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<pre>

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7
       "Ireland" to "Isabey, Jean Baptiste"

Author: Various

Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39775]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net






</pre>



<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
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<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
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</table>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>

<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>

<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<hr class="full" />
<h3>VOLUME XIV SLICE VII<br /><br />
Ireland to Isabey, Jean Baptiste</h3>
<hr class="full" />
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">

<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">IRELAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">IRONWOOD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">IRELAND, CHURCH OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">IRON-WOOD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">IRENAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">IRONY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">IRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">IROQUOIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">IRETON, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">IRRAWADDY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">IRIARTE Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">IRREDENTISTS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">IRIDACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">IRRIGATION</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">IRIDIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">IRULAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">IRIGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">IRUN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">IRIS</a> (Greek mythology)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">IRVINE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">IRIS</a> (botany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">IRVING, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">IRISH MOSS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">IRVING, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">IRKUTSK</a> (government of Russia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">IRVING, WASHINGTON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">IRKUTSK</a> (Russian town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">IRVINGTON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">IRMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ISAAC</a> (child of Abraham)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">IRNERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ISAAC I.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">IRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ISAAC II.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">IRON AGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ISAAC OF ANTIOCH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">IRON AND STEEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ISABELLA</a> (queen of Castile)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">IRON MASK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ISABELLA II.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">IRON MOUNTAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ISABELLA</a> (wife of Charles VI)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">IRONSIDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ISABELLA OF HAINAUT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">IRONTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
</table>

<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">IRELAND,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> an island lying west of Great Britain, and forming
with it the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It
extends from 51° 26&prime; to 55° 21&prime; N., and from 5° 25&prime; to 10° 30&prime; W.
It is encircled by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east is separated
from Great Britain by narrow shallow seas, towards the north
by the North Channel, the width of which at the narrowest part
between the Mull of Cantire (Scotland) and Torr Head is only
13½ m.; in the centre by the Irish Sea, 130 m. in width, and in
the south by St George&rsquo;s Channel, which has a width of 69 m.
between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales) and of 47 m. at its
southern extremity. The island has the form of an irregular
rhomboid, the largest diagonal of which, from Torr Head in the
north-east to Mizen Head in the south-west, measures 302 m.
The greatest breadth due east and west is 174 m., from Dundrum
Bay to Annagh Head, county Mayo; and the average breadth
is about 110 m. The total area is 32,531 sq. m.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span></p>

<p>Ireland is divided territorially into four provinces and thirty-two
counties:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Ulster</i> (northern division): Counties Antrim,
Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry,
Monaghan, Tyrone. (<i>b</i>) <i>Leinster</i> (eastern midlands and south-east):
Counties Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King&rsquo;s
County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen&rsquo;s County, Westmeath,
Wexford, Wicklow. (<i>c</i>) <i>Connaught</i> (western midlands): Counties
Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. (<i>d</i>) <i>Munster</i> (south-western
division): Counties Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
Tipperary, Waterford.</p>

<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;Ireland stands on the edge of the
European &ldquo;continental shelf.&rdquo; Off the peninsula of Mullet
(county Mayo) there are 100 fathoms of water within 25 m. of
the coast which overlooks the Atlantic; eastward, northward and
southward, in the narrow seas, this depth is never reached.
The average height of the island is about 400 ft., but the distribution
of height is by no means equal. The island has no spinal
range or dominating mountain mass. Instead, a series of small,
isolated clusters of mountains, reaching from the coast to an
extreme distance of some 70 m. inland, almost surrounds a great
central plain which seldom exceeds 250 ft. in elevation. A
physical description of Ireland, therefore, falls naturally under
three heads&mdash;the coasts, the mountain rim and the central plain.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The capital city and port of Dublin lies a little south of the central
point of the eastern coast, at the head of a bay which marks a
sudden change in the coastal formation. Southward from
its northern horn, the rocky headland of Howth, the coast
<span class="sidenote">Coasts.</span>
is generally steep, occasionally sheer, and the mountains of county
Wicklow approach it closely. Northward (the direction first to be
followed) it is low, sandy and fringed with shoals, for here is one
point at which the central plain extends to the coast. This condition
obtains from 53° 25&prime; N. until at 54° N. the mountains close
down again, and the narrow inlet or fjord of Carlingford Lough
separates the abrupt heights of the Carlingford and Mourne Mountains.
Then the low and sandy character is resumed; the fine eastward
sweep of Dundrum Bay is passed, the coast turns north again,
and a narrow channel gives entry to the island-studded lagoon of
Strangford Lough. Reaching county Antrim, green wooded hills
plunge directly into the sea; the deep Belfast Lough strikes some
10 m. inland, and these conditions obtain nearly to Fair Head, the
north-eastern extremity of the island. Here the coast turns westward,
changing suddenly to sheer cliffs, where the basaltic formation
intrudes its strange regular columns, most finely developed in the
famous Giant&rsquo;s Causeway.</p>

<p>The low land surrounding the plain-track of the Bann intervenes
between this and the beginning of a coastal formation which is
common to the north-western and western coasts. From the oval
indentation of Lough Foyle a bluff coast trends north-westward to
Malin Head, the northernmost promontory of the island. Thence
over the whole southward stretch to Mizen Head in county Cork
is found that physical appearance of a cliff-bound coast fretted with
deep fjord-like inlets and fringed with many islands, which throughout
the world is almost wholly confined to western seaboards.
Mountains impinge upon the sea almost over the whole length,
sometimes, as in Slieve League (county Donegal), immediately
facing it with huge cliffs. Eight dominant inlets appear. Lough
Foyle is divided from Lough Swilly by the diamond-shaped peninsula
of Inishowen. Following the coast southward, Donegal Bay is
divided from Galway Bay by the hammer-like projection of county
Mayo and Connemara, the square inlet of Clew Bay intervening.
At Galway Bay the mountain barrier is broken, where the great
central plain strikes down to the sea as it does on the east coast north
of Dublin. After the stern coast of county Clare there follow the
estuary of the great river Shannon, and then three large inlets
striking deep into the mountains of Kerry and Cork&mdash;Dingle Bay,
Kenmare river and Bantry Bay, separating the prongs of the forklike
south-western projection of the island. The whole of this coast
is wild and beautiful, and may be compared with the west coast of
Scotland and even that of Norway, though it has a strong individuality
distinct from either; and though for long little known to
travellers, it now possesses a number of small watering-places, and
is in many parts accessible by railway. The islands though numerous
are not as in Scotland and Norway a dominant feature of the coast,
being generally small and often mere clusters of reefs. Exceptions,
however, are Tory Island and North Aran off the Donegal coast,
Achill and Clare off Mayo, the South Arans guarding Galway Bay,
the Blasquets and Valencia off the Kerry coast. On many of these
desolate rocks, which could have afforded only the barest sustenance,
there are remains of the dwellings and churches of early religious
settlers who sought solitude here. The settlements on Inishmurray
(Sligo), Aranmore in the South Arans, and Scattery in the Shannon
estuary, had a fame as retreats of piety and learning far outside
Ireland itself, and the significance of a pilgrimage to their sites is not
yet wholly forgotten among the peasantry, while the preservation
of their remains has come to be a national trust.</p>

<p>The south coast strikes a mean between the east and the west.
It is lower than the west though still bold in many places; the
inlets are narrower and less deep, but more easily accessible, as
appears from the commercial importance of the harbours of Cork
and Waterford. Turning northward to the east of Waterford round
Carnsore Point, the lagoon-like harbour of Wexford is passed, and
then a sweeping, almost unbroken, line continues to Dublin Bay.
But this coast, though differing completely from the western, is not
lacking in beauty, for, like the Mournes in county Down, the mountains
of Wicklow rise close to the sea, and sometimes directly from it.</p>

<p>Every mountain group in Ireland forms an individual mass,
isolated by complex systems of valleys in all directions. They
seldom exceed 3000 ft. in height, yet generally possess a
certain dignity, whether from their commanding position
<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
or their bold outline. Every variety of form is seen, from steep
flat-topped table-mountains as near Loughs Neagh and Erne, to
peaks such as those of the Twelve Pins or Bens of Connemara.
Unlike the Scottish Highlands no part of them was capable of
sheltering a whole native race in opposition to the advance of
civilization, though early customs, tradition and the common use of
the Erse language yet survive in some strength in the wilder parts
of the west. From the coasts there is almost everywhere easy access
to the interior through the mountains by valley roads; and though
the plain exists unbroken only in the midlands, its ramifications
among the hills are always easy to follow. Plain and lowland of an
elevation below 500 ft. occupy nearly four-fifths of the total area;
and if the sea were to submerge these, four distinct archipelagos
would appear, a northern, eastern, western and south-western.
The principal groups, with their highest points, are the Mournes
(Slieve Donard, 2796 ft.) and the Wicklow mountains (Lugnaquilla,
3039) on the east; the Sperrins (Sawel, 2240) in the north; the
Derryveagh group in the north-west (Errigal, 2466); the many
groups or short ranges of Sligo, Mayo and Galway (reaching 1695 ft.
in the Twelve Pins of Connemara); in the south-west those of
Kerry and Cork, where in Carrantuohill or Carntual (3414) the
famous Macgillicuddy Reeks which beautify the environs of Killarney
include the highest point in the island; and north-east from these,
the Galtees of Tipperary (3018) and Slieve Bloom, the farthest
inland of the important groups. Nearer the south coast are the
Knockmealdown (2609) and Commeragh Mountains (2470) of county
Waterford.</p>

<p>It will be realized from the foregoing description that it is impossible
to draw accurate boundary lines to the great Irish plain,
yet it rightly carries the epithet central because it distinctly
divides the northern mountain groups from the
<span class="sidenote">Central plain.</span>
southern. The plain is closely correlated with the bogs
which are the best known physical characteristic of Ireland, but the
centre of Ireland is not wholly bog-land. Rather the bogs of the
plain are intersected by strips of low-lying firm ground, and the
central plain consists of these bright green expanses alternating
with the brown of the bogs, of which the best known and (with its
offshoots) one of the most extensive is the Bog of Allen in the
eastern midlands. But the bogs are not confined to the plain.
They may be divided into black and red according to the degree of
moisture and the vegetable matter which formed them. The black
bogs are those of the plain and the deeper valleys, while the red,
firmer and less damp, occur on the mountains. The former supply
most of the peat, and some of the tree-trunks dug out of them
have been found so flexible from immersion that they might be
twisted into ropes. Owing to the quantity of tannin they contain,
no harmful miasma exhales from the Irish bogs.</p>

<p>The central plain and its offshoots are drained by rivers to all
the coasts, but chiefly eastward and westward, and the water-partings
in its midst are sometimes impossible to define.
The main rivers, however, have generally a mountain
<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
source, and according as they are fed from bogs or springs may be
differentiated as black and bright streams. In this connexion the
frequent use of the name Blackwater is noticeable. The principal
rivers are&mdash;from the Wicklow Mountains, the Slaney, flowing S. to
Wexford harbour, and the Liffey, flowing with a tortuous course
N. and E. to Dublin Bay; the Boyne, fed from the central plain
and discharging into Drogheda Bay; from the mountains of county
Down, the Lagan, to Belfast Lough, and the Bann, draining the
great Lough Neagh to the northern sea; the Foyle, a collection of
streams from the mountains of Tyrone and Donegal, flowing north
to Lough Foyle. On the west the rivers are generally short and
torrential, excepting the Erne, which drains the two beautiful
loughs of that name in county Fermanagh, and the Shannon, the
chief river of Ireland, which, rising in a mountain spring in county
Cavan, follows a bow-shaped course to the south and south-west,
and draws off the major part of the waters of the plain by tributaries
from the east. In the south, the Lee and the Blackwater intersect
the mountains of Kerry and Cork flowing east, and turn abruptly
into estuaries opening south. Lastly, rising in the Slieve Bloom
or neighbouring mountains, the Suir, Nore and Barrow follow
widely divergent courses to the south to unite in Waterford
harbour.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span></p>

<p>The lakes (called loughs&mdash;pronounced <i>lochs</i>) of Ireland are innumerable,
and (apart from their formation) are almost all contained
in two great regions, (1) The central plain by its nature
abounds in loughs&mdash;dark, peat-stained pools with low
<span class="sidenote">Lakes</span>
shores. The principal of these lie in county Westmeath, such as
Loughs Ennel, Owel and Derravaragh, famed for their trout-fishing
in the May-fly season. (2) The Shannon, itself forming several
large loughs, as Allen, Ree and Derg; and the Erne, whose course
lies almost wholly through loughs&mdash;Gowna, Oughter and the
Loughs Erne, irregular of outline and studded with islands&mdash;separate
this region from the principal lake-region of Ireland, coincident
with the province of Connaught. In the north lie Loughs Melvin,
close above Donegal Bay, and Gill near Sligo, Lough Gara, draining
to the Shannon, and Lough Conn near Ballina (county Mayo), and
in the south, the great expanses of Loughs Mask and Corrib, joined
by a subterranean channel. To the west of these last, the mountains
of Connemara and, to a more marked degree, the narrow plain of
bog-land between them and Galway Bay, are sown with small lakes,
nearly every hollow of this wild district being filled with water.
Apart from these two regions the loughs of Ireland are few but
noteworthy. In the south-west the lakes of Killarney are widely
famed for their exquisite scenic setting; in the north-east Lough
Neagh has no such claim, but is the largest lake in the British Isles,
while in the south-east there are small loughs in some of the
picturesque glens of county Wicklow.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate of Ireland is more equable than that
of Great Britain as regards both temperature and rainfall.
No district in Ireland has a rainfall so heavy as that of large
portions of the Highlands of Scotland, or so light as that of several
large districts in the east of Great Britain. In January the mean
temperature scarcely falls below 40° F. in any part of Ireland,
whereas over the larger part of the eastern slope of Great Britain
it is some 3° lower; and in July the extremes in Ireland are
59° in the north and 62° in Kilkenny. The range from north
to south of Great Britain in the same month is some 10°, but
the greater extent of latitude accounts only for a part of this
difference, which is mainly occasioned by the physical configuration
of the surface of Ireland in its relations to the prevailing
moist W.S.W. winds. Ireland presents to these winds no
unbroken mountain ridge running north and south, which would
result in two climates as distinct as those of the east and west
of Ross-shire; but it presents instead only a series of isolated
groups, with the result that it is only a few limited districts which
enjoy climates approaching in dryness the climates of the whole
of the eastern side of Great Britain.</p>
<div class="author">(O. J. R. H.)</div>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Ireland, rising from shallow seas on the margin of the
submarine plateau of western Europe, records in its structure the
successive changes that the continent itself has undergone. The
first broad view of the country shows us a basin-shaped island
consisting of a central limestone plain surrounded by mountains;
but the diverse modes of origin of these mountains, and the differences
in their trend, suggest at once that they represent successive
epochs of disturbance. The north-west highlands of Donegal and
the Ox Mountains, with their axes of folding running north-east and
south-west, invite comparison with the great chain of Leinster,
but also with the Grampians and the backbone of Scandinavia.
The ranges from Kerry to Waterford, on the other hand, truncated
by the sea at either end, are clearly parts of an east and west system,
the continuation of which may be looked for in South Wales and
Belgium. The hills of the north-east are mainly the crests of lava-plateaux,
which carry the mind towards Skye and the volcanic
province of the Faeroe Islands. The two most important points of
contrast between the geology of Ireland and that of England are,
firstly, the great exposure of Carboniferous rocks in Ireland,
Mesozoic strata being almost absent; and, secondly, the presence
of volcanic rocks in place of the marine Eocene of England.</p>

<p>The fact that no Cambrian strata have been established by
palaeontological evidence in the west of Ireland has made it equally
difficult to establish any pre-Cambrian system. The great difference
in character, however, between the Silurian strata at Pomeroy in
county Tyrone and the adjacent metamorphic series makes it highly
probable that the latter masses are truly Archean. They form an
interesting and bleak moorland between Cookstown and Omagh,
extending north-eastward into Slieve Gallion in county Londonderry,
and consist fundamentally of mica-schist and gneiss, affected
by earth-pressures, and invaded by granite near Lough Fee. The
axis along which they have been elevated runs north-east and
south-west, and on either flank a series of &ldquo;green rocks&rdquo; appears,
consisting of altered amygdaloidal andesitic lavas, intrusive dolerites,
coarse gabbros and diorites, and at Beagh-beg and Creggan in
central Tyrone ancient rhyolitic tuffs. Red and grey cherts, which
have not so far yielded undoubted organic remains occur in this
series, and it has in consequence been compared with the Arenig
rocks of southern Scotland. The granite invades this &ldquo;green-rock&rdquo;
series at Slieve Gallion and elsewhere, but is itself pre-Devonian.
Even if the volcanic and intrusive basic rocks prove
to be Ordovician (Lower Silurian), which is very doubtful, the
metamorphic series of the core is clearly distinct, and appears to be
&ldquo;fundamental&rdquo; so far as Ireland is concerned.</p>

<p>The other metamorphic areas of the north present even greater
difficulties, owing to the absence of any overlying strata older than
the Old Red Sandstone. Their rocks have been variously held to
be Archean, Cambrian and Silurian, and their general trend has
undoubtedly been determined by post-Silurian earth-movements.
Hence it is useful to speak of them merely as &ldquo;Dalradian,&rdquo; a convenient
term invented by Sir A. Geikie for the metamorphic series
of the old kingdom of Dalriada. They come out as mica-schists
under the Carboniferous sandstones of northern Antrim, and disappear
southward under the basaltic plateaux. The red gneisses
near Torr Head probably represent intrusive granite; and this
small north-eastern exposure is representative of the Dalradian series
which covers so wide a field from central Londonderry to the coast
of Donegal. The oldest rocks in this large area are a stratified series
of mica-schists, limestones and quartzites, with numerous intrusive
sheets of diorite, the whole having been metamorphosed by pressure,
with frequent overfolding. Extensive subsequent metamorphism
has been produced by the invasion of great masses of granite.
Similar rocks come up along the Ox Mountain axis, and occupy the
wild west of Mayo and Connemara. The quartzites here form bare
white cones and ridges, notably in Errigal and Aghla Mt. in county
Donegal, and in the group of the Twelve Bens in county Galway.</p>

<p>Following on these rocks of unknown but obviously high antiquity,
we find fossiliferous Ordovician (Lower Silurian) strata near
Killary harbour on the west, graduating upwards into a complete
Gotlandian (Upper Silurian) system. Massive conglomerates occur
in these series, which are unconformable on the Dalradian rocks of
Connemara. In the Wenlock beds of the west of the Dingle promontory
there are contemporaneous tuffs and lavas. Here the
Ludlow strata are followed by a thick series of barren beds (the
Dingle Beds), which have been variously claimed as Upper Silurian
and Lower Devonian. No certain representative of the Dingle
Beds has been traced elsewhere throughout the south of Ireland,
where the Old Red Sandstone succeeds the uptilted Silurian strata
with striking unconformity. The Silurian rocks were indeed greatly
folded before the Old Red Sandstone was laid down, the general
trend of the folds being from south-west to north-east. The best
example of these folds is the axis of Leinster, its core being occupied
by granite which is now exposed continuously for 70 m., forming
a moorland from Dublin to New Ross. On either flank the Silurian
shales, slates and sandstones, which are very rarely fossiliferous,
rise with steep dips. They are often contorted, and near the contact
with the granite pass into mica-schists and quartzites. The foothills
and lowlands throughout southern Wicklow and almost the whole
of Wexford, and the corresponding country of western Wicklow
and eastern Kildare, are thus formed of Silurian beds, in which
numerous contemporaneous and also intrusive igneous rocks are
intercalated, striking like the chain N.E. and S.W. In south-eastern
Wexford, in northern Wicklow (from Ashford to Bray),
and in the promontory of Howth on Dublin Bay, an apparently
earlier series of green and red slates and quartzites forms an important
feature. The quartzites, like those of the Dalradian series,
weather out in cones, such as the two Sugarloaves south of Bray,
or in knob-set ridges, such as the crest of Howth or Carrick Mt.
in county Wicklow. The radial or fan-shaped markings known as
<i>Oldhamia</i> were first detected in this series, but are now known
from Cambrian beds in other countries; in default of other satisfactory
fossils, the series of Bray and Howth has long been held
to be Cambrian.</p>

<p>All across Ireland, from the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border
to the southern shore of Belfast Lough, slaty and sandy Silurian
beds appear in the axes of the anticlinal folds, surrounded by Old
Red Sandstone scarps or Carboniferous Limestone lowlands. These
Silurian areas give rise to hummocky regions, where small hills
abound, without much relation to the trend of the axis of elevation.
The most important area appears north of the town of Longford, and
extends thence to the coast of Down. In Slieve Glah it reaches a
height of 1057 ft. above the sea. Granite is exposed along its axis
from near Newry to Slieve Croob, and again appears at Crossdoney
in county Cavan. These occurrences of granite, with that of
Leinster, in connexion with the folding of the Silurian strata, make
it highly probable that many of the granites of the Dalradian areas,
which have a similar trend and which have invaded the schists so
intimately as to form with them a composite gneiss, date also from
a post-Silurian epoch of earth-movement. Certain western and
northern granites are however older, since granite boulders occur
in Silurian conglomerates derived from the Dalradian complex.</p>

<p>This group of N.E. and S.W. ridges and hollows, so conspicuous
in the present conformation of Donegal, Sligo and Mayo, in the
axis of Newry, and in the yet bolder Leinster Chain, was impressed
upon the Irish region at the close of Silurian times, and is clearly
a part of the &ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo; system of folds, which gave to Europe
the guiding lines of the Scottish Highlands and of Scandinavia.</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:599px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<div><img style="width:850px; height:612px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img744b.jpg">(Click to enlarge top section.)</a><br />
<a href="images/img744d.jpg">(Click to enlarge bottom section.)</a></p>

<p class="pt2">On the land-surface thus formed the Devonian lakes gathered,
while the rivers poured into them enormous deposits of sand and
conglomerate. A large exposure of this Old Red Sandstone stretches
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
from Enniskillen to the Silurian beds at Pomeroy, and some contemporaneous
andesites are included, reminding us of the volcanic
activity at the same epoch in Scotland. The numerous &ldquo;felstone&rdquo;
dikes, often lamprophyric, occurring in the north and west of
Ireland, are probably also of Devonian age. The conglomerates
appear at intervals through the limestone covering of central Ireland,
and usually weather out as conspicuous scarps or &ldquo;hog&rsquo;s-backs.&rdquo;
The Slieve Bloom Mountains are thus formed of a dome of Old
Red Sandstone folded on a core of unconformable Silurian strata;
while in several cases the domes are worn through, leaving rings of
Old Red Sandstone hills, scarping inwards towards broad exposures
of Silurian shales. The Old Red Sandstone is most fully manifest
in the rocky or heather-clad ridges that run from the west of Kerry
to central Waterford, rising to 3414 ft. in Carrantuohill in Macgillicuddy&rsquo;s
Reeks, and 3015 ft. in Galtymore. In the Dingle Promontory
the conglomerates of this period rest with striking unconformity
on the Dingle Beds and Upper Silurian series. Here there
may be a local break between Lower and Upper Devonian strata.
The highest beds of Old Red Sandstone type pass up conformably
in the south of Ireland into the Lower Carboniferous, through the
&ldquo;Yellow Sandstone Series&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Coomhola Grits&rdquo; above it.
The Yellow Sandstone contains <i>Archanodon</i>, the oldest known
fresh-water mollusc, and plant-remains; the Coomhola Grits are
marine, and are sometimes regarded as Carboniferous, sometimes as
uppermost Devonian.</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:823px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img745.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p class="pt2">In the south, the Carboniferous deposits open with the Carboniferous
Slate, in the base of which the Coomhola Grits occur. Its
lower part represents the Lower Carboniferous Shales and Sandstones
of the central and northern areas, while its upper part corresponds
with a portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous
Limestone, laid down in a sea which covered nearly the whole
Irish area, appears in the synclinal folds at Cork city and Kenmare,
and is the prevalent rock from the north side of the Knockmealdown
Mountains to Enniskillen and Donegal Bay. On the east it spreads to
Drogheda and Dublin, and on the west to the heart of Mayo and of
Clare. Loughs Mask and Corrib are thus bounded on the west by
rugged Silurian and Dalradian highlands, and on the east appear as
mere water-filled hollows in the great limestone plain.</p>

<p>The Lower Carboniferous Sandstones are conspicuous in the
region from Milltown near Inver Bay in southern Donegal to Ballycastle
in county Antrim. In the latter place they contain workable
coal-seams. The Carboniferous Limestone often contains black
flint (chert), and at some horizons conglomerates occur, the pebbles
being derived from the unconformable ridges of the &ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo;
land. A black and often shaly type called &ldquo;calp&rdquo; contains much
clay derived from the same land-surface. While the limestone has
been mainly worn down to a lowland, it forms fine scarps and table-lands
in county Sligo and other western regions. Subterranean
rivers and water-worn caves provide a special type of scenery
below the surface. Contemporaneous volcanic action is recorded
by tuffs and lavas south-east of Limerick and north of Philipstown.
The beds above the limestone are shales and sandstones, sometimes
reaching the true Coal-Measures, but rarely younger than the English
Millstone Grit. They are well seen in the high ground about Lough
Allen, where the Shannon rises on them, round the Castlecomer and
Killenaule coalfields, and in a broad area from the north of Clare
to Killarney. Some coals occur in the Millstone Grit horizons. The
Upper Coal-Measures, as a rule, have been lost by denudation, much
of which occurred before Triassic times. South of the line between
Galway and Dublin the coal is anthracitic, while north of this line it
is bituminous. The northern coalfields are the L. Carboniferous one
at Ballycastle, the high outliers of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures
round Lough Allen, and the Dungannon and Coalisland field in
county Tyrone. The last named is in part concealed by Triassic
strata. The only important occurrences of coal in the south are in
eastern Tipperary, near Killenaule, and in the Leinster coalfield
(counties Kilkenny and Carlow and Queen&rsquo;s County), where there
is a high synclinal field, including Lower and Middle Coal-Measures,
and resembling in structure the Forest of Dean area in England.</p>

<p>The &ldquo;Hercynian&rdquo; earth-movements, which so profoundly
affected north-west and north-central Europe at the close of Carboniferous
times, gave rise to a series of east and west folds in the Irish
region. The Upper Carboniferous beds were thus lifted within easy
reach of denuding forces, while the Old Red Sandstone, and the underlying
&ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo; land-surface, were brought up from below in the
cores of domes and anticlines. In the south, even the Carboniferous
Limestone has been so far removed that it is found only in the floors
of the synclinals. The effect of the structure of these folds on the
courses of rivers in the south of Ireland is discussed in the paragraphs
dealing with the geology of county Cork. The present central
plain itself may be regarded as a vast shallow synclinal, including a
multitude of smaller folds. The earth-wrinkles of this epoch were
turned into a north-easterly direction by the pre-existing Leinster
Chain, and the trend of the anticlinal from Limerick to the Slieve
Bloom Mountains, and that of the synclinal of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures
from Cashel through the Leinster coalfield, bear witness
to the resistance of this granite mass. The Triassic beds rest on the
various Carboniferous series in turn, indicating, as in England, the
amount of denudation that followed on the uplift of the Hercynian
land. Little encouragement can therefore be given in Ireland to the
popular belief in vast hidden coalfields.</p>

<p>The Permian sea has left traces at Holywood on Belfast Lough and
near Stewartstown in county Tyrone. Certain conglomeratic beds
on which Armagh is built are also believed to be of Permian age.
The Triassic sandstones and marls, with marine Rhaetic beds above,
are preserved mainly round the basaltic plateaus of the north-east,
and extend for some distance into county Down. An elongated
outlier south of Carrickmacross indicates their former presence over
a much wider area. Rock-salt occurs in these beds north of Carrickfergus.</p>

<p>The Jurassic system is represented in Ireland by the Lower Lias
alone, and it is probable that no marine beds higher than the Upper
Lias were deposited during this period. From Permian times onward,
in fact, the Irish area lay on the western margin of the seas
that played so large a part in determining the geology of Europe.
The Lower Lias appears at intervals under the scarp of the basaltic
plateaus, and contributes, as in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, to the
formation of landslips along the coast. The alteration of the fossiliferous
Lias by dolerite at Portrush into a flinty rock that looked
like basalt served at one time as a prop for the &ldquo;Neptunist&rdquo; theory
of the origin of igneous rocks. Denudation, consequent on the
renewed uplift of the country, affected the Jurassic beds until the
middle of Cretaceous times. The sea then returned, in the north-east
at any rate, and the first Cretaceous deposits indicate the nearness of
a shore-line. Dark &ldquo;green-sands,&rdquo; very rich in glauconite, are
followed by yellow sandstones with some flint. These two stages
represent the Upper Greensand, or the sandy type of the English
Gault. Further sands represent the Cenomanian. The Turonian
is also sandy, but in most areas was not deposited, or has been denuded
away during a local uplift that preceded Senonian times. The
Senonian limestone itself, which rests in the extreme north on Trias
or even on the schists, is often conglomeratic and glauconitic at the
base, the pebbles being worn from the old metamorphic series.
The term &ldquo;Hibernian Greensand&rdquo; was used by Tate for all the beds
below the Senonian; the quarrymen know the conglomeratic
Senonian as &ldquo;Mulatto-stone.&rdquo; The Senonian chalk, or &ldquo;White
Limestone,&rdquo; is hard, with numerous bands of flint, and suffered from
denudation in early Eocene times. Probably its original thickness
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
was not more than 150 ft., while now only from 40 to 100 ft.
remain. This chalk appears to underlie nearly the whole basaltic
plateaus, appearing as a fringe round them, and also in an inlier at
Templepatrick. The western limit was probably found in the edge
of the old continental land in Donegal. Chalk flints occur frequently
in the surface-deposits of the south of Ireland, associated with rocks
brought from the north during the glacial epoch, and probably also of
northern origin. It is just possible, however, that here and there the
Cretaceous sea that spread over Devonshire may have penetrated
the Irish area.</p>

