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<pre>
Project Gutenberg's American Grape Training, by Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
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Title: American Grape Training
An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the
American Grapes
Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779]
Language: English
Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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<div class="figcenter"><a id="icover" name="icover"></a>
<img src="images/icover.jpg" alt="cover" />
</div>
<h1>
AMERICAN<br />
<br />
GRAPE TRAINING</h1>
<p class="narrow big pb">An account of the leading
forms now in use of Training
the American Grapes.</p>
<p class="center ps"><i>By L. H. BAILEY</i></p>
<p class="center smaller pt"><span class="smcap">New York:<br />
The Rural Publishing Company</span><br />
1893.
</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<div class="bbox narrowmid smaller ps">
<p class="center"><i>By the same Author.</i></p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Annals of Horticulture</b> in North America
for the year 1889. A witness of passing events
and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52 illustrations.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1890.</b> 312 pages, 82 illustrations.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1891.</b> 416 pages, 77 illustrations.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1892.</b></p>
<p class="nospace"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> A new volume is issued each year, each
complete in itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.</b> A compendium
of useful information for fruit-growers,
truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second
edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221
pages. Cloth, $1; paper, 50 cents.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>The Nursery Book.</b> A complete guide to
the multiplication and pollination of plants.
304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1; paper, 50c.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.</b> With a
brief bibliography of the subject. 44 pages.
Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Field Notes on Apple Culture.</b> 90 pages,
19 illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents.</p>
<p class="nospace"><b>Talks Afield</b>: About plants and the science
of plants. 173 pages, 100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.</p>
</div>
<table class="ps" summary="verso" cellpadding="20">
<tr><td class="center smallest">COPYRIGHTED 1893,<br />
BY L. H. BAILEY.</td>
<td class="center smallest">ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY<br />
J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.</td></tr>
</table>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p class="center biggest">CONTENTS.</p>
<table class="small" summary="contents">
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
<td class="tdr small">Pages</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">Introduction</td> <td class="tdr">9-11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">Pruning</td> <td class="tdr">11-24</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">Preliminary Preparations for Training—The Trellis—Tying</td>
<td class="tdr">25-33</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System.<br />
High Renewal. Fan Training)</td> <td class="tdr">34-55</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin.
Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane
Kniffin or Umbrella System. The Low or
One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead,
or Arbor Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System.
Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)</td> <td class="tdr">56-82</td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="hang2">Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post
Training. Arbors. Remodeling Old Vines)</td> <td class="tdr">83-92</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i004" name="i004"></a>
<img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="i004" />
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p class="center biggest">ILLUSTRATIONS.</p>
<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="4" summary="illustrations">
<tr>
<td> </td><td> </td>
<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">1.</td> <td><a href="#i013">Grape Shoot</a></td> <td class="tdr">12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">2.</td> <td><a href="#i014">The Bearing Wood</a></td> <td class="tdr">13</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">3.</td> <td><a href="#i016">Diagram</a></td> <td class="tdr">15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">4.</td> <td><a href="#i019">Spur</a></td> <td class="tdr">18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">5.</td> <td><a href="#i020">Renewal Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">6.</td> <td><a href="#i022">A Newly Set Vineyard</a></td> <td class="tdr">21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">7.</td> <td><a href="#i036">Horizontal Arm Spur Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">35</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">8.</td> <td><a href="#i037">Horizontal Arm (Diagram)</a></td> <td class="tdr">36</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">9.</td> <td><a href="#i039">Short Arm Spur Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">38</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">10.</td> <td><a href="#i041">The Second Season of Upright Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">40</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">11.</td> <td><a href="#i043">Making the T-Head</a></td> <td class="tdr">42</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">12.</td> <td><a href="#i044">The Third Season of High Renewal</a></td> <td class="tdr">43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">13.</td> <td><a href="#i045">High Renewal, before Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">44</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">14.</td> <td><a href="#i046">High Renewal, Pruned</a></td> <td class="tdr">45</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">15.</td> <td><a href="#i047">High Renewal, Pruned and Tied</a></td> <td class="tdr">46</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">16.</td> <td><a href="#i048">High Renewal with Four Canes</a></td> <td class="tdr">47</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">17.</td> <td><a href="#i049">High Renewal Complete</a></td> <td class="tdr">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">18.</td> <td><a href="#i052">A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">19.</td> <td><a href="#i056">Fan Training, after Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">55</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">20.</td> <td><a href="#i058">William Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">57</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">21.</td> <td><a href="#i060">The True Kniffin Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">59</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">22.</td> <td><a href="#i061">No. 21, when Pruned</a></td> <td class="tdr">60</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">23.</td> <td><a href="#i065">A Poor Type of Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">64</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">24.</td> <td><a href="#i066">The Y-Trunk Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">65</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">25.</td> <td><a href="#i068">Umbrella Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">67</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">26.</td> <td><a href="#i069">A Poor Umbrella System</a></td> <td class="tdr">68</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">27.</td> <td><a href="#i071">Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)</a></td> <td class="tdr">70</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">28.</td> <td><a href="#i072">Overhead Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">71</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">29.</td> <td><a href="#i073">Overhead Kniffin</a></td> <td class="tdr">72</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">30.</td> <td><a href="#i074">Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning</a></td> <td class="tdr">73</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">31.</td> <td><a href="#i076">Cross-Wire Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">75</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">32.</td> <td><a href="#i077">Cross-Wire Training, Outside View</a></td> <td class="tdr">76</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">33.</td> <td><a href="#i079">Munson Training. End View</a></td> <td class="tdr">78</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">34.</td> <td><a href="#i080">Munson Training. Side View</a></td> <td class="tdr">79</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">35.</td> <td><a href="#i084">Horizontal Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">83</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">36.</td> <td><a href="#i087">Low Post Training</a></td> <td class="tdr">86</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">37.</td> <td><a href="#i092">A Yearling Graft</a></td> <td class="tdr">91</td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p class="center biggest">PREFACE.</p>
<p class="cap">THIS LITTLE book has grown out of an attempt to
teach the principles and methods of grape training
to college students. I have found such teaching
to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible
to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures.
The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by
his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate
them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore
cast about for books which I could put before my
class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct
accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training,
and that none of our books portray the methods which
are most largely practised in the large grape regions of
the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my
own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done.
And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope
that the simple account will find a use beyond the classroom.</p>
<p>This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at
first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must
be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is
of very recent origin. There are many men who can
remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom
occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is
yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape growing in
eastern America is yet in an experimental stage. Progress
has been so rapid in recent years that the new
methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm
spur system, which is still the chief method in the books,
has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is
widely used but which has not found its way into the
manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period
of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard
management. So two great types, opposed in method,
are now contending for supremacy, and they will probably
form the basis of all future developments. This evolution
of American grape training is one of the most unique and
signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its
very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is
a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all horticultural
pursuits in North America.</p>
<p>This development of our grape training should form the
subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted
such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference
to the many early methods, which were in most cases
transportations or modifications of European practices,
for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion
here would only confuse the reader. I have attempted
nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in
use; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished
even this much, for there are various methods which I
have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly
of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modifications
of the main types here explained. It is impossible
to describe all the variations in grape training in a book
of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly every
grower <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
who has given grape raising careful attention has
introduced into his own vineyard some modifications
which he thinks are of special value to him. There are
various curious and instructive old books to which the
reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution
of grape training in America. He will find that we
have now passed through the long and costly experiment
with European systems. And we have also outgrown the
gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close with the
expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.</p>
<p>I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in
the preparation of this book. All the manuscript has been
read by three persons—by George C. Snow, Penn Yan,
N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L.
C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment
Station. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of
western New York, and employs the High Renewal system;
Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and
practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been
a student of all the systems and has practiced two or
three of them in commercial plantations. These persons
have made many suggestions of which I have been glad
to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of
the book is to be attributed.</p>
<p class="deepind small">
L. H. BAILEY,</p>
<p class="smallind smaller"><span class="smcap">Ithaca</span>, N. Y., <i>Feb. 1, 1893</i>.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
<blockquote class="small cap"><p>JOHN ADLUM, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been
the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation
and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training,
as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to
grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall.
The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied
to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or
six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four
buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart
"so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the stem,"
and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are allowed
to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the
outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones
to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year,
and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer
canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches
upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the
stakes, as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs
are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine. The outside
branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year.
This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see
how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have
sprung from it.</p></blockquote>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
<p class="center biggest">AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
<p class="center small pt">INTRODUCTION—PRUNING.</p>
<p>Pruning and training the grape are perplexed
questions, even to those who have spent a lifetime
in grape growing. The perplexity arises from
several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant
European methods, the fact that many systems
present almost equally good results for particular
purposes and varieties, and the failure to
comprehend the fundamental principles of the
operations.</p>
<p>It is sufficient condemnation of European methods
when applied in eastern America, to say that
the American grapes are distinct species from the
European grapes, and that they are consequently
different in habit. This fact does not appear to have
been apprehended clearly by the early American
grape-growers, even after the native varieties had
begun to gain prominence. American viticulture,
aside from that upon the Pacific slope which is
concerned with the European grape, is an industry
of very recent development. It was little more
than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
a century ago that the first American variety
gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the first
definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir
on the Cultivation of the Vine in America," to record
the merits of native grapes for purposes of
cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given
to a discussion of European varieties and practices.
