιον, ἵνα μὴ κατὰ πόλεις μηδὲ κατὰ δήμους οἰκῶμεν, + ἰδίοις ἕκαστοι διωρισμένοι δικαίοις, ἀλλὰ πάντας ἀνθρώπους ἡγώμεθα + δημότας καὶ πολίτας, εἷς δὲ βίος ᾖ, καὶ κόσμος, ὥσπερ ἀγέλης + συννόμου νόμῳ κοινῷ τρεφομένης. Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Alex. M. + Virt.</span></span> i. 6, p. 329, quoted by Zeller, iii. 1, p. + 281.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461" + href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Finibus</span></span>, iii. sec. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462" + href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Legibus</span></span>, i. 7, 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463" + href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeller, iii. 1, p. 278, from Seneca + and Marcus Aurelius, who here, however, only enlarge on Cicero's + idea, or rather Zeno's.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464" + href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Jam vero + virtus eadem in homine ac Deo est, neque ullo alio ingenio + præterea. Est autem virtus nihil aliud quam in se perfecta, et ad + summum perducta natura.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Legibus</span></span>, i. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465" + href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Officiis</span></span>, i. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466" + href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cic. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Nat. + Deor.</span></span> iii. 36. <span class="tei tei-q">“Virtutem nemo + unquam acceptam deo retulit. Nimirum recte. Propter virtutem enim + jure laudamur, et in virtute recie gloriamur: quod non contingeret, + si id donum a deo, non a nobis, haberemus.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467" + href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">les + Césars</span></span>, iii. 333.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468" + href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ἐξαγωγὴ ist + bei den Stoïkern der stehende Ausdruck für den Selbstmord.”</span> + Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 284 n. 2, who quotes Diog. vii. 130. + Ἐλλόγως τέ φασιν ἐξάξειν ἑαυτὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ βίου τὸν σοφὸν καὶ ὑπὲρ + πατρίδος καὶ ὑπὲρ φίλων, κὰν ἐν σκληροτέρᾳ γένηται ἀλγηδόνι, ἢ + πηρώσεσιν, ἢ νόσοις ἀνιάτοις.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469" + href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Qui omnem + orbem terrarum unam urbem esse ducunt.”</span> Cicero, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paradoxon</span></span> 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470" + href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plato</span></span>, + vol. i. p. 87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471" + href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döllinger, p. 315, from Numenius, + quoted by Eusebius. Ueberweg, i. 205, says of them, that up to the + rise of Neoplatonism they were the most numerous of all.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472" + href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Döllinger, pp. 341 and 572-584; so + Champagny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">les Césars</span></span>, iii. 294.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473" + href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ueberweg gives them thus: to the first + Academy belong Plato's successor Speusippus, who taught 347-339 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>; Xenocrates, 339-314; + Polemo, 314-270; Crates, a short time. The second Academy was + founded by Arcesilaus, who lived 315-241, taking more and more a + sceptical direction, which was carried out to the utmost by + Carneades, 214-129, in the third: in the fourth, Philo of Larissa, + about 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, returned to the + dogmatic direction; and Antiochus of Ascalon, Cicero's friend, + founded the fifth, in which he fused Platonic, Aristotelian, and + Stoic doctrines together. S. Augustine, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Civ. + Dei</span></span>, viii. 3, puts his finger on the variations of + the Socratici.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474" + href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Lier ensemble + les dogmes, une morale, et un culte, c'est-à-dire donner à la + société une foi, une règle, et des pratiques, c'était l'œuvre que + le genre humain appelait de ses vœux, et sur laquelle pourtant tous + les efforts humains semblaient échouer.”</span> A. Thierry, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tableau + de l'Empire Romain</span></span>, p. 328.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475" + href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Thomas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Summa</span></span>, + p. 1. 9. 1. a. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476" + href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sap.</span></span> xiii. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477" + href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Reading with S. Chrys. and S. Gregory + ἐκ μεγέθους καὶ καλλονῆς κτισμάτων ἀναλόγως, cognoscibiliter, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> by a conclusion of + reason.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478" + href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Μάταιοι μὲν γὰρ πάντες ἄνθρωποι φύσει, + οἷς παρῆν Θεοῦ ἀγνωσία ... πάλιν δὲ οὐδ᾽ αὐτοὶ συγγνωστοί. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sap.</span></span> xiii. 1, 8.</dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FORMATION OF CHRISTENDOM, VOLUME II*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader23" id="rightpageheader23"></a><a name= + "pgtoc24" id="pgtoc24"></a><a name="pdf25" id="pdf25"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">May 31, + 2012 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by Steven Giacomelli, David + King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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