<p>After the Irish chalk had been worn into rolling downs, on which
flint-gravels gathered, the great epoch of volcanic activity opened,
which was destined to change the character of the whole north-west
European area. The critical time had arrived when the sea was to
be driven away eastward, while the immense ridges due to the
&ldquo;Alpine&rdquo; movements were about to emerge as the backbones of
new continental lands. Fissure after fissure, running with remarkable
constancy N.W. and S.E., broke through the region now occupied
by the British Isles, and basalt was pressed up along these cracks,
forming thousands of dikes, from the coast of Down to the Dalradian
ridges of Donegal. One of these on the north side of Lough Erne
is 15 m. long. The more deep-seated type of these rocks is seen in
the olivine-gabbro mass of Carlingford Mountain; but most of the
igneous region became covered with sheets of basaltic lava, which
filled up the hollows of the downs, baked the gravels into a layer of
red flints, and built up, pile upon pile, the great plateaus of the north.
There was little explosive action, and few of the volcanic vents can
now be traced. After a time, a quiet interval allowed of the formation
of lakes, in which red iron-ores were laid down. The plant-remains
associated with these beds form the only clue to the post-Cretaceous
period in which the volcanic epoch opened, and they have
been placed by Mr Starkie Gardner in recent years as early Eocene.
During this time of comparative rest, rhyolites were extruded locally
in county Antrim; and there is very strong evidence that the granite
of the Mourne Mountains, and that which cuts the Carlingford gabbro,
were added at the same time to the crust. The basalt again broke
out, through dikes that cut even the Mourne granite, and some of the
best-known columnar masses of lava overlie
the red deposits of iron-ore and mark this
second basaltic epoch. The volcanic plateaus
clearly at one time extended far west and
south of their present limits, and the denudation
of the lava-flows has allowed a large
area of Mesozoic strata also to disappear.</p>

<p>Volcanic activity may have extended into
Miocene times; but the only fossiliferous
relics of Cainozoic periods later than the
Eocene are the pale clays and silicified
lignites on the south shore of Lough Neagh,
and the shelly gravels of pre-glacial age in county Wexford.
Both these deposits may be Pliocene. Probably before this period
the movements of subsidence had set in which faulted the basalt
plateaus, lowered them to form the basin of Lough Neagh, and
broke up the continuity of the volcanic land of the North Atlantic
area. As the Atlantic spread into the valleys on the west of Ireland,
forming the well-known marine inlets, Europe grew, under the
influence of the &ldquo;Alpine&rdquo; movements, upon the east; and Ireland
was caught in, as it were, on the western edge of the new continent.
It seems likely that it was separated from the British region shortly
before the glacial epoch, and that some of the ice which then abutted
on the country travelled across shallow seas. The glacial deposits
profoundly modified the surface of the country, whether they
resulted from the melting of the ice-sheets of the time of maximum
glaciation, or from the movements of local glaciers. Boulder-clays
and sands, and gravels rearranged by water, occur throughout the
lowlands; while the eskers or &ldquo;green hills,&rdquo; characteristic grass-covered
ridges of gravel, rise from the great plain, or run athwart
valleys and over hill-sides, marking the courses of sub-glacial
streams. When the superficial deposits are removed, the underlying
rocks are found to be scored and smoothed by ice-action, and whole
mountain-sides in the south and west have been similarly moulded
during the Glacial epoch. In numerous cases, lakelets have gathered
under rocky cirques behind the terminal moraines of the last surviving
glaciers.</p>

<p>There is no doubt that at this epoch various movements of elevation
and subsidence affected the north-west of Europe, and modern
Ireland may have had extensions into warmer regions on the west
and south, while the area now left to us was almost buried under ice.
In post-Glacial times, a subsidence admitted the sea into the Lagan
valley and across the eastern shore in several places; but elevation,
in the days of early human occupation, brought these last marine
deposits to light, and raised the beaches and shore-terraces some
10 to 20 ft. along the coast. At Larne, Greenore and in the neck
between Howth and Dublin, these raised beaches remain conspicuous.
To sum up, then, while the main structural features of Ireland were
impressed upon her before the opening of the Mesozoic era, her
present outline and superficial contours date from an epoch of
climatic and geographical change which falls within the human
period.</p>

<p>See maps and explanatory memoirs of the <i>Geological Survey of
Ireland</i> (Dublin); G. Wilkinson, <i>Practical Geology and Ancient
Architecture of Ireland</i> (London, 1845); R. Kane, <i>Industrial Resources
of Ireland</i> (2nd ed., Dublin, 1845); G. H. Kinahan, <i>Manual of the
Geology of Ireland</i> (London, 1878); E. Hull, <i>Physical Geology and
Geography of Ireland</i> (2nd ed., London, 1891); G. H. Kinahan,
<i>Economic Geology of Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1889); A. McHenry and W. W.
Watts, <i>Guide to the Collection of Rocks and Fossils, Geol. Survey of
Ireland</i> (2nd ed., Dublin, 1898).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. A. J. C.)</div>

<p class="pt2 center sc">Economics and Administration</p>

<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Various computations are in existence of the
population of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first government
census was taken. According to Sir William Petty the
number of inhabitants in 1672 was 1,320,000. About a century
later the tax-collectors estimated the population at a little over
2,500,000, and in 1791 the same officials calculated that the
number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census commissioners
returned the population in 1821 as 6,801,827, in 1831 as 7,767,401,
and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great increase
of population set in towards the close of the 18th century and
continued during the first 40 years or so of the 19th. This
increase was due to a variety of causes&mdash;the improvement in the
political condition of the country, the creation of leaseholds
after the abolition of the 40s. franchise, the productiveness and
easy cultivation of the potato, the high prices during the war
with France, and probably not least to the natural prolificness of
the Irish people. But the census returns of 1851 showed a
remarkable alteration&mdash;a decrease during the previous decade
of over 1,500,000&mdash;and since that date, as the following table
shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants
has been the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Decrease per cent. of Population 1841-1901.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1841-1851.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1851-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1861-1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1871-1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881-1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891-1901.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leinster</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munster</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ulster</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Connaught</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.7</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl allb">Ireland</td> <td class="tcc allb">19.85</td> <td class="tcc allb">11.50</td> <td class="tcc allb">6.67</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.69</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.08</td> <td class="tcc allb">5.3</td></tr>
</table>

<p>The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which
these figures reveal has been emigration. This movement of
population took its first great impulse from the famine of 1846
and has continued ever since. When that disaster fell upon the
country it found a teeming population fiercely competing for a
very narrow margin of subsistence; and so widespread and
devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852 over
1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More
than 1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America,
and to that country the main stream has ever since been directed.
Between 1851 and 1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland&mdash;2,092,154
males and 1,936,435 females, the proportion of females
to males being extraordinarily high as compared with the
emigration statistics of other countries. Between these years the
numbers fluctuated widely&mdash;1852 showing the highest total,
190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,
however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded
50,000, probably because the process of exhaustion has been so
long in operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country
the loss of population has been most marked in the rural districts.
The urban population, indeed, has for some years shown a
tendency to increase. Thus in 1841 the rural population was
returned as 7,052,923 and the urban as 1,143,674, while the
corresponding figures in 1901 were respectively 3,073,846 and
1,384,929. This is further borne out by the percentages
given in the above table, from which it will be seen that
the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred
in the two provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may
be regarded as almost purely agricultural. That the United
States remained the great centre of attraction for Irish emigrants
is proved by the returns for 1905, which show that
nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for
that country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
emigration that now flows from England and Scotland to
British North America.</p>

<p>Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the
population had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975.
During the decade only three counties, Dublin, Down and
Antrim, showed any increase, the increase being due to the
growth of certain urban areas. Of the total population of
4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were females.
The inhabitants of the rural districts (3,073,846) decreased
during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts,
<i>i.e.</i> of all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929)
increased by over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to
the growth of a few of the larger towns, notably of Belfast, the
chief industrial centre of Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901
Belfast increased from 273,079 to 349,180; Dublin from 268,587
to 289,108; and Londonderry, another industrial centre in
Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand, towns like
Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),
remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban
districts of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which
are practically suburbs of Dublin, showed considerable
increases.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the
indefinite or non-productive class accounted for about 55% of the
entire population. The next largest class was the agricultural,
which numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared
with 1891. The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but
this represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population.
The professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the
commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The
following table shows the number of births and deaths registered
in Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Births.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Deaths.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">100,976</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,119</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,863</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,676</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,831</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,358</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">103,811</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,513</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">102,832</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75,071</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion
to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2.6 of
the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number
of years.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;The first act of parliament authorizing a railway
in Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from
Dublin to Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened
in 1834. In 1836 the Ulster railway to connect Belfast and
Armagh, and the Dublin and Drogheda railway uniting these
two towns were sanctioned. In the same year commissioners
were nominated by the crown to inquire (<i>inter alia</i>) as to a
general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode
of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the
channels whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by
the smallest outlay. The commissioners presented a very
valuable report in 1838, but its specific recommendations were
never adopted by the government, though they ultimately
proved of service to the directors of private enterprises. Railway
development in Ireland progressed at first very slowly and by
1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next
ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in
1855 the Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total
authorized capital of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways,
at the end of 1905 was £42,881,201, and the paid-up capital,
including loans and debenture stock, amounted to £37,238,888.
The total gross receipts from all sources of traffic in 1905 were
£4,043,368, of which £2,104,108 was derived from passenger
traffic and £1,798,520 from goods traffic. The total number of
passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical ticket-holders)
was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to
facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts
some 15 lines have been built, principally in the western part
of the island from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked
by existing companies.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their
mileage and the districts which they serve.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Name of Railway.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Mileage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Districts Served.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Great Southern &amp; Western</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">1083</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The southern half of Leinster, the whole of Munster, and part of Connaught,
the principal towns served being Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Sligo.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Midland Great Western</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">538</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The central districts of Ireland and a great part of Connaught, the principal
towns served being Dublin, Athlone, Galway and Sligo.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Great Northern</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">533</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The northern half of Leinster and a great part of Ulster, the principal
towns served being Dublin, Belfast, Londonderry, Dundalk, Drogheda,
Armagh and Lisburn.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Northern Counties<span class="sp">1</span> (now owned by the Midland Railway of England)</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">249</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Antrim, Tyrone and Londonderry.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Dublin &amp; South Eastern<span class="sp">2</span></p></td> <td class="tcr rb">161</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford and Waterford.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Donegal</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Tyrone and Donegal.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Londonderry &amp; Lough Swilly</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Londonderry and Donegal.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Cork, Bandon &amp; South Coast</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td>
 <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Cork and Kerry.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"><p>Belfast &amp; County Down</p></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">76</td>
 <td class="tcl rb bb"><p>The county of Down.</p></td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sp">1</span> Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.<br />

&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sp">2</span> Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.</p>

<p class="pt1">There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and
Great Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,
Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour,
Dublin with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with
Holyhead, Larne (Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare (Co. Wexford)
with Fishguard and Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.</p>

<p><i>Navigable Waterways.</i>&mdash;Ireland is intersected by a network of
canals and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed
would prove of immense service to the country by affording a cheap
means for the carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce.
Two canals&mdash;the Grand and the Royal&mdash;connect Dublin with the
Shannon; the former leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon
Harbour and thence on the other side of that river to Ballinasloe,
with numerous branches; the latter from the north side of Dublin
to Cloondera on the Shannon, with a branch to Longford. The
Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the Grand canal with the
tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the Bann navigation
connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the Lagan
navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects
Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for
a distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central
position between the east and west coasts.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is
naturally fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils,
sandy and gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the
mixture of soil arising from the various stratifications and from
the detritus carried down to the plains has created many districts
of remarkable richness. The &ldquo;Golden Vein&rdquo; in Munster, which
stretches from Cashel in Tipperary to near Limerick, probably
forms the most fertile part of the country. The banks of the
rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined with long
stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In the
districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the
greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,
Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the
hollows is generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous
districts which are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient
soil to yield, with the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant
pasturage of good quality. The excessive moisture in wet
seasons in however hostile to cereal crops, especially in the
southern and western districts, though improved drainage has
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great deal
more.</p>

<p>Irish political history has largely affected the condition of
agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws
(such as those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enactments
against the Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation
for political purposes of 40s. freeholders, and other factors have
combined to form a story which makes painful reading from
whatever point of view, social or political, it be regarded.
Happily, however, at the beginning of the 20th century Irish
agriculture presented two new features which can be described
without necessarily arousing any party question&mdash;the work of
the Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle
of co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect
of the Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the
land from the landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with
these three features, some general statistics may be given
bearing upon the condition of Irish agriculture.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Number of Holdings.</i>&mdash;Before 1846 the number of small holdings
was inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than
310,436 of between 1 and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between
5 and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two
causes&mdash;to the 40s. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and
1829, and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a
rapidly increasing population which had no other source of livelihood
than agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal
of the Corn Laws, occurring almost simultaneously,
caused an immediate and startling diminution in the
number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number
between 1 and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033
and the number between 5 and 15 acres had fallen
to 191,854. Simultaneously the number between 15
and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,
and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.</p>

<p>Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so
marked. Thus in 1905 the number of holdings between
1 and 5 acres was 62,126, the number between 5 and 15
acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres 134,370 and
the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking, however,
it will be seen from the figures that since the
middle of the 19th century holdings between
1 and 30 acres have decreased and holdings
over 30 acres have increased. Of the total
holdings under 30 acres considerably more
than one-third are in Ulster, and of the holdings
over 30 acres more than one-third are in
Munster. The number of holdings of over 500
acres is only 1526, of which 475 are in Connaught.
A considerable proportion, however, of these
larger holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less
waste land, which at the best can only be used for raising a few
sheep.</p>

<p><i>Tillage and Pasturage.</i>&mdash;The fact that probably about 1,000,000
acres formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the
potato disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for
crops in that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting,
however, with that year as the most important in Irish economic
history in modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the
total area under crops&mdash;cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover&mdash;decreased
by 582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly
under potatoes came back gradually into cultivation, the acreage
under crops increased; but since that year, when the total crop area
was 5,890,536 acres, there has been a steady and gradual decline,
the area in 1905 having fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the
returns shows that the decline has been most marked in the acreage
under cereal crops, especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres
under wheat was 743,871 and there has been a steady and practically
continuous decrease ever since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only
37,860 acres. In that year the wheat area, excluding less than 5000
acres in Connaught, was pretty equally divided between the other
three provinces. Oats has always been the staple cereal crop in
Ireland, but since 1847 its cultivation has declined by over 50%.
In that year 2,200,870 acres were under oats and in 1905 only
1,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of the area under oats is to be found
in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are fairly equal; and Connaught has
something over 100,000 acres under this crop. The area under
barley and rye has also declined during the period under review by
about one-half&mdash;from 345,070 acres in 1847 to 164,800 in 1905.
The growing of these crops is confined almost entirely to Leinster
and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops together, their cultivation
during the last 60 years has gradually declined (from 3,313,579
acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over 50%. The area, however,
under green crops&mdash;potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage,
&amp;c., shows during the same period a much less marked decline&mdash;only
some 300,000 acres. There has been a very considerable decrease
since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes. This is probably
due to two causes&mdash;the emigration of the poorer classes who subsisted
on that form of food, and the gradual introduction of a more varied
dietary. The total area under potatoes in 1905 was 616,755 acres as
compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861. Since about 1885 the
acreage under turnips has remained fairly stationary in the neighbourhood
of 300,000 acres, while the cultivation of mangel-wurzel
has considerably increased. Outside the recognized cereal and
green crops, two others may be considered, flax and meadow and
clover. The cultivation of the former is practically confined to
Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen off by
considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen
industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158.
The Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and
foster its cultivation, but without any marked results as regards
increasing the area sown. During the period under review the area
under meadow and clover has increased by more than 50%, rising
from 1,138,946 acres in 1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus
appear that a large proportion of the land which has ceased to bear
cereal or green crops is now laid down in meadow and clover. The
balance has become pasturage, and the total area under grass in
Ireland has so largely increased that it now embraces more than
one-half of the entire country. This increase of the pastoral lands,
with the corresponding decrease of the cropped lands, has been the
marked feature of Irish agricultural returns since 1847. It is attributable
to three chief reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration,
the greater fall in prices of produce as compared with live stock, and
the natural richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows
the growth of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since
1860.</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Area.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cultivated<br />Area (Crops<br />and Grass).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crops (other<br />than Meadow<br />and Clover).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meadow<br />and<br />Clover.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Grass.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,284,893</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,453,773</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,375,621</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,594,518</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9,483,634</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,327,764</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,340,192</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,171,259</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,909,825</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,259,108</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,333,344</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,222,104</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,493,017</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,165,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,563,372</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20,350,725</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15,232,699</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,410,813</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,224,165</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10,597,721</td></tr>
</table>

<p>One more table may be given showing the proportional areas
under the various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations,
fallow, bog, waste, &amp;c., over a series of years.</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cereal<br />Crops.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Green<br />Crops.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meadow<br />and<br />Clover.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Grass.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Agricultural<br />Land.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Woods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Fallow.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Waste.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.8</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;6.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">52.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23.5</td></tr>
</table>

<p><i>Produce and Live Stock.</i>&mdash;With the decrease of the area under
cereal and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has
naturally been a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce
and a considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle
of the 19th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned
as 2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the intervening
period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in
1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase
in this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening
years showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good
many years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The
number of pigs has also varied considerably from year to year,
1905 showing an increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.</p>
</div>

<p><i>The Department of Agriculture.</i>&mdash;By an act of 1899 a Department
of Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction
was established in Ireland. To this department were transferred
numerous powers and duties previously exercised by other
authorities, including the Department of Science and Art. To
assist the department the act also provided for the establishment
of a council of agriculture, an agricultural board and a board
of technical instruction, specifying the constitution of each
of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding £180,000 per
annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the department,
provisions were made for their application, and it was enacted
that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers
and duties of the department are very wide, but under the present
section its chief importance lies in its administrative work with
regard to agriculture. In the annual reports of the department
this work is usually treated under three heads: (1) agricultural
instruction, (2) improvement of live stock, and (3) special
investigations.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>1. The ultimate aim of the department&rsquo;s policy in the matter
of agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the
reach of a large number of young men and young women the means
of obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all
subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the establishment
of the department was for all practical purposes unattainable.
Before such a scheme could be put into operation two things
had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train
teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate
to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some
of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce
them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their
sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two
preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture
at the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable
number of scholarships the competition for which becomes increasingly
keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural
College at Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor
the means to attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal
College of Science; and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted
solely to the instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,
poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and
gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local
schools and classes have been established in different parts of the
country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given
to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the department
is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county
councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely
by the available supply of qualified men. The services of every
available student on completing his course at the Royal College of
Science are secured by some county council committee. The work
of the itinerant instructors is very varied. They hold classes and
carry out field demonstrations and experiments, the results of which
are duly published in the department&rsquo;s journal. The department has
also endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland
by the establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts
to secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the
establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the
planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by pioneer
lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an enormous
increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.</p>

<p>2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years
in Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes
the improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all
concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to horse-breeding,
cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up
by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the
schemes is for the most part left to the various county council
committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more
and more realized by farmers, and the department is able to
report an increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in
Ireland.</p>

<p>3. The special investigations carried out by the department
naturally vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each
instructor in agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments,
mainly on the influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops.
The results of these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets
and distributed widely among farmers. One of the most interesting
experiments, which may have far-reaching
economic effects, has been
in the cultivation of tobacco. So
far it has been proved (1) that
the tobacco plant can be grown
successfully in Ireland, and (2)
that the crop when blended with
American leaf can be manufactured
into a mixture suitable for
smoking. But whether Irish tobacco
can be made a profitable
crop depends upon a good many
other considerations.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Agricultural Co-operation.</i>&mdash;In
1894 the efforts of a number of
Irishmen drawn from all political
parties were successfully directed
towards the formation of the
Irish Agricultural Organization
Society, which has for its object
the organizing of groups of
farmers on co-operative principles
and the provision of instruction
in proper technical
methods. The society had at
first many difficulties to confront,
but after the first two or three years of its existence
its progress became more rapid, and co-operation became
beyond all question one of the most hopeful features in Irish
agriculture.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establishment
of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275&mdash;123 in
Ulster, 102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The
members numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year
was £1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for
the purchase of seed, implements, &amp;c., on co-operative lines and of
these there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society
was also successful in establishing a large number of credit societies,
from which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are
also societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,
bacon-curing, &amp;c., in connexion with the central organization. The
system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale
and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agriculture
encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual
grant.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Land Laws.</i>&mdash;The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland
have been a frequent subject of legislation (see <i>History</i> below).
Under the act of 1881, down to the 31st of March 1906, the rents
of 360,135 holdings, representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had
been fixed for the first statutory term of 15 years either by the
land commissioners or by agreements between landlords and
tenants, the aggregate reduction being over 20% as compared
with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings, representing
over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second
statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19% as
compared with the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870
and 1881 provided facilities for the purchase of holdings by the
tenants, it was only after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in
1885 that the transfer of ownership to the occupying tenants
began on an extended scale. Under this act between 1885 and
1902, when further proceedings were suspended, the number
of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in Munster;
12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was
£9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number
of loans issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395
(7838 in Leinster; 7512 in Munster; 14,955 in Ulster, and
10,090 in Connaught) and the amount was £11,573,952.
Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process was greatly
extended.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period
from the 1st of November 1903 to the 31st of March 1906, of (1)
estates for which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale
direct from landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of
which the Land Commission entered into agreements under sects.
6 and 8 of the act; (3) estates in which the offers of the Land Commission
to purchase under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge;
and (4) estates for the purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79,
originating requests were transmitted by the Congested Districts
Board to the Land Commission:&mdash;</p>
</div>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Estates.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Purchasers.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Purchase Money.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Price.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Advances<br />applied for.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Proposed<br />Cash Payments.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct Sales</td> <td class="tcr rb">3446</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">£32,811,564</td> <td class="tcr rb">£32,692,066</td> <td class="tcr rb">£119,498</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 6 and 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,567<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">1,231,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,226,832</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,182</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Section 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,174<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">383,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">381,722</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,666</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 72 and 79</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,606<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">975,211</td> <td class="tcr rb">975,211</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl allb">&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">3596</td> <td class="tcr allb">97,245</td> <td class="tcr allb">£35,401,177</td> <td class="tcr allb">£35,275,831</td> <td class="tcr allb">£125,346</td></tr>

<tr><td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Estates.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Purchasers.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Purchase Money.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Price.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Advances<br />made.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Cash Payments.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct Sales</td> <td class="tcr rb">925</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8,317,063</td> <td class="tcr rb">£8,226,736</td> <td class="tcr rb">£90,327</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 6 and 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,047</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,048,459</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,047,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,452</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Section 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,174</td> <td class="tcr rb">383,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">381,722</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,666</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 72 and 79</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">763</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,581</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,581</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl allb">&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">1006</td> <td class="tcr allb">21,716</td> <td class="tcr allb">£9,948,491</td> <td class="tcr allb">£9,855,046</td> <td class="tcr allb">£93,445</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6"><span class="sp">1</span> Estimated number of purchasers on resale.</td></tr>
</table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of
advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
£35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than £10,000,000.
It will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means
of direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount
advanced up to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of
estates in the province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty
equally between estates in the other three provinces.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form
a valuable national asset, which still admits of much development
and improvement despite the fact that a considerable
number of acts of parliament have been passed to promote and
foster the fishing industry. In 1882 the Commissioners of Public
Works were given further powers to lend money to fishermen
on the recommendation of the inspectors of fisheries; and under
an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized to pay
from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all £250,000, as
the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the
creation of a Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended&mdash;a
sum of about £240,000 has been expended&mdash;on the construction
and improvement of piers and harbours. Specific acts have
also been passed for the establishment and development of
oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land Purchase
Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for
administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested
districts. Under this head over £36,000 had been advanced on
loan up to December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had
been repaid. In 1900 the powers and duties of the inspectors of
fisheries were vested in the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction. Under the Marine Works Act 1902,
which was intended to benefit and develop industries where the
people were suffering from congestion, about £34,000 was
expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery
harbours in such districts.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea
and coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in
these districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Excluding
salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were
taken, and including shell-fish the total money received by the
fishermen exceeded £414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were
engaged in the 25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is
divided. In addition to the organized industry which exists in these
salmon districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing
in the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is
obtainable in many districts.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Mining.</i>&mdash;The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited,
and its mines and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only
about 6000 persons. Coal-fields are found in all the provinces,
but in 1905 the total output was less than 100,000 tons and its
value at the mines was given as £43,000. Iron ore is worked in
Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been produced in 1905.
Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is manufactured,
is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds, mainly fire
and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are
quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite,
limestone and sandstone, the output of which is considerable.
Silver is obtained in small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal,
and hopes have been entertained of the re-discovery of gold in
Co. Wicklow, where regular workings were established about
1796 but were destroyed during the Rebellion.</p>

<p><i>Woollen Manufacture.</i>&mdash;At an early period the woollen manufactures
of Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported
in considerable quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio
Uberti (d. <i>c.</i> 1367) refers in a posthumous poem called <i>Dita
mundi</i> to the &ldquo;noble serge&rdquo; which Ireland sent to Italy, and
fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list of goods
exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the
establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at
Carrick-on-Suir in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the
manufacture, but in the succeeding reign the lord-deputy
Strafford adopted the policy of fostering the linen trade at the
expense of the woollen in order to prevent the latter from
competing with English products. An act of the reign of Charles
II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign countries from
Ireland as well as England, while at the same time Ireland was
practically excluded by heavy duties from the English markets,
and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the
colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The
foreign market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition
of the export of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned
their attention to the breeding of sheep, with such good effect
that the woollen manufacture increased with great rapidity.
Moreover the improved quality of the wool showed itself in the
improvement of the finished article, to the great alarm of the
English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was aroused
that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to
interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament
in 1698 placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing
(except friezes) exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English
Parliament passed an act prohibiting the export from Ireland
of all woollen goods to any country except England, to any port
of England except six, and from any town in Ireland except six.
The cumulative effect of these acts was practically to annihilate
the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole districts
and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or
indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.
According to Newenham&rsquo;s tables the annual average of new
drapery exported from Ireland for the three years ending March
1702 was only 20 pieces, while the export of woollen yarn,
worsted yarn and wool, which to England was free, amounted
to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the Trade of Ireland, published
in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium exports of
wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he valued
the export of manufactured woollen goods at only £2353. On
the other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and
1782 the various acts which had hampered the Irish woollen
trade were either repealed or modified, but after a brief period
of deceptive prosperity followed by failure and distress, the
expansion of the trade was limited to the partial supply of the
home market. According to evidence laid before the House of
Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland
was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament
in 1837 stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories
in Ireland was 46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number
of factories was 76 and the number of hands 2022. Since then
the industry has shown some tendency to increase, though the
number of persons employed is still comparatively very small,
some 3500 hands.</p>

<p><i>Linen Manufacture.</i>&mdash;Flax was cultivated at a very early
period in Ireland and was both spun into thread and manufactured
into cloth. In the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture
constituted one of the principal branches of Irish trade, but it
did not prove a very serious rival to the woollen industry until
the policy of England was directed to the discouragement of the
latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of Charles I., did
much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large sum of
his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from
Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the
Netherlands to settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued
with even more energy by his successor in office, the duke of
Ormonde, at whose instigation an Irish act was passed in 1665
to encourage the growth of flax and the manufacture of linen.
He also established factories and brought over families from
Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament
in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense
of the woollen, followed Ormonde&rsquo;s lead by passing an act inviting
foreign workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles
made of flax or hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in
accordance with an arrangement made between the two kingdoms,
a board of trustees was appointed to whom a considerable
sum was granted annually for the promotion of the linen manufacture;
but the jealousy of English merchants interposed to
check the industry whenever it threatened to assume proportions
which might interfere with their own trade, and by an act of
George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into
England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen
manufacture. Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees
expended nearly £850,000 on the promotion of the linen trade,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
and in addition parliamentary bounties were paid on a considerable
scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs estimated the value of the
whole manufacture at £1,000,000. In 1830 the Linen Board
ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a very
depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made
yarns from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however,
machinery was introduced on a large scale on the river Bann.
The experiment proved highly successful, and from this period
may be dated the rise of the linen trade of Ulster, the only great
industrial manufacture of which Ireland can boast. Belfast
is the centre and market of the trade, but mills and factories
are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties of Ulster.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms
58; in 1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498.
In 1850 the number of persons employed in flax mills and factories
was 21,121; in 1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile
factories was 64,802.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Cotton Manufacture.</i>&mdash;This was introduced into Ireland in
1777 and under the protection of import duties and bounties
increased so rapidly that in 1800 it gave employment to several
thousand persons, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Belfast. The
trade continued to grow for several years despite the removal
of the duties; and the value of cotton goods exported from
Ireland to Great Britain rose from £708 in 1814 to £347,606 in
1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry
was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery,
however, which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of
Lancashire, had very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number
of persons employed had fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled
ever since and is now quite insignificant.</p>

<p><i>Silk Manufacture.</i>&mdash;About the end of the 17th century French
Huguenots settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of
Irish poplin, a mixture of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000
and 4000 persons were employed. But with the abolition of the
protective duties in 1826 a decline set in; and though Irish
poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives employment to a
mere handful of people in Dublin.</p>

<p><i>Distilling and Brewing.</i>&mdash;Whisky has been extensively distilled
in Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed
in 1661, the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of
a duty gave rise to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice
which still prevails to some extent, though efficient police
methods have largely reduced it. During recent years the amount
of whisky produced has shown a tendency to decrease. In
1900 the number of gallons charged with duty was 9,589,571, in
1903 8,215,355, and in 1906 7,337,928. There are breweries
in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated for the
porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness &amp; Son, the
largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of
barrels of beer&mdash;the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue
Department&mdash;charged with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing
an increase of over 200,000 as compared with 1900.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties
received in Ireland in a series of years:&mdash;</p>
</div>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Articles.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1906.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beer</td> <td class="tcr rb">£983,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,200,711</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,262,186</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,227,528</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Licences</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,092</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,964</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,247</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spirits</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,952,061</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,292,286</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,311,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,952,509</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other sources</td> <td class="tcr rb">502</td> <td class="tcr rb">436</td> <td class="tcr rb">508</td> <td class="tcr rb">798</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl allb">&ensp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">£6,145,981</td> <td class="tcr allb">£5,706,525</td> <td class="tcr allb">£5,788,421</td> <td class="tcr allb">£5,395,082</td></tr>
</table>