In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" mentioned
only six "American hardy varieties," and
all of these, save the Catawba, are practically not
in cultivation at the present time. The Concord
appeared in 1853. American grape training is,
therefore, a very recent development, and we are
only now outgrowing the influence of the practices
early imported from Europe. The first decided
epoch in the evolution of our grape training was
the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in
1864; for while the system which he depicted and
which yet often bears his name, was but a modification
of some European methods and had been
outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that
time placed clearly and cogently before the public
and became an accepted practice. The fundamental
principles of pruning are alike for both
European and American grapes, but the details of
pruning and training must be greatly modified for
different species. We must understand at the outset
that American species of grapes demand an
American system of treatment.</p>
<p>The great diversity of opinion which exists
amongst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
the best grape growers concerning the advantages
of different systems of training is proof
that many systems have merit, and that no one
system is better than others for all purposes. The
grower must recognize the fact that the most important
factor in determining the merits of any
system of training is the habit of the vine—as its
vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and
abundance of leaves, and season and character of
fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in
habit in some particular, and it therefore requires
different treatment in some important detail. Varieties
may thrive equally well upon the same general
system of training, but require minor modifications;
so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid
down, either for any system or any variety. One system
differs from another in some one main principle
or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and
blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system,
therefore, this fact does not indicate that they
prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible
to construct rules for grape training; it is,
therefore, important that we understand thoroughly
the philosophy of pruning and training, both in
general and in the different systems which are now
most popular. These points we shall now consider.</p>
<p class="center small pt">PRUNING.</p>
<p>Pruning and training are terms which are often
confounded when speaking of the grape, but they
represent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
distinct operations. Pruning refers to
such removal of branches as shall insure better and
larger fruit upon the remaining portions. Training
refers to the disposition of the different parts
of the vine. It is true that different methods of
training demand different styles of pruning, but the
modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt
it to the external shape and size of the vine, and
does not in any way affect the principle upon which
it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence,
there is but one
method; training
is largely a convenience,
and there
are as many methods
as there
are fancies
among
grape growers.</p>
<div class="figleft"><a id="i013" name="i013"></a>
<img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="i013" />
<p class="caption">1. GRAPE SHOOT.</p>
</div>
<p>All intelligent
pruning of the
grape rests upon the fact
that <i>the fruit is borne in a
few clusters near the base of
the growing shoots of the
season, and which spring
from wood of last year's
growth</i>. It may be said here that a growing, leafy
branch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
of the grape vine is called a <i>shoot</i>; a ripened
shoot is called a <i>cane</i>; a branch or trunk two or
more years old is called an <i>arm</i>. <a href="#i013">Fig. 1</a> is a
shoot as it appears in the northern states in June.
The whole shoot has grown within a month, from
a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and
these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now
over, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps
to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking
time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower
end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in <a href="#i014">fig. 2.</a>
Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a
new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves.
At the close of the season, this long ripened shoot
or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from
which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next
year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain,
the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the
coming year and the crop would be a failure. The
cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many
buds as experience has taught us the vine should
carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten
buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed,
or "rubbed off," next spring if the young
growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is
weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two
or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clusters.
From one to six of the old canes, each bearing
from five to ten buds, are left each spring.
The number of clusters which a vine can carry
well depends upon the variety, the age and size of
the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and
cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A
strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety,
trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set
nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry
from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will
weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve
or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or
average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five
pounds is a very heavy crop.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i014" name="i014"></a>
<img src="images/i014.jpg" alt="i014" />
<p class="caption">2. THE BEARING WOOD.</p>
</div>
<p>The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is
essentially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
a thinning process. In the winter pruning,
all the canes of the last season's growth are cut
away except from two to six, which are left to make
the fruit and wood of the next year; and each of
these remaining canes is headed back to from three
to ten buds. The number and length of the canes
which are left after the pruning depend upon the
style of training which is practiced. A vine which
may completely cover a trellis in the fall, will be
cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the
plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind
the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and
peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall,
but buds which produce both fruit and wood the
following season.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i016" name="i016"></a>
<img src="images/i016.jpg" alt="i016" />
<p class="caption">3. DIAGRAM.</p>
</div>
<p>Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have
pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes,
each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
bearing ten buds. We will call these canes
A and B, respectively. (<a href="#i016">Fig. 3.</a>) In 1892, therefore,
twenty shoots grow from them, and each of
these shoots or new canes branches, or produces
laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892,
A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2, and so on. Each of the
new canes bears at the base about two clusters of
grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters.
These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as seen
in <a href="#i013">fig. 1.</a> In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed
which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in
1893. If each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc.,
produce ten buds—which is a moderate number—the
vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with
200 buds for the next year's growth and crop; but
these buds should be reduced to about twenty, as
they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year
we go back again to the same number of buds, and
the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year.
We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes.
We cut back each of the original canes, A and B,
to one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1,
cutting off A 2, A 3, etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This
brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in
the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1,
which are now to become the main canes by being
bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance—say
three or four inches—from the base of
the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent
part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself.
This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
annually lengthening portion is called a <i>spur</i>.
Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position,
however, although this diagrammatic sketch
illustrates clearly the method of their formation.
The common method of spurring is that connected
with the horizontal arm system of training, in which
the canes A and B are allowed to become permanent
arms, and the upright canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2,
B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds
of the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance,
is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or
three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will
grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one
cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut
back to two or three buds; and so on. So the spur
grows higher every year, although every effort is
made to keep it short, both by reducing the number
of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to
bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few
years. <a href="#i019">Fig. 4</a> shows a short spur of two years'
standing. The horizontal portion shows the permanent
arm. The first upright portion is the remains
of the first-year cane and the upper portion
is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the
fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one
fruiting bud, <i>b</i>, the small buds, <i>a a</i>, being rubbed
out. There are serious objections to spurs in any
position. They become hard and comparatively
lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace
them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion
of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
the vine is constantly receding from the
main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from
near the central portions of the vine, or be kept
"near the head," as the grape-growers say. In
order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes
to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1,
or from the head of the vine; these canes may be
designated C and D. (<a href="#i016">Fig.
3.</a>) These canes, C and D,
are grown during 1892—when
they may bear fruit
like other canes—for the
sole purpose of forming the
basis of the bearing top in
1893, while all the old top,
A and B, with the secondary
canes, A 1, A 2, B 1,
B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely
away. Here, then, are two
distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the
succeeding year: either from <i>spurs</i>, which are the
remains of the previous top; or from <i>renewals</i>,
which are taken each year from the old wood near
the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals
from the ground are now little used, however,
for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless
they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to
bear the second year. It should be borne in mind
that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to
pruning, not to training, for either one can be used
in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
any system of training. Spur pruning, however,
is growing in disfavor amongst commercial
grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less
used in all systems of training.</p>
<div class="figleft"><a id="i019" name="i019"></a>
<img src="images/i019.jpg" alt="i019" />
<p class="caption">4. SPUR.</p>
</div>
<p><a href="#i020">Fig. 5</a> illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving
shows the head of a vine seven years old,
and upon which two canes are allowed to remain
after each annual pruning. The portion extending
from <i>b</i> to <i>f</i> and <i>d</i> is the
base of the bearing cane of
1892. In the winter of
1892-3, this cane is cut off
at <i>d</i>, and the new cane, <i>e</i>, is left to make the bearing
wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from <i>f</i>,
but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was,
therefore, cut away. The old stub, <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>d</i>, will be
cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In
the meantime, a renewal cane will have grown
from the stub <i>c</i>, which is left for that purpose, and
the old cane, <i>b d</i>, will be cut off just beyond it, between
<i>c</i> and <i>f</i>. In this way, the bearing wood is
kept close to the head of the vine. The wound <i>a</i>
shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
where an old stub was cut away this winter,
1892-3, while <i>b</i> shows where one was cut off the
previous winter. A scar upon the back of the
head, which does not show in the illustration,
marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method
of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and
if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the
head will not enlarge out of proportion to the
growth of the stock or trunk.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i020" name="i020"></a>
<img src="images/i020.jpg" alt="i020" />
<p class="caption">5. RENEWAL PRUNING.</p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>Pruning Young Vines.</i>—The time required after
planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis
varies with the strength of the vine when set, the
variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of
training; but, as a rule, the training begins the
second or third year, previous to which time the
vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines
are most popular for planting, although in the
strong varieties, like Concord and Niagara, well-grown
yearling vines are probably as good, if not
better. The strong-growing kinds are commonly
set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the
rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and
other small vines may be set closer, although eight
feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back
to two or three buds. During the first year, the
young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the
ground at will, as seen in <a href="#i022">fig. 6</a>. In the fall or
winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this
one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is,
therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
no larger at the expiration of a year's
growth than it was when planted; but in the meantime
the plant has become thoroughly established
in the soil, and the second year's growth
should be strong enough to form the basis for the
permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second
year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before,
and the third season's growth used for the trunk.
On the other hand, the growth of the first year is
sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent
trunk and arms, but it is only with extra
strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible.
From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
this point, the treatment of the
vine is discussed under training.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i022" name="i022"></a>
<img src="images/i022.jpg" alt="i022" />
<p class="caption">6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.</p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>When to Prune.</i>—Grape vines may be pruned at
any time during the winter. It is the practice
among most grape-growers in the north to prune
as time permits from November to late in February,
or even early March. The sap flows very freely
from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing
the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in
Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent
this loss, pruning is stopped six weeks or more before
the time at which the buds usually swell. It
is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine,
but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine
is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which
it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to
the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.</p>
<p>The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears.
The canes are often allowed to remain
tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished,
although it is the practice with most growers who
use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before
pruning. The removal of the severed canes is
known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the
pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or
other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at
any time after the pruning is performed until
spring. It must be done before the growth starts
on the remaining portions of the vine, however, to
avoid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
injury to the young buds when tearing the
vines off the trellis.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Summer Pruning.</i>—There is much discussion as
to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential
to the understanding of the question that the
grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is
of two kinds—the removal or "breaking out" of
the superfluous shoots, and heading-in or "stopping"
the main canes to keep them within limits.
The superfluous shoots are such as spring from
small, weak buds or those which break from the old
arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from
the very base of the old cane are usually weak and
should be removed. Buds in this position are
shown at <i>a a</i>, in <a href="#i019">fig. 4</a>. The secondary or axillary
branches, which often start from the base of the
season's shoots, should be removed or broken out.
These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time
to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed
off before the shoots begin to grow.</p>
<p>The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable
for the purpose of keeping the vine within
bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which
choke up the vine and which do not mature, and
in those styles of training in which very little wood
is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the
development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface
to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often
weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can
be overcome by careful attention, however, especially
by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
heading-in very lightly and by doing it as
late in the season as possible, when new lateral
growth does not start readily. The necessity of
much heading-in has been largely obviated in late
years by the adoption of high or drooping systems
of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The
strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and Niagara,
should be set ten feet apart in the row,
especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba,
being a very upright grower and especially
well adapted to upright training, may be set eight
feet apart, and Delawares are often set as close as
six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any
variety should be set less than eight feet apart for
trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where
the growth is large because of the long seasons,
vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In
the South, the rows should run north and south,
that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun.
The only summer heading-in now generally recommended
is the clipping of the tips when they fall
over and begin to touch the ground. This clipping
is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Objects of Pruning.</i>—The objects of pruning the
grape, as of other fruits, are five:</p>
<blockquote><p>
1. To produce larger and better fruit.<br />
2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.<br />
3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.<br />
4. To facilitate cultivation.<br />
5. To facilitate spraying.</p></blockquote>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
<p class="center small pt">PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING—THE
TRELLIS—TYING.</p>
<p>Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose
of keeping the vine in convenient shape and
to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of
space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated
and sprayed, and the grapes are readily
harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the
best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some
kind of training is essential, for a vine will not often
bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. In
essence, there are three general types or styles of
training, which may be designated as the upright,
drooping and horizontal, these terms designating
the direction of the bearing shoots. The upright
systems carry two or more canes or arms along a
low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across
a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are
tied up as they grow to the wires above. The horizontal
systems carry up a perpendicular cane or
arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the
shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to
perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems,
represented in the Kniffin and post-training,
carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire
or trellis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
and allow the shoots to hang without tying.
To one or another of these types all the systems of
American grape-training can be referred.</p>
<p>There is no system of training which is best for
all purposes and all varieties. The strong-growing
varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high
drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although
the Delaware is often trained on a comparatively
low Kniffin with good effect. The high or drooping
systems are of comparatively recent date, and
their particular advantages are the saving of labor
in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the
facility with which the ground can be cultivated
without endangering the branches of the vine. The
upright training distributes the bearing wood more
evenly upon the vine and is thought, therefore, to
insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near the
root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage,
and it is better suited to the stature of the small-growing
varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater
temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping
systems than in the others, because the shoots need
no tying and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention;
while in the upright systems the shoots soon
become broken or displaced if not watched. For
very large areas, or circumstances in which the best
of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or
drooping systems are perhaps always to be recommended.
Yet the Kniffin profits as much from
diligence and skill as the other systems; but it will
give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
better results than the others under partial
neglect. The strong varieties, especially those
making long and drooping canes, are well adapted
to the Kniffin styles; but the smaller sorts, and
those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an
upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon
the upright systems. But the merits of both systems
are so various and even so little understood,
that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly.
The advantages in either case are often
little more than matters of personal opinion. It
should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping
systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are
evidently destined to overthrow much of the older
upright training. This fact does not indicate, however,
that the upright system is to be entirety superseded,
but rather that it must be confined to
those varieties and conditions for which it is best
adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement
each other. The horizontal systems are
occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are
little known.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Making the Trellis.</i>—The fall or winter following
the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if
the upright systems are used; but this operation is
usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems,
and stakes are commonly used, or at least
recommended, during the second season. In the
South the trellis is made the first year. The style
of trellis will depend upon the style of training,
but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
the main features are the same for all.
Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar,
locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart
that two vines can be set between each two. If the
vines are set nine feet apart, the posts maybe eighteen
or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand
four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the
row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet
apart, about 330 posts will be required to the acre.
Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are
driven with a heavy maul, although many people
prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that
they endure the strain better. In all loose soils,
however, posts can be made as firm by driving as
by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm
as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of
vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it
is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill,
for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt
down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, especially
for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must
stand six or six and one-half feet high when set,
but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright
and horizontal systems. The posts should
stand higher at first than is necessary for the support
of the wires, for they will need to be driven
down occasionally as they become loose. The end
posts of each row should be well braced, as shown
in several of the illustrations in this volume.</p>
<p>The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the
top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
wire in the Kniffin training, which is usually
No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then
upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but
it is heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally
used for the middle and upper rows in the
upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The
following figures show the sizes and weights of
these and similar iron and steel wires:</p>
<table class="smaller" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="data">
<tr>
<td class="tdr">No.</td>
<td class="center">Diameter in inches.</td>
<td class="center" colspan="2">Weight of 100 feet.</td>
<td class="center">Feet in 2,000 pounds.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">9</td>
<td class="center">.148</td>
<td class="center">5.80</td>
<td class="center">pounds.</td>
<td class="center">34,483</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">10</td>
<td class="center">.135</td>
<td class="center">4.83</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">41,408</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">11</td>
<td class="center">.120</td>
<td class="center">3.82</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">52,356</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">12</td>
<td class="center">.105</td>
<td class="center">2.92</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">68,493</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">13</td>
<td class="center">.092</td>
<td class="center">2.24</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">89,286</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">14</td>
<td class="center">.080</td>
<td class="center">1.69</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">118,343</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">15</td>
<td class="center">.072</td>
<td class="center">1.37</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">145,985</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdr">16</td>
<td class="center">.063</td>
<td class="center">1.05</td>
<td class="center">" </td>
<td class="center">190,476</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents
per pound, and the galvanized—which is less used
for vineyards—3½ cents. Of No. 12 wire, about
160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on
rows eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for
three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for
three runs, therefore, is about $15.</p>
<p>The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by
staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull
through readily of its own weight, but still loosely
enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In
other words, the head of the staple should not quite
touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths,
about an inch, inch and a quarter, and an inch and
a half respectively. The shortest length is little
used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
The medium length is used for hard-wood
posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut
and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound
usually, and a pound of the medium length contains
from 90 to 100 of the No. 10 wire size. An acre,
for three wires, will therefore require, for this size,
about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy
regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward
side of the posts.</p>
<p>There are various devices for securing the wire
to the end posts, but the commonest method is
to wind them about the post once and secure them
with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon
itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn
taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit
and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction
of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the
wires after harvest and others provide some device
which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent
Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective
lever-contrivance attached to each wire, and which
is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten
them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided
upon the back with a square-headed pin
which works tightly in an inch and a half augur
hole and about which the end of the wire is wound.
A square-headed iron wrench operates the pin,
while the tension of the wire around the side of the
post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is
not durable, however. An ingenious man can
easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
contrive some device for relieving the tension,
if he should think it necessary. As a matter of
practice, however, the wires soon stretch and sag
enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take
up the winter contraction, and most growers do not
release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary,
in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten
up the posts from year to year, as they become
loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the
ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The
wires should always be kept tight during the growing
season to prevent the whipping of the vines by
wind. This is especially important in white grapes,
which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and
twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it will be
necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.</p>
<p>Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in
<a href="#i052">Fig. 18</a>, but these are always less durable than the
wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair;
and in the older portions of the country, where
timber is dear, they are also more expensive at the
outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held
together by continuous strands, are likely to blow
down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning
the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of
the different systems of training.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Tying.</i>—Probably the best material for tying the
canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a
bast-like material which comes in skeins and which
can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for
about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
20 cents a pound. A pound will suffice to
tie a quarter of an acre of upright training throughout
the season. Raffia is obtained from the strippings
of an oriental palm (<i>Raphia Ruffia</i>). Wool-twine
is also still largely used for tying, but it is
not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has
to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter
pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of
the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong
enough to hold the vine during the season, but it
can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much
used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also
for summer tying, especially in the nursery regions
where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier
willows are easily procured. Wild willows are
often used if they can be obtained handily. These
willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held
upon the back above the hips by a cord passed
about the body. The butts project under the right
hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands
are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used,
the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand
is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated
in like manner until it is used up. When wool-twine
is used, the ball is often held in front of the
workman by a cord which is tied about it and then
passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from
the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end
becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the
ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag,
after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is
not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine
or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity.
Green rye-straw, cut directly from the
field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer.
Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire,
is used occasionally for tying up the canes in
spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure
the vine. Corn-husks are also employed for
this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark
is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the
grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no
advantage over raffia.</p>
<p>It is very important that the canes be tied up
early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after
they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather
firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the
growing shoots, which are tied during the summer,
are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary
increase in diameter.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i034" name="i034"></a>
<img src="images/i034.jpg" alt="i034" />
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
<p class="center small pt">THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.</p>
<p>The upright systems are the oldest and best
known of the styles of American grape training.