<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;Shipbuilding is practically confined to
Belfast, where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the
great &ldquo;White Star&rdquo; liners, have one of the largest yards in the
world, giving employment to several thousand hands. There are
extensive engineering works in the same city which supply the
machinery and other requirements of the linen industry. Paper
is manufactured on a considerable scale in various places, and
Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.</p>

<p><i>Commerce and Shipping.</i>&mdash;From allusions in ancient writers
it would appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable
commercial intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the
merchants of Dublin fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-Norman
invasion it was given by Henry II. to merchants from
Bristol, to whom free trade with other portions of the kingdom
was granted as well as other advantages. In the Staple Act of
Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda are mentioned
as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased
by foreign merchants. During the 15th century the trade of
these and other towns increased rapidly. With the 17th century
began the restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were imposed
on the chief commodities to foreign nations not in league
with England. Ireland was left out of the Navigation Act of
1663 and in the same year was prohibited from exporting cattle
to England in any month previous to July. Sir William Petty
estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at £500,000 per
annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the woollen
industry these had risen in value in 1698 to £996,000, the imports
in the same year amounting to £576,000. A rapid fall in exports
followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manufactures
to foreign countries, but in about 20 years&rsquo; time a
recovery took place, due in part to the increase of the linen trade.
Statistics of exports and imports were compiled for various years
by writers like Newenham, Arthur Young and César Moreau,
but these are vitiated by being given in Irish currency which was
altered from time to time, and by the fact that the method of
rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the figures,
however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701
and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of
the world were valued at £553,000 (to Great Britain, £242,000)
and the average annual imports at £513,000 (from Great Britain,
£242,000). Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen
for exports to £2,002,000 (to Great Britain, £1,068,000) and for
imports to £1,594,000 (from Great Britain, £734,000). Between
1794 and 1803 the figures had further risen to £4,310,000 (to
Great Britain, £3,667,000) and £4,572,000 (from Great Britain
£3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that during the 18th century
the increase of commerce was considerable.</p>

<p>In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were
abolished and since that date no official figures are available as
to a large part of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export
of cattle and other animals, however, is the most important part
of this trade and details of this appear in the following table:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Cattle.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sheep.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Swine.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">630,802</td> <td class="tcc rb">893,175</td> <td class="tcc rb">505,584</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,029,561</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">745,519</td> <td class="tcc rb">862,263</td> <td class="tcc rb">715,202</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,322,984</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">749,131</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">700,626</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">363,973</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,813,730</td></tr>
</table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at
certain standard rates) at about £14,000,000.</p>

<p>Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the
foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of
England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for
the principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these
imports at the Irish ports rose from £6,802,000 in value to £12,394,000
and the exports from £825,000 to £1,887,000.</p>

<p>The following table shows the value of the total imports and
exports of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the
ports of Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years
1901-1905:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Ports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dublin&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,666,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,856,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,138,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,771,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,664,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belfast&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,626,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,999,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,773,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,033,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,671,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,442,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,344,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,122,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,780,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cork&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,062,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,114,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,193,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,156,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,010,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limerick&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">826,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">913,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">855,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">935,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">854,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">600</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the
imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
the compiling of which presented great difficulties in the absence
of official returns, are included (1) the direct trade between Ireland
and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of
Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the
local trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of imports
in 1904 is put at £55,148,206, and of exports at £46,606,432.
But it is pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards
farm produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered
approximately complete, the information as to manufactured
goods&mdash;especially of the more valuable grades&mdash;is rough and inadequate.
It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual
import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of
£105,000,000. The following table gives some details:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink Stuffs&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>a</i>) Live-stock, meat, bacon, fish and dairy produce</td> <td class="tcr rb">£3,028,170</td> <td class="tcr rb">£23,445,122</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>b</i>) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,859,201</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,721,753</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>c</i>) Spirits, porter, ale, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">919,161</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,222,194</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>d</i>) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,230,478</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,121,267</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">II. Raw Materials&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>a</i>) Coal</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,663,523</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>b</i>) Wood</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,880,095</td> <td class="tcr rb">235,479</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>c</i>) Mineral</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,012,822</td> <td class="tcr rb">282,081</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>d</i>) Animal and vegetable products</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,529,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,067,398</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">III. Goods, partly manufactured or  of simple manufacture</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,996,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,576,993</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">IV. Manufactured goods.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17,059,611</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,934,145</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was
in 1904 an excess of imports amounting to over £8,500,000. But
owing to the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible
to say with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of
visible trade between Ireland and other countries.</p>

<p>Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial
condition of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may
be stated that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged
in the Irish trade in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,414. According
to the statistics of César Moreau the number of ships belonging
to Irish ports in 1788 was 1016 with a tonnage of over
60,000, and in 1826 they had increased, according to the trade and
navigation returns, to 1391 with a tonnage of over 90,000. In
1905 the vessels registered at Irish ports numbered 934 with a
tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year the vessels entering and
clearing in the colonial and foreign trade numbered 1199 with a
tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels entering and clearing in
the trade between Great Britain and Ireland numbered 41,983
with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Government, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The executive government of Ireland is
vested in a lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a
chief secretary, who is always a member of the House of Commons
and generally of the cabinet. There are a large number of
administrative departments and boards, some, like the Board
of Trade, discharging the same duties as the similar department
in England; others, like the Congested Districts Board, dealing
with matters of purely Irish concern.</p>

<p><i>Parliamentary Representation.</i>&mdash;The Redistribution of Seats
Act 1885 entirely altered the parliamentary representation
of Ireland. Twenty-two small boroughs were <span class="correction" title="amended from disfranchized">disenfranchised</span>.
The towns of Galway, Limerick and Waterford lost one member
each, while Dublin and Belfast were respectively divided into
four divisions, each returning one member. As a result of these
changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the boroughs,
and 2 Dublin University&mdash;a total of 103. The total number
of electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661;
113,595 for the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland
is represented in the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers
elected for life from among the Irish peers.</p>

<p><i>Local Government.</i>&mdash;Irish local government was entirely remodelled
by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which conferred
on Ireland the same system and measure of self-government
enjoyed by Great Britain. The administrative and fiscal duties
previously exercised by the grand jury in each county were
transferred to a county council, new administrative counties
being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the
alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were
also assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate
in rural districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the
administration of certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the
Technical Education Act and the Diseases of Animals Act.
Subordinate district councils, urban and rural, were also established
as in England and Scotland to manage the various local
areas within each county. The provisions made for the administration
of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very
complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over
to these new subordinate local bodies. Six towns&mdash;Dublin,
Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford&mdash;were
constituted county boroughs governed by separate county
councils; and five boroughs&mdash;Kilkenny, Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda
and Wexford&mdash;retained their former corporations. The act
provides facilities for the conversion into urban districts of (1)
towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary
authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of
over 1500 and entitled to petition for town commissioners.</p>

<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as
follows: the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor,
the lord chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief
baron of the exchequer as <i>ex-officio</i> members, and two lords
justices of appeal; and the high court of justice which includes
(1) the chancery division, composed of the lord chancellor, the
master of the rolls and two justices, (2) the king&rsquo;s bench division
composed of the lord chief justice, the chief baron of the exchequer
and eight justices, and (3) the land commissions with two judicial
commissioners. At the first vacancy the title and rank of chief
baron of the exchequer will be abolished and the office reduced
to a puisne judgeship. By the County Officers and Courts
(Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the chairmen of quarter
sessions should be called &ldquo;county court judges and chairmen
of quarter sessions&rdquo; and that their number should be reduced
to twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin,
Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway. At the same time
the jurisdiction of the county courts was largely extended.
There are 66 resident (stipendiary) magistrates, and four police
magistrates in Dublin.</p>

<p><i>Police.</i>&mdash;The Royal Irish Constabulary were established
in 1822 and consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-general
for each of the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force
was amalgamated under one inspector-general. The force, at
present consists of about 10,000 men of all ranks, and costs over
£1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate metropolitan police
force.</p>

<p><i>Crime.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the number of persons
committed for trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in
1886, 1891, 1900 and 1905:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Committed.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Convicted.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Acquitted.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,028</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,619</td> <td class="tcc rb">1286</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,112</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,255</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;669</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,682</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,087</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;331</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,060</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,367</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;417</td></tr>
</table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of the 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences
against the person, 205 with offences against property with violence,
545 with offences against property without violence, 52 with malicious
injury to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the
currency, and 146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of
drunkenness were brought before Irish magistrates as compared
with 227,403 in England and 43,580 in Scotland.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Poor Law.</i>&mdash;The following table gives the numbers in receipt
of indoor and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions
for the blind, deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in,
the years 1902-1905, together with the total expenditure for
relief of the poor:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Aggregate number relieved<br />during the year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total Annual<br />Expenditure.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm allb">Indoor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Outdoor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">363,483</td> <td class="tcr rb">105,501</td> <td class="tcc rb">468,984</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,026,691</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">363,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">452,241</td> <td class="tcr rb">986,301</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">390,047</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,607</td> <td class="tcc rb">488,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,033,168</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">434,117</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">124,697</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">558,814</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,066,733</td></tr>
</table>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except
outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;
1903, 43,600; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of
indoor paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was 1.00.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Congested Districts Board.</i>&mdash;This body was constituted by the
Purchase of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief
secretary, a member of the Land Commission and five other
members. A considerable sum of money was placed at its
disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was created.
It was provided that where more than 20% of the population
of a county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable
value, when divided by the number of the population, gave a
sum of less than £1, 10s. for each individual, these divisions
should, for the purposes of the act, form a separate county, called
a congested districts county, and should be subject to the operations
of the board. In order to improve the condition of affairs
in congested districts, the board was empowered (1) to amalgamate
small holdings either by directly aiding migration or
emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land Commission
to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and
develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding
of live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable
industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of
funds of the board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903;
and by its constituting act the Department of Agriculture was
empowered to exercise, at the request of the board, any of its
powers and duties in congested districts.</p>

<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The great majority of the Irish people belong
to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics
numbered 3,547,307 or 75% of the total population, and in
1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The adherents of the
Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901 or 13%
of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or
10% of the population), the only other denomination with a
considerable number of members being the Methodists (62,006
in 1901). As the result of emigration, which drains the Roman
Catholic portion of the population more than any other, the
Roman Catholics show a larger proportional decline in numbers
than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and 1901 the
Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland
by a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than 1%, while
the Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only
counties in which the Protestant religion predominates are
Antrim, Down, Armagh and Londonderry.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 archbishops,
whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam,
and 23 bishops, all nominated by the pope. The episcopal emoluments
arise from the mensal parishes, the incumbency of which is
retained by the bishops, from licences and from an annual contribution,
varying in amount, paid by the clergy of the diocese. The
clergy are supported by fees and the voluntary contributions of
their flocks. At the census of 1901 there were 1084 parishes, and
the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the secular clergy there
are several communities of regular priests scattered over the country,
ministering in their own churches but without parochial jurisdiction.
There are also numerous monasteries and convents, a
large number of which are devoted to educational purposes. The
great majority of the secular clergy are educated at Maynooth
College (see below).</p>

<p>The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland
(episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland, Church of</a></span>).</p>

<p>The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally
in Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally
formed in the middle of the 17th century, and in 1840 a reunion
took place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly
separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting
of ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations,
arranged under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers
are supported by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary contributions,
the rents of seats and pews, and the proceeds of the
commutation of the Regium Donum made by the commissioners
under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two colleges are connected with
the denomination, the General Assembly&rsquo;s College, Belfast, and the
Magee College, Londonderry. In 1881 the faculty of the Belfast
College and the theological professors of the Magee College were
incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the power of granting
degrees in divinity.</p>

<p>The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the
Union of the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists.
The number of ministers is over 250.</p>

<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;The following table shows that the proportion per
cent of the total population of five years old and upwards able to
read and write has been steadily rising since 1861:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="5">Proportion per cent.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc allb">1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Read and write</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">71</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Read only</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td></tr>
</table>

<p>Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and
religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Leinster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Munster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Ulster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Connaught.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Roman Catholics&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Protestant Episcopalians&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Presbyterians&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Methodists&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Others&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21</td></tr>
</table>

<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;The number of persons who speak Irish only continues
to decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192;
and in 1901, 20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added
the persons who could speak both Irish and English, the total
number who could speak Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about
14% of the population. The purely Irish-speaking population is
to be found principally in the province of Connaught, where in
1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of the Gaelic League,
founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature and the Irish
language, produced results seen in the census returns for 1901,
which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely increased
as compared with 1891.</p>
</div>

<p>The university of Dublin (<i>q.v.</i>), which is for practical purposes
identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591.
The government is in the hands of a board consisting
of the provost and the senior fellows, assisted by
<span class="sidenote">Universities and colleges.</span>
a council in the election of professors and in the
regulation of studies. The council is composed of the
provost (and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected
members. There is also a senate, composed of the chancellor
or vice-chancellor and all doctors and masters who have kept
their names on the books of Trinity College. Religious tests were
abolished in 1873, and the university is now open to all; but, as
a matter of fact, the vast majority of the students, even since
the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the Church of
Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.</p>

<p>In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879,
the Queen&rsquo;s University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by
the Royal University of Ireland, it being provided that the
graduates and students of the former should have similar rank
in the new university. The government of the Royal University
was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and senators,
with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by
any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology.
Female students had exactly the same rights as male students.
The university was simply an examining body, no residence in
any college nor attendance at lectures being obligatory. All
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
appointments to the senate and to fellowships were made on the
principle that one half of those appointed should be Roman
Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such subjects
as history and philosophy there were two courses of study prescribed,
one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants.
In 1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218
were females, and the number of students who passed the
academic examinations was 2190. The university buildings
are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly professors in the various
colleges whose students were undergraduates.</p>

<p>The three Queen&rsquo;s Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were
founded in 1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen&rsquo;s University.
Their curriculum comprised all the usual courses of instruction,
except theology. They were open to all denominations, but,
as might be expected, the Belfast college (dissolved under the
Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was almost entirely
Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre also made
it the most important and flourishing of the three, its students
numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,
which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.</p>

<p>The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation
of two new universities, having their seats respectively at
Dublin and at Belfast. The Royal University of Ireland at
Dublin and the Queen&rsquo;s College, Belfast, were dissolved. Provision
was made for a new college to be founded at Dublin.
This college and the existing Queen&rsquo;s Colleges at Cork and Galway
were made constituent colleges of the new university at Dublin.
Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to
these foundations under the titles of the National University
of Ireland (Dublin), the Queen&rsquo;s University of Belfast and the
University Colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided
by the act that no test of religious belief should be imposed
on any person as a condition of his holding any position in
any foundation under the act. A body of commissioners
was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up
statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing
with any matter calling for joint action, a joint commission,
half from each of the above commissions, was established.
Regulations as to grants-in-aid were made by the act, with the
stipulation that no sum from them should be devoted to the
provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial or other
office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for
such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as
to the transfer of graduates and students, so that they might
occupy under the new régime positions equivalent to those
which they occupied previously, in respect both of degrees
and the keeping of terms. The commissioners were directed
to work out schemes for the employment of officers already
employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements,
and for the compensation of those whose employment
could not be continued. A committee of the privy council
in Ireland was appointed, to be styled the Irish Universities
Committee.</p>

<p>The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be
described as a survival of the Roman Catholic University, a
voluntary institution founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman
Catholic bishops placed the buildings belonging to the university
under the control and direction of the archbishop of Dublin,
who undertook to maintain a college in which education would
be given according to the regulations of the Royal University.
In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the Jesuits.
Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it has
proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of
students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of
Rome.</p>

<p>The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in
1867 under the authority of the Science and Art Department,
London. Its object is to supply a complete course of instruction
in science as applicable to the industrial arts. In 1900 the college
was transferred from the Science and Art Department to the
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.</p>

<p>Maynooth (<i>q.v.</i>) College was founded by an Irish act of
parliament in 1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students
for the Irish priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently
endowed by a grant from the consolidated fund of over £26,000
a year. This grant was withdrawn by the Irish Church Act
1869, the college receiving as compensation a lump sum of over
£372,000. The average number of students entering each year
is about 100.</p>

<p>There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly&rsquo;s
College at Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee
College, Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological
courses. In 1881 the Assembly&rsquo;s College and the theological
professors of Magee College were constituted a faculty
with power to grant degrees in divinity.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions
were ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:&mdash;All Hallows (Drumcondra),
Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St
Patrick&rsquo;s (Carlow), St Kieran&rsquo;s (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus&rsquo;s (Tullamore)
and St Patrick&rsquo;s (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number
of students was 715, of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty
of divinity.</p>

<p>As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
schools under religious orders, monastic and convent
schools, and Christian Brothers&rsquo; schools, which were
<span class="sidenote">Schools.</span>
attended, according to the census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000
pupils, male and female. On the other hand are the endowed schools,
which are almost exclusively Protestant in their government. Under
this heading may be included royal and diocesan schools and schools
upon the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and others privately endowed.
In 1901 these schools numbered 55 and had an attendance of 2653
pupils. To these must be added various private establishments,
which in the same year had over 8000 pupils, mainly Protestants.
Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole the census of 1901
gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged upon what the
commissioners call the &ldquo;higher studies,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> studies involving
instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the number
of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901, 28,484,
of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as follows
among the different religions&mdash;Roman Catholics 18,248, Protestant
Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and others
567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the higher
studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
encouragement of intermediate education which was established by
act of parliament in 1879. A sum of £1,000,000, part of the Irish
Church surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,
who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the
act (1) by carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by
awarding exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3)
by the payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An
amending act was passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held
under rules made in virtue of that act. The number of students who
presented themselves for examination in 1905 was 9677; the
amount expended in exhibitions and prizes was £8536; and the
grants to schools amounted to over £50,000. The examinations were
held at 259 centres in 99 different localities.</p>

<p>Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
commissioners of national education, who were first created in
1831 to take the place of the society for the education of the poor,
and incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the
schools under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426,
with 432,844 pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants
was £75,000; while in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752
pupils, and the grant was almost £1,400,000. Of the pupils attending
in the latter year, 74% were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant
Episcopalians and 11% Presbyterians. The schools under the
commissioners include national schools proper, model and workhouse
schools and a number of monastic and convent schools. The Irish
Education Act of 1892 provided that the parents of children of not
less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age should cause them to
attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse on at least 150
days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or townships
under commissioners; and provisions were made for the partial or
total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a parliamentary
school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for the augmentation
of the salaries of the national teachers.</p>

<p>There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.</p>

<p>By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education
in Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction and now forms an important part
of its work. The annual sum of £55,000 was allocated
<span class="sidenote">Technical instruction.</span>
for the purpose, and this is augmented in various ways.
The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting instruction
in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects&mdash;these subjects
embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries
but the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the
training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4)
the provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
scholarships.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Revenue and Expenditure.</i>&mdash;The early statistics as to revenue
and expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford
little possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years
of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account
of wars, amounted, according to Sir James Ware&rsquo;s estimate, to
over £490,000, while the revenue is put by some writers at
£8000 per annum and by others at less. In the reign of James I.
the customs increased from £50 to over £9000; but although
he obtained from various sources about £10,000 a year and a
considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster,
the revenue is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure
by about £16,000 a year. During the reign of Charles I. the
customs increased fourfold in value, but it was found necessary
to raise £120,000 by yearly subsidies. According to the report
of the committee appointed by Cromwell to investigate the
financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was £197,304
and the expenditure £630,814. At the Restoration the Irish
parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise
for the maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and
poundage for the navy, and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal
burdens. &ldquo;Additional duties&rdquo; were granted shortly after the
Revolution. &ldquo;Appropriate duties&rdquo; were imposed at different
periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the post
office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the
hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over
£394,000.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the
Irish parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the
following table shows net income and expenditure over a series of
years up to 1868:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Income.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1731</td> <td class="tcr rb">£405,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£407,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1741</td> <td class="tcr rb">441,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">441,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761</td> <td class="tcr rb">571,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">773,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1781</td> <td class="tcr rb">739,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,017,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,615,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1834</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,814,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,439,800</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,120,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,851,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,331,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,176,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,621,000</td></tr>
</table>

<p>The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland
under various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the
following tables:&mdash;</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Customs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Excise.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estate, &amp;c.<br />Duties and<br />Stamps.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Property<br />and Income<br />Tax.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Post<br />Office.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Miscel-<br />laneous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />True<br />Revenue.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,244,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,822,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,072,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,143,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£923,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£149,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£11,353,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,784,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,717,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,011,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">922,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,244,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">960,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,002,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,205,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,545,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,904,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,033,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,038,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">980,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,646,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,748,500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,575,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,584,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,016,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,013,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,002,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,340,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,753,500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,524,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,506,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">890,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">983,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,043,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">150,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,096,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,447,000</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Consolidated<br />Fund.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Voted.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Local Taxation Accounts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Civil<br />Charges.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Collection<br />of Taxes.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Post Office.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Expended.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Estimated<br />True<br />Revenue.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Local<br />Taxation<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exchequer<br />Revenue.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">£169,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£4,271,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£389,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,055,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£5,884,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£243,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,087,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,214,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£9,784,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">168,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,357,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">383,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,058,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,967,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">246,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,140,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,353,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,205,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">170,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,569,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,174,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">248,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,126,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,548,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,784,500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">166,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,547,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">374,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,146,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,172,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,567,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,753,500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">164,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,582,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">385,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,191,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">245,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,199,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,635,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,447,000</td></tr>
</table>

<p>Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated
true revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
following sums: £2,570,000, £2,852,000, £2,200,500, £2,186,500
and £1,811,500.</p>
</div>

<p>The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland
have long been a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal
commission was appointed to consider them, which presented
its report in 1896. The commissioners, though differing on
several points, were practically agreed on the following five
conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for the
purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;
(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which,
as events showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase
of taxation laid upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not
justified by the then existing circumstances; (4) that identity
of rates of taxation did not necessarily involve equality of
burden; (5) that, while the actual tax revenue of Ireland was
about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the relative taxable
capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not estimated
by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This
report furnished the material for much controversy, but little
practical outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration
of Ireland as a separate country, and was therefore inconsistent
with the principles of Unionism.</p>

<p>The public debt of Ireland amounted to over £134,000,000 in
1817, in which year it was consolidated with the British national
debt.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Local Taxation.</i>&mdash;The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898
effected considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties
of the grand jury were abolished, and the county council which
took the place of the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative
purposes was given three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural
grant, (2) the licence duties and other imperial grants, and (3)
the poor rate. These may be considered separately. (1) It was
provided that the Local Government Board should ascertain the
amount of county cess and poor rate levied off agricultural land in
Ireland during the year ending (as regards the poor rate) on the
29th of September, and (as regards the county cess) on the 21st of
June 1897; and that half this amount, to be called the agricultural
grant, should be paid annually without any variation from the
original sum out of the consolidated fund to a local taxation account.
The amount of the agricultural grant was ascertained to be over
£727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made in the act for fixing
the proportion of the grant to which each county should be entitled,
and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay half-yearly the
proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2) Before the
passing of the act grants were made from the imperial exchequer
to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics and to
boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and for
salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
grants amounted to over £236,000. Under the Local Government
Act they ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should
be annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
a fixed sum of £79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the
county councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural
districts and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the
purposes of the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not
upon the landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few
specified cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year
ending the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were £2,964,298 and
their total expenditure was £2,959,961, the two chief items of
expenditure being &ldquo;Union Charges&rdquo; £1,002,620 and &ldquo;Road
Expenditure&rdquo; £779,174. During the same period the total receipts
from local taxation in Ireland amounted to £4,013,303, and the
amount granted from imperial sources in aid of local taxation was
£1,781,143.</p>

<p><i>Loans.</i>&mdash;The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st
of March 1906, was £26,946,393, of which £15,221,913 had been
repaid to the exchequer as principal and £9,011,506 as interest,
and £1,609,694 had been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about
£5,500,000 was under the Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly
£3,500,000 under the Public Health Acts, over £3,000,000 for lunatic
asylums, and over £3,000,000 under the various Labourers Acts.</p>

<p><i>Banking.</i>&mdash;The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in
1783 with a capital of £600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at
various times, and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was
increased to £3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding
to the Bank of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock
banks in Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed
capital amounts to £26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to
£7,309,230. The authorized note circulation is £6,354,494 and
the actual note circulation in June 1906 was £6,310,243, two of
the banks not being banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock
banks amounted in 1880 to £29,350,000; in 1890 to £33,061,000;
in 1900 to £40,287,000; and in 1906 to £45,842,000. The deposits
in the Post Office Savings Banks rose from £1,481,000 in 1880 to
£10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits in Trustee Savings Banks
from £2,100,165 in 1880 to £2,488,740 in 1905.</p>

<p><i>National Wealth.</i>&mdash;To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and
other industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty.
The following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation
of lands, houses, &amp;c., £15,466,000; value of principal crops,
£35,362,000; value of cattle, &amp;c., £81,508,000; paid-up capital and
reserve funds of joint-stock banks, £11,300,000; deposits in joint-stock
and savings banks, £58,791,000; investments in government
stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, £36,952,000; paid-up capital
and debentures of railway companies, £38,405,000; paid-up capital
of tramway companies, £2,074,000.</p>

<p>In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &amp;c.,
in Ireland was £16,016,000 as compared with £306,673,000 in
England and £38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce
of the income tax in Ireland was £983,000, as compared with
£27,423,000 in England and £2,888,000 in Scotland.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<b>Agriculture:</b> Accounts of the land systems of
Ireland will be found in James Godkin&rsquo;s <i>Land War in Ireland</i>
(1870); Sigerson&rsquo;s <i>History of Land Tenure in Ireland</i> (1871);
Joseph Fisher&rsquo;s <i>History of Land Holding in Ireland</i> (1877); R. B.
O&rsquo;Brien&rsquo;s <i>History of the Irish Land Question</i> (1880); A. G. Richey&rsquo;s
<i>Irish Land Laws</i> (1880). General information will be found in J. P.
Kennedy&rsquo;s Digest of the evidence given before the Devon Commission
(Dublin, 1847-1848); the <i>Report</i> of the Bessborough
Commission, 1881, and of the commission on the agriculture of the
United Kingdom, 1881. The Department of Agriculture publishes
several official annual reports, dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.</p>

<p><span class="bold">Manufactures and Commerce:</span> <i>Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture
of Ireland</i> (1698); <i>An Inquiry into the State and Progress of
the Linen Manufacture in Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard,
<i>Treatise on the Revenue of Ireland</i> (1776); John Hely Hutchinson,
<i>Commercial Restraints of Ireland</i> (1779); Lord Sheffield, <i>Observations
on the Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland</i> (1785);
R. B. Clarendon, <i>A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland</i>
(1791); the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other
local bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of
Agriculture on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature
and contain much valuable information).</p>

<p><span class="bold">Miscellaneous:</span> Sir William Petty, <i>Political Anatomy of Ireland</i>
(1691); Arthur Dobbs, <i>Essay on the Trade of Ireland</i> (1729); <i>Abstract
of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland</i>
(1726); Arthur Young, <i>Tour in Ireland</i> (1780); T. Newenham,
<i>View of the Circumstances of Ireland</i> (1809), and <i>Inquiry into the
Population of Ireland</i> (1805); César Moreau, <i>Past and Present
State of Ireland</i> (1827); J. M. Murphy, <i>Ireland, Industrial, Political
and Social</i> (1870); R. Dennis, <i>Industrial Ireland</i> (1887); Grimshaw,
<i>Facts and Figures about Ireland</i> (1893); <i>Report of the Recess Committee</i>
(1896, published in Dublin); <i>Report of the Financial Relations
Commission</i> (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, <i>Ireland in the New Century</i>
(London, 1905); Filson Young, <i>Ireland at the Cross-Roads</i> (London,
1904); Thom&rsquo;s <i>Almanac</i>, published annually in Dublin, gives a
very useful summary of statistics and other information.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. H. Po.)</div>

<p class="pt2 center sc">Early History</p>

<p>On account of its isolated position we might expect to find
Ireland in possession of a highly developed system of legends
bearing on the origins of its inhabitants. Ireland
remained outside the pale of the ancient Roman
<span class="sidenote">Historical sources.</span>
world, and a state of society which was peculiarly
favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore survived
in the island until the 16th century. The jealousy
with which the hereditary antiquaries guarded the tribal
genealogies naturally leads us to hope that the records which
have come down to us may shed some light on the difficult
problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands
and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of
Ireland have appeared in print since the publication of Roderick
O&rsquo;Flaherty&rsquo;s <i>Ogygia</i> (London, 1677), the authors have in almost
every case been content to reproduce the legendary accounts
without bringing any serious criticism to bear on the sources.
This is partly to be explained by the fact that the serious study
of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and much of the most
important material has not yet appeared in print. In the
middle of the 19th century O&rsquo;Donovan and O&rsquo;Curry collected
a vast amount of undigested information about the early history
of the island, but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St
Patrick is the only trained historian who has ever adequately
dealt with any of the problems connected with ancient Ireland.
Hence it is evident that our knowledge of the subject must
remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief sources have
been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has been
made by Sir John Rhys in his &ldquo;Studies in Early Irish History&rdquo;
(<i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill
in a suggestive series of papers contributed to the <i>New Ireland
Review</i> (March 1906-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be
expected from the sciences of archaeology and anthropology.
But although Ireland is as rich as, or even richer in monuments
of the past than, most countries in Europe, comparatively little
has been done owing in large measure to the lack of systematic
investigation.</p>