They consist, essentially, in carrying out two
horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low
wire and training the shoots from them vertically
upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper
wires as they grow. This type was first clearly
and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in
his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became
known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced
many years previous to this time.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Arm Spur System.</i>—There are two types
or styles of this upright system. The older type and
the one described in the books, is known as the
Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method,
the two horizontal branches are permanent, or, in
other words, they are true arms. The canes are
cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms,
as explained on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> (<a href="#i019">fig. 4.</a>) Two shoots are
often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as
shown in <a href="#i036">fig. 7</a>. These spurs become overgrown
and weak after a few years, and they are renewed
from new shoots which spring from near their base
or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm
is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from
the ground.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i036" name="i036"></a>
<img src="images/i036.jpg" alt="i036" />
<p class="caption">7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>The number of these upright canes and their distance
apart upon these permanent arms depend
upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil
and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to
twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common
distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five
canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the
canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty
inches. Some very strong vines of vigorous
varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms
together,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
and in this case the canes stand about
a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane
is cut away and the strongest new cane which
springs from its base is left for the bearing wood
of the following year. This new cane is itself
headed in to the height of the trellis; that is, if
the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34
inches apart—as they are in the Brocton vineyards
of western New York, where this system is largely
used—this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches
long. Upon this length of cane there will be about
seven good buds in the common varieties.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i037" name="i037"></a>
<img src="images/i037.jpg" alt="i037" />
<p class="caption">8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)</p>
</div>
<p>A modification of this horizontal arm system is
shown in <a href="#i039">fig. 9</a>. It is used about Forestville,
in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in
this case are very short, and canes are taken out
only at two or three places. The picture shows a
vine in which two canes are taken from the end of
each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of
the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the
fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes
one or two other canes are taken out of these
arms nearer the main trunk. The advantages
urged for this style of training are the stronger
growth which is insured by so few canes, and the
small amount of old or permanent wood which is
left to each vine.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i039" name="i039"></a>
<img src="images/i039.jpg" alt="i039" />
<p class="caption">9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>The horizontal arm training is less popular than
it was twenty years ago. It has serious faults,
especially in the persistence of the old spurs, and
probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
will eventually give place to other systems.
Aside from the spur pruning, the system is much
like the following, which is a modification to allow
of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is
referred for further details. This modification,
which may be called the High Renewal, and which
is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles
of training, although it has never been fully described,
we shall now consider.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>The High Renewal</i>, or upright training which is
now very extensively employed in the lake regions
of New York and elsewhere, starts the head or
branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches
from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties
is probably about two feet to the first wire,
although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If
the vines are lower than two feet, they are liable to
be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is
dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if
the shoots become loose they strike the ground
and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or
arm is carried up to the required height, or if good
branches happen to form lower down, two main
canes are carried from this point up to the required
distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes
Y-shaped, as seen in figs. <a href="#i041">10</a>, <a href="#i048">16</a> and <a href="#i049">17</a>. In
fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or
crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate
the spreading and placing of the canes. The
trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises
three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
wires, although only two are sometimes
used for the smaller growing varieties, and very
rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, although
this number is unnecessary. The lowest
wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty
inches from the ground, and the two upper ones
are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches
apart.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i041" name="i041"></a>
<img src="images/i041.jpg" alt="i041" />
<p class="caption">10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<div class="figleft"><a id="i043" name="i043"></a>
<img src="images/i043.jpg" alt="i043" />
<p class="caption">11. <span class="smcap">making the
T-head.</span></p>
</div>
<p>The second season after planting should see the
vine tied to the first wire. <a href="#i041">Fig. 10</a> is a photograph
taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was
set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the
vine was cut back to three or four buds, and in the
spring of 1892 two of these buds were allowed to
make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
canes. These two canes are now tied to the
wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892.
In this case, the branches start near the surface of
the ground. Sometimes only a single strong shoot
grows, and in order to secure the two branches it
is broken over where it passes the wire, and is usually
tied to a stake to afford support. <a href="#i043">Fig. 11</a>
shows this operation. A bud will develop at the
bend or break, from which a cane can be trained
in the opposite direction from the original portion,
and the T-head is secured.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i044" name="i044"></a>
<img src="images/i044.jpg" alt="i044" />
<p class="caption">12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.—CONCORD.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i045" name="i045"></a>
<img src="images/i045.jpg" alt="i045" />
<p class="caption">13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.—CATAWBA.</p>
</div>
<p>The close of the second season after planting,
therefore, will usually find the vine with two good
canes extending in opposite directions and tied to
the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in
cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and
strong wood, which will leave them bearing from
five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will
grow upright from these buds and will be tied to
the second wire, which has now been supplied.
Late in the third season the vine should have much
the appearance of that shown in <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a>. The
third wire is usually added to the trellis at the
close of the second season, at the same time that
the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is
delayed until the close of the third season. Some
of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this
third season, but unless the vines are very strong
the flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old
vine should never be allowed to bear
heavily.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
It must be remembered, however, that
both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of
herbage, are to be cut away in
the fall or winter of the third
year. Some provision must have
been made, therefore, for the top
for the fourth year. It will be
recalled that in discussing the renewal
pruning (<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>), it
was found that two or more
shoots are allowed to grow each
year to form the basis of the top
the following year. In <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a>
three or four such shoots can be
seen springing from the Y-shaped
portion in the center of the vine.
These shoots or canes are to be
bent down to the lowest wire next
spring, and the bearing shoots will
arise from them. This process
will be seen at a glance from
figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>, <a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The first
shows a full grown old vine,
trained on three wires. <a href="#i046">Fig. 14</a>
shows the same vine when pruned.
Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are
left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
to form the top of the following year. The
two stubs from which the renewal canes are to
grow for the second year's top are seen in the center.
In the fall of the next year, therefore, these
two outside canes will be cut away to the base of
these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in the
meantime, will have made a year's growth. These
renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as
will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of
wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these
stubs or spurs every two or three years at most,
and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
to bring new canes directly from the old wood
or head. If possible, the renewal cane is brought
from a new place on the old wood every year in
order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the
vine shown in <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>, <a href="#Page_19">page 19</a>. <a href="#i047">Fig. 15</a> shows the
same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two
ties have been made upon each cane. <a href="#i048">Fig. 16</a>
shows a vine in which four canes
have been left to form the top for
the following year. The stubs for the
renewals can be seen in the Y. It is
customary to leave more than two
canes, occasionally, in strong-growing
varieties like Concord. Sometimes
four and occasionally six are
left. If four canes are left, two may
be tied together in each direction
upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the two
extra ones should be tied along the second wire,
parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes
are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but
this practice should be discouraged, for the usual
tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth
at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i046" name="i046"></a>
<img src="images/i046.jpg" alt="i046" />
<p class="caption">14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i047" name="i047"></a>
<img src="images/i047.jpg" alt="i047" />
<p class="caption">15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.</p>
</div>
<p>The ideal length of the two canes varies with
different varieties and the distance apart at which
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Concord
and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on
each cane, especially if the vines are set more than
eight feet apart. <a href="#i049">Fig. 17</a> shows half of a Concord
vine in which about ten buds were left on each
cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or
fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when this
number is left the canes should be four, as explained
in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing
varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the
vine should be the maximum and only two canes
should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes
are usually cut to the desired length—four to six feet—even
if too great a number of buds is left, but the
shoots which spring from these extra buds are
broken out soon after they start. A Delaware
vine which has made an unusually short or weak
growth will require fewer buds to be left for next
year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety
which has made a strong growth. The Catawba,
which is a short but very stiff grower, is usually
cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>,
<a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The grower soon learns to adjust the
pruning to the character of the vine without effort.
He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes,
perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves
enough buds to produce this amount, allowing,
perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for accidents
and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes
should always be cut back to firm, well-ripened
wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
It should be said that mere size of cane
does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch.
Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives
better results than the very large and softer canes
which are sometimes produced on soils rich in
nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown
wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not
attain its full growth the first year, but will increase
in diameter during the second season. The tying
therefore, should be sufficiently loose or elastic to
allow of growth, although it should be firm enough
to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane
should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to
it, provision being made for the swelling of the
wood to twice its diameter.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i048" name="i048"></a>
<img src="images/i048.jpg" alt="i048" />
<p class="caption">16. HIGH RENEWAL
WITH
FOUR CANES.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i049" name="i049"></a>
<img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="i049" />
<p class="caption">17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.—CONCORD.</p>
</div>
<p>The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after
they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to
allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again
to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with
equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over
more than twice if the shoots are kept properly
tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be
all that is necessary for careful summer tying.
Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this
neglect should be discouraged. This tying is
mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece
of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie,
it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot.
The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia
is used, a common string-knot is made. When the
shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
reach the top of the trellis, they are usually
allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba
shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and
ordinarily need no attention. The long-growing
varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the
ground before the close of the season. If these
tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be
clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter, although
this practice should be delayed as long as possible
to prevent the growth of laterals (<a href="#Page_21">see page 21</a>). It
is probably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some
growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top
wire, as seen in <a href="#i049">fig. 17</a>. It is probably best, as a
rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and
to clip them only when they seriously interfere with
the work of the hoe and cultivator. The treatment
for slat trellises, as shown in <a href="#i052">fig. 18</a>, is the same as
on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be
used in tying.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i052" name="i052"></a>
<img src="images/i052.jpg" alt="i052" />
<p class="caption">18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit
in the High Renewal is borne between the first and
second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the
lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this
fruit will hang at the most convenient height for
picking. The fruit trays are set upon the ground,
and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected
from the hot suns and from frost; and if the
shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken
roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable
that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light
and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore,
be pulled off, as already explained (<a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>).
In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this purpose,
to prune the canes which droop over from the
top of the trellis.</p>
<p>After a few years, the old top or head of the vine
becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed
from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates
this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty
shoot which may spring from the ground to remain.
This shoot is treated very much like a young vine,
and the head is formed during the second year
(<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, bottom). If it should make a strong growth
during the first year and develop stout laterals, it
may be cut back only to the lowest wire the
first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back
to two or three buds, from one of which a strong
and permanent shoot is taken the second year.
When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk
is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below if
possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight
years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes
much longer. These tops are renewed from time
to time as occasion permits or demands, and any
vineyard which has been bearing a number of years
will nearly always have a few vines in process of
renewal. The reader should not receive the impression,
however, that the life or vitality of a vine
is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear
for twenty years or more without renewal; but the
head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
after a time comes to be large and rough
and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and
better results are likely to be obtained if a new,
clean vine takes its place.</p>
<p>The High Renewal is extensively used in the
lake region of Western New York, for all varieties.
It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Catawba,
and other weak or short varieties. When systematically
pursued, it gives fruit of the highest excellence.
This High Renewal training, like all the
low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid
down easily in winter, which is an important consideration
in many parts of Canada and in the
colder northern states.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Fan Training.</i>—A system much used a few years
ago and still sometimes seen, is one which renews
back nearly to the ground each year, and carries
the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This
system has the advantages of dispensing with
much of the old wood, or trunk, and facilitating
laying down the vine in winter in cold climates.
On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing
the fruit too low—unless the lower clusters are
removed—and making a vine of inconvenient shape
for tying. It is little used at present. <a href="#i056">Fig. 19</a>
shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is
by no means an ideal vine. This vine has not been
properly renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs,
from which the canes spring. One of these spurs
will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The
spurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
should be kept very short, and they should
be entirely removed every two or three years, as
explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal
training.</p>
<p>The shoots are allowed to take their natural
course, being tied to any wire near which they
chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire.
Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally
to the wires, and this is probably the better
practice. Two canes may be tied in each direction
on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be
tied down to the second wire. In either case, the
vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except
that the trunk is shorter.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i056" name="i056"></a>
<img src="images/i056.jpg" alt="i056" />
<p class="caption">19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.</p>
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
<p class="center small pt">THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.</p>
<p>In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard
in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, William
Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres of land
to which he devoted his attention during the leisure
seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to
plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and
succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation
was increased into a respectable vineyard and
Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority
upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days
in commercial grape growing in North America,
and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation
and training. If any system of close training and
pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal
arm spur system, or something like it. One
day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell
upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes
and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The
vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left until
the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit matured,
its large size and handsome appearance attracted
attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard!
Mr. Kniffin was an observant man, and he
inquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
into the cause of the excellent fruit. He
noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the
best canes stood out horizontally. From this suggestion
he developed the four-cane system of training
which now bears his name. A year or two later,
in 1854, the system had attracted the attention of
those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and
thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson valley,
where it is to-day, with various modifications,
the chief method of grape training. Its merits
have become known beyond its original valley, and
it is now spreading more rapidly than any other
system. The ground upon which the old Isabellas
grew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
is now occupied by Concords, which are as
vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer
soils. William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale,
Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at
fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a
photograph which was taken two or three years
before his death.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i058" name="i058"></a>
<img src="images/i058.jpg" alt="i058" />
<p class="caption">20. <span class="smcap">William Kniffin.</span></p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System.</i>—<a href="#i060">Figure 21</a>
shows the true Kniffin system, very nearly as
practiced by its originator. A single stem or trunk
is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are
taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr.
Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them
back to about six buds on both wires. But most
growers now prefer to leave the upper canes
longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration.
The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will,
so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the
distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems.
The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes
are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses
the great advantage, therefore, of requiring
little labor during the busy days of the growing
season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if
the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or
other bush-fruits can be grown between. The system
is especially adapted to the strong varieties of
grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of
different systems of training, the reader should consult
Chapter II.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i060" name="i060"></a>
<img src="images/i060.jpg" alt="i060" />
<p class="caption">21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<div class="figright"><a id="i061" name="i061"></a>
<img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="i061" />
<p class="caption">22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.</p>
</div>
<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in
cutting off all the wood save a single cane from
each spur. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a>
illustrates the process.
This is the
same vine which is
shown with the full
amount of wood on
in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. The
drooping shoots
shown in that illustration
bore the
grapes of 1892; and
now, in the winter of
1892-93, they are all
to be cut away, with
the horizontal old
canes from which
they grew, save only
the four canes which
hang nearest the main
trunk. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a> shows
the vine after it had
been pruned. It is
not obligatory that
the canes which are
left after the pruning
should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen
that these may be weak; but, other things being
equal, these canes are preferable because their
selection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
keeps the old spurs short. The careful
grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots
which start from this point, in order that a strong
cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these
side spurs be removed entirely every three or four
years, a new cane being brought out again from the
main body or trunk. There is little expectation,
however, that there shall be such a complete renewal
pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal,
which we discussed in the last chapter.</p>
<p>It will be seen that the drooping canes in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>
are shorter than they were originally, as shown
in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. They have been cut back. The length
at which these canes shall be left is a moot point.
Much depends upon the variety, the distance between
the wires, the strength of the soil, and other
factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the
upper canes should be longer than the lower ones,
although equal canes are still used in some places.
In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper
canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower
ones five. This gives thirty buds to the vine.
Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and
only four below.</p>
<p>These four pruned canes are generally allowed to
hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before
the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out
horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two
ties upon each cane. The shoots which spring
from these horizontal canes stand upright or
oblique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
at first but they soon fall over with the
weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the
ground, the ends may be clipped off with a sickle,
corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not always
done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere
with cultivation. There is no summer-pinching
nor pruning, although the superfluous shoots
should be broken out, as in other systems. (<a href="#Page_23">See
page 23</a>).</p>
<p>Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis.
The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than
driven, to render them solid, and they should always
be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven,
and they usually stand between every alternate vine,
or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart—which
is a common distance for the most vigorous
varieties. For the strong-growing varieties,
the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six
feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a
popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to
bring the height to six feet, although it is best to
"tap" the posts every spring with a maul in order to
drive them back and make them firm. The lower
wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet.
Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand
above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six
inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto
the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner
practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season,
as already explained (<a href="#Page_27">page 27</a>), and put them
on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
the wires the third season. The year following
the tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a
partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to
the top wire the first season of training, although
it is the practice of some growers, especially outside
the Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the
lower wire the first year of permanent training, and
to carry it to the top wire the following year.</p>
<p>Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully
as high and perhaps higher than from other species
of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New
York, has had an annual average of twenty-six
pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550
vines being considered in the calculation. While
the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin
system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be
trained in this manner with success, as the following
average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200
vines set in 1881 will show:</p>
<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="yield">
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1886</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">8½</td>
<td class="center">pounds</td>
<td class="center">to</td>
<td class="center">the</td>
<td class="center">vine.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1887</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">11¾</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1888</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">8 </td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1889</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">9½</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1890</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">7 </td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1891</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">16 </td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdldate">1892</td>
<td class="tdr rpad">13 </td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
<td class="center">"</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="pt"><i>Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin.</i>—Various
modifications of this original four-cane Kniffin are
in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly applied
to a rack trellis. In such cases, several
canes were allowed to grow where only two should
have been left. <a href="#i065">Fig. 23</a> is a common but poor style
of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards
of western New York. It differs from the type in
the training of the young wood. These shoots,
instead of being allowed to hang at will, are carried
out horizontally and either tied to the wire or
twisted around it. The advantage urged for this
modification is the little injury done by wind, but,
as a matter of practice, it affords less protection
than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the
shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
from the upper cane soon cling to the lower
wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect
each other below the lower wire. There are
three serious disadvantages to this holding up of
the shoots,—it makes unnecessary labor, the canes
are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (<a href="#Page_50">see
page 50</a>) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is
bunched together on the vines.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i065" name="i065"></a>
<img src="images/i065.jpg" alt="i065" />
<p class="caption">23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.</p>
</div>
<p>Another common modification of the four-cane
Kniffin is that shown in <a href="#i066">fig. 24</a>, in which a crotch or Y
is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief
that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily
deflected into the lower arms than by the system
of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk.
This is probably a fallacy, and may have arisen
from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the
lower wire as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this
modification is in common use in western New
York and elsewhere.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i066" name="i066"></a>
<img src="images/i066.jpg" alt="i066" />
<p class="caption">24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.</p>
</div>
<p>If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds
on both wires, the Double Kniffin will probably be
found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are
brought from the root, each supplying a single wire
only. The trunks are tied together to hold them in
place. This system, under the name of Improved
Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted portions
of the Hudson valley.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System.</i>—Inasmuch
as the greater part of the fruit in the Four-Cane
Kniffin is born upon the upper wire, the question
arises<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
if it would not be better to dispense with
the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer.
This is now done to a considerable extent, especially
in the Hudson valley. <a href="#i068">Fig. 25</a> explains the
operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk
is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes,
each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left upon
the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper
wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the
lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some instances,
the lower wire is dispensed with, but this
is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place
against the winds and prevents the too violent
whipping of the hanging shoots. During the growing
season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs
in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin.