<p>It may be as well to specify some of the more important
sources at the outset. Of the classical writers who notice
Ireland Ptolemy is the only one who gives us any very definite
information. The legendary origins first appear in Nennius
and in a number of poems by such writers as Maelmura
(d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacáin (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn
(d. 984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d.
1072). They are also embodied in the <i>Leabhar Gabhála</i> or <i>Book
of Invasions</i>, the earliest copy of which is contained in the
<i>Book of Leinster</i>, a 12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating&rsquo;s <i>History</i>,
Dugald MacFirbis&rsquo;s <i>Genealogies</i> and various collections of annals
such as those by the Four Masters. Of prime importance for
the earlier period are the stories known collectively as the Ulster
cycle, among which the lengthy epic the <i>Táin Bo Cúalnge</i> takes
first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the <i>Annals of
Ulster</i>, which commence with the year 441, are by far the most
trustworthy. The <i>Book of Rights</i> is another compilation which
gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the
various kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the extensive
collections of genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the
<i>Books of Leinster</i> and <i>Ballymote</i>.</p>

<p><i>Earliest Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;There is as yet no certain evidence to
show that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period.
But there are abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of
culture (see Sir W. R. W. Wilde&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue</i> of the antiquities
in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy). The use of bronze
was perhaps introduced about 1450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The craniological
evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to show whether
the introduction of metal coincided with any particular invasion
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate
it was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600
or 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic
language, set foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran
the whole island, subduing but not exterminating the older
race with which they doubtless intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic
types are frequent among the populations of Connaught and
Munster at the present day. What the language was that was
spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question which will
probably never be settled. The division into provinces or
&ldquo;fifths&rdquo; (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W.
Munster) appears to be older than the historical period, and
may be due to the Goidels. Between 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
various Belgic and other Brythonic tribes established themselves
in Britain bringing with them the knowledge of how to work
in iron. Probably much about the same time certain Belgic
tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some time
must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to
defy the powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the
Brythonic kingdom of Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged
before the 4th century of our era. The early Belgic
settlers constituted perhaps in the main trading states which
acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland and Gaul.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish
tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for
themselves parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained
their independence till late in the historical period. Picts are
also represented as having settled in the county of Roscommon;
but we have at present no means of ascertaining when this
invasion took place.</p>

<p><i>Classical Writers.</i>&mdash;Greek and Roman writers seem to have
possessed very little definite information about the island, though
much of what they relate corresponds to the state of society
disclosed in the older epics. Strabo held the inhabitants
to be mere savages, addicted to cannibalism and having no
marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious pastures, but the
natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation. The
conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their
enemies, afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard
right and wrong alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male
child, she puts his first food on the sword of her husband, and
lightly introduces the first <i>auspicium</i> of nourishment into his
little mouth with the point of the sword. Pomponius Mela
speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain, but he, too,
notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not until we
reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground.
His description is of supreme importance for the study of early
Irish ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples
in Ireland, several of which can be identified. As we should
expect from our knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any
towns are mentioned. In the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow,
we find the Manapii&mdash;evidently a colony from N.E. Gaul. North
of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar people, the Cauci, are
located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the Brigantes,
who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the
Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni.
Their capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W.
of the island he marks the mouth of the river Iernos, by which
the top of Dingle Bay called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps
intended. The Iverni must have been a nation of considerable
importance, as they play a prominent part in the historical
period, where they are known as the Érnai or Éraind of Munster.
It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with
whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that
the Latin name for the whole island is derived. The earliest
form was probably <i>Iveriy&#333;</i> or <i>Iveriy&#363;</i>, genitive <i>Iveryonos</i>, from
which come Lat. <i>Iverio</i>, <i>Hiverio</i> (Antonine Itinerary), <i>Hiberio</i>
(Confession of St Patrick), Old Irish <i>Ériu</i>, <i>Hériu</i>, gen. <i>Hérenn</i>
with regular loss of intervocalic <i>v</i>, <i>Welsh Iwerddon</i> (from the
oblique cases). West of the Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions
the Vellabori, and going in a northerly direction following the
coast we find the Gangani, Autini (Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae).
Erdini (cf. the name Lough Erne), Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini
and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified with certainty.
In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the Voluntii
who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir.
<i>Ulaid</i>, in Irish Lat. <i>Uloti</i>). About Queen&rsquo;s county or Tipperary
are situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later
Ossory (Ir. <i>Os-raige</i>). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find
the Coriondi who occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir.
<i>Coraind</i>). It would seem as if Ptolemy&rsquo;s description of Ireland
answered in some measure to the state of affairs which we find
obtaining in the older Ulster epic cycle.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Both are probably
anterior to the foundation of a central state at Tara.</p>

<p><i>Legendary Origins.</i>&mdash;We can unfortunately derive no further
assistance from external sources and must therefore examine
the native traditions. From the 9th century onwards we find
accounts of various races who had colonized the island. These
stories naturally become amplified as times goes on, and in what
we may regard as the classical or standard versions to be found
in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and elsewhere,
no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The
first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in <span class="scs">A.M.</span>
2520, under the leadership of an individual named Partholan
who hailed from Middle Greece. His company landed in Kenmare
Bay and settled in what is now Co. Dublin. After occupying
the island for 300 years they were all carried off by a plague
and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. <i>Tamlacht</i>, &ldquo;plague-grave&rdquo;),
at which place a number of ancient remains (probably belonging,
however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 2850
a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900
fighting men. Nemed&rsquo;s people are represented as having to
struggle for their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as
the Fomorians. The latter&rsquo;s stronghold was Tory Island, where
they had a mighty fortress. After undergoing great hardship the
Nemedians succeeded in destroying the fortress and in slaying
the enemies&rsquo; leaders, but the Fomorians received reinforcements
from Africa. A second battle was fought in which both parties
were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty
warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed,
who made their way each to a different country (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3066).
One of them, Simon Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity
multiplied to such an extent that the Greeks grew afraid and
reduced them to slavery. In time their position became so
intolerable that they resolved to escape, and they arrived in
Ireland <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3266. This third body of invaders is known collectively
as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very
important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers,
each of whom occupied one of the provinces or &ldquo;fifths.&rdquo; We
find them landing in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin,
landed at Inber Slangi, the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied
much of Leinster. Another, the Fir Domnand, settled in Mayo
where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the ancient name
for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg proper, took
possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and
MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be
found in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are
characterized as &ldquo;tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible,
mean, wretched, unsteady, harsh and inhospitable.&rdquo;
The Firbolgs had scarcely established themselves in the island
when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the scene. These were
the Tuatha Dé Danann (&ldquo;tribes of the god Danu&rdquo;), who according
to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came
originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy.
Having to flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they
proceeded to Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetláim they
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
moved to Scotland, and finally arrived in Ireland (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3303),
bringing with them in addition to the celebrated Lia Fáil (&ldquo;stone
of destiny&rdquo;) which they set up at Tara, the cauldron of the
Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lámfada. Eochaid,
son of Erc, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender the
sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain
of Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric
cemetery. In this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with
great slaughter, and the remnants of the race according to
Keating and other writers took refuge in Arran, Islay, Rathlin
and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven out by Picts.
Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha Dé had to defend themselves
against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the battle
of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha Dé then enjoyed
undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians
in <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3500.</p>

<p>All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin
and adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily
from Scythia and after sojourning for some time in Egypt,
Crete and in Scythia again, they finally arrived in Spain. In
the line of mythical ancestors which extends without interruption
up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid, Goedel Glas, Eber Scot
and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At length eight
sons of Miled (Lat. <i>Milesius</i>) set forth to conquer Ireland. The
spells of the Tuatha Dé accounted for most of their number.
However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in overcoming
the older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon,
divided the island between them, Eber Find taking east and
west Munster, whilst Eremon received Leinster and Connaught.
Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled, took possession of south-west
Munster. At the same time Ulster was left to Eber son of Ir son
of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland was ruled by
a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of Roderick
O&rsquo;Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha Dé are represented
as retiring into the <i>síd</i> or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon
did not remain long in agreement. The historians place the
beginnings of the antithesis between north and south at the
very commencement of the Milesian domination. A battle was
fought between the two brothers in which Eber Find lost his life.
In the reign of Eremon the Picts are stated to have arrived in
Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have been observed that
Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish chroniclers
on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The
Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced
to remove to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath.
Among the numerous mythical kings placed by the annalists
between Eremon and the Christian era we may mention Tigernmas
(<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3581), Ollam Fodla (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3922) who established the
meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (<i>c.</i> 305 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the reputed founder of
Emain Macha, Ugaine Mór, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid
Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter,
Medb queen of Connaught. During the 1st century of our era
we hear of the rising of the <i>aithech-tuatha</i>, <i>i.e.</i> subject or plebeian
tribes, or in other words the Firbolgs, who paid <i>daer</i>- or base rent
to the Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is
probably fortuitous these tribes have been identified with the
Attecotti of Roman writers. Under Cairbre Cinnchait (&ldquo;cathead&rdquo;)
the oppressed peoples succeeded in wresting the
sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles were
almost exterminated (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 90). The line of Eremon was, however,
restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar (&ldquo;the legitimate&rdquo;),
who reigned <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130-160. This ruler took measures to consolidate
the power of the <i>ardrí</i> (supreme king). He constructed a
number of fortresses on the great central plain and carved out
the kingdom of Meath to serve as his mensal land. The new
kingdom was composed of the present counties of Meath, Westmeath
and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan,
King&rsquo;s Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous
Leinster tribute, the <i>boroma</i>, in consequence of an insult offered
to him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which
was only remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling,
must have been the source of constant war and oppression. A
grandson of Tuathal&rsquo;s, the famous Conn Cétchathach (&ldquo;the
hundred-fighter&rdquo;), whose death is placed in the year 177 after a
reign of about twenty years, was constantly at war with the
Munster ruler Eogan Mór, also called Mog Nuadat, of the race of
Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Érnai and the Corco Laigde
(descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the
supreme king was obliged to share the island with him. Hence
the well-known names Leth Cuinn or &ldquo;Conn&rsquo;s half&rdquo; (north
Ireland), and Leth Moga or &ldquo;Mug&rsquo;s half&rdquo; (south Ireland).
The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to Dublin along
the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which stretches
across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays
a prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons
Eogan, Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known
families. Conn&rsquo;s grandson, Cormac son of Art, is represented
as having reigned in great splendour (254-266) and as
having been a great patron of learning. It was during this reign
that the sept of the Dési were expelled from Meath. They
settled in Munster where their name still survives in the barony
of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac&rsquo;s
<i>Glossary</i> connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Musc,
with the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have
taken place as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence
was the invasion of Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the
ardrí Muredach. The stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed
and the Ulstermen were driven across the Newry River into
Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.</p>

<p>The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to
distinguish them from the Milesian peoples who overran the
province. With the advent of Niall Nóigiallach (&ldquo;N. of the nine
hostages&rdquo; reigned 379-405) son of Eochaid Muigmedóin (358-366)
we are treading safer ground. It was about this time that
the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor
was Niall&rsquo;s activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources
represent him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions
oversea, and it was doubtless on one of these that St Patrick
was taken captive. These movements coincide with the inroads
of the Picts and Scots recorded by Roman writers. It is probably
from this period that the Irish colonies in south Wales, Somerset,
Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest migrations from
Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this time.
Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved
both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent
of Irish oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution
of the Ogam inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the
Isle of Man.</p>

<p><i>Criticism of the Legendary Origins.</i>&mdash;It is only in recent years
that the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious
criticism. The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian
descent to the bulk of the native population has at length been
assailed. MacNeill asserts that in MacFirbis&rsquo;s genealogies the
majority of the tribes in early Ireland do not trace their descent
to Eremon and Eber Find; they are rather the descendants of
the subject races, one of which figures in the list of conquests
under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the Fomorians were
doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but the
origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The
Tuatha Dé do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical
documents, nor in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to
any particular race. It seems more probable that a special
invasion was assigned to them by later writers in order to explain
the presence of mythical personages going by their name in
the heroic cycles, as they were found inconvenient by the
monkish historians. In the early centuries of our era Ireland
would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and kindred
races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg
tribal names are formed with the suffix -<i>raige</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ciarraige</i>,
Kerry, <i>Osraige</i>, Ossory, or with the obscure words <i>Corcu</i> and
<i>mocu</i> (<i>maccu</i>), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Corco Duibne</i>, Corkaguiney, <i>Corco Mruad</i>,
Corcomroe, <i>Macu Loegdae</i>, <i>Macu Teimne</i>. In the case of <i>corcu</i>
and <i>mocu</i> the name which follows is frequently the name of an
eponymous ancestor. The Milesians on the other hand named
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
themselves after an historical ancestor employing terms such
as <i>ui</i>, &ldquo;descendants,&rdquo; <i>cland</i>, &ldquo;children,&rdquo; <i>dál</i>, &ldquo;division,&rdquo;
<i>cinél</i>, &ldquo;kindred,&rdquo; or <i>síl</i>, &ldquo;seed.&rdquo; In this connexion it may be
noted that practically all the Milesian pedigrees converge on
three ancestors in the 2nd century&mdash;Conn Cétchathach king of
Tara, Cathair Mór of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of Munster,&mdash;whilst
in scarcely any of them are mythological personages
absent when we go farther back than <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300. Special genealogies
were framed to link up other races, <i>e.g.</i> the Éraind and
Corcu Loegdi of Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians
of Tara.</p>

<p>The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the
establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such
a state of affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the <i>Táin
Bó Cúalnge</i> we find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over
by its own king. These divisions were: Ulster with Emain
Macha as capital, Connaught with Cruachu as residence, north
Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry, south Munster from
south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of the two
kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara
mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian
kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara
was an innovation subsequent to the state of society described
in the oldest sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy&rsquo;s
account. It was probably due to an invasion undertaken by
Brythons<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> from Britain, but it is impossible to assign a precise
date for their arrival. Until the end of the 3rd century the
Milesian power must have been confined to the valley of the
Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of the
4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel
(comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north
Louth, south Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the
eastern part of the province. Brian and Fiachra, sons of
Eochaid Muigmedóin, conquered for themselves the country of
the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tír Fiachrach,
the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the valley
of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught
was similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by
descendants of Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach
Aidni and Ui Briuin Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have
been conquered and colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of
Niall Nóigiallach. The former gave his name to the western
portion, Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst Inishowen was called
Tír Eogain after Eogan. The name Tír Eogain later became
associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county
name Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly
designated the kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold
near Derry which the sons of Niall probably took over from
the earlier inhabitants. At the end of the 5th century Maine, a
relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a tract of Firbolg
territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which formed the
nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English
commonly called the &ldquo;O&rsquo;Kelly&rsquo;s country&rdquo;). Thus practically
the whole of the north and west gradually came under the sway
of the Milesian rulers. Nevertheless one portion retained its
independence. This was Ulidia, consisting of Dalriada, Dal
Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present counties of Antrim
and Down. The bulk of the population here was probably
Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians
or ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until
the 8th century when they were subdued by their Pictish
neighbours. The relationship of Munster and Leinster to the
Tara dynasty is not so easy to define. The small kingdom of
Ossory remained independent until a very late period. As for
Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by Ptolemy
left traces of their name, although it is possible that the ruling
family may have been derived from them. It would seem that
the Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the <i>Táin</i>
had been crushed before authentic history begins. The king of
Leinster was for centuries the most determined opponent of the
<i>ardrí</i>, an antithesis which is embodied in the story of the <i>boroma</i>
tribute. When we turn to Munster we find that Cashel was the
seat of power in historical times. Now Cashel (a loanword from
Lat. <i>castellum</i>) was not founded Until the beginning of the 5th
century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary account attributes
the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting Munster to
Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his
son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber
Find was not Milesian but a branch of the Érnai, and this theory
has much in its favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to
Niall and his descendants can at the best of times only have
been nominal.</p>

<p>In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging
only the supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (1)
Munster with Cashel as centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4)
Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7) Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of
these states might be split up into various parts at certain
periods, each part becoming for the time-being an over-kingdom.
For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tír Conaill and
Tír Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number
of over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents.
The supremacy was vested in the descendants of Niall Nóigiallach
without interruption until 1002; but as Niall&rsquo;s descendants were
represented by four reigning families, the high-kingship passed
from one branch to another. Nevertheless after the middle
of the 8th century the title of <i>ardrí</i> (high-king) was only held
by the Cinél Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and the rulers of Meath
(southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had dropped into
insignificance. The supremacy of the <i>ardrí</i> was more often than
not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case
in Leth Moga.</p>

<p><i>Religion in Early Ireland.</i>&mdash;Our knowledge of the beliefs of the
pagan Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the
heroic cycle are not preserved in any MS. before 1100, and
though the sagas were certainly committed to writing several
centuries before that date, it is evident that the monkish transcribers
have toned down or omitted features that savoured too
strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings play an important
part in the <i>Táin Bó Cualgne</i>, <i>Cuchulinn&rsquo;s Sickbed</i>, the <i>Wooing
of Emer</i> and similar stories, but the relations between ordinary
mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy
to establish. It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a
highly developed pantheon. On the other hand there are
abundant traces of animistic worship, which have survived in
wells, often associated with a sacred tree (Ir. <i>bile</i>), bulláns,
pillar stones, weapons. There are also traces of the worship of
the elements, prominent among which are sun and fire. The
belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. <i>aes</i> <i>síde</i>, <i>síd</i>) forms perhaps
the most striking feature of Irish belief. The sagas teem with
references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who play such
an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own time.
These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal,
but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous
cases of marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The
Tuatha Dé Danann is used as a collective name for the <i>aes síde</i>.
The representatives of this race in the <i>Táin Bó Cualgne</i> play a
somewhat similar part to the gods of the ancient Greeks in the
<i>Iliad</i>, though they are of necessity of a much more shadowy
nature. Prominent among them were Manannán mac Lir, who
is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda,
the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, resided
near Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another,
Angus Mac-in-óg, dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known
tumulus at New Grange. The Dagda&rsquo;s daughter Brigit transmitted
many of her attributes to the Christian saint of the same
name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to have been the
patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of fertility.
At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation
was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides,
and until quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-known
fairy queens are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north
Munster). We frequently hear of three goddesses of war&mdash;Ana,
Bodb and Macha, also generally called Morrígu and Badb.
They showed themselves in battles hovering over the heads of
the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb
appears on a Gaulish stone as (<i>Cathu</i>-)<i>bodvae</i>. The <i>Geniti glinni</i>
and <i>demna aeir</i> were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.</p>

<p>When we come to treat of religious rites and worship, our
sources leave us completely in the dark. We hear in several
documents of a great idol covered with gold and silver named
Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which was surrounded by
twelve lesser idols covered with brass or bronze, and stood on
Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran,
Co. Cavan. In one text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief
idol of Ireland. According to the story St Patrick overthrew
the idol, and one of the lives of the saint states that the mark
of his crosier might still be seen on the stone. In the <i>Dindsenchus</i>
we are told that the worshippers sacrificed their children to the
idol in order to secure corn, honey and milk in plenty. On the
occasion of famine the druids advised that the son of a sinless
married couple should be brought to Ireland to be killed in front
of Tara and his blood mixed with the soil of Tara. We might
naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of
priests in Ireland. D&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in
Gaul the three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded
more or less to the pontifices, augurs and flamens of ancient
Rome. In ancient Irish literature the functions of the druids
correspond fairly closely to those of their Gaulish brethren
recorded by Caesar and other writers of antiquity. Had we
contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in Ireland
prior to the introduction of Christianity, it may be doubted if
any serious difference would be discovered. In early Irish
literature the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners,
but they are also the repositaries of the learning of the time
which they transmitted to the disciples accompanying them (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druidism</a></span>). The Druids were believed to have the power to
render a person insane by flinging a magic wisp of straw in his
face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to bring down
showers of fire and blood. They claimed to be able to foretell
the future by watching the clouds, or by means of divining-rods
made of yew. They also resorted to sacrifice. They possessed
several means for rendering a person invisible, and various
peculiar and complicated methods of divination, such as <i>Imbas
forosna</i>, <i>tein laegda</i>, and <i>díchetal do chennaib</i>, are described in
early authorities. Whether or not the Irish druids taught that
the soul was immortal is a question which it is impossible to
decide. There is one passage which seems to support the view
that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in this respect, but it is
not safe to deny the possible influence of Christian teaching in
the document in question. The Irish, however, possessed some
more or less definite notions about an abode of everlasting
youth and peace inhabited by fairies. The latter either dwell
in the síd, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in
islands out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending
delight. These happy abodes were known by various names,
as Tír Tairngiri (Land of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures).
Condla Caem son of Conn Cétchathach was carried in a boat of
crystal by a fairy maiden to the land of youth, and among other
mortals who went thither Bran, son of Febal, and Ossian are the
most famous. The doctrine of metempsychosis seems to have
been familiar in early Ireland. Mongan king of Dalriada in the
7th century is stated to have passed after death into various
shapes&mdash;a wolf, a stag, a salmon, a seal, a swan. Fintan, nephew
of Partholan, is also reported to have survived the deluge and
to have lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac
Cairill in the 6th century. This legend appears to have been
worked up, if not manufactured, by the historians of the 9th
to 11th centuries to support their fictions. It may, however, be
mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis and the <i>Speculum Regale</i>
state in all seriousness that certain of the inhabitants of Ossory
were able at will to assume the form of wolves, and similar
stories are not infrequent in Irish romance.</p>

<p><i>Conversion to Christianity.</i>&mdash;In the beginning of the 4th century
there was an organized Christian church in Britain; and in
view of the intimate relations existing between Wales and
Ireland during that century it is safe to conclude that there were
Christians in Ireland before the time of St Patrick. Returned
colonists from south Wales, traders and the raids of the Irish
in Britain with the consequent influx of British captives sold
into slavery must have introduced the knowledge of Christianity
into the island considerably before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. In this connexion
it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called
Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at Auxerre. Further,
the earliest Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence
of British pronunciation (<i>e.g.</i> O. Ir. <i>trindóit</i> from <i>trinit&#257;t-em</i>
shows the Brythonic change of <i>&#257;</i> to <i>ó</i>). Irish records preserve
the names of three shadowy pre-Patrician saints who were
connected with south-east Ireland, Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran.</p>

<p>In one source the great heresiarch Pelagius is stated to have
been a Scot. He may have been descended from an Irish family
settled in south Wales. We have also the statement of Prosper
of Aquitaine that Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine as first
bishop to the Scots that believe in Christ. But though we may
safely assume that a number of scattered communities existed
in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it is unlikely
that there was any organization before the time of St Patrick.
This mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre
to Britain. The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid
growth of Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish
church. A synod summoned for the occasion commissioned
Germanus and Lupus to go to Britain, which they accordingly
did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told, had given his sanction
to the mission through the deacon Palladius. The heresy was
successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of it
are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to
Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preservation
of the recently discovered copies of Pelagius&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>.
Palladius&rsquo;s activity in Britain probably marked him out as the
man to undertake the task of bringing Ireland into touch with
Western Christianity. In any case Prosper and the Irish Annals
represent him as arriving in Ireland in 431 with episcopal rank.
His missionary activity unfortunately is extremely obscure.
Tradition associates his name with Co. Wicklow, but Irish
sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to
the land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour
when his career was cut short by death.</p>

<p><i>St Patrick.</i>&mdash;At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided
to consecrate his pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on
the work begun by Palladius. Patrick would possess several
qualifications for the dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland.
Born in Britain about 389, he had been carried into slavery in
Ireland when a youth of sixteen. He remained with his master
for seven years, and must have had ample opportunity for
observing the conditions, and learning the language, of the
people around him; and such knowledge would have been
indispensable to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar
state of Irish society (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patrick, St</a></span>). The new bishop landed
in Wicklow in 432. Leinster was probably the province in which
Christianity was already most strongly represented, and Patrick
may have entrusted this part of his sphere to two fellow-workers
from Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus. At any rate he seems rather
to have addressed himself more especially to the task of founding
churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught. In Ireland the
land nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a kind of
feudal system existed. In order to succeed with the body of the
tribe it was necessary to secure the adherence of the chief. The
conversion in consequence was in large measure only apparent;
and such pagan superstitions and practices as did not run
directly counter to the new teaching were tolerated by the
saint. Thus, whilst the mass of the people practically still
continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
churches and schools and educate a priesthood which should
provide the most effective and certain means of conversion.
It would be a mistake to suppose that his success was as rapid
or as complete as is generally assumed. There can be no doubt
that he met with great opposition both from the high-king
Loigaire and from the druids. But though Loigaire refused
to desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number
of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be
any truth in the story of the codification of the Brehon Laws
we gather that he realized that the future belonged to the new
religion. St Patrick&rsquo;s work seems to fall under two heads. In
the first place he planted the faith in parts of the north and west
which had probably not yet heard the gospel. He also organized
the already existing Christian communities, and with this in
view founded a church at Armagh as his metropolitan see (444).
It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with
Rome and the Christian countries of the Western church, and
that in consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the
church. It seems probable that St Patrick consecrated a
considerable number of bishops with small but definite dioceses
which doubtless coincided in the main with the territories of the
<i>tuatha</i>. In any case the ideal of the apostle from Britain was
almost certainly very different from the monastic system in vogue
in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries.</p>

<p><i>The Early Irish Church.</i>&mdash;The church founded by St Patrick
was doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches
of Britain and Gaul and other branches of the Western church;
but after the recall of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish
church was shut off from the Roman world, and it is only natural
that there should not have been any great amount of scruple
with regard to orthodox doctrine. This would explain the
survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the 8th
century. Even Columba himself, in his Latin hymn <i>Altus
prosator</i>, was suspected by Gregory the Great of favouring Arian
doctrines. After the death of St Patrick there was apparently
a relapse into paganism in many parts of the island. The church
itself gradually became grafted on to the feudal organization,
the result of which was the peculiar system which we find in the
6th and 7th centuries. Wherever Roman law and municipal
institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the
civil society. The bishops governed ecclesiastical districts
co-ordinate with the civil divisions. In Ireland there were no
cities and no municipal institutions; the nation consisted of
groups of tribes connected by kinship, and loosely held together
by a feudal system which we shall examine later. Although
St Patrick endeavoured to organize the Irish church on regular
diocesan lines, after his death an approximation to the lay
system was under the circumstances almost inevitable. When a
chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he
at the same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these
rights still remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the
uses of the church. At first all church offices were exclusively
confined to members of the sept. In this new sept there was
consequently a twofold succession. The religious sept or family
consisted in the first instance not only of the ecclesiastical
persons to whom the gift was made, but of all the <i>céli</i> or vassals,
tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed. The
head was the coarb (Ir. <i>comarba</i>, &ldquo;co-heir&rdquo;), <i>i.e.</i> the inheritor
both of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the
founder; he in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute
like other chiefs, and made war not on temporal chiefs only, the
spectacle of two coarbs making war on each other not being
unusual. The ecclesiastical colonies that went forth from a
parent family generally remained in subordination to it, in the
same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family remained
in general subordinate to it. The heads of the secondary families
were also called the coarbs of the original founder. Thus there
were coarbs of Columba at Iona, Kells, Derry, Durrow and
other places. The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was
called the high coarb (ard-chomarba). The coarb might be a
bishop or only an abbot, but in either case all the ecclesiastics
in the family were subject to him; in this way it frequently
happened that bishops, though their superior functions were
recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only priests,
as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the case
of St Brigit. This singular association of lay and spiritual
powers was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession
to fall into lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later
times. The temporal chief had his steward who superintended
the collection of his rents and tributes; in like manner the coarb
of a religious sept had his <i>airchinnech</i> (Anglo-Irish <i>erenach</i>,
<i>herenach</i>), whose office was generally, but not necessarily,
hereditary. The office embodied in a certain sense the lay
succession in the family.</p>

<p>From the beginning the life of the converts must have been
in some measure coenobitic. Indeed it could hardly have been
otherwise in a pagan and half-savage land. St Patrick himself
in his Confession makes mention of monks in Ireland in connexion
with his mission, but the few glimpses we get of the monastic
life of the decades immediately following his death prove that
the earliest type of coenobium differed considerably from that
known at a later period. The coenobium of the end of the 5th
century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief
had become Christian. After making a gift of his lands the chief
either retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as
the religious head himself. The family went on with their usual
avocations, but some of the men and women, and in some cases
all, practised celibacy, and all joined in fasting and prayer. It
may be inferred from native documents that grave disorders
were prevalent under this system. A severer and more exclusive
type of monasticism succeeded this primitive one, but apart
from the separation of the sexes the general character never
entirely changed.</p>

<p>Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman
Law being unknown, there was not that limitation of the number
of bishops which territorial jurisdiction renders necessary, and
consequently the number of bishops increased beyond all proportions.
Thus, St Mochta, abbot of Louth, and a reputed
disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no less than 100
bishops in his monastic family. All the bishops in a coenobium
were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the monastic
families, every <i>tuath</i> or tribe had its own bishop. The church
in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei
already described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development
of a somewhat later period. He was an important personage,
his status being fixed in the Brehon laws, from which we learn
that his honour price was seven <i>cumals</i>, and that he had the
right to be accompanied by the same number of followers as a
petty king. The power of the bishops was considerable, as they
were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right
of sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension. The <i>tuath</i>
bishop in later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as
closely as it was possible in two systems so different as tribal
and municipal government. When diocesan jurisdiction was
introduced into Ireland in the 12th century the <i>tuath</i> became a
diocese. Many of the old dioceses represent ancient <i>tuatha</i>,
and even enlarged modern dioceses coincide with the territories
of ancient tribal states. Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh was
the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora
was the tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe. Many deaneries
also represent tribe territories. Thus the deanery of Musgrylin
(Co. Cork) was the ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had
its tribe bishop in ancient times. Bishops without dioceses and
monastic bishops were not unknown outside Ireland in the Eastern
and Western churches in very early times, but they had disappeared
with rare exceptions in the 6th century when the Irish
reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church
into Britain and the continent.</p>