This species of training reduces the amount of
leaf-surface to a minimum, and every precaution
must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This
system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
of training will probably not allow of the
successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of
hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of
the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from
it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are employed,
and the fruit is nearly always first-class. A
Concord vine trained in this manner produced in
1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing
forty pounds.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i068" name="i068"></a>
<img src="images/i068.jpg" alt="i068" />
<p class="caption">25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>Another type of Umbrella training is shown in
<a href="#i069">fig. 26</a>, before pruning. Here five main canes were
allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in very
strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably
never so good as the other (<a href="#i068">fig. 25</a>), if the highest
results are desired; but for the grower who does
not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a
safer system than the other.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i069" name="i069"></a>
<img src="images/i069.jpg" alt="i069" />
<p class="caption">26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.</p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin.</i>—A modification
of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which
the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises
but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen
buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are
allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as
in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages
urged for this system are the protection of the
grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to
the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of laying
down the vines, the readiness with which the
top can be renewed from the root as occasion demands,
and the cheapness of the trellis.</p>
<p class="pt pb"><i>The Six-Cane Kniffin.</i>—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
There are many old vineyards
in eastern New York which are trained upon
a six-cane or three-wire system. The general pruning
and management of these vines do not differ
from that of the common Kniffin. Very strong varieties
which can carry an abundance of wood,
may be profitable upon this style of training, but
it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard
over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained
in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive.
Twice it has produced crops of six tons.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i071" name="i071"></a>
<img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="i071" />
<p class="caption">27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)</p>
</div>
<p class="pb"><i>Eight-Cane Kniffin.</i>—Eight and even ten canes
are sometimes left upon a single trunk, and are
trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely, as
shown in the accompanying diagram (<a href="#i071">fig. 27</a>).
Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds
each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit.
This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
system allows of close planting, but the trellis
is too expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown
with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely
weak. This style is very rarely used.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i072" name="i072"></a>
<img src="images/i072.jpg" alt="i072" />
<p class="caption">28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i073" name="i073"></a>
<img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="i073" />
<p class="caption">29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p>
</div>
<p><i>Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin.</i>—A curious modification
of the Kniffin is employed somewhat on the
Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at Marlboro'.
The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead
arbor, as shown in figs. <a href="#i072">28</a>, <a href="#i073">29</a> and <a href="#i074">30</a>. The
trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed
of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane.
The central wire runs from post to post, and one
upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot
cross-bar, as represented in <a href="#i072">fig. 28</a>. The rows
are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve
feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced
by a connecting-pole, as in <a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. The trunk of
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well
displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the
foreground in <a href="#i074">fig. 30</a>. From this T-head, five canes
are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the
practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction
upon each wire, but this was found to supply
too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one
direction and three in the other; and the positions
of these sets are alternated each year, if possible.
The canes which are left after the winter pruning
are tied along the wires in spring, as in the Kniffin,
and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief
advantage of this training is that it allows of the
growing of bush-fruits between the rows, as seen in
<a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. It is also said that the clusters hang so
free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or
leaves, and the fruit is protected from sun and frost.
Every post must be large and firmly set, however,
adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several
styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being
the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this
system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five
feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two
or three feet wide.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i074" name="i074"></a>
<img src="images/i074.jpg" alt="i074" />
<p class="caption">30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.</p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>The Cross-Wire System.</i>—Another high Kniffin
training, and which is also confined to the vicinity
of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire, represented
in figs. <a href="#i076">31</a> and <a href="#i077">32</a>. Small posts are set eight
feet apart each way, and a single wire runs from the
top of post to post—six and one-half feet from the
ground—in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
each direction, forming a check-row
system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at
the foot of the stake, to which the trunk is tied for
support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the
head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating
wires. These canes are cut to three and one-half or
four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as
they grow. <a href="#i076">Fig. 31</a> shows this training as it appears
some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in
the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor,
and a person standing at a distance sees an almost
impenetrable mass of herbage, as in <a href="#i077">fig. 32</a>. This
system appears to have little merit, and will always
remain local in application. It possesses the advantage
of economy in construction of the trellis,
for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
rows. The end posts are either braced by a
pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and
secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond,
outside the vineyard.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i076" name="i076"></a>
<img src="images/i076.jpg" alt="i076" />
<p class="caption">31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a>
<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="i077" />
<p class="caption">32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.</p>
</div>
<p class="pt"><i>Renewal Kniffin.</i>—It is an easy matter to adapt
the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a
true renewal method of pruning. There are a few
modifications in use in which the wood is annually
renewed to near the ground. The trellises comprise
either two or three wires, and are made in the
same manner as for the upright systems, as the
High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one
cane is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds,
and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point
or end of the cane usually being bent downward
somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from
the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this
cane, and they may be pinched back when they
reach the ground. In the meantime a strong shoot
is taken out from the opposite side of the head—which
usually stands a foot or less from the ground—to
make the bearing wood of the next year; and this
new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the
trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next
renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of
the head, or the side from which the present bearing
wood sprung; so that the bearing top of the vine
is alternated in either direction upon the trellis.
This system, and similar ones, allow of laying down
the vines easily in winter, and insure excellent fruit
because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
the amount of bearing wood is small; but
the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>The Munson System.</i>—An unique system of training,
upon the Kniffin principle, has been devised by
T. V. Munson, of Denison,
Texas, a well-known authority
upon grapes. Two
posts are set in the same
hole, their tops diverging.
A wire is stretched along the
top of these posts and a third
one is hung between them
on cross-wires. The trunk
of the vine, or its head, is
secured to this middle lower
wire and the shoots lop over
the side wires. The growth,
therefore, makes a V-shaped
or trough-like mass of herbage.
<a href="#i079">Fig. 33</a> is an end view
of this trellis, showing the
short wire connecting the
posts and which also holds the
middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. <a href="#i080">Fig. 34</a> is a
side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or
four, in number, which are left after the annual pruning,
are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk
forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left
in <a href="#i080">fig. 34</a>. A head is formed at this place not unlike
like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
that which characterizes the High Renewal, for
this system also employs renewal pruning. The
trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright
at first, but soon fall down and are supported by
the side wires. The following account of this system
of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:</p>
<p>"After the vines have flowered, the bearing
laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all
the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off
all eyes that start on the body below the crotch.
Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine,
are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to
bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower central
wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives,
the entire bearing cane of the present year, with
all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the
young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots
are shortened back, according to strength of vine;
some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years
to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine
fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three
or four feet each way of one shoot only. The
different varieties are set at various distances apart,
according as they are strong or weak growers.</p>
<div class="figright"><a id="i079" name="i079"></a>
<img src="images/i079.jpg" alt="i079" />
<p class="caption">33. MUNSON TRAINING.
END VIEW.</p>
</div>
<p>"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced
to the simplest form. A few cuts to each
vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete
the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work
well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the
middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes
are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
tied after pruning, and from which the young
laterals which produce the crop are to spring.
These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon
clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the
best possible position for spraying and gathering,
and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I
have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres
of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every
year.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i080" name="i080"></a>
<img src="images/i080.jpg" alt="i080" />
<p class="caption">34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.</p>
</div>
<p>"The following advantages are secured by this
system:</p>
<p>"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained,
which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of
vine and the fruit, without smothering.</p>
<p>"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never
passed through bearing wood, is secured for the
next crop—a very important matter.</p>
<p>"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis,
allowing free passage in any direction through the
vineyard; circulation of air without danger of breaking
tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation,
harvesting.</p>
<p>"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop
to suit capacity of vine.</p>
<p>"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly
with the nature of nearly all our American
species far better than short spurs.</p>
<p>"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine
being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
pruned and not tied, standing away from
posts, can be bent down to one side between the
rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly
raised and tied in position.</p>
<p>"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing
trellis material and using it again.</p>
<p>"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i083" name="i083"></a>
<img src="images/i083.jpg" alt="i083" />
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
<p class="center small pt">MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Training.</i>—There are very few types
of horizontal shoot training now in use. The best
is probably that shown in <a href="#i084">fig. 35</a>. This particular
vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well
adapted. It will be noticed that this picture represents
the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
end of a trellis, and the diagonal stick
seen near the ground is a brace for the end post.
Two wires run from post to post, one about two
and one-half feet above the ground and the other
five and one-half feet high. The posts are set at
the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The
vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares.
A strong stake is driven in the ground behind each
vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis
when set. The permanent trunk or head of the
vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed
back to the top of this trunk every year.
One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied
up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From
this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried
out horizontally. About six of these shoots are
allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As
the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular
slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats
do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided
upon either side, making four to a vine. They stand
a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang
free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots
grow too long, they are pinched in when they have
passed the second slat. While these shoots are
covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out
from the head or trunk of the vine and, without
being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central
stake. This shoot is to form the top next year,
for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away
at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
the winter's pruning. So the vine starts every
spring with but a single cane.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i084" name="i084"></a>
<img src="images/i084.jpg" alt="i084" />
<p class="caption">35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>Excellent results are obtained from the slender
growing varieties by this method of training, but
it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to
make it generally practicable. Delaware, however,
thrives remarkably well when trained in this
fashion.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Post Training.</i>—There are various methods of
training to posts, all of which possess two advantages—the
saving of the expense of trellis and allowing
of cultivation both ways. But they also
have grave disadvantages, especially in the thickness
of the head of foliage which harbors rot and
mildew and prevents successful spraying, and
hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well.
These faults are so serious that post training is
now little used for the American grapes. The
saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts
are required to the acre than in the trellis systems,
and they do not endure long when standing
alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown
upon them.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i087" name="i087"></a>
<img src="images/i087.jpg" alt="i087" />
<p class="caption">36. LOW POST TRAINING.</p>
</div>
<p>There are various methods of pruning for the
stake training, but nearly all of them agree in
pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright
arm which stands the full height of the vine.
There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We
might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>,
to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis;
in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
that event, the four canes would hang at
will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the
shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions.
The post systems are essentially Kniffin in principle,
for the shoots hang free. In low styles of
post training, the permanent head of the vine may
be only three or four feet high. This head will
have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning
three to five canes with from six to ten buds
each are left. <a href="#i087">Fig. 36</a> is a view in such a post
vineyard.</p>
<p>The main trunk is usually tied permanently to
the post. The canes left after pruning are variously
disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards
and tied to the post above the head of the
vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely
about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two
trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming
from the ground from a common root. These
are wound about the post in opposite directions,
one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured
at the top by a small nail driven through it,
or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary.
Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances
of one foot or more apart, and the vines are
wrapped about them, but this only augments the
size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and
then one sees a careful post training, in which but
little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of
shoots practiced, which gives excellent results;
but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The
European post and stake systems or modifications
of them, are yet occasionally recommended for
American vines, but under general conditions, especially
in commercial grape growing, they rarely
succeed long. One of the latest recommendations
of any of these types is that of the single pole system
of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of
Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Arbors.</i>—Arbors and bowers are usually formed
with little reference to pruning and training. The
first object is to secure shade and seclusion, and
these are conditions which may seriously interfere
with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too
much wood must be allowed to grow, and the soil
about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results
in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes
a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually
best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to
the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk
at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left
to which the wood is renewed each year. If the
vines stand six feet apart about the arbor—which
is a satisfactory distance—one cane three feet long
may be left on each spur when the pruning is done.
The shoots which spring from these canes will
soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the
close of the season, this entire cane with its laterals
is cut away at the spur, and another three-foot
cane—which grew during the season—is left
in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
its place. This pruning is essentially that of
the Kniffin vine in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>. Imagine this vine,
with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid upon
the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to
the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same
system—running up a long trunk and cutting in to
side spurs—will apply equally well to tall walls and
fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly
a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit
is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root,
bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or
three every year, and cutting the old ones off; but
as the vines are desired for shade one does not
care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach
and cover the top of the arbor.</p>
<p class="pt"><i>Remodeling Old Vines.</i>—Old and neglected tops
can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine
is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an entirely
new top by taking out a cane from the root.
If the old top is cut back severely for a year or
two, this new cane will make a vigorous growth,
and it can be treated essentially like a new or
young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up
well, it can be left long enough the first fall to
make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather
weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or
winter to two or three buds, from one of which the
permanent trunk is to be grown the second season.
Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the
preceding pages for the various systems, will apply
to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
the new vine. The old trunk should be cut
away as soon as the new one is permanently tied
to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first
or second season of the new trunk. Care must be
exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from
the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut
back into the ground and covered with earth, better
results may be expected. Old vines treated in
this manner often make good plants, but if the
vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble
will scarcely pay for itself.</p>
<p>These old vines can be remodeled easily by means
of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches
below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or
two of straight wood above the roots. Into this
stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting
the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm
wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted.
The top bud should stand above the ground. The
cleft will need no tying nor wax, although it is well
to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over
the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth
tightly about it. <a href="#i092">Fig. 37</a> shows the first year's
growth from two cions of Niagara set in a Red
Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any
pruning which is done this first year, or the cions
may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to
a stake there will be less danger from wind and
careless workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration,
no pruning nor rubbing out was done,
but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
the vine would have been in better shape for
training if only one or two shoots had been allowed
to grow. Such a vine as this can be carried onto
the trellis next year; or it may be cut back to three
or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the
permanent trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i092" name="i092"></a>
<img src="images/i092.jpg" alt="i092" />
<p class="caption">37. A YEARLING GRAFT.</p>
</div>
<p>If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will
be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the
winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall
be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant
and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten
buds each may be left at suitable places. During
the next season a strong shoot from the base of
each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form
the wood of the following season, while all the
present cane is cut away at the end of the year.
So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the
regular systems of training. Much skill and experience
are often required to properly rejuvenate
an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not
worth the trouble.</p>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i093" name="i093"></a>
<img src="images/i093.jpg" alt="i093" />
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
<h2><span class="smcap">Index.</span></h2>
<table class="small" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="index">
<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr">Page</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Adlum, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Arbor Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Arbors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Arm, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Barns, W. D., quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Bass bark,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Bleeding,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Breaking-out,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Brocton, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Bull cane,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Cane, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Chautauqua County, Training in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Contraction of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Cornell, William T.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Cornhusks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Crittenden training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Cross-wire training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Crotch Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Double Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Drooping systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Eight-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Fan training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Forestville, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Four-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Fuller, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Girdling,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Grafting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Haviland, Sands,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Heading-in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">High Renewal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Hofer, A. F.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal Arm training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Husks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Improved<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin training, Comparison of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin, William,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Low Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Marlboro', Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Modified Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Munson training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Munson, T. V.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Objects of pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Old vines, Remodeling of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">One-wire Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Overhead Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Planting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Post training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning, Objects of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad"> " of young vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad"> " Summer,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad"> " Time for,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Raffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Raphia Ruffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Reasons for pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Remodeling old vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Rubbing off,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Rye straw for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Sagging of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Setting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Shoot, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Six-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Spur, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Spur training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Staples,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Stopping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Stripping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Summer pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Superfluous shoots,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Systems<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
compared,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">T-head,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Tightening wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Trellis, Making,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">True Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Twine for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Two-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Umbrella training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Upright training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Walls, Training on,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Weeping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Willows, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Wire, for trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">" for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">" weights and sizes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Wool-twine,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Y-trunk Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Yeoman's patent trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Yields of grapes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl rpad">Young vines, Pruning of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i096" name="i096"></a>
<img src="images/i096.jpg" alt="i096" />
</div>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<div class="figcenter"><a id="i097" name="i097"></a>
<img src="images/i097.jpg" alt="i097" />
</div>
<p class="small"><b>THIS ILLUSTRATION</b> was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades
of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth their natural size.</p>
<p class="small">We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish <i>strong</i>, <i>fibrous-rooted</i> stock, so
well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers.</p>
<p class="center">
<b>WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.</b></p>
<p class="center big"><b>LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.</b>,</p>
<p class="center small">
<b>Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.</b>
</p>
<p class="smaller">When writing name this book.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<table class="other" summary="ad">
<tr>
<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Hardy</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Native</b></td>
<td class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i098.jpg" alt="i098" />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Grapes.</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We desire to call the attention of planters to our
large and complete stock of Grape Vines.</p>
<p>We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty
varieties, embracing the popular old sorts as well as the
new ones which seem to have merit. Our catalogue
contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the different
varieties according to color.</p>
<p>Besides the above we offer an immense collection
of all kinds of Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs,
Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General Catalogue
(160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings
of the most popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in
an illuminated cover, will be mailed free to all who
have not received it.</p>
<p>Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare
and Choice Trees, Shrubs, etc., including several
valuable novelties and many specialties of superior
merit, will also be mailed free.</p>
<p class="firstind">
ELLWANGER & BARRY,</p>
<p class="midind">Mount Hope Nurseries,</p>
<p class="deepind"> <span class="smcap">Rochester, N. Y.</span>
</p>
<p class="small">53rd Year.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p class="biggest"><b>Pleasant Valley Nurseries</b></p>
<p class="pleft small">
<b>PEAR TREES.</b>—Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka,
Japan Golden Russet, Kieffer, LeConte, etc.,
Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of
all sorts. Ornamentals, Eleagnus
Longipes, Japanese Wineberry
Juneberry, Trifoliate Orange
and other valued novelties.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="i099" />
</div>
<p class="pright"><b>STRAWBERRIES</b>,
Van Deman, E. P.
Roe, and other new varieties;
all the old standard
sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries,
Blackberries, Currants, Asparagus
Roots and Grape Vines.</p>
<p class="bigger center"><b>J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N. J.</b></p>
<p class="center small">Send for Catalogue.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p class="biggest center"><b>MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.</b></p>
<p class="bigger center"><b>For the Farm and Household.</b></p>
<p class="smaller">Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on receipt of price.<br />
Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no mistake in mailing.</p>
<p class="smaller ind">
Address</p>
<p class="small midind pb">
<i><b>The Rural Publishing Co., New York.</b></i>
</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.</b>—By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>. A collection
of errors and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners
and others, together with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting
to students and intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature,
and of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the
truth about their work.</p>
<p class="ind small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NURSERY BOOK.</b>—By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. A complete handbook of
Propagation and Pollination of Plants. <i>Profusely illustrated.</i> This
valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains. The author
has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many
experts. The book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has
nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant
growth. It simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a
seed, makes a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It
is entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107,
and are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all
kinds of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy
herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.</p>
<p class="center small"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p>
<p class="small ind1 smspace">
I.—<span class="smcap">Seedage.</span> On Propagation by Seed.</p>
<p class="small ind05 smspace">II.—<span class="smcap">Separation.</span></p>
<p class="small smspace">III.—<span class="smcap">Layerage.</span> Propagation by Layering.</p>
<p class="small ind05 smspace">IV.—<span class="smcap">Cuttage.</span> Propagation by Cuttings.</p>
<p class="small ind1 smspace">V.—<span class="smcap">Graftage.</span>—Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.<br />
</p>
<p class="small ind05 smspace">VI.—<span class="smcap">Nursery List.</span>—This is the great feature of the book. It is an
alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling which
of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in propagating
them. <i>Over 2,000 entries</i> are made in the list. The following entries
will give an idea of the method:</p>
<p class="small"><b>Acer</b> (<span class="smcap">Maple</span>). <i>Sapindaceæ.</i> Stocks are grown from stratified seeds,
which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as <i>A. dasycarpum</i>,
come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some cultural
varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by grafting. Varieties
of native species are worked upon common or native stocks. The Japanese
sorts are winter-worked upon imported <i>A. polymorphum</i> stocks, either
by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also be budded in summer, and
they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood.</p>
<p class="small"><b>Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus</b> (<span class="smcap">Leaf Cactus</span>). <i>Cacteæ.</i>
Fresh seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained,
and apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove
to a light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six
inches in length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about
60°, and apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings
are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before
planting.</p>
<p class="small">VII.—<span class="smcap">Pollination.</span></p>
<p class="small">Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper,
narrow margins, 50 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.</b>—By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>.