<p>In the 8th and 9th centuries, when the great emigration of
Irish scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wandering
bishops without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish
church; and there can be no doubt that it led to much inconvenience
and abuse, and was subversive of the stricter discipline
that the popes had succeeded in establishing in the Western
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
church. They were accused of ordaining serfs without the consent
of their lords, consecrating bishops <i>per saltum</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of making
men bishops who had not previously received the orders of
priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single
bishop. This custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the
Irish church, as the practice was never held to be invalid; and
besides, the Nicene canons of discipline were perhaps not known
in Ireland until comparatively late times. The isolated position
of Ireland, and the existence of tribal organization in full vigour,
explain fully the anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which
were also survivals of the early Christian practices before the
complete organization of the church.</p>

<p>After the death of St Patrick the bond between the numerous
church families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed;
and the saint&rsquo;s most formidable opponents, the druids, probably
regained much of their old power. The transition period which
follows the loosening of a people&rsquo;s faith in its old religion and
before the authority of the new is universally accepted is always
a time of confusion and relaxation of morals. Such a period
appears to have followed the fervour of St Patrick&rsquo;s time.
To judge from the early literature the marriage-tie seems to
have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt that
pagan marriage customs were practised long after the introduction
of Christianity. The Brehon Laws assume the existence
of married as well as unmarried clergy, and when St Patrick
was seeking a bishop for the men of Leinster he asked for &ldquo;a
man of one wife.&rdquo; Marriage among the secular clergy went on
in Ireland until the 15th century. Like the Gaulish druids
described by Caesar, the poet (<i>fili</i>) and the druid possessed a
huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in
verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils. The exalted
position occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps
affords the key to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity
in Irish monasteries from the 6th to the 9th centuries. That
some of the <i>filid</i> embraced Christianity from the outset is evident
from the story of Dubthach. As early as the second half of the
5th century Enda, a royal prince of Oriel (<i>c.</i> 450-540), after
spending some time at Whithorn betook himself to Aranmore,
off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which
attracted scholars from all over Ireland. The connexion between
Ireland and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from
south Wales that the great reform movement in the Irish monasteries
emanated. Findian of Clonard (<i>c.</i> 470-548) is usually
regarded as the institutor of the type of monastery for which
Ireland became so famous during the next few centuries. He
spent some time in Wales, where he came under the influence of
St David, Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he
founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co. Meath) about
520. Here no less than 3000 students are said to have received
instruction at the same time. Such a monastery consisted of
countless tiny huts of wattles and clay (or, where stone was
plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the pupils and enclosed by
a fosse, or trench, like a permanent military encampment.
The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and
milked their own cows. Instruction was probably given in the
open air. Twelve of Findian&rsquo;s disciples became known as the
twelve apostles of Ireland, the monastic schools they founded
becoming the greatest centres of learning and religious instruction
not only in Ireland, but in the whole of the west of Europe.
Among the most famous were Moville (Co. Down), founded by
another Findian, <i>c.</i> 540; Clonmacnoise, founded by Kieran,
541; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by
Brendan, 552; Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow,
founded by Columba, <i>c.</i> 553. The chief reform due to the
influence of the British church<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> seems to have been the introduction
of monastic life in the strict sense of the word, <i>i.e.</i>
communities entirely separated from the laity with complete
separation of the sexes.</p>

<p>One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected
by Findian was that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise
which made the name of Scot and of Ireland so well known
throughout Europe, while at the same time the Irish were
being driven out of their colonies in Wales and south-west Britain
owing to the advance of the Saxon power. In 563 Columba
founded the monastery of Hí (Iona), which spread the knowledge
of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland. From
this same solitary outpost went forth the illustrious Aidan to
plant another Iona at Lindisfarne, which, &ldquo;long after the poor
parent brotherhood had fallen to decay, expanded itself into the
bishopric of Durham.&rdquo; And Lightfoot claims for Aidan &ldquo;the
first place in the evangelization of the English race. Augustine
was the apostle of Kent, but Aidan was the apostle of England.&rdquo;
In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b. 543), went forth
from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the
Gospel on the continent of Europe. Columbanus was the first
of the long stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces
in Italy, Switzerland, Germany and France; amongst them
being Gallus or St Gall, founder of St Gallen, Kilian of Würzburg,
Virgil of Salzburg, Cathald of Tarentum and numerous others.
At the beginning of the 8th century a long series of missionary
establishments extended from the mouths of the Meuse and
Rhine to the Rhône and the Alps, whilst many others founded by
Germans are the offspring of Irish monks. Willibrord, the
apostle of the Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in
Ireland. Other Irishmen seeking remote places wherein to lead
the lives of anchorites, studded the numerous islands on the
west coast of Scotland with their little buildings. Cormac ua
Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the Orkneys, and
when the Northmen first discovered Iceland they found there
books and other traces of the early Irish church. It may be
mentioned that the geographer Dicuil who lived at the court
of Charlemagne gives a description of Iceland which must have
been obtained from some one who had been there. The peculiarities
which owing to Ireland&rsquo;s isolation had survived were
brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came into
contact with Roman ecclesiastics. The chief points of difference
were the calculation of Easter and the form of the tonsure, in
addition to questions of discipline such as the consecration of
bishops <i>per saltum</i> and bishops without dioceses. With regard
to tonsure it would seem that the druids shaved the front part of
the head from ear to ear. St Patrick doubtless introduced
the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the period following his
death the old druidical tonsure was again revived. In the
calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and
Jewish 84-years&rsquo; cycle which they may have received from
St Patrick and which had once prevailed all over Europe. Shut
off from the world, they were probably ignorant of the new
cycle of 532 years which had been adopted by Rome in 463.
This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest in
England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their
traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents.
As early as 633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had
been more in contact with Gaul, had been won over to the
Roman method of computation. The north and Iona on the
other hand refused to give in until Adamnán induced the north
of Ireland to yield in 697, while Iona held out until 716, although
by this time the monastery had lost its influence in Pictland.
Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish
missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central
Europe, and sowing the seeds of culture there, is apt to be
overlooked. Thus, when the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed
Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of the Franks as papal
legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of the time, neither
the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the Bavarians
could be considered as pagans. What Irish missionaries and
their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century
quite independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established
under Roman authority partly by force of arms.</p>

<p>During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival
of St Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin
by the Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a blank as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
regards outstanding events. From the time that the Milesians
of Tara had come to be recognized as suzerains of the whole
island all political development ceases. The annals contain
nothing save a record of intertribal warfare, which the high-king
was rarely powerful enough to stay. The wonderful achievements
of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a whole,
and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in
civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Nóigiallach to the
Anglo-Norman invasion. Niall&rsquo;s posterity held the position of
<i>ardrí</i> uninterruptedly until 1002. Four of his sons, Loigaire,
Conall Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and
adjoining territories, and their posterity were called the southern
Hy Neill. The other four, Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and
Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part of Ulster. Their
descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The
descendants of Eogan were the O&rsquo;Neills and their numerous
kindred septs; the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O&rsquo;Donnells
and their kindred septs. Niall died in 406 in the English Channel
whilst engaged in a marauding expedition. He was succeeded
by his nephew Dathi, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmedóin,
who is stated to have been struck by lightning at the foot of the
Alps in 428. Loigaire, son of Niall (428-463), is identified with
the story of St Patrick. According to tradition it was during
his reign that the codification of the <i>Senchus Mór</i> took place.
A well-known story represents him as constantly at war with
the men of Leinster. His successor, Ailill Molt (463-483), son
of Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years
who was not a direct descendant of Niall.</p>

<p>In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Erc, moved
from Dalriada to Argyll and effected settlements there. The
circumstances which enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying
Kintyre and Islay cannot now be ascertained. The little
kingdom had great difficulty to maintain itself, and its varying
fortunes are very obscure. Neither is it clear that bodies of
Scots had not already migrated to Argyll. Diarmait, son of
Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly
professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan
practices, such as polygamy and the use of druidical incantations
in battle. The annals represent him as getting into trouble
with the Church on account of his violation of the right of
sanctuary. At an assembly held at Tara in 554 Curnan, son of the
king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a crime punishable with
death. The author of the deed fled for sanctuary to St Columba.
But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition
of the saint seized Curnan and hanged him. St Columba&rsquo;s
kinsmen, the northern Hy Neill, took up the quarrel, and attacked
and defeated the king at Culdreimne in 561. In this battle
Diarmait is stated to have employed druids to form an <i>airbe
druad</i> (fence of protection?) round his host. A few years later
Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy Maine, who had slain
his herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of Lothra.
According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan
of Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from
which time it was deserted. It has been suggested that Tara
was abandoned during the plague of 548-549. Others have
surmised that it was abandoned as a regular place of residence
long before this, soon after the northern and southern branches
of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech and in
Westmeath. Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it
demonstrates conclusively the absence of a rallying point where
the idea of a central government might have taken root. Aed,
son of Ainmire (572-598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures
prominently in the story of St Columba. It was during his
reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet (near Newtown-limavaddy
in Co. Derry) was held. The story goes that the
<i>filid</i> had increased in number to such an extent that they included
one-third of the freemen. There was thus quite an army of
impudent swaggering idlers roaming about the country and
quartering themselves on the chiefs and nobles during the winter
and spring, story-telling, and lampooning those who dared to
hesitate to comply with their demands.</p>

<p>Some idea of the style of living of the learned professions
in early Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in
later times by the literati of Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal). It has
been computed that no less than £2000 was set aside yearly in
this small state for the maintenance of the class. No wonder,
then, that Aed determined to banish them from Ireland. At
the convention of Drumcet the number of <i>filid</i> was greatly
reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams
were required to open schools and to support the inferior bards
as teachers. This reform may have helped to foster the cultivation
of the native literature, and it is possible that we owe to it
the preservation of the Ulster epic. But the Irish were unfortunately
incapable of rising above the saga, consisting of a
mixture of prose and verse. Their greatest achievement in
literature dates back to the dawn of history, and we find no
more trace of development in the world of letters than in the
political sphere. The Irishman, in his own language at any rate,
seems incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of
which is that he invents the most intricate measures. Sense
is thus too frequently sacrificed to sound. The influence of the
professional literary class kept the clan spirit alive with their
elaborate genealogies, and in their poems they only pandered
to the vanity and vices of their patrons. That no new ideas
came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of Irish
literature so far published dates from before 800, though the
MSS. which contain it are much later. Bearing in mind how
largely the Finn cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, works
of originality composed between 1000 and 1600 are with one or
two exceptions conspicuously absent.</p>

<p>At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic
settlement in Argyll was also regulated. The <i>ardrí</i> desired to
make the colony an Irish state tributary to the high-king; but
on the special pleading of St Columba it was allowed to remain
independent. Aed lost his life in endeavouring to exact the
<i>boroma</i> tribute from Brandub, king of Leinster, who defeated
him at Dunbolg in 598. After several short reigns the throne
was occupied by Aed&rsquo;s son Domnall (627-641). His predecessor,
Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal
Claen. The latter was driven out of the country by Domnall,
whereupon Congal collected an army of foreign adventurers made
up of Saxons, Dalriadic Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his
lands and to avenge himself on the high-king. In a sanguinary
encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co. Down), which forms the
subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain and the power
of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable period.
A curious feature of Hy Neill rule about this time was joint
kingship. From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such
pairs. In 681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the <i>ardrí</i>
Finnachta (674-690) to renounce for ever the <i>boroma</i>, tribute,
which had always been a source of friction between the supreme
king and the ruler of Leinster. This was, however, unfortunately
not the last of the <i>boroma</i>. Fergal (711-722), in trying to enforce
it again, was slain in a famous battle at Allen in Kildare. As
a sequel Fergal&rsquo;s son, Aed Allan (734-743), defeated the men
of Leinster with great slaughter at Ballyshannon (Co. Kildare)
in 737. If there was so little cohesion among the various provinces
it is small wonder that Ireland fell such an easy prey to
the Vikings in the next century. In 697 an assembly was held
at Tara in which a law known as <i>Cáin Adamnáin</i> was passed,
at the instance of Adamnán, prohibiting women from taking
part in battle; a decision that shows how far Ireland with its
tribal system lagged behind Teutonic and Latin countries in
civilization. A similar enactment exempting the clergy, known
as <i>Cáin Patraic</i>, was agreed to in 803. The story goes that the
<i>ardrí</i> Aed Oirdnigthe (797-819) made a hostile incursion into
Leinster and forced the primate of Armagh and all his clergy to
attend him. When representations were made to the king as to
the impropriety of his conduct, he referred the matter to his
adviser, Fothud, who was also a cleric. Fothud pronounced that
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
the clergy should be exempted, and three verses purporting to
be his decision are still extant.</p>

<p><i>Invasion of the Northmen.</i>&mdash;The first incursion of the Northmen
took place in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 795, when they plundered and burnt the church
of Rechru, now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay. When
this event occurred, the power of the over-king was a mere
shadow. The provincial kingdoms had split up into more or
less independent principalities, almost constantly at war with
each other. The oscillation of the centre of power between
Meath and Tír Eogain, according as the <i>ardrí</i> belonged to the
southern or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding perturbations
in the balance of parties among the minor kings.
The army consisted of a number of tribes, each commanded by
its own chief, and acting as so many independent units without
cohesion. The tribesmen owed fealty only to their chiefs, who
in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the over-king,
depending a good deal upon the ability of the latter to enforce it.
A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his tribe
even on the eve of a battle without such defection being deemed
dishonourable. What the tribe was to the nation or the province,
the <i>fine</i> or sept was to the tribe itself. The head of a sept had a
voice not only in the question of war or peace, for that was
determined by the whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations.
However brave the individual soldiers of such an army might be,
the army itself was unreliable against a well-organized and
disciplined enemy. Again, such tribal forces were only levies
gathered together for a few weeks at most, unprovided with
military stores or the means of transport, and consequently
generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind, and
liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together.
Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was
wholly unfit to carry on a regular campaign or take advantage
of a victory. These defects of the Irish military system were
abundantly shown throughout the Viking period and also in
Anglo-Norman times.</p>

<p>The first invaders were probably Norwegians<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> from Hördaland
in search of plunder and captives. Their attacks were not
confined to the sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the rivers
in their ships, and already in 801 they are found on the upper
Shannon. At the outset the invaders arrived in small bodies,
but as these met with considerable resistance large fleets commanded
by powerful Vikings followed. With such forces it
was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes. Rude
earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of
retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strongholds
already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin
in Wicklow and Fermoy in Cork. Some of these military posts
in course of time became trading stations or grew into towns.
During the first half of the 9th century attacks were incessant
in most parts of the island. In 801 we find Norwegians on the
upper Shannon; in 820 the whole of Ireland was harried; and
five years later we hear of Vikings in Co. Dublin, Meath, Kildare,
Wicklow, Queen&rsquo;s Co., Kilkenny and Tipperary. However,
the invaders do not appear to have acted in concert until 830.
About this time a powerful leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius),
accompanied by two nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir),
arrived with a &ldquo;royal fleet.&rdquo; Sailing up the Shannon they
built strongholds on Lough Ree and devastated Connaught and
Meath. Eventually Turgeis established himself in Armagh,
whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the
monastery church with pagan rites. Indeed, the numerous
ecclesiastical establishments appear to have been quite as much
the object of the invaders&rsquo; fury as the civil authorities. The
monastery of Armagh was rebuilt ten times, and as often destroyed.
It was sacked three times in one month. Turgeis
himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of Armagh.
To escape from the continuous attacks on the monasteries, Irish
monks and scholars fled in large numbers to the continent
carrying with them their precious books. Among them were
many of the greatest lights in the world of letters of the time,
such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Scottus Erigena. The
figure of Turgeis has given rise to considerable discussion, as
there is no mention of him in Scandinavian sources. It seems
probable that his Norwegian name was Thorgils and he was
possibly related to Godfred, father of Olaf the White, who figures
prominently in Irish history a little later. Turgeis apparently
united the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of
the Norsemen in Ireland. A permanent sovereignty over the
whole of Ireland, such as Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was
then as in later times impossible because of the state of society.
During his lifetime various cities were founded&mdash;the first on
Irish soil. Dublin came into existence in 840, and Waterford
and Limerick appear in history about the same time. Although
the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the
Irish, these cities soon became important commercial centres
trading with England, France and Norway. Turgeis was
captured and drowned by the <i>ardrí</i> Maelsechlainn in 844, and
two years later Domrair was slain. However cruel and rapacious
the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and ruin was
not all theirs. The condition of the country afforded full scope
for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize
the tribal state of political society. For instance, Fedilmid,
king of Munster and archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity
of the misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the
Munster dynasty to be kings of Ireland. To enforce this claim
he ravaged and plundered a large part of the country, took
hostages from Niall Caille the over-king (833-845), drove out the
<i>comarba</i> of St Patrick, or archbishop of Armagh, and for a whole
year occupied his place as bishop. On his return he plundered
the termon lands of Clonmacnoise &ldquo;up to the church door,&rdquo; an
exploit which was repeated the following year. There is no
mention of his having helped to drive out the foreigners.</p>

<p>For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen
appear to have lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed.
It was during this period that Dublin was chosen as the point
of concentration for their forces. In 848 a Danish fleet from
the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay. The Danes are
called in Irish <i>Dubgaill</i>, or black foreigners, as distinguished
from the <i>Findgaill</i><a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or white foreigners, <i>i.e.</i> Norwegians. The
origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for Norway
(<i>Lochlann</i>), is obscure. At first the Danes and Norwegians
appear to have made common cause, but two years later the
new city of Dublin was stormed by the Danes. In 851 the
Dublin Vikings succeeded in vanquishing the Danes after a
three days&rsquo; battle at Snaim Aignech (Carlingford Lough),
whereupon the defeated party under their leader Horm took
service with Cerball, king of Ossory. Even in the first half of
the 9th century there must have been a great deal of intermarriage
between the invaders and the native population, due
in part at any rate to the number of captive women who were
carried off. A mixed race grew up, recruited by many Irish
of pure blood, whom a love of adventure and a lawless spirit
led away. This heterogeneous population was called <i>Gallgoidel</i>
or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and like
their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and
practised piracy. The Christian element in this mixed society
soon lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism.
The Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to
the seaport towns, and except Dublin included none of the
surrounding territory. Owing to its position and the character
of the country about it, especially the coast-land to the north of
the Liffey which formed a kind of border-land between the
territories of the kings of Meath and Leinster, a considerable
tract passed into the possession of so powerful a city as Dublin.</p>

<p>The social and political condition of Ireland, and the pastoral
occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the development
of foreign commerce, and the absence of coined money
among them shows that it did not exist on an extensive scale.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
The foreign articles of luxury (dress, ornaments, wine, &amp;c.)
required by them were brought to the great <i>oenachs</i> or fairs held
periodically in various parts of the country. A flourishing
commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns;
mints were established, and many foreign traders&mdash;Flemings,
Italians and others&mdash;settled there. It was through these
Scandinavian trading communities that Ireland came into
contact with the rest of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries.
If evidence were needed it is only necessary to point to the names
of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, which
are formed from the native names (<i>Ulaid</i>, <i>Laigin</i>, <i>Muma-n</i>)
with the addition of Norse <i>staðr</i>; and the very name by which
the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form
(<i>Ira-land</i>, the land of the Irish). The settlers in the Scandinavian
towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so
many septs of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming
the Irish political system. They soon mixed in the domestic
quarrels of neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection,
but afterwards as vassals, sometimes as allies, like the septs and
tribes of the Goidel among themselves. The latter in turn acted
in similar capacities with the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish
tribes often forming part of the Scandinavian armies in Britain.
This intercourse led to frequent intermarriage between the chiefs
and nobility of the two peoples. As an instance, the case of
Cerball, king of Ossory (d. 887), may be cited. Eyvindr, surnamed
Austmaðr, &ldquo;the east-man,&rdquo;<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> son of Björn, agreed to
defend Cerball&rsquo;s territory on condition of receiving his daughter
Raforta in marriage. Among the children of this marriage
were Helgi Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and
Thurida, wife of Thorstein the Red. Three other daughters
of Cerball married Scandinavians: Gormflaith (Kormlöð)
married Grimolf, who settled in Iceland, Fridgerda married
Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married Hlöðver, father of
Earl Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf. Cerball&rsquo;s son Domnall
(Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst the
names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family. Hence the
occurrence of such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran,
Njall, Kormakr, Brigit, Kaðlin, &amp;c., among Icelanders and Norwegians
cannot be a matter for surprise; nor that a number of
Norse words were introduced into Irish, notably terms connected
with trade and the sea.</p>

<p>The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes
for supremacy in Dublin appears to have made the former feel
the need of a powerful leader. At any rate, in 851-852 the king
of Lochlann (Norway) sent his son Amlaib (Olaf the White)
to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in Ireland and to
receive tribute and vassals. From this time it is possible to
speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which
lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest.
The king of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking
communities in the island, and thus became the most dangerous
opponent of the <i>ardrí</i>, with whom he was constantly at variance.
Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar, who is stated in one source
to have been his brother. Some writers wish to identify this
prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar Lodbrok.
Amlaib was opposed to the <i>ardrí</i> Maelsechlainn I. (846-863)
who had overcome Turgeis. This brave ruler gained a number of
victories over the Norsemen, but in true Irish fashion they were
never followed up. Although his successor Aed Finnliath
(863-879) gave his daughter in marriage to Amlaib, no better
relations were established. The king of Dublin was certainly
the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day, and during
his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended. In 870
he captured the strongholds of Dumbarton and Dunseverick
(Co. Antrim). He disappears from the scene in 873. One source
represents him as dying in Ireland, but the circumstances are
quite obscure. Ivar only survived Olaf two or three years, and
it is stated that he died a Christian. During the ensuing period
Dublin was the scene of constant family feuds, which weakened
its power to such an extent that in 901 Dublin and Waterford
were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge
the supremacy of the high-king. The Irish Annals state that
there were no fresh invasions of the Northmen for about forty
years dating from 877. During this period Ireland enjoyed
comparative rest notwithstanding the intertribal feuds in which
the Norse settlers shared, including the campaigns of Cormac,
son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of Cashel.</p>

<p>Towards the end of this interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg,
who was probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above,
addressed himself to the task of winning back the kingdom of his
ancestor. Waterford was retaken in 914 by Ivar, grandson of
Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg won a signal victory over
the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co. Kilkenny?) two years
later. Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall Glúndub
(910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders. A battle of prime
importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the <i>ardrí</i>, who fell
fighting gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919. Between
920 and 970 the Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its zenith.
The country was desolated and plundered by natives and
foreigners alike. The lower Shannon was more thoroughly
occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact the rise of Limerick
is associated. Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory round Lough
Neagh were settled, and after the capture of Lough Erne in 932
much of Longford was colonized. The most prominent figures
at this time were Muirchertach &ldquo;of the leather cloaks,&rdquo; son of
Niall Glúndub, Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán.
The first-named waged constant warfare against the foreigners
and was the most formidable opponent the Scandinavians had
yet met. In his famous circuit of Ireland (941) he took all the
provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin, as hostages, and
after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed them
over to the feeble titular <i>ardrí</i>, showing that his loyalty was
greater than his ambition. Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of
Cashel, the hero of a late romance, was not particular whether
he fought for or against the Norsemen. In 920 Sigtrygg (d. 927)
was driven out of Dublin by his brother Godfred (d. 934) and
retired to York, where he became king of Northumbria. His
sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by Æthelstan. The former,
better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán, married the daughter of
Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh (938).
Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941.
Expelled in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his cousin
Blákáre, son of Godfred. At the same time he held sway over
the kingdom of Man and the Isles. We find this romantic
character constantly engaged on expeditions in England, Ireland
and Scotland. In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was defeated
and slain by the Norse of Dublin. In 973 his son Domnall,
in alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O&rsquo;Neill
at Cell Mona (Kilmoon in Co. Meath). This Domnall O&rsquo;Neill,
son of Muirchertach, son of Niall Glúndub, was the first to adopt
the name O&rsquo;Neill (Ir. <i>ua</i>, <i>ó</i> = &ldquo;grandson&rdquo;). The tanists or heirs
of the northern and southern Hy Neill having died, the throne
fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland Colmáin, the last of the
Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland. Maelsechlainn,
who succeeded in 980, had already distinguished himself as king
of Meath in war with the Norsemen. In the first year of his reign
as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in
which Amlaib&rsquo;s son, Ragnall, fell. This victory, won over the
combined forces of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the
Isles, compelled Amlaib to deliver up all his captives and
hostages,&mdash;among whom were Domnall Claen, king of Leinster,
and several notables&mdash;to forgo the tribute which he had imposed
upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large contribution of
cattle and money. Amlaib&rsquo;s spirit was so broken by this defeat
that he retired to the monastery of Hí, where he died the same
year.</p>

<p><i>The Dalcais Dynasty.</i>&mdash;We have already seen that the dominant
race in Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom. The Cashel
dynasty claimed to descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst
the Dalcassians of Clare derived their origin from a younger son
Cormac Cas. Ailill Aulom is said to have ordained that the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
succession to the throne should alternate between the two lines,
as in the case of the Hy Neill. This, however, is perhaps a fiction
of later poets who wished to give lustre to the ancestry of Brian
Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in the list
of the kings of Cashel. The Dalcassians play no prominent part
in history until, in the middle of the 10th century, they were
ruled by Kennedy (Cennétig), son of Lorcan, king of Thomond
(d. 954), by whom their power was greatly extended. He left
two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon) and Brian, called Brian Boruma,
probably from a village near Killaloe.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> About the year 920 a
Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had seized the lower Shannon
and established himself in Limerick, from which point constant
incursions were made into all parts of Munster. After a period
of guerrilla warfare in the woods of Thomond, Mathgamain
concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to
join. Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained
possession of the kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the representative
of the older line, had just died. Receiving the support
of several of the native tribes, he felt himself in a position to
attack the settlements of the foreigners in Munster. This aroused
the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to carry the war
into Thomond. He was supported by Maelmuad, king of
Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri.
Their army was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary,
where the Norsemen were defeated with great slaughter (968).
This decisive victory gave the Dalcais Limerick, which they
sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took hostages of all
the chiefs of Munster. Ivar escaped to Britain, but returned
after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig (Scattery
Island in the lower Shannon). A conspiracy was formed between
Ivar and his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains
Donoban and Maelmuad. Donoban was married to the daughter
of a Scandinavian king of Waterford, and his own daughter was
married to Ivar of Waterford.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> In 976 Inis Cathaig was attacked
and plundered by the Dalcais and the garrison, including Ivar
and Dubcenn, slain. Shortly before this Mathgamain had been
murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond,
whilst Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel. In 977 Brian made a
sudden and rapid inroad into Donoban&rsquo;s territory, captured his
fortress and slew the prince himself with a vast number of his
followers. Maelmuad, the other conspirator, met with a like
fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near Ballyorgan). After
this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all Munster (978).
After reducing the Dési, who were in alliance with the Northmen
of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took
hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster. In this
manner he became virtually king of Leth Moga.</p>

<p>This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was bound to bring
him into conflict with the <i>ardrí</i>. Already in 982 Maelsechlainn
had invaded Thomond and uprooted the venerable tree under
which the Dalcais rulers were inaugurated. After the battle of
Tara he had placed his half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib
Cuarán, in Dublin. This prince was murdered in 989 and was
succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of Amlaib and Gormflaith,
sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster. In the same year Maelsechlainn
took Dublin and imposed an annual tribute on the
city. During these years there were frequent trials of strength
between the <i>ardrí</i> and the king of Munster. In 992 Brian invaded
Meath, and four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in
Munster. In 998 Brian ascended the Shannon with a large force,
intending to attack Connaught, and Maelsechlainn, who received
no support from the northern Hy Neill, came to terms with him.
All hostages held by the over-king from the Northmen and Irish
of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was a virtual
surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland;
while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as sole king of
Leth Cuinn. In 1000 Leinster revolted against Brian and
entered into an alliance with the king of Dublin. Brian advanced
towards the city, halting at a place called Glen Mama near
Dunlavin (Co. Wicklow). He was attacked by the allied forces,
who were repulsed with great slaughter. Maelmorda, king of
Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for protection to
Ailech. The victor gave proof at once that he was not only a
clever general but also a skilful diplomatist. Maelmorda was
restored to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian&rsquo;s daughter in
marriage, whilst Brian took to himself the Dublin king&rsquo;s
mother, the notorious Gormflaith, who had already been divorced
by Maelsechlainn. After thus establishing peace and consolidating
his power, Brian returned to his residence Cenn Corad and
matured his plan of obtaining the high-kingship for himself.
When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army
consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught
vassals and the Norsemen of Munster. The king of Dublin
also sent a small force to his assistance. Maelsechlainn, taken
by surprise and feeling himself unequal to the contest,
endeavoured to gain time. An armistice was concluded, during
which he was to decide whether he would give Brian hostages
(<i>i.e.</i> abdicate) or not. He applied to the northern Hy Neill
to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in favour
of the chief of the Cinél Eogain, but the latter refused unless
Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory
of his own tribe, the Cland Colmáin. The attempt to unite the
whole of the Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve
a dynasty that had ruled Ireland for 600 years, having failed,
Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian, and without any formal
act of cession the latter became <i>ardrí</i>. During a reign of twelve
years (1002-1014) he is said to have effected much improvement
in the country by the erection and repair of churches and schools,
and the construction of bridges, causeways, roads and fortresses.
We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial justice
and dispensed royal hospitality. As he was liberal to the bards,
they did not forget his merits.</p>