An essay on the influence of climate upon size, form, color,
fruitfulness, etc., with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.</p>
<p class="small">Price, paper, 25 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>FRUIT CULTURE</b>, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country
Home.—By <span class="smcap">W. C. Strong</span>, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society.
Illustrated. New revised edition, with many additions, making it
the latest and freshest book on the subject.</p>
<p class="smaller center">CONTENTS:</p>
<p class="small">Rural Homes—Choice of Locality—Treatment—A Good Lawn—The
Approach. Fruits—Location of the Fruit Garden—Success in Fruit-Culture—Profit
in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees—Quality—How to
Plant—Time to Plant—Preparing the Land—Fertilizers—Cutting Back—Distances
for Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden—Irrigation—Application
of Fertilizers—Thinning the Fruit—Labels. The Apple—Insects Injurious
to the Apple. The Pear—Dwarf Pears—Situation and Soil—Pruning—Ripening
the Fruit—Insects Injurious to the Pear—Diseases. The
Peach—Injurious Insects and Diseases of the Peach—Nectarines. The
Plum—Insects and Diseases of the Plum—Apricots. The Cherry—Insects
Injurious to the Cherry. The Quince—Insects Injurious to the
Quince. The Grape—Grape-Houses—Varieties—Insects Injurious to the
Grape—Mildew. The Currant—Insects Attacking the Currant—The Gooseberry.
The Raspberry—The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry—The
Fig—Rhubarb—Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees—From the
Seed—By Division—By Cuttings—By Layers—By Budding—By Grafting.
Insecticides—Fungicides—Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth, $1.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.</b>—By <span class="smcap">James Morton</span>.
An excellent and thorough book; especially adapted to the
culture of Chrysanthemums in America. The contents include Propagation
by Grafting. Inarching and Seed. American History. Propagation by
Cuttings. Exhibition Plants. Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for
Potting. Watering and Liquid Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing.
Hints on Exhibitions. List of Synonyms. Staking and Tying.
General Culture. Insects and Diseases. Standard Chrysanthemums.
Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning. Oriental and European
History. Calendar of Monthly Operations. Chrysanthemum Shows
and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum Society. Early and Late-Flowering
Varieties. Chrysanthemums as House-Plants—Varieties for
Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>IMPROVING THE FARM</b>, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a
profit, and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.—By <span class="smcap">Lucius
D. Davis</span>, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively
on renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters: Book-Farming.
The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm?
How Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops.
Green Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure—How Made,
Its Cost and Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes.
Commercial Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments
with Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock.
Specialties in Farming. Price, cloth, $1.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.</b>—By <span class="smcap">Elias A. Long</span>. A practical treatise
comprising 32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with
copious explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the
serial, "Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which
has been so attractive a feature of <i>Popular Gardening</i> and <i>American
Gardening</i> during the past year. But in the new form the matter has
been entirely rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed
for beauty by any other work on Landscape Gardening.</p>
<p class="small">Price, 50 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE BUSINESS HEN.</b>—Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The
pat title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and,
practical little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs,
Henry Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well
known have written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully
arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of
<i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?"
the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions for
developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of chicks,
treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and housing, are
all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful egg-farms are
described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has succeeded in
developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs each per year.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE.</b> (<i>2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged.</i>)—By
F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural
College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important
principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the
comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry,
botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It supplies
a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for the practical
farmer. Includes all the latest developments in agricultural science as
applied to the subject.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.</b>—By <span class="smcap">Elbert S. Carman</span>. This book
gives the result of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground.
It treats particularly of: How to increase the crop without corresponding
cost of production. Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application.
The soil, and how to put it in right condition. Depth of
planting. How much seed to plant. Methods of culture. The Rural
trench system. Varieties, etc., etc.</p>
<p class="small">Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable
methods; in fact, of <i>The NEW Potato Culture</i>. It is respectfully submitted
that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and
indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in successful
potato-culture than any other experiments that have been carried
on in America.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.</b>—By Professor <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>,
Editor of <i>American Gardening</i>, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment
Station, and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It
contains in handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes
required by gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.</p>
<p class="small">Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies.
Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and
remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and
remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements,
paints, etc. <i>Seed Tables</i>: Quantities required for sowing given areas.
Weight and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds
to germinate. <i>Planting Tables</i>: Dates for sowing seeds in different latitudes.
Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting. <i>Maturity
and Yields</i>: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for bearing of
fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing fruits and vegetables.
<i>Propagation of Plants</i>: Ways of grafting and budding. Methods
by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits. <i>Standard
Measures and Sizes</i>: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal measures.
English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities of
water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass roofs.
Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of inclination.
Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount of various products
yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels. Loudon's rules of
horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for exhibition. Weather signs
and protection from frost. <i>Collecting and Preserving</i>: How to make
an herbarium. Preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of
plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect and preserve insects. Chemical
composition of fruits and vegetables, and seeds, fertilizers, soils and
vegetables. <i>Names and Histories</i>: Vegetables which have different names
in England and America. Derivation of names of various fruits and vegetables.
Names of fruits and vegetables in various languages. Glossary.
Calendar.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING</b>:—The Philosophy of the
Crossing of Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation—How
to Improve plants by Hybridizing.—By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. It is the only
book accessible to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements,
possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man
who owns a plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself
upon one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains
also a bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.</p>
<p class="small">Price, paper, 40 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.</b>—By <span class="smcap">H. W. Collingwood</span>, Managing Editor
of <i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. A concise and practical discussion of
the all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green
manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.</p>
<p class="small">Price, paper, 20 cents.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.</b>—Bright, New, Clean and
Fresh. These Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are
the <i>only records</i> of the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all
the plants introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts
of all new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for <i>Gardeners</i>,
<i>Fruit-Growers</i>, <i>Florists</i>, <i>Vegetable-Gardeners and Landscape-Gardeners</i>,
comprise its contents.</p>
<p class="small">Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at
the same price.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.</b>—A practical Manual concerning Noxious
Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By <span class="smcap">Clarence
M. Weed</span>, Professor of Entomology and Zoölogy, New Hampshire
State College.</p>
<p class="small">I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little
book.—<span class="smcap">Dr. C. V. Riley</span>, <i>U.S. Entomologist</i>.</p>
<p>It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed
in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner
in which you have done the work.—<span class="smcap">James Fletcher</span>, <i>Dominion Entomologist</i>.</p>
<p class="small">I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a
work.—<span class="smcap">Dr. F. M. Hexamer</span>, <i>Editor American Agriculturist</i>.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.25.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE CAULIFLOWER.</b>—<span class="smcap">By A. A. Crozier</span>. Teacher and Practical
Origin and History of this increasingly important and always delicious
vegetable.</p>
<p class="small">The Cauliflower Industry.—In Europe. In the United States. Importation
of Cauliflowers.</p>
<p class="small">Management of the Crop.—Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating.
Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.</p>
<p class="small">The Early Crop.—Caution against planting it largely. Special directions.
Buttoning.</p>
<p class="small">Cauliflower Regions of the United States.—Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake
Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.</p>
<p class="small">Insect and Fungous Enemies.—Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot.
Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.</p>
<p class="small">Cauliflower Seed.—Importance of careful selection. Where the seed
is grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.</p>
<p class="small">Varieties.—Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests.
Best varieties.</p>
<p class="small">Broccoli.—Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation,
use and varieties of Broccoli.</p>
<p class="small">Cooking Cauliflower.—Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical
composition. Recipes.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.</b>—A Practical Handbook of Profitable
Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By <span class="smcap">T. Greiner</span>.</p>
<p class="small ind smspace">Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.</p>
<p class="small ind smspace">Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.</p>
<p class="small ind smspace">Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.</p>
<p class="small">This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the farmer
in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you wish to
learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances, and how
to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want your
boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful farmer,
give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be returned a hundred-fold
to every reader who peruses its pages with care and applies its
teachings to practice.</p>
<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
<p class="small cap pt"><b>SPRAYING CROPS.</b>—Why, When and How to Do It.—By <span class="smcap">Prof. Clarence
M. Weed</span>. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated.
Covers the whole field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which
the spray is used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical
manner:</p>
<p class="small">Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against
Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used
in Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides
and Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying.
Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery
Stock. Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying
Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.</p>
<p class="small">Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<div class="notes">
<p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p>
<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph break.
Some page numbers are missing as a result of moving full-page illustrations.</p>
<p>Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are
unchanged in this e-text.</p>
<p>Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without
comment.</p>
<p>In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:</p>
<blockquote><p>1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase,
"... this only augments the size and depth...."</p>
<p>2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase,
"... wood the size of a lead-pencil...."</p></blockquote>
</div>
<pre>
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