<p>Towards the end of Brian&rsquo;s reign a conspiracy was entered
into between Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew
Sigtrygg of Dublin. The ultimate cause of this movement
was an insult offered by Murchad, Brian&rsquo;s son, to the king of
Leinster, who was egged on by his sister Gormflaith. Sigtrygg
secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of Orkney, and
Brodir of Man. In the spring of 1014 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg
had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of
contingents from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in
addition to Maelmorda&rsquo;s own Leinster forces, the whole being
commanded by Sigurd, earl of Orkney. This powerful prince,
whose mother was a daughter of Cerball of Ossory (d. 887),
appears to have aimed at the supreme command of all the
Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a
few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, Sutherland, Ross,
Moray and Argyll. To meet such formidable opponents, Brian,
now an old man unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces
of Munster and Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn
in command of the forces of Meath. The northern Hy Neill
and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle. Brian advanced
into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a council of war
was held. The longest account of the battle that followed
occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munstermen,
in which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of
holding his troops in reserve. The battle, generally known as
the battle of Clontarf, though the chief fighting took place
close to Dublin, about the small river Tolka, was fought on Good
Friday 1014. After a stout and protracted resistance the Norse
forces were routed. Maelsechlainn with his Meathmen came
down on the fugitives as they tried to cross the bridge leading
to Dublin or to reach their ships. On both sides the slaughter
was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives. Brian
himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda.
This great struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandinavian
supremacy in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be
regarded as a national misfortune. The power of the kingdom
of Dublin had been already broken by the defeat of Amlaib
Cuarán at Tara in 980, and the main result of the battle of
Clontarf was to weaken the central power and to throw the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
whole island into a state of anarchy. Although beaten on the
field of battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their
fortified cities, and gradually they assumed the position of
native tribes. The Dalcassian forces had been so much weakened
by the great struggle that Maelsechlainn was again recognized
as king of Ireland. However, the effects of Brian&rsquo;s revolution
were permanent; the prescriptive rights of the Hy Neill were
disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the coming of the
Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for
ascendancy between the O&rsquo;Brians of Munster, the O&rsquo;Neills of
Ulster and the O&rsquo;Connors of Connaught.</p>

<p><i>From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion.</i>&mdash;The
death of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity
for an able and ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a
strong central government, break up the tribal system and
further the gradual fusion of factions into a homogeneous
nation. Such a man did not arise; those who afterwards
claimed to be <i>ardrí</i> lacked the qualities of founders of strong
dynasties, and are termed by the annalists &ldquo;kings with opposition.&rdquo;
Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad,
the elder of whom was slain in 1023. Donnchad (d. 1064) was
certainly the most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day.
He subdued more than half of Ireland, and almost reached the
position once held by his father. His strongest opponent was
his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mBó, king of Leinster, who was
also the foster-father of his brother Tadg&rsquo;s son, Tordelbach
(Turlough) O&rsquo;Brian. On the death of Diarmait in 1072 Tordelbach
(d. 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and
Connaught also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the
allegiance of the northern Hy Neill. He was succeeded by his
son Muirchertach (d. 1119), who spent most of his life contending
against his formidable opponent Domnall O&rsquo;Lochlainn, king
of Tír Eogain (d. 1121). The struggle for the sovereignty between
these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce negotiated
by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side.
In 1102 Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition
to the west with the express design of conquering Ireland.
Muirchertach opposed him with a large force, and a conference
was arranged at which a son of Magnus was betrothed to
Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince. He was also mixed
up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial relations
with Henry I. After the death of Domnall O&rsquo;Lochlainn there
was an interregnum of about fifteen years with no <i>ardrí</i>, until
Tordelbach (Turlough) O&rsquo;Connor, king of Connaught, resolved
to reduce the other provinces. Munster and Meath were repeatedly
ravaged, and in 1151 he crushed Tordelbach (Turlough)
O&rsquo;Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor. O&rsquo;Connor&rsquo;s most
stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O&rsquo;Lochlainn, with whom
he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156).
Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death,
was remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon,
and as a patron of the arts. However, war was so constant in
Ireland at this time that under the year 1145 the Four Masters
describe the island as a &ldquo;trembling sod.&rdquo; Tordelbach was
succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, <i>q.v.</i>), who after some
resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O&rsquo;Lochlainn&rsquo;s
supremacy. The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in consequence
of having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide.
Ruadri O&rsquo;Connor, now without a serious rival, was inaugurated
with great pomp at Dublin.</p>

<p>Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-grandson
of Diarmait Mael-na-mBó, as king of Leinster was by
descent and position much mixed up with foreigners, and
generally in a state of latent if not open hostility to the high-kings
of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties. He was a tyrant and
a bad character. In 1152 Tigernan O&rsquo;Rourke, prince of Breifne,
had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O&rsquo;Connor,
aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off
Derbforgaill, wife of O&rsquo;Rourke. On learning that O&rsquo;Rourke
was leading an army against him with the support of Ruadri,
he burnt his castle of Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek
assistance. The momentous consequences of this step belong
to the next section, and it now remains for us to state the
condition of the church and society in the century preceding the
Anglo-Norman invasion.</p>

<p>Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the
matter of Easter celebration and tonsure in the 7th century, the
bond between Ireland and Rome was only slight until several
centuries later. Whatever co-ordination may have existed
in the church of the 8th century was doubtless destroyed during
the troubled period of the Viking invasions. It is probable that
St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see, but
the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only
have been a shadow, is involved in obscurity. Its supremacy
was undoubtedly recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when
he laid 20 oz. of gold upon the high altar. In the 11th century
a competitor arose in the see of Dublin. The Norse rulers were
bound to come under the influence of Christianity at an early
date. For instance, Amlaib Cuarán was formally converted in
England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of Canterbury.
The antithesis between the king of Dublin and the <i>ardrí</i> seems
to have had the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community
rather with Canterbury than Armagh. King Sigtrygg founded
the bishopric of Dublin in 1035, and the early bishops of Dublin,
Waterford and Limerick were all consecrated by the English
primate. As Lanfranc and Anselm were both anxious to extend
their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the submission of
Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences.
At the beginning of the 12th century Gilbert, bishop of Limerick
and papal legate, succeeded in winning over Celsus, bishop of
Armagh (d. 1129), to the reform movement. Celsus belonged
to a family which had held the see for 200 years; he was grandson
of a previous primate and is said to have been himself a married
man. Yet he became, in the skilful hands of Gilbert and Maelmaedóc
O&rsquo;Morgair, the instrument of overthrowing the hereditary
succession to the primatial see. In 1118 the important synod
of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into
dioceses, this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of
that anarchical state of church government which had hitherto
prevailed. The work begun under Celsus was completed by his
successor Maelmaedóc (Malachy). At a national synod held
about 1134 Maelmaedóc, in his capacity as bishop of Armagh,
was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full
power of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition.
Under his successor Gelasius, Cardinal Paparo was despatched
as supreme papal legate. At the synod of Kells (1152) there
was established that diocesan system which has ever since continued
without material alteration. Armagh was constituted
the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, Tuam and Dublin were
raised to the rank of archbishoprics. It was also ordained that
tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy.</p>

<p><i>Social Conditions.</i>&mdash;In the middle ages there were considerable
forests in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland
pastures and marshy meadows. It is traditionally stated that
fences first came into general use in the 7th century. There were
no cities or large towns before the arrival of the Norsemen;
no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping stones or hurdle
bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode of crossing
the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or
bridle paths which crossed the country over hill and dale from
the principal <i>dúns</i>. The forests abounded in game, the red deer
and wild boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks.
Scattered over the country were numerous small hamlets,
composed mainly of wicker cabins, among which were some
which might be called houses; other hamlets were composed
of huts of the rudest kind. Here and there were large villages
that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an
earthen mound or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this
manner were also to be found without any annexed hamlet.
Sometimes there were two or three circumvallations or even more,
and where water was plentiful the ditch between was flooded.
The simple rampart enclosed a space called <i>lis</i><a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> which contained
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
the agricultural buildings and the groups of houses of the owners.
The enclosed houses belonged to the free men (<i>aire</i>, pl. <i>airig</i>).
The size of the houses and of the enclosing mound and ditch
marked the wealth and rank of the <i>aire</i>. If his wealth consisted
of chattels only, he was a <i>bó-aire</i> (cow-<i>aire</i>). When he possessed
ancestral land he was a <i>flaith</i> or lord, and was entitled to let his
lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and
to keep slaves. The larger fort with several ramparts was a <i>dún</i>,
where the <i>rí</i> (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had
subreguli. The houses of all classes were of wood, chiefly wattles
and wicker-work plastered with clay. In shape they were most
frequently cylindrical, having conical roofs thatched with rushes
or straw. The oratories were of the same form and material,
but the larger churches and kingly banqueting halls were rectangular
and made of sawn boards. Bede, speaking of a church
built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, &ldquo;nevertheless, after the
manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn oak
and covered it with reeds.&rdquo; When St Maelmaedóc in the first
half of the 12th century thought of building a stone oratory
at Bangor it was deemed a novelty by the people, who exclaimed,
&ldquo;we are Scotti not Galli.&rdquo; Long before this, however, stone
churches had been built in other parts of Ireland, and many
round towers. In some of the stone-forts of the south-west
(Ir. <i>cathir</i>) the houses within the rampart were made of stone
in the form of a beehive, and similar cloghans, as they are called,
are found in the western isles of Scotland.</p>

<p>Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were
patches of corn grown upon allotments which were gavelled,
or redistributed, every two or three years. Around the <i>dúns</i> and
<i>raths</i>, where the corn land was the fixed property of the lord,
the cultivation was better. Oats was the chief corn crop, but
wheat, barley and rye were also grown. Much attention was
paid to bee-keeping and market-gardening, which had probably
been introduced by the church. The only industrial plants were
flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were woad and rud,
roid (a kind of bed-straw?). Portions of the pasture lands were
reserved as meadows; the tilled land was manured. There
are native names for the plough, so it may be assumed that some
form of that implement, worked by oxen, yoked together with a
simple straight yoke, was in use in early times. Wheeled carts
were also known; the wheels were often probably only solid
disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots. Droves
of swine under the charge of swineherds wandered through the
forests; some belonged to the <i>rí</i>, others to lords (<i>flaith</i>) and
others again to village communities. The house-fed pig was
then as now an important object of domestic economy, and its
flesh was much prized. Indeed, fresh pork was one of the
inducements held out to visitors to the Irish Elysium. Horned
cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and were
the standard for estimating the worth of anything, for the Irish
had no coined money and carried on all commerce by barter.
The unit of value was called a <i>sét</i>, a word denoting a jewel or
precious object of any kind. The normal <i>sét</i> was an average
milch-cow. Gold, silver, bronze, tin, clothes and all other kinds
of property were estimated in <i>séts</i>. Three <i>séts</i> were equal to a
<i>cumal</i> (female slave). Sheep were kept everywhere for their
flesh and their wool, and goats were numerous. Horses were
extensively employed for riding, working in the fields and
carrying loads. Irish horsemen rode without saddle or stirrups.
So important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy
of the ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the
subject in the Brehon Laws. The honey was used both in cooking
and for making mead, as well as for eating.</p>

<p>The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people. When
they had sown their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to
the mountains, where such existed, and spent the summer there,
returning in autumn to reap their corn and take up their abode
in their more sheltered winter residences. This custom of
&ldquo;booleying&rdquo; (Ir. <i>buaile</i>, &ldquo;shieling&rdquo;) is not originally Irish,
according to some writers, but was borrowed from the Scandinavians.
Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also
appear to have migrated thither in summer. The chase in the
summer occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment
but also as a matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous.
For this purpose they bred dogs of great swiftness, strength and
sagacity, which were much admired by the Romans.</p>

<p>The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of
one house with several apartments, but every room was a separate
house. Thus the buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do
farmer of the <i>bó-aire</i> class as described in the Laws, consisted of
a living-house in which he slept and took his meals, a cooking-house,
a kiln for drying corn, a barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-fold
and a pigsty. In the better classes the women had a separate
house known as <i>grianán</i> (sun-chamber). The round houses were
constructed in the following manner. The wall was formed of
long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with
their ends fixed firmly in the ground. The spaces between were
closed in with rods (usually hazel) firmly interwoven. The
poles were peeled and polished smooth. The whole surface of
the wicker-work was plastered on the outside and made brilliantly
white with lime, or occasionally striped in various colours,
leaving the white poles exposed to view. There was no chimney;
the fire was made in the centre of the house and the smoke
escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in
Hebridean houses of the present day. Near the fire, fixed in a
kind of holder, was a candle of tallow or raw beeswax. Around
the wall in the houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads,
or rather compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes
made of carved yew. At the foot of each compartment, and
projecting into the main room, there was a low fixed seat, often
stuffed with some soft material, for use during the day. Besides
these there were on the floor of the main apartment a number
of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with one or more
low tables of some sort. In the halls of the kings the position
of each person&rsquo;s bed and seat, and the portion of meat which
he was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated
according to a rigid rule of precedence. Each person who had
a seat in the king&rsquo;s house had his shield suspended over him.
Every king had hostages for the fealty of his vassals; they sat
unarmed in the hall, and those who had become forfeited by a
breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along the wall in
fetters. There were places in the king&rsquo;s hall for the judge, the
poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the juggler and the fool.
The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him;
these were commonly men whom he had saved from execution
or redeemed from slavery. Among the miscellaneous body of
attendants about the house of a king or noble were many Saxon
slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it was abolished
by the action of the church in 1171. The slaves slept on the
ground in the kitchen or in cabins outside the fort.</p>

<p>The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and
girls, were not reared at home but were sent elsewhere to be
fostered. It was usual for a chief to send his child to one of his
own sub-chiefs, but the parents often chose a chief of their own
rank. For instance, the <i>ollam fili</i>, or chief poet, who ranked in
some respects with a tribe-king, sent his sons to be fostered by the
king of his own territory. Fosterage might be undertaken out of
affection or for payment. In the latter case the fee varied
according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant fixing
the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according
to his position. Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a
large number of children. The cost of the fosterage of boys
seems to have been borne by the mother&rsquo;s property, that of the
daughters by the father&rsquo;s. The ties created by fosterage were
nearly as close and as binding on children as those of blood.</p>

<p>There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard
to the marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity,
as marrying within the forbidden degrees and repudiation
continued to be very frequent in spite of the efforts of the
church. Marriage by purchase was universal, and the wealth
of the contracting parties constituted the primary element of a
legitimate union. The bride and bridegroom should be provided
with a joint fortune proportionate to their rank. When they
were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
share to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full
sense and the wife was a wife of equal rank. The church endeavoured
to make the wife of a first marriage the only true wife;
but concubinage was known as an Irish institution until long
after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and it is recognized in the
Laws. If a concubine had sons her position did not differ
materially in some respects from that of a chief wife. As the tie
of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man,
whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept.
Even adulterine bastardy was no bar to a man becoming chief
of his tribe, as in the case of Hugh O&rsquo;Neill, earl of Tyrone. (See
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O&rsquo;Neill</a></span>.)</p>

<p>The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main
of oaten cakes, cheese, curds, milk, butter, and the flesh of
domestic animals both fresh and salted. The better classes
were acquainted with wheaten bread also. The food of the
inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted of fresh pork, new
milk and ale. Fish, especially salmon, and game should of course
be added to the list. The chief drinks were ale and mead.</p>

<p>The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish
Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional
garb of a highland regiment. Next the skin came a shirt (<i>léine</i>)
of fine texture often richly embroidered. Over this was a tightly
fitting tunic (<i>inar</i>, <i>lend</i>) reaching below the hips with a girdle
at the waist. In the case of women the <i>inar</i> fell to the feet.
Over the left shoulder and fastened with a brooch hung the loose
cloak (<i>brat</i>), to which the Scottish plaid corresponds. The kilt
seems to have been commonly worn, especially by soldiers,
whose legs were usually bare, but we also hear of tight-fitting
trousers extending below the ankles. The feet were either
entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with
thongs. Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish
literature, and quite a number are to be seen in museums. A
loose flowing garment, intermediate between the <i>brat</i> and <i>lend</i>,
usually of linen dyed saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor
life, and was still used in the Hebrides about 1700. A modified
form of this over-tunic with loose sleeves and made of frieze
formed probably the general covering of the peasantry. Among
the upper classes the garments were very costly and variously
coloured. It would seem that the number of colours in the dress
indicated the rank of the wearer. The hair was generally worn
long by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired.
Women braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a
pin. The beard was also worn long. Like all ancient and semi-barbarous
people, the Irish were fond of ornaments. Indeed
the profusion of articles of gold which have been found is remarkable;
in the Dublin Museum may be seen bracelets, armlets,
finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets, necklets, fibulae and
diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite workmanship.</p>

<p>The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a lance, a
sword and a shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion
they had adopted the battle-axe from the Scandinavians. The
shields were of two kinds. One was the <i>sciath</i>, oval or oblong in
shape, made of wicker-work covered with hide, and often large
enough to cover the whole body. This was doubtless the form
introduced by the Brythonic invaders. But round shields,
smaller in size, were also commonly employed. These were
made of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide.
This latter type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the
Bronze age. Armour and helmets were not generally employed
at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion.</p>

<p>In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe,
but this did not by any means correspond to the state of affairs.
We find that the power of the petty king has made a very considerable
advance, and that all the elements of feudalism are
present, save that there was no central authority strong enough
to organize the whole of Irish society on a feudal basis. The
<i>tuath</i> or territory of a <i>rí</i> (represented roughly by a modern
barony) was divided among the septs. The lands of a sept
consisted of the estates in severally of the lords (<i>flathi</i>), and of
the <i>ferand duthaig</i>, or common lands of the sept. The dwellers
on each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other.
On the former lived a motley population of slaves, horse-boys,
and mercenaries composed of broken men of other clans, many
of whom were fugitives from justice, possessing no rights either
in the sept or tribe and entirely dependent on the bounty of the
lord, and consequently living about his fortified residence. The
poorer servile classes or cottiers, wood-cutters, swine-herds, &amp;c.,
who had a right of domicile (acquired after three generations),
lived here and there in small hamlets on the mountains and
poorer lands of the estate. The good lands were let to a class of
tenants called <i>fuidirs</i>, of whom there were several kinds, some
grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both
land and cattle from the lord. <i>Fuidirs</i> had no rights in the sept;
some were true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in
scattered homesteads like the farmers of the present time. The
lord was responsible before the law for the acts of all the servile
classes on his estates, both new-comers and <i>senchleithe</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
descendants of <i>fuidirs</i>, slaves, &amp;c., whose families had lived on
the estate during the time of three lords. He paid their blood-fines
and received compensation for their slaughter, maiming
or plunder. The <i>fuidirs</i> were the chief source of a lord&rsquo;s wealth,
and he was consequently always anxious to increase them.</p>

<p>The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple,
freemen possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (<i>flathi</i>)
having vassals. Wealth consisted in cattle. Those possessed
of large herds of kine lent out stock under various conditions.
In the case of a chief such an offer could not be refused. In
return, a certain customary tribute was paid. Such a transaction
might be of two kinds. By the one the freemen took <i>saer</i>-stock
and retained his status. But if he accepted <i>daer</i>-stock he at once
descended to the rank of a vassal. In this way it was possible
for the chief to extend his power enormously. Rent was commonly
paid in kind. As a consequence of this, in place of receiving
the farm produce at his own home the chief or noble reserved
to himself the right of quartering himself and a certain number
of followers in the house of his vassal, a practice which must have
been ruinous to the small farmers. Freemen who possessed
twenty-one cows and upwards were called <i>airig</i> (sing, <i>aire</i>),
or, as we should say, had the franchise, and might fulfil the
functions of bail, witness, &amp;c. As the chief sought to extend his
power in the <i>tuath</i>, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position
at the expense of other <i>tuatha</i> by compelling them to pay tribute
to him. Such an aggregate of <i>tuatha</i> acknowledging one <i>rí</i> was
termed a <i>mórthuath</i>. The ruler of a <i>mórthuath</i> paid tribute to
the provincial king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate
in theory the overlordship of the <i>ardrí</i>.</p>

<p>The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are preserved
in a remarkable 10th century document, the <i>Book of Rights</i>.
The rules of succession were extraordinarily complicated.
Theoretically the members of a sept claimed common descent
from the same ancestor, and the land belonged to the freemen.
The chief and nobles, however, from various causes had come
to occupy much of the territory as private property: the remainder
consisted of tribe-land and commons-land. The
portions of the tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term,
as the land of the sept was liable to gavelkind or redistribution
from time to time. In some cases, however, land which belonged
originally to a <i>flaith</i> was owned by a family; and after a number
of generations such property presented a great similarity to the
gavelled land. A remarkable development of family ownership
was the <i>geilfine</i> system, under which four groups of persons, all
nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of land
as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very
difficult to understand.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The king&rsquo;s mensal land, as also that
of the tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during
the king&rsquo;s lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its
entirety to the next individual elected to the position. When
the family of an <i>aire</i> remained in possession of his estate in a
corporate capacity, they formed a &ldquo;joint and undivided family,&rdquo;
the head of which was an aire, and thus kept up the rank of the
family. Three or four poor members of a sept might combine
their property and agree to form a &ldquo;joint family,&rdquo; one of whom
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
as the head would be an <i>aire</i>. In consequence of this organization
the homesteads of airig commonly included several families,
those of his brothers, sons, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span>).</p>

<p>The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions
of justice. Retaliation for murder and other injuries was a
common method of redress, although the church had endeavoured
to introduce various reforms. Hence we find in the Brehon Laws
a highly complicated system of compensatory payment; but
there was no authority except public opinion to enforce the
payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases submitted
to him.</p>

<p>There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient
Ireland. The sept had its special meeting summoned by its
chief for purposes such as the assessment of blood-fines due from
the sept, and the distribution of those due to it. At larger
gatherings the question of peace and war would be deliberated.
But the most important of all such assemblies was the fair
(<i>oenach</i>), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by
the kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies.
The most famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and
Carman. The <i>oenach</i> had many objects. The laws were publicly
promulgated or rehearsed; there were councils to deal with
disputes and matters of local interest; popular sports such as
horse-racing, running and wrestling were held; poems and tales
were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best performers of
every <i>dán</i> or art; while at the same time foreign traders came
with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce,
chiefly skins, wool and frieze. At some of these assemblies
match-making played a prominent part. Tradition connects
the better known of these fairs with pagan rites performed round
the tombs of the heroes of the race; thus the assembly of Telltown
was stated to have been instituted by Lugaid Lámfada.
Crimes committed at an <i>oenach</i> could not be commuted by
payment of fines. Women and men assembled for deliberation
in separate <i>airechta</i> or gatherings, and no man durst enter the
women&rsquo;s <i>airecht</i> under pain of death.</p>

<p>The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so
that members of the same household devoted themselves for
generations to one particular science or art, such as poetry,
history, medicine, law. The heads of the various professions in
the <i>tuath</i> received the title of <i>ollam</i>. It was the rule for them
to have paying apprentices living with them. The literary
<i>ollam</i> or <i>fili</i> was a person of great distinction. He was provided
with mensal land for the support of himself and his scholars,
and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and his
retinue. The harper, the metal-worker (<i>cerd</i>), and the smith
were also provided with mensal land, in return for which they
gave to the chief their skill and the product of their labour as
customary tribute (<i>béstigi</i>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>The Annals of the Four Masters</i>, ed. J. O&rsquo;Donovan
(7 vols., Dublin, 1856); <i>Annals of Ulster</i> (4 vols., London, 1887-1892);
Keating&rsquo;s <i>Forus Feasa ar Éirinn</i> (3 vols., ed. D. Comyn and
P. Dinneen, London, 1902-1908); E. Windisch, <i>Táin Bó Cúalnge</i>
(Leipzig, 1905), with a valuable introduction; P. W. Joyce, <i>A
Social History of Ancient Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1903), also <i>A
Short History of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1608</i> (London,
1895); A. G. Richey, <i>A Short History of the Irish People</i> (Dublin,
1887); W. F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-1880);
J. Rhys, &ldquo;Studies in Early Irish History,&rdquo; in <i>Proceedings
of the British Academy</i>, vol. i.; John MacNeill, papers in <i>New
Ireland Review</i> (March 1906-February 1907); <i>Leabhar na gCeart</i>,
ed. O&rsquo;Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E. O&rsquo;Curry, <i>The Manners and
Customs of the Ancient Irish</i>, ed. W. K. Sullivan (3 vols., London,
1873); G. T. Stokes, <i>Ireland and the Celtic Church</i>, revised by
H. J. Lawlor (London<span class="sp">6</span>, 1907); J. Healy, <i>Ireland&rsquo;s Ancient Schools
and Scholars</i> (Dublin<span class="sp">3</span>, 1897); H. Zimmer, article &ldquo;Keltische
Kirche&rdquo; in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie
und Kirche</i> (trans. A. Meyer, London, 1902), cf. H. Williams, &ldquo;H.
Zimmer on the History of the Celtic Church,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil.</i>
iv. 527-574; H. Zimmer, &ldquo;Die Bedeutung des irischen Elements
in der mittelalterlichen Kultur,&rdquo; <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. lix.,
trans. J. L. Edmands, <i>The Irish Element in Medieval Culture</i> (New
York, 1891); J. H. Todd, <i>St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland</i> (Dublin,
1864); J. B. Bury, <i>Life of St Patrick</i> (London, 1905); W. Reeves,
<i>Adamnan&rsquo;s Life of Columba</i> (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd.
by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894); M. Roger, <i>L&rsquo;Enseignement des
lettres classiques d&rsquo;Ausone à Alcuin</i> (Paris, 1905); J. H. Todd, <i>The
War of the Gædhil with the Gall</i> (London, 1867); L. J. Vogt, <i>Dublin
som Norsk By</i> (Christiania, 1897); J. Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i>,
vols. ii., iii. (Copenhagen, 1878-1882); W. G. Collingwood, <i>Scandinavian
Britain</i> (London, 1908).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion.</i></p>

<p>According to the <i>Metalogus</i> of John of Salisbury, who in 1155
went on a mission from King Henry II. to Pope Adrian IV.,
the only Englishman who has ever occupied the
papal chair, the pope in response to the envoy&rsquo;s
<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Bull&rdquo; of Adrian IV.</span>
prayers granted to the king of the English the
hereditary lordship of Ireland, sending a letter, with a ring as
the symbol of investiture. Giraldus Cambrensis, in his <i>Expugnatio
Hibernica</i>, gives what purports to be the text of this
letter, known as &ldquo;the Bull Laudabiliter,&rdquo; and adds further a
<i>Privilegium</i> of Pope Alexander III. confirming Adrian&rsquo;s grant.
The <i>Privilegium</i> is undoubtedly spurious, a fact which lends
weight to the arguments of those who from the 19th century
onwards have attacked the genuineness of the &ldquo;Bull.&rdquo; This
latter, indeed, appears to have been concocted by Gerald, an
ardent champion of the English cause in Ireland, from genuine
letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved in the <i>Black Book
of the Exchequer</i>, which do no more than commend King Henry
for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating <i>tantae abominationis
spurcitiam</i>, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be
faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>

<p>Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with
the moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed
he certainly made no use. In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough
(Diarmait MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the
kingdom of Leinster, repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see <i>Early
History</i> above). The king was busy with the French, but gladly
seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod a letter authorizing
him to raise forces in England. Thus armed, and provided with
gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod
went to Bristol and sought the acquaintance of Richard de Clare,
earl of Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken
fortunes. Earl Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow,
agreed to reconquer Dermod&rsquo;s kingdom for him. The stipulated
consideration was the hand of Eva his only child, and according
to feudal law his sole heiress, to whose issue lands and kingdoms
would naturally pass. But Irish customs admitted no estates
of inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the reversion of
Leinster than she had to that of Japan. It is likely that Strongbow
had no conception of this, and that his first collision with
the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise. Passing through
Wales, Dermod agreed with Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice
Fitzgerald to invade Ireland in the ensuing spring.</p>

<p>About the 1st of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford
shore with a small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast
brought another band nearly to the same spot.
Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford soon
<span class="sidenote">The invasion of Strongbow.</span>
submitted. According to agreement Dermod granted
the territory of Wexford, which had never belonged to
him, to Robert and Maurice and their heirs for ever; and here
begins the conflict between feudal and tribal law which was
destined to deluge Ireland in blood. Maurice Fitzgerald soon
followed with a fresh detachment. About a year after the first
landing Raymond Le Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with
his advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Waterford
on the 23rd of August 1170 with 200 knights and about
1000 other troops.</p>

<p>The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite
different from those of the Danes. They made alliances with
the strangers to aid them in their intestine wars, and the annalist
writing in later years (<i>Annals of Lough Cé</i>) describes with pathetic
brevity the change wrought in Ireland:&mdash;&ldquo;Earl Strongbow
came into Erin with Dermod MacMurrough to avenge his expulsion
by Roderick, son of Turlough O&rsquo;Connor; and Dermod gave
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
him his own daughter and a part of his patrimony, and Saxon
foreigners have been in Erin since then.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being
descended from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of
South Wales, the most beautiful woman of her time, and mistress
of Henry I. Her children by that king were called Fitzhenry.
She afterwards married Gerald de Windsor, by whom she had
three sons&mdash;Maurice, ancestor of all the Geraldines; William,
from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice, Carew, Grace
and Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David&rsquo;s.
Nesta&rsquo;s daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, bore
the chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the
Irish Barries. Raymond le Gros, Hervey de Montmorency, and
the Cogans were also descendants of Nesta, who, by her second
husband, Stephen the Castellan, was mother of Robert Fitzstephen.</p>

<p>While waiting for Strongbow&rsquo;s arrival, Raymond and Hervey
were attacked by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew.
Strongbow himself took Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish
inhabitants of both readily combined with their French-speaking
kinsfolk, and became firm supporters of the Anglo-Normans
against the native Irish.</p>

<p>Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded
Ireland in person, landing near Waterford on the 18th of October
1172. Giraldus says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers;
Regan, the metrical chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom
400 were knights; the <i>Annals of Lough Cé</i> that he had 240 ships.
The Irish writers tell little about these great events, except
that the king of the Saxons took the hostages of Munster at
Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at
Dublin. They did not take in the grave significance of doing
homage to a Norman king, and becoming his &ldquo;man.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Henry&rsquo;s farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received
the homage of Donald O&rsquo;Brien, king of Thomond, but he does
not appear to have been present at the famous synod.
Christian O&rsquo;Conarchy, bishop of Lismore and papal
<span class="sidenote">Henry II. in Ireland.</span>
legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin,
Cashel and Tuam attended with their suffragans, as did many
abbots and other dignitaries. The primate of Armagh, the
saintly Gelasius, was absent, and presumably his suffragans also,
but Giraldus says he afterwards came to the king at Dublin,
and favoured him in all things. Henry&rsquo;s sovereignty was
acknowledged, and constitutions made which drew Ireland
closer to Rome. In spite of the &ldquo;enormities and filthinesses,&rdquo;
which Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse
could be found to condemn than marriages within the prohibited
degrees and trifling irregularities about baptism. Most of the
details rest on the authority of Giraldus only, but the main
facts are clear. The synod is not mentioned by the Irish annalists,
nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto. The
latter says it was held at Lismore, an error arising from the
president having been bishop of Lismore. Tradition says the
members met in Cormac&rsquo;s chapel.</p>

<p>Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the
natives, and received the homage of Roderick O&rsquo;Connor, the
high king. But the adventurers were uncontrollable, and he
had to let them conquer what they could, exercising a precarious
authority over the Normans only through a viceroy. The early
governors seemingly had orders to deal as fairly as possible
with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels with the
&ldquo;conquerors,&rdquo; whose object was to carve out principalities for
themselves, and who only nominally respected the sovereign&rsquo;s
wishes. The mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful
against the natives, but they generally managed to occupy the
open plains and fertile valleys. Geographical configuration
preserved centres of resistance&mdash;the O&rsquo;Neills in Tyrone and
Armagh, the O&rsquo;Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in
Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken.
On the coast from Bray to Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers
of the east and south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly
down.</p>

<p>Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouring
chiefs hastened to pay their respects to the king&rsquo;s son. Prince
and followers alike soon earned hatred, the former showing
the incurable vices of his character, and pulling the beards of
the chieftains. After eight disgraceful months he left the government
to John de Courci, but retained the title &ldquo;Dominus
Hiberniae.&rdquo; It was even intended to crown him; and Urban III.
sent a licence and a crown of peacock&rsquo;s feathers, which was
never placed on his head. Had Richard I. had children Ireland
might have become a separate kingdom.</p>

<p>Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh
de Lacy (d. 1186), reserving scarcely any prerogative to the
crown, and making his vassal almost independent. De Lacy
sublet the land among kinsmen and retainers, and to his grants
the families of Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle, Tuyt, Fleming and others
owe their importance in Irish history. It is not surprising that
the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De Lacy the
real king of Ireland.</p>

<p>During his brother Richard I.&rsquo;s reign, John&rsquo;s viceroy was
William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow&rsquo;s
daughter, and thus succeeded to his claims in Leinster.
John&rsquo;s reputation was no better in Ireland than in
<span class="sidenote">King John.</span>
England. He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans
as best suited him, but on the whole they increased their possessions.
In 1210 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and
being joined by Cathal Crovderg O&rsquo;Connor, king of Connaught,
marched from Waterford by Dublin to Carrickfergus
without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh de Lacy
(second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had
been made earl of Ulster in 1205. John did not venture farther
west than Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore
fealty to him, and he divided the partially obedient districts
into twelve counties&mdash;Dublin (with Wicklow), Meath (with Westmeath),
Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork,
Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary. John&rsquo;s resignation of his
kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and thus
for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally
recorded.</p>

<p>During Henry III.&rsquo;s long reign the Anglo-Norman power
increased, but underwent great modifications. Richard Marshal,
grandson of Strongbow, and to a great extent heir of
his power, was foully murdered by his own feudatories&mdash;men
<span class="sidenote">Henry III. (1216-1272).</span>
of his own race; and the colony never quite
recovered this blow. On the other hand, the De
Burghs, partly by alliance with the Irish, partly by sheer hard
fighting, made good their claims to the lordship of Connaught,
and the western O&rsquo;Connors henceforth play a very subordinate
part in Irish history. Tallage was first imposed on the colony
in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes were
not much better paid.</p>

<p>On the 14th of January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his
justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should
be elected or preferred in any cathedral in Ireland,
&ldquo;since by that means our land might be disturbed,
<span class="sidenote">Objections to Irish clergy.</span>
which is to be deprecated.&rdquo; This order was annulled
in 1224 by Honorius III., who declared it &ldquo;destitute
of all colour of right and honesty.&rdquo; The pope&rsquo;s efforts failed,
for in the 14th century several Cistercian abbeys excluded
Irishmen, and as late as 1436 the monks of Abingdon complained
bitterly that an Irish abbot had been imposed on them by lay
violence. Parliament was not more liberal, for the statute of
Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that &ldquo;no Irishman be
admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any
benefice among the English of the land,&rdquo; and also &ldquo;that no
religious house situated among the English shall henceforth
receive an Irishman to their profession.&rdquo; This was confirmed
by the English parliament in 1416, and an Irish act of Richard
III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate Irish clerks for
<span class="sidenote">Separation of the two races.</span>
two years, an exception proving the rule. Many Irish
monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one
attempt was made, in 1250, to apply the same rule to
cathedrals. The races remained nearly separate, the
Irish simply staying outside the feudal system. If an Englishman
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
slew an Irishman (except one of the five regal and privileged
bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law
admitted composition (<i>eric</i>) for murder. In Magna Charta
there is a proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as
English merchants are treated in the country whence the
travellers came. Yet some enlightened men strove to fuse the
two nations together, and the native Irish, or that section which
bordered on the settlements and suffered great oppression,
offered 8000 marks to Edward I. for the privilege of living under
English law. The justiciary supported their petition, but the
prelates and nobles refused to consent.</p>

<p>There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland
about 1256, when his father ordained that the prince&rsquo;s seal
should have regal authority in that country. A vast
number of documents remain to prove that he did
<span class="sidenote">Edward I. (1272-1307).</span>
not neglect Irish business. Yet this great king cannot
be credited with any specially enlightened views as to
Ireland. Hearing with anger of enormities committed in his
name, he summoned the viceroy, Robert de Ufford (d. 1298), to
explain, who coolly said that he thought it expedient to wink
at one knave cutting off another, &ldquo;whereat the king smiled and
bade him return into Ireland.&rdquo; The colonists were strong
enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars,
but as there was no corresponding immigration this really
weakened the English, whose best hopes lay in agriculture and
the arts of peace, while the Celtic race waxed proportionally
numerous. Outwardly all seemed fair. The De Burghs were
supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied eastern
Ulster. The fertile southern and central lands were dominated
by strong castles. But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains
everywhere, sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached
its lowest point under Edward I., began to recover under
his son.</p>

<p>In 1315, the year after Bannockburn, Edward Bruce landed
near Larne with 6000 men, including some of the best knights
in Scotland. Supported by O&rsquo;Neill and other chiefs,
and for a time assisted by his famous brother, Bruce
<span class="sidenote">Edward II. (1307-1327).</span>
gained many victories. There was no general effort
of the natives in their favour; perhaps the Irish
thought one Norman no better than another, and their total
incapacity for national organization forbade the idea of a native
sovereign. The family quarrels of the O&rsquo;Connors at this time,
and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the
Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists&mdash;the
general result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught,
which is said to have lost 10,000 warriors in the battle of Templetogher.
In other places the English were less successful, the
Butlers being beaten by the O&rsquo;Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de
Clare falling about the same time in the decisive battle of Dysert
O&rsquo;Dea. The O&rsquo;Briens re-established their sway in Thomond
and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish history.
Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army
recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for cruelty
and rapacity. The colonists were victorious, but their organization
was undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had
never been able to keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker. Within
twenty years after the great victory of Dundalk, the quarrels
of the barons allowed the Irish to recover much of the land they
had lost.</p>

<p>John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce,
was murdered in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and
other English of that county, who disliked his firm
government. They were never brought to justice.
<span class="sidenote">Edward III. (1327-1377).</span>
Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham&rsquo;s
relations and adherents were massacred at the same
time. In 1333, William de Burgh, the young earl of Ulster, was
murdered by the Mandevilles and others; in this case signal
vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion never recovered
the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws and
language were soon confined to Drogheda and Dundalk. The
earl left one daughter, Elizabeth, who was of course a royal ward.
She married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and from her springs the
royal line of England from Edward IV., as well as James V. of
Scotland and his descendants.</p>

<p>The two chief men among the De Burghs were loth to hold
their lands of a little absentee girl. Having no grounds for
opposing the royal title to the wardship of the heiress, they
abjured English law and became Irish chieftains. As such they
were obeyed, for the king&rsquo;s arm was short in Ireland. The one
appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M&lsquo;William, and the
earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event. The
other as the Upper (Eighter) M&lsquo;William took Galway, and from
him the earls of Clanricarde afterwards sprung.</p>

<p>Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to
spare for Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their
opportunity. Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive
chiefs was Lysaght O&rsquo;More, who reconquered Leix. Clyn the
Franciscan annalist, whose Latinity is so far above the medieval
level as almost to recall Tacitus, sums up Lysaght&rsquo;s career
epigrammatically: &ldquo;He was a slave, he became a master;
he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de
subjecto princeps effectus).&rdquo; The two great earldoms whose
contests form a large part of the history of the south of Ireland
were created by Edward III. James Butler, eldest son of
Edmund, earl of Carrick, became earl of Ormonde and palatine
of Tipperary in 1328. Next year Maurice Fitzgerald was
made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren descended
the historic houses of the White Knight, the knight
of Glin, and the knight of Kerry. The earldom of Kildare
dates from 1316. In this reign too was passed the statute
of Kilkenny (<i>q.v.</i>), a confession by the crown that obedient
subjects were the minority. The enactments against Irish
dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved
a dead letter.</p>

<p>In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame
all opposition, but neither had any permanent effect. Art
MacMurrough, the great hero of the Leinster Celts,
practically had the best of the contest. The king in
<span class="sidenote">Richard II. (1377-1399).</span>
his despatches divided the population into Irish
enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects. As he
found them so he left them, lingering in Dublin long enough to
lose his own crown. But for MacMurrough and his allies the
house of Lancaster might never have reigned. No English king
again visited Ireland until James II., declared by his English
subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken Scots
to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety
of the Catholic Irish.</p>

<p>Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive
to the growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-Irish.
His son Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy
in 1401, but did very little. &ldquo;Your son,&rdquo; wrote the
<span class="sidenote">Henry IV. (1399-1413).</span>
Irish council to Henry, &ldquo;is so destitute of money that
he has not a penny in the world, nor can borrow a
single penny, because all his jewels and his plate that he can
spare, and those which he must of necessity keep, are pledged
to lie in pawn.&rdquo; The nobles waged private war unrestrained,
and the game of playing off one chieftain against another was
carried on with varying success. The provisions of the statute
of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for markets
cannot exist without buyers.</p>

<p>The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery
to the colony in Ireland. Half the English-speaking people
fled to England, where they were not welcome. The
<span class="sidenote">Henry V. (1413-1422).</span>
disastrous reign of the third Lancastrian completed
the discomfiture of the original colony in Ireland.
Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties
paralysed the government, and a &ldquo;Pale&rdquo; of 30 m. by 20 was
all that remained. Even the walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross,
Wexford, Kinsale, Youghal, Clonmel, Kilmallock,
Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were almost starved
<span class="sidenote">Henry VI. (1422-1461).</span>
out; Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted.
Only one parliament was held for thirty years, but
taxation was not remitted on that account. No viceroy even
pretended to reside continuously. The north and west were still
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
worse off than the south. Some thoughtful men saw clearly the
danger of leaving Ireland to be seized by the first chance comer,
and the <i>Libel of English Policy</i>, written about 1436, contains a
long and interesting passage declaring England&rsquo;s interests in
protecting Ireland as &ldquo;a boterasse and a poste&rdquo; of her own
power. Sir John Talbot, immortalized by Shakespeare, was
several times viceroy; he was almost uniformly successful in
the field, but feeble in council. He held a parliament at Trim
which made one law against men of English race wearing
moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and
another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their
father&rsquo;s vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment. The
earls of Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the
right to carry the white staff as hereditary stewards, but the
palatinate jurisdiction over Wexford was taken away by Henry
VIII. The Ulster annalists give a very different estimate of
the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: &ldquo;A son of curses
for his venom and a devil for his evils; and the learned say of
him that there came not from the time of Herod, by whom Christ
was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds&rdquo; (O&rsquo;Donovan&rsquo;s
<i>Four Masters</i>).</p>

<p>In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the
throne of Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France
to his rival Somerset, and to accept the Irish viceroyalty.
He landed at Howth with his wife Cicely
<span class="sidenote">Richard of York in Ireland.</span>
Neville, and Margaret of Anjou hoped thus to get rid
of one who was too great for a subject. The Irish
government was given to him for ten years on unusually liberal
terms. He ingratiated himself with both races, taking care to
avoid identification with any particular family. At the baptism
of his son George&mdash;&ldquo;false, fleeting, perjured Clarence&rdquo;&mdash;who
was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood sponsors
together. In legislation Richard fared no better than others.
The rebellion of Jack Cade, claiming to be a Mortimer and cousin
to the duke of York, took place at this time. This adventurer,
at once ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and
was thought to be put forward by Richard to test the popularity
of the Yorkist cause. Returning suddenly to England in 1450,
Richard left the government to James, earl of Ormonde and
Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor, daughter of Edmund
Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on the
Lancastrian side. This earl began the deadly feud with the
house of Kildare, which lasted for generations. After Blore
Heath Richard was attainted by the Lancastrian parliament,
and returned to Dublin, where the colonial parliament acknowledged
him and assumed virtual independence. A separate
coinage was established, and the authority of the English
parliament was repudiated. William Overy, a bold squire of
Ormonde&rsquo;s, offered to arrest Richard as an attainted traitor,
but was seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take,
and hanged, drawn and quartered. The duke only maintained
his separate kingdom about a year. His party triumphed in
England, but he himself fell at Wakefield.</p>

<p>Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of Towton
was Ormonde, whose head long adorned London Bridge. He
and his brothers were attainted in England and by
the Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the importance
<span class="sidenote">Edward IV. (1461-1483).</span>
of the family was hardly diminished by this. For
the first six years of Edward&rsquo;s reign the two Geraldine
earls engrossed official power. The influence of Queen Elizabeth
Woodville, whom Desmond had offended, then made itself
felt. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, became deputy. He was an
accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in such
good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron
of letters Pope Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius). But his Latinity
did not soften his manners, and he was thought cruel even in
that age. Desmond was beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish
exactions, really, as the partisans of his family hold, to please
Elizabeth. The remarkable lawlessness of this reign was increased
by the practice of coining. Several mints had been
established since Richard of York&rsquo;s time; the standards varied
and imitation was easy.</p>

<p>During Richard III.&rsquo;s short reign the earl of Kildare, head
of the Irish Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland. He
espoused the cause of Lambert Simnel (1487), whom
the Irish in general seem always to have thought a
<span class="sidenote">Richard III.<br />
Henry VII. (1485-1509).</span>
true Plantagenet. The Italian primate, Octavian
de Palatio, knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare
by refusing to officiate at the impostor&rsquo;s coronation. The local
magnates and several distinguished visitors attended,
and Lambert was shown to the people borne aloft
on &ldquo;great D&rsquo;Arcy of Platten&rsquo;s&rdquo; shoulders. His
enterprise ended in the battle of Stoke, near Newark,
where the flower of the Anglo-Irish soldiery fell. &ldquo;The Irish,&rdquo;
says Bacon, &ldquo;did not fail in courage or fierceness, but, being
almost naked men, only armed with darts and skeins, it was
rather an execution than a fight upon them.&rdquo; Conspicuous
among Henry VII.&rsquo;s adherents in Ireland were the citizens of
Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard
and the Butler connexion generally, were prepared to take the
field in his favour. Waterford was equally conspicuous some
years later in resisting Perkin Warbeck, who besieged it unsuccessfully,
and was chased by the citizens, who fitted out a
fleet at their own charge. The king conferred honour and rewards
on the loyal city, to which he gave the proud title of <i>urbs intacta</i>.
Other events of this reign were the parliament of Drogheda,
held by Sir Edward Poynings, which gave the control of Irish
legislation to the English council (&ldquo;Poynings&rsquo;s Act&rdquo;&mdash;the
great bone of contention in the later days of Flood and Grattan),
and the battle of Knockdoe, in which the earl of Kildare used
the viceregal authority to avenge a private quarrel.</p>

<p>Occupied in pleasure or foreign enterprise, Henry VIII. at
first paid little attention to Ireland. The royal power was
practically confined to what in the previous century
had become known as the &ldquo;Pale,&rdquo; that is Dublin,
<span class="sidenote">Henry VIII. (1509-1547).</span>
Louth, Kildare and a part of Meath, and within this
narrow limit the earls of Kildare were really more
powerful than the crown. Waterford, Drogheda, Dundalk,
Cork, Limerick and Galway were not Irish, but rather free cities
than an integral part of the kingdom; and many inland towns
were in the same position. The house of Ormonde had created
a sort of small Pale about Kilkenny, and part of Wexford had
been colonized by men of English race. The Desmonds were
Irish in all but pride of blood. The Barretts, Condons, Courcies,
Savages, Arundels, Carews and others had disappeared or were
merged in the Celtic mass. Anglo-Norman nobles became
chiefs of pseudo-tribes, which acknowledged only the Brehon
law, and paid dues and services in kind. These pseudo-tribes
were often called &ldquo;nations,&rdquo; and a vast number of exactions
were practised by the chiefs. &ldquo;Coyne and livery&rdquo;&mdash;the right
of free-quarters for man and beast&mdash;arose among the Anglo-Normans,
and became more oppressive than any native custom.
When Henry took to business, he laid the foundation of reconquest.
The house of Kildare, which had actually besieged
Dublin (1534), was overthrown, and the Pale saved from a
standing danger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fitzgerald</a></span>). But the Pale scarcely
extended 20 m. from Dublin, a march of uncertain width intervening
between it and the Irish districts. Elsewhere, says an
elaborate report, all the English folk were of &ldquo;Irish language
and Irish condition,&rdquo; except in the cities and walled towns.
Down and Louth paid black rent to O&rsquo;Neill, Meath and
Kildare to O&rsquo;Connor, Wexford to the Kavanaghs, Kilkenny and
Tipperary to O&rsquo;Carroll, Limerick to the O&rsquo;Briens, and Cork to
the MacCarthies. MacMurrough Kavanagh, in Irish eyes the
representative of King Dermod, received an annual pension
from the exchequer. Henry set steadily to work to reassert the
royal title. He assumed the style of king of Ireland, so as to get
rid of the notion that he held the island of the pope. The Irish
chiefs acknowledged his authority and his ecclesiastical supremacy,
abjuring at the same time that of the Holy See. The
lands of the earl of Shrewsbury and other absentees, who had
performed no duties, were resumed; and both Celtic and feudal
nobles were encouraged to come to court. Here begins the long
line of official deputies, often men of moderate birth and fortune.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span>
Butler and Geraldine, O&rsquo;Neill and O&rsquo;Donnell, continued to
spill each other&rsquo;s blood, but the feudal and tribal systems were
alike doomed. In the names of these Tudor deputies and other
officers we see the origin of many great Irish families&mdash;Skeffington,
Brabazon, St Leger, Fitzwilliam, Wingfield, Bellingham, Carew,
Bingham, Loftus and others. Nor were the Celts overlooked.
O&rsquo;Neill and O&rsquo;Brien went to London to be invested as earls of
Tyrone and Thomond respectively. O&rsquo;Donnell, whose descendants
became earls of Tyrconnel, went to court and was well
received. The pseudo-chief MacWilliam became earl of Clanricarde,
and others reached lower steps in the peerage, or were
knighted by the king&rsquo;s own hand. All were encouraged to look
to the crown for redress of grievances, and thus the old order
slowly gave place to the new.</p>

<p>The moment when Protestantism and Ultramontanism are
about to begin their still unfinished struggle is a fit time to
notice the chief points in medieval Irish church history.
Less than two years before Strongbow&rsquo;s arrival Pope
<span class="sidenote">The Irish Church.</span>
Eugenius had established an ecclesiastical constitution
in Ireland depending on Rome, but the annexation was
very imperfectly carried out, and the hope of fully asserting
the Petrine claims was a main cause of Adrian&rsquo;s gift to Henry II.
Hitherto the Scandinavian section of the church in Ireland had
been most decidedly inclined to receive the hierarchical and
diocesan as distinguished from the monastic and quasi-tribal
system. The bishops or abbots of Dublin derived their succession
from Canterbury from 1038 to 1162, and the bishops of
Waterford and Limerick also sought consecration there. But
both Celt and Northman acknowledged the polity of Eugenius,
and it was chiefly in the matters of tithe, Peter&rsquo;s pence, canonical
degrees and the observance of festivals that Rome had still
victories to gain. Between churchmen of Irish and English
race there was bitter rivalry; but the theory that the ancient
Celtic church remained independent, and as it were Protestant,
while the English colony submitted to the Vatican, is a mere
controversial figment. The crown was weak and papal aggression
made rapid progress. It was in the Irish church, about the
middle of the 13th century, that the system of giving jurisdiction
to the bishops &ldquo;in temporalibus&rdquo; was adopted by Innocent IV.
The vigour of Edward I. obtained a renunciation in particular
cases, but the practice continued unabated. The system of
provisions was soon introduced at the expense of free election,
and was acknowledged by the statute of Kilkenny. In the
more remote districts it must have been almost a matter of
necessity. Many Irish parishes grew out of primitive monasteries,
but other early settlements remained monastic, and were compelled
by the popes to adopt the rule of authorized orders,
generally that of the Augustinian canons. That order became
much the most numerous in Ireland, having not less than three
hundred houses. Of other sedentary orders the Cistercians were
the most important, and the mendicants were very numerous.
Both Celtic chiefs and Norman nobles founded convents after
Henry II. &rsquo;s time, but the latter being wealthier were most
distinguished in this way. Religious houses were useful as
abodes of peace in a turbulent country, and the lands attached
were better cultivated than those of lay proprietors. Attempts
to found a university at Dublin (1311) or Drogheda (1465)
failed for want of funds. The work of education was partially
done by the great abbeys, boys of good family being brought
up by the Cistercians of Dublin and Jerpoint, and by the
Augustinians of Dublin, Kells and Connel, and girls by the
canonesses of Gracedieu. A strong effort was made to save
these six houses, but Henry VIII. would not hear of it, and there
was no Irish Wolsey partially to supply the king&rsquo;s omissions.</p>

<p>Ample evidence exists that the Irish church was full of abuses
before the movement under Henry VIII. We have detailed
accounts of three sees&mdash;Clonmacnoise, Enaghdune and Ardagh.
Ross, also in a wild district, was in rather better case. But
even in Dublin strange things happened; thus the archiepiscopal
crozier was in pawn for eighty years from 1449. The morals of
the clergy were no better than in other countries, and we have
evidence of many scandalous irregularities. But perhaps the most
severe condemnation is that of the report to Henry VIII. in 1515.
&ldquo;There is,&rdquo; says the document, &ldquo;no archbishop, ne bishop, abbot,
ne prior, parson, ne vicar, ne any other person of the church,
high or low, great or small, English or Irish, that useth to preach
the word of God, saving the poor friars beggars ... the church
of this land use not to learn any other science, but the law of
canon, for covetise of lucre transitory.&rdquo; Where his hand reached
Henry had little difficulty in suppressing the monasteries or
taking their lands, which Irish chiefs swallowed as greedily as
men of English blood. But the friars, though pretty generally
turned out of doors, were themselves beyond Henry&rsquo;s power,
and continued to preach everywhere among the people. Their
devotion and energy may be freely admitted; but the mendicant
orders, especially the Carmelites, were not uniformly distinguished
for morality. Monasticism was momentarily suppressed under
Oliver Cromwell, but the Restoration brought the monks back
to their old haunts. The Jesuits, placed by Paul III. under
the protection of Conn O&rsquo;Neill, &ldquo;prince of the Irish of Ulster,&rdquo;
came to Ireland towards the end of Henry&rsquo;s reign, and helped
to keep alive the Roman tradition. Anglicanism was regarded
as a symbol of conquest and intrusion. The <i>Four Masters</i> thus
describes the Reformation: &ldquo;A heresy and new error arising
in England, through pride, vain glory, avarice, and lust, and
through many strange sciences, so that the men of England
went into opposition to the pope and to Rome.&rdquo; The destruction
of relics and images and the establishment of a schismatic
hierarchy is thus recorded: &ldquo;Though great was the persecution
of the Roman emperors against the church, scarcely had there
ever come so great a persecution from Rome as this.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The able opportunist Sir Anthony St Leger, who was accused
by one party of opposing the Reformation and by the other of
lampooning the Sacrament, continued to rule during
the early days of Edward VI. To him succeeded
<span class="sidenote">Edward VI. (1547-1553).</span>
Sir Edward Bellingham, a Puritan soldier whose
hand was heavy on all who disobeyed the king. He
bridled Connaught by a castle at Athlone, and Munster by a
garrison at Leighlin Bridge. The O&rsquo;Mores and O&rsquo;Connors
were brought low, and forts erected where Maryborough and
Philipstown now stand. Both chiefs and nobles were forced
to respect the king&rsquo;s representative, but Bellingham was not
wont to flatter those in power, and his administration found
little favour in England. Sir Francis Bryan, Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
favourite, succeeded him, and on his death St Leger was again
appointed. Neither St Leger nor his successor Sir James Croft
could do anything with Ulster, where the papal primate Wauchop,
a Scot by birth, stirred up rebellion among the natives and
among the Hebridean invaders. But little was done under
Edward VI. to advance the power of the crown, and that little
was done by Bellingham.</p>

<p>The English government long hesitated about the official
establishment of Protestantism, and the royal order to that
effect was withheld until 1551. Copies of the new
liturgy were sent over, and St Leger had the communion
<span class="sidenote">The Reformation.</span>
service translated into Latin, for the use of
priests and others who could read, but not in English. The
popular feeling was strong against innovation, as Edward
Staples, bishop of Meath, found to his cost. The opinions of
Staples, like those of Cranmer, advanced gradually until at
last he went to Dublin and preached boldly against the mass.
He saw men shrink from him on all sides. &ldquo;My lord,&rdquo; said a
beneficed priest, whom he had himself promoted, and who
wept as he spoke, &ldquo;before ye went last to Dublin ye were the
best beloved man in your diocese that ever came in it, now ye
are the worst beloved.... Ye have preached against the sacrament
of the altar and the saints, and will make us worse than
Jews.... The country folk would eat you.... Ye have more
curses than ye have hairs of your head, and I advise you for
Christ&rsquo;s sake not to preach at Navan.&rdquo; Staples answered
that preaching was his duty, and that he would not fail; but
he feared for his life. On the same prelate fell the task of
conducting a public controversy with the archbishop of Armagh,
George Dowdall, which of course ended in the conversion
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
of neither. Dowdall fled; his see was treated as vacant,
and Cranmer cast about him for a Protestant to fill St Patrick&rsquo;s
chair. His first nominee, Dr Richard Turner, resolutely declined
the honour, declaring that he would be unintelligible to the
people; and Cranmer could only answer that English was
spoken in Ireland, though he did indeed doubt whether it was
spoken in the diocese of Armagh. John Bale, a man of great
learning and ability, became bishop of Ossory. There is no
reason to doubt his sincerity, but he was coarse and intemperate&mdash;Froude
roundly calls him a foul-mouthed ruffian&mdash;without
the wisdom of the serpent or the harmlessness of the dove.
His choice rhetoric stigmatized the dean of St Patrick&rsquo;s as ass-headed,
a blockhead who cared only for his kitchen and his
belly.</p>

<p>The Reformation having made no real progress, Mary found
it easy to recover the old ways. Dowdall was restored; Staples
and others were deprived. Bale fled for bare life,
and his see was treated as vacant. Yet the queen
<span class="sidenote">Mary (1553-1558).</span>
found it impossible to restore the monastic lands,
though she showed some disposition to scrutinize
the titles of grantees. She was Tudor enough to declare her
intention of maintaining the old prerogatives of the crown
against the Holy See, and assumed the royal title without
papal sanction. Paul IV. was fain to curb his fiery temper,
and to confer graciously what he could not withhold. English
Protestants fled to Ireland to escape the Marian persecution;
but had the reign continued a little longer, Dublin would probably
have been no safe place of refuge.</p>

<p>Mary scarcely varied the civil policy of her brother&rsquo;s ministers.
Gerald of Kildare, who had been restored to his estates by
Edward VI., was created earl of Kildare. The plan of settling
Leix and Offaly by dividing the country between colonists and
natives holding by English tenure failed, owing to the unconquerable
love of the people for their own customs. But resistance
gradually grew fainter, and we hear little of the O&rsquo;Connors
after this. The O&rsquo;Mores, reduced almost to brigandage, gave
trouble till the end of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, and a member of the
clan was chief contriver of the rebellion of 1641. Maryborough
and Philipstown, King&rsquo;s county and Queen&rsquo;s county, commemorate
Mary&rsquo;s marriage.</p>

<p>Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s daughter succeeded quietly, and Sir Henry
Sidney was sworn lord-justice with the full Catholic ritual.
When Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, superseded
him as lord-lieutenant, the litany was chanted in
<span class="sidenote">Elizabeth (1558-1603).</span>
English, both cathedrals having been painted, and
scripture texts substituted for &ldquo;pictures and popish
fancies.&rdquo; At the beginning of 1560 a parliament was held
which restored the ecclesiastical legislation of Henry and Edward.
In two important points the Irish Church was made more dependent
on the state than in England: <i>congés d&rsquo;élire</i> were abolished
and heretics made amenable to royal commissioners or to parliament
without reference to any synod or convocation. According
to a contemporary list, this parliament consisted of 3 archbishops,
17 bishops, 23 temporal peers, and members returned
by 10 counties and 28 cities and boroughs. Some of the Irish
bishops took the oath of supremacy, some were deprived. In
other cases Elizabeth connived at what she could not prevent,
and hardly pretended to enforce uniformity except in the Pale
and in the large towns.</p>

<p>Ulster demanded the immediate attention of Elizabeth.
Her father had conferred the earldom of Tyrone on Conn Bacach
O&rsquo;Neill, with remainder to his supposed son Matthew,
created baron of Dungannon, the offspring of a
<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of Shane O&rsquo;Neill.</span>
smith&rsquo;s wife at Dundalk, who in her husband&rsquo;s lifetime
brought the child to Conn as his own. When the
chief&rsquo;s legitimate son Shane grew up he declined to be bound
by this arrangement, which the king may have made in partial
ignorance of the facts. &ldquo;Being a gentleman,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;my
father never refusid no child that any woman namyd to be his.&rdquo;
When Tyrone died, Matthew&rsquo;s son, Brian O&rsquo;Neill, baron of
Dungannon, claimed his earldom under the patent. Shane
being chosen O&rsquo;Neill by his tribe claimed to be chief by election,
and earl as Conn&rsquo;s lawful son. Thus the English government
was committed to the cause of one who was at best an adulterine
bastard, while Shane appeared as champion of hereditary right
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O&rsquo;Neill</a></span>). Shane maintained a contest which had begun
under Mary until 1567, with great ability and a total absence
of morality, in which Sussex had no advantage over him. The
lord-lieutenant twice tried to have Shane murdered; once
he proposed to break his safe-conduct; and he held out hopes
of his sister&rsquo;s hand as a snare. Shane was induced to visit
London, where the government detained him for some time.
On his return to Ireland, Sussex was outmatched both in war
and diplomacy; the loyal chiefs were crushed one by one;
and the English suffered checks of which the moral effect was
ruinous. Shane diplomatically acknowledged Elizabeth as his
sovereign, and sometimes played the part of a loyal subject,
wreaking his private vengeance under colour of expelling the
Scots from Ulster. At last, in 1566, the queen placed the sword
of state in Sidney&rsquo;s strong grasp. Shane was driven helplessly
from point to point, and perished miserably at the hands of the
MacDonnells, whom he had so often oppressed and insulted.</p>

<p>Peace was soon broken by disturbances in the south. The
earl of Desmond having shown rebellious tendencies was detained
for six years in London. Treated leniently, but
grievously pressed for money, he tried to escape, and,
<span class="sidenote">First Desmond Rebellion, 1574.</span>
the attempt being judged treasonable, he was persuaded
to surrender his estates&mdash;to receive them back or
not at the queen&rsquo;s discretion. Seizing the opportunity, English
adventurers proposed to plant a military colony in the western
half of Munster, holding the coast from the Shannon to Cork
harbour. Some who held obsolete title-deeds were encouraged
to go to work at once by the example of Sir Peter Carew, who
had established his claims in Carlow. Carew&rsquo;s title had been
in abeyance for a century and a half, yet most of the Kavanaghs
attorned to him. Falling foul of Ormonde&rsquo;s brothers, seizing
their property and using great cruelty and violence, Sir Peter
drove the Butlers, the only one among the great families really
loyal, into rebellion. Ormonde, who was in London, could
alone restore peace; all his disputes with Desmond were at
once settled in his favour, and he was even allowed to resume
the exaction of coyne and livery, the abolition of which had
been the darling wish of statesmen. The Butlers returned to
their allegiance, but continued to oppose Carew, and great
atrocities were committed on both sides. Sir Peter had great
but undefined claims in Munster also, and the people there took
warning. His imitators in Cork were swept away. Sidney
first, and after him Humphrey Gilbert, could only circumscribe
the rebellion. The presidency of Munster, an office the creation
of which had long been contemplated, was then conferred on
Sir John Perrot, who drove James &ldquo;Fitzmaurice&rdquo; Fitzgerald
into the mountains, reduced castles everywhere, and destroyed
a Scottish contingent which had come from Ulster to help
the rebels. Fitzmaurice came in and knelt in the mud at the
president&rsquo;s feet, confessing his sins; but he remained the real
victor. The colonizing scheme was dropped, and the first
presidency of Munster left the Desmonds and their allies in
possession. Similar plans were tried unsuccessfully in Ulster, first
by a son of Sir Thomas Smith, afterwards by Walter Devereux,
earl of Essex, a knight-errant rather than a statesman, who
was guilty of many bloody deeds. He treacherously captured
Sir Brian O&rsquo;Neill and massacred his followers. The Scots in
Rathlin were slaughtered wholesale. Essex struggled on for
more than three years, seeing his friends gradually drop away,
and dying ruined and unsuccessful.</p>

<p>Towards the end of 1575 Sidney was again persuaded to
become viceroy. The Irish recognized his great qualities, and
he went everywhere without interruption. Henceforth presidencies
became permanent institutions. Sir William Drury in
Munster hanged four hundred persons in one year, Sir Nicholas
Malby in reducing the Connaught Burkes spared neither young
nor old, and burned all corn and houses. The Desmonds determined
on a great effort. A holy war was declared. Fitzmaurice
landed in Kerry with a few followers, and accompanied by the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
famous Nicholas Sanders, who was armed with a legate&rsquo;s commission
and a banner blessed by the pope. Fitzmaurice fell
soon after in a skirmish near Castleconnell, but Sanders and
Desmond&rsquo;s brothers still kept the field. When it was too late
to act with effect, Desmond himself, a vain man, neither frankly
loyal nor a bold rebel, took the field. He surprised Youghal,
then an English town, by night, sacked it, and murdered the
people. Roused at last, Elizabeth sent over Ormonde as general
of Munster, and after long delay gave him the means of conducting
a campaign. It was as much a war of Butlers against Geraldines
as of loyal subjects against rebels, and Ormonde did his work
only too well.  Lord Baltinglass raised a hopeless subsidiary
revolt in Wicklow (1580), which was signalized by a crushing
defeat of the lord deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton (Arthegal) in
Glenmalure. A force of Italians and Spaniards landing at
Smerwick in Kerry, Grey hurried thither, and the foreigners,
who had no commission, surrendered at discretion, and were
put to the sword. Neither Grey nor the Spanish ambassador
seems to have seen anything extraordinary in thus disposing
of inconvenient prisoners. Spenser and Raleigh were present.
Sanders perished obscurely in 1581, and in 1583 Desmond
himself was hunted down and killed in the Kerry mountains.
More than 500,000 Irish acres were forfeited to the crown.
The horrors of this war it is impossible to exaggerate. The
<i>Four Masters</i> says that the lowing of a cow or the voice of
a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Cashel to the farthest
point of Kerry; Ormonde, who, with all his severity, was
honourably distinguished by good faith, claimed to have killed
5000 men in a few months. Spenser, an eye-witness, says
famine slew far more than the sword. The survivors were unable
to walk, but crawled out of the woods and glens. &ldquo;They looked
like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead carrion and
one another soon after, insomuch as the very carcasses they
spared not to scrape out of their graves; ... to a plot of
watercresses or shamrocks they flocked as to a feast.&rdquo;</p>

<p>In 1584 Sir John Perrot, the ablest man available after
Sidney&rsquo;s retirement, became lord-deputy. Sir John Norris,
famed in the Netherland wars, was president of Munster, and
so impressed the Irish that they averred him to be in league
with the devil. Perrot held a parliament in 1585 in which the
number of members was considerably increased. He made a
strenuous effort to found a university in Dublin, and proposed
to endow it with the revenues of St Patrick&rsquo;s, reasonably arguing
that one cathedral was enough for any city. Here he was
opposed by Adam Loftus, archbishop of Dublin and chancellor,
who had expressed his anxiety for a college, but had no idea of
endowing it at his own expense. The colonization of the Munster
forfeitures was undertaken at this time. It failed chiefly from
the grants to individuals who neglected to plant English farmers,
and were often absentees themselves. Raleigh obtained 42,000
acres. The quit rents reserved to the crown were less than
one penny per acre. Racked with the stone, hated by the
official clique, thwarted on all sides, Perrot was goaded into
using words capable of a treasonable interpretation. Archbishop
Loftus pursued him to the end. He died in the Tower of London
under sentence for treason, and we may charitably hope that
Elizabeth would have pardoned him. In his will, written
after sentence, he emphatically repudiates any treasonable
intention&mdash;&ldquo;I deny my Lord God if ever I proposed the same.&rdquo;</p>

<p>In 1584 Hugh O&rsquo;Neill, if O&rsquo;Neill he was (being second son
of Matthew, mentioned above), became chief of part of Tyrone;
in 1587 he obtained the coveted earldom, and in
1593 was the admitted head of the whole tribe. A
<span class="sidenote">Last Desmond Rebellion.</span>
quarrel with the government was inevitable, and,
Hugh Roe O&rsquo;Donnell having joined him, Ulster
was united against the crown. In 1598 James Fitzthomas
Fitzgerald assumed the title of Desmond, to which he had
some claims by blood, and which he pretended to hold as Tyrone&rsquo;s
gift. Tyrone had received a crown of peacock&rsquo;s feathers from
the pope, who was regarded by many as king of Ireland. The
title of <i>Sugan</i> or straw-rope earl has been generally given to
the Desmond pretender. Both ends of the island were soon
in a blaze, and the <i>Four Masters</i> says that in seventeen days
there was not one son of a Saxon left alive in the Desmond
territories. Edmund Spenser lost his all, escaping only to die
of misery in a London garret. Tyrone more than held his own
in the north, completely defeated Sir Henry Bagnal in the
battle of the Yellow Ford (1598), invaded Munster, and ravaged
the lands of Lord Barrymore, who had remained true to his
allegiance. Tyrone&rsquo;s ally, Hugh Roe O&rsquo;Donnell, overthrew
the president of Connaught, Sir Conyers Clifford. &ldquo;The Irish
of Connaught,&rdquo; says the <i>Four Masters</i>, &ldquo;were not pleased
at Clifford&rsquo;s death; ... he had never told them a falsehood.&rdquo;
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, came over in 1599 with a great
army, but did nothing of moment, was outgeneralled and outwitted
by Tyrone, and threw up his command to enter on the
mad and criminal career which led to the scaffold. In 1600
Sir George Carew became president of Munster, and, as always
happened when the crown was well served, the rebellion was
quickly put down. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy (afterwards
earl of Devonshire), who succeeded Essex, joined Carew, and a
Spanish force which landed at Kinsale surrendered. The
destruction of their crops starved the people into submission,
and the contest was only less terrible than the first Desmond
war because it was much shorter. In Ulster Mountjoy was
assisted by Sir Henry Docwra, who founded the second settlement
at Derry, the first under Edward Randolph having been
abandoned. Hugh O&rsquo;Donnell sought help in Spain, where he
died. Tyrone submitted at last, craving pardon on his knees,
renouncing his Celtic chiefry, and abjuring all foreign powers;
but still retaining his earldom, and power almost too great for
a subject. Scarcely was the compact signed when he heard
of the great queen&rsquo;s death. He burst into tears, not of grief,
but of vexation at not having held out for better terms.</p>

<p>In reviewing the Irish government of Elizabeth we shall
find much to blame, a want of truth in her dealings and of
steadiness in her policy. Violent efforts of coercion
were succeeded by fits of clemency, of parsimony
<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland.<br /><br />
Religious policy.</span>
or of apathy. Yet it is fair to remember that she was
surrounded by enemies, that her best energies were
expended in the death-struggle with Spain, and that she was
rarely able to give undivided attention to the Irish problem.
After all she conquered Ireland, which her predecessors had failed
to do, though many of them were as crooked in action and less
upright in intention. Considering the times, Elizabeth cannot
be called a persecutor. &ldquo;Do not,&rdquo; she said to the
elder Essex, &ldquo;seek too hastily to bring people that
have been trained in another religion from that in
which they have been brought up.&rdquo; Elizabeth saw that the
Irish could only be reached through their own language. But
for that harvest the labourers were necessarily few. The fate
of Bishop Daly of Kildare, who preached in Irish, and who thrice
had his house burned over his head, was not likely to encourage
missionaries. In all wild parts divine service was neglected,
and wandering friars or subtle Jesuits, supported by every
patriotic or religious feeling of the people, kept Ireland faithful
to Rome. Against her many shortcomings we must set the
queen&rsquo;s foundation of the university of Dublin, which has been
the most successful English institution in Ireland, and which
has continually borne the fairest fruit.</p>

<p>Great things were expected of James I. He was Mary Stuart&rsquo;s
son, and there was a curious antiquarian notion afloat that,
because the Irish were the original &ldquo;Scoti,&rdquo; a Scottish
king would sympathize with Ireland. Corporate
<span class="sidenote">James I. (1603-1625).</span>
towns set up the mass, and Mountjoy, who could
argue as well as fight, had to teach them a sharp lesson.
Finding Ireland conquered and in no condition to rise again,
James established circuits and a complete system of shires.
Sir John Davies was sent over as solicitor-general. His famous
book (<i>Discoverie of the State of Ireland</i>) in which he glorifies
his own and the king&rsquo;s exploits gives far too much credit to
the latter and far too little to his great predecessor.</p>

<p>Two legal decisions swept away the customs of tanistry
and of Irish gavelkind, and the English land system was violently
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
substituted. The earl of Tyrone was harassed by sheriffs and
other officers, and the government, learning that he was engaged
in an insurrectionary design, prepared to seize him. The information
was probably false, but Tyrone was growing old and perhaps
despaired of making good his defence. By leaving Ireland he
played into his enemies&rsquo; hands. Rory O&rsquo;Donnell, created earl
of Tyrconnel, accompanied him. Cuconnaught Maguire had
already gone. The &ldquo;flight of the earls,&rdquo; as it is called, completed
the ruin of the Celtic cause. Reasons or pretexts for
declaring forfeitures against O&rsquo;Cahan were easily found.
O&rsquo;Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, and foreman of the grand jury
which found a bill for treason against the earls of Tyrone and
Tyrconnel, was insulted by Sir George Paulet, the governor
of Derry. O&rsquo;Dogherty rose, Derry was sacked, and Paulet
murdered. O&rsquo;Dogherty having been killed and O&rsquo;Hanlon and
others being implicated, the whole of northern Ulster was at
<span class="sidenote">Plantation of Ulster.</span>
the disposal of the government. Tyrone, Donegal,
Armagh, Cavan, Fermanagh and Derry were parcelled
out among English and Scottish colonists, portions
being reserved to the natives. The site of Derry was
granted to the citizens of London, who fortified and armed it,
and Londonderry became the chief bulwark of the colonists
in two great wars. Whatever may have been its morality,
in a political point of view the plantation of Ulster was successful.
The northern province, which so severely taxed the energies
of Elizabeth, has since been the most prosperous and loyal
part of Ireland. But the conquered people remained side by
side with the settlers; and Sir George Carew, who reported on
the plantation in 1611, clearly foresaw that they would rebel
again. Those natives who retained land were often oppressed
by their stronger neighbours, and sometimes actually swindled
out of their property. It is probable that in the neglect of the
grantees to give proper leases to their tenants arose the Ulster
tenant-right custom which attracted so much notice in more
modern times.</p>

<p>The parliamentary history of the English colony in Ireland
corresponds pretty closely to that of the mother country. First
there are informal meetings of eminent persons;
then, in 1295, there is a parliament of which some
<span class="sidenote">The Irish Parliament.</span>
acts remain, and to which only knights of the shire
were summoned to represent the commons. Burgesses
were added as early as 1310. The famous parliament of Kilkenny
in 1366 was largely attended, but the details of its composition
are not known. That there was substantial identity in the
character of original and copy may be inferred from the fact
that the well-known tract called <i>Modus tenendi parliamentum</i>
was exemplified under the Great Seal of Ireland in 6 Hen. V.
The most ancient Irish parliament remaining on record was
held in 1374, twenty members in all being summoned to the
House of Commons, from the counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare
and Carlow, the liberties and crosses of Meath, the city of Dublin,
and the towns of Drogheda and Dundalk. The liberties were
those districts in which the great vassals of the crown exercised
palatinate jurisdiction, and the crosses were the church lands,
where alone the royal writ usually ran. Writs for another parliament
in the same year were addressed in addition to the counties
of Waterford, Cork and Limerick; the liberties and crosses
of Ulster, Wexford, Tipperary and Kerry; the cities of Waterford,
Cork and Limerick; and the towns of Youghal, Kinsale,
Ross, Wexford and Kilkenny. The counties of Clare and Longford,
and the towns of Galway and Athenry, were afterwards
added, and the number of popular representatives does not appear
to have much exceeded sixty during the later middle ages.
In the House of Lords the temporal peers were largely outnumbered
by the bishops and mitred abbots. In the parliament
which conferred the royal title on Henry VIII. it was finally
decided that the proctors of the clergy had no voice or votes.
Elizabeth&rsquo;s first parliament, held in 1559, was attended by 76
members of the Lower House, which increased to 122 in 1585.
In 1613 James I. by a wholesale creation of new boroughs,
generally of the last insignificance, increased the House of
Commons to 232, and thus secured an Anglican majority to
carry out his policy. He told those who remonstrated to mind
their own business. &ldquo;What is it to you if I had created 40
noblemen and 400 boroughs? The more the merrier, the
fewer the better cheer.&rdquo; In 1639 the House of Commons had
274 members, a number which was further increased to 300
at the Revolution, and so it remained until the Union.</p>

<p>Steeped in absolutist ideas, James was not likely to tolerate
religious dissent. He thought he could &ldquo;mak what liked
him law and gospel.&rdquo; A proclamation for banishing
Romish priests issued in 1605, and was followed
<span class="sidenote">Religious policy of James I.</span>
by an active and general persecution, which was so
far from succeeding that they continued to flock
in from abroad, the lord-deputy Arthur Chichester admitting
that every house and hamlet was to them a sanctuary. The
most severe English statutes against the Roman Catholic laity
had never been re-enacted in Ireland, and, in the absence of
law, illegal means were taken to enforce uniformity. Privy
seals addressed to men of wealth and position commanded their
attendance at church before the deputy or the provincial president,
on pain of unlimited fine and imprisonment by the Irish Star
Chamber. The Roman Catholic gentry and lawyers, headed
by Sir Patrick Barnewall, succeeded in proving the flagrant
illegality of these mandates, and the government had to yield.
On the whole Protestantism made little progress, though the
number of Protestant settlers increased. As late as 1622, when
Sir Henry Cary, Viscount Falkland, was installed as deputy,
the illustrious James Ussher, then bishop of Meath, preached
from the text &ldquo;he beareth not the sword in vain,&rdquo; and descanted
on the over-indulgence shown to recusants. The primate,
Christopher Hampton, in a letter which is a model of Christian
eloquence, mildly rebuked his eminent suffragan.</p>

<p>The necessities of Charles I. induced his ministers to propose
that a great part of Connaught should be declared forfeited,
owing to mere technical flaws in title, and planted like
Ulster. Such was the general outcry that the scheme
<span class="sidenote">Charles I. (1625-1649).<br /><br />
Administration of Strafford.</span>
had to be given up; and, on receiving a large
grant from the Irish parliament, the king promised
certain graces, of which the chief were security for titles, free
trade, and the substitution of an oath of allegiance for that of
supremacy. Having got the money, Charles as usual broke
his word; and in 1635 the lord-deputy Strafford
began a general system of extortion. The Connaught
and Munster landowners were shamelessly forced to
pay large fines for the confirmation of even recent
titles. The money obtained by oppressing the Irish nation was
employed to create an army for the oppression of the Scottish
and English nations. The Roman Catholics were neither awed
nor conciliated. Twelve bishops, headed by the primate Ussher,
solemnly protested that &ldquo;to tolerate popery is a grievous sin.&rdquo;
The Ulster Presbyterians were rigorously treated. Of the
prelates employed by Strafford in this persecution the ablest
was John Bramhall (1594-1663) of Derry, who not only oppressed
the ministers but insulted them by coarse language.
The &ldquo;black oath,&rdquo; which bound those who took it never to
oppose Charles in anything, was enforced on all ministers, and
those who refused it were driven from their manses and often
stripped of their goods.</p>

<p>Strafford was recalled to expiate his career on the scaffold;
the army was disbanded; and the helm of the state remained
in the hands of a land-jobber and of a superannuated
soldier. Disbanded troops are the ready weapons
<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of 1641.</span>
of conspiracy, and the opportunity was not lost. The
Roman Catholic insurgents of 1641 just failed to seize Dublin,
but quickly became masters of nearly the whole country. That
there was no definite design of massacring the Protestants is
likely, but it was intended to drive them out of the country.
Great numbers were killed, often in cold blood and with circumstances
of great barbarity. The English under Sir Charles
Coote and others retaliated. In 1642 a Scottish army under
General Robert Monro landed in Ulster, and formed a rallying
point for the colonists. Londonderry, Enniskillen, Coleraine,
Carrickfergus and some other places defied Sir Phelim O&rsquo;Neill&rsquo;s
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
tumultuary host. Trained in foreign wars, Owen Roe O&rsquo;Neill
gradually formed a powerful army among the Ulster Irish,
and showed many of the qualities of a skilful general. But
like other O&rsquo;Neills, he did little out of Ulster, and his great
victory over Monro at Benburb on the Blackwater (June 5, 1646)
had no lasting results. The English of the Pale were forced into
rebellion, but could never get on with the native Irish, who
hated them only less than the new colonists. Ormonde throughout
maintained the position of a loyal subject, and, as the king&rsquo;s
representative, played a great but hopeless part. The Celts
cared nothing for the king except as a weapon against the
Protestants; the old Anglo-Irish Catholics cared much, but
the nearer Charles approached them the more completely he
alienated the Protestants. In 1645 Rinuccini reached Ireland
as papal legate. He could never co-operate with the Roman
Catholic confederacy at Kilkenny, which was under old English
influence, and by throwing in his lot with the Celts only widened
the gulf between the two sections. The state of parties at this
period in Ireland has been graphically described by Carlyle.
&ldquo;There are,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;Catholics of the Pale, demanding freedom
of religion, under my lord this and my lord that. There are
Old-Irish Catholics, under pope&rsquo;s nuncios, under Abba O&rsquo;Teague
of the excommunications, and Owen Roe O&rsquo;Neill, demanding
not religious freedom only, but what we now call &lsquo;repeal of the
union,&rsquo; and unable to agree with Catholics of the English Pale.
Then there are Ormonde Royalists, of the Episcopalian and
mixed creeds, strong for king without covenant; Ulster and
other Presbyterians strong for king <i>and</i> covenant; lastly,
Michael Jones and the Commonwealth of England, who want
neither king nor covenant.&rdquo;</p>

<p>In all their negotiations with Ormonde and Glamorgan,
Henrietta Maria and the earl of Bristol, the pope and Rinuccini
stood out for an arrangement which would have destroyed the
royal supremacy and established Romanism in Ireland, leaving
to the Anglicans bare toleration, and to the Presbyterians not
even that. Charles behaved with his usual weakness. Ormonde
was forced to surrender Dublin to the Parliamentarians (July
1647), and the inextricable knot awaited Cromwell&rsquo;s sword.</p>

<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s campaign (1640-1650) showed how easily a good
general with an efficient army might conquer Ireland. Resistance
in the field was soon at an end; the starving-out
policy of Carew and Mountjoy was employed
<span class="sidenote">Cromwell.</span>
against the guerrillas, and the soldiers were furnished with
scythes to cut down the green corn. Bibles were also regularly
served out to them. Oliver&rsquo;s severe conduct at Drogheda
and elsewhere is not morally defensible, but such methods were
common in the wars of the period, and much may be urged in
his favour. Strict discipline was maintained, soldiers being
hanged for stealing chickens; faith was always kept; and
short, sharp action was more merciful in the long run than a
milder but less effective policy. Cromwell&rsquo;s civil policy, to use
Macaulay&rsquo;s words, was &ldquo;able, straightforward, and cruel.&rdquo;
He thinned the disaffected population by allowing foreign
enlistment, and 40,000 are said to have been thus got rid of.
Already Irish Catholics of good family had learned to offer their
swords to foreign princes. In Spain, France and the Empire
they often rose to the distinction which they were denied at home.
About 9000 persons were sent to the West Indies, practically
into slavery. Thus, and by the long war, the population was
reduced to some 850,000, of whom 150,000 were English and
Scots. Then came the transplantation beyond the Shannon.
The Irish Catholic gentry were removed bodily with their servants
and such tenants as consented to follow them, and with what
remained of their cattle. They suffered dreadful hardships.
To exclude foreign influences, a belt of 1 m. was reserved to
soldiers on the coast from Sligo to the Shannon, but the idea
was not fully carried out. The derelict property in the other
provinces was divided between adventurers who had advanced
money and soldiers who had fought in Ireland. Many of the
latter sold their claims to officers or speculators, who were thus
enabled to form estates. The majority of Irish labourers stayed
to work under the settlers, and the country gradually became
peaceful and prosperous. Some fighting Catholics haunted
woods and hills under the name of tories, afterwards given
in derision to a great party, and were hunted down with as little
compunction as the wolves to which they were compared.
Measures of great severity were taken against Roman Catholic
priests; but it is said that Cromwell had great numbers in
his pay, and that they kept him well informed. All classes
of Protestants were tolerated, and Jeremy Taylor preached
unmolested. Commercial equality being given to Ireland, the
woollen trade at once revived, and a shipping interest sprang
up. A legislative union was also effected, and Irish members
attended at Westminster.</p>

<p>Charles II. was bound in honour to do something for such
Irish Catholics as were innocent of the massacres of 1641,
and the claims were not scrutinized too severely. It
was found impossible to displace the Cromwellians, but
<span class="sidenote">Charles II. (1660-1685).</span>
they were shorn of about one-third of their lands.
When the Caroline settlement was complete it was
found that the great rebellion had resulted in reducing the
Catholic share of the fertile parts of Ireland from two-thirds
to one-third. Ormonde, whose wife had been allowed by Cromwell&rsquo;s
clemency to make him some remittances from the wreck
of his estate, was largely and deservedly rewarded. A revenue
of £30,000 was settled on the king, in consideration of which
Ireland was in 1663 excluded from the benefit of the Navigation
Act, and her nascent shipping interest ruined. In 1666 the
importation of Irish cattle and horses into England was forbidden,
the value of the former at once falling five-fold, of the latter
twenty-fold. Dead meat, butter and cheese were also excluded,
yet peace brought a certain prosperity. The woollen manufacture
grew and flourished, and Macaulay is probably warranted
in saying that under Charles II. Ireland was a pleasanter place
of residence than it has been before or since. But it was pleasant
only for those who conformed to the state religion. Roman
Catholicism was tolerated, or rather connived at; but its
professors were subject to frequent alarms, and to great severities
during the ascendancy of Titus Oates. Bramhall became
primate, and his hand was heavy against the Ulster Presbyterians.
Jeremy Taylor began a persecution which stopped the influx
of Scots into Ireland. Deprived of the means of teaching, the
Independents and other sectaries soon disappeared. In a
military colony women were scarce, and the &ldquo;Ironsides&rdquo; had
married natives. Roman Catholicism held its own. The Quakers
became numerous during this reign, and their peaceful industry
was most useful. They venerate as their founder William
Edmundson (1627-1712), a Westmorland man who had borne
arms for the Parliament, and who settled in Antrim in 1652.</p>

<p>The duke of Ormonde was lord-lieutenant at the death of
Charles II. At seventy-five his brain was as clear as ever,
and James saw that he was no fit tool for his purpose.
&ldquo;See, gentlemen,&rdquo; said the old chief, lifting his glass
<span class="sidenote">James II. (1685-1689).</span>
at a military dinner-party, &ldquo;they say at court I am
old and doting. But my hand is steady, nor doth
my heart fail.... To the king&rsquo;s health.&rdquo; Calculating on his
loyal subservience, James appointed his brother-in-law, Lord
Clarendon, to succeed Ormonde. Monmouth&rsquo;s enterprise made
no stir, but gave an excuse for disarming the Protestant militia.
The tories at once emerged from their hiding-places, and
Clarendon found Ireland in a ferment. It was now the turn
of the Protestants to feel persecution. Richard Talbot, one of
the few survivors of Drogheda, governed the king&rsquo;s Irish policy,
while the lord-lieutenant was kept in the dark. Finally Talbot,
created earl of Tyrconnel, himself received the sword of state.
Protestants were weeded out of the army, Protestant officers
in particular being superseded by idle Catholics of gentle blood,
where they could be found, and in any case by Catholics. Bigotry
rather than religion was Tyrconnel&rsquo;s ruling passion, and he
filled up offices with Catholics independently of character. Sir
Alexander Fitton, a man convicted of forgery, became chancellor,
and but three Protestant judges were left on the bench. The
outlawries growing out of the affairs of 1641 were reversed as
quickly as possible. Protestant corporations were dissolved by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span>
&ldquo;quo warrantos&rdquo;; but James was still Englishman enough
to refuse an Irish parliament, which might repeal Poyning&rsquo;s
Act and the Act of Settlement.</p>

<p>At the close of 1688 James was a fugitive in France. By
this time Londonderry and Enniskillen had closed their gates,
and the final struggle had begun. In March 1689 James reached
Ireland with some French troops, and summoned a parliament
which repealed the Act of Settlement. The estates of absentees
were vested in the crown, and, as only two months law was given,
this was nearly equivalent to confiscating the property of all
Protestants. Between 2000 and 3000 Protestants were attainted
by name, and moreover the act was not published. The appalling
list may be read in the <i>State of the Protestants</i> by William King,
archbishop of Dublin, one of many divines converted by the
logic of events to believe in the lawfulness of resistance. Interesting
details may be gleaned from Edmundson&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>. The
dispossessed Protestants escaped by sea or flocked into Ulster,
where a gallant stand was made. The glories of Londonderry
and Enniskillen will live as long as the English language. The
Irish cause produced one great achievement&mdash;the defence of
Limerick, and one great leader&mdash;Patrick Sarsfield. The Roman
Catholic Celts aided by France were entirely beaten, the Protestant
colonists aided by England were entirely victorious
<span class="sidenote">William III.</span>
at the battle of the Boyne, on the 1st of July 1690;
and at the battle of Aughrim on the 12th of July
1691. Even the siege of Limerick showed the irreconcilable
divisions which had nullified the efforts of 1641.
Hugh Baldearg O&rsquo;Donnell, last of Irish chiefs, sold his services
to William for £500 a year. But it was their king that condemned
the Irish to hopeless failure. He called them cowards, whereas
the cowardice was really his own, and he deserted them in their
utmost need. They repaid him with the opprobrious nickname
of &ldquo;Sheemas-a-Cacagh,&rdquo; or dirty James.</p>

<p>Irish rhetoric commonly styles Limerick &ldquo;the city of the
violated treaty.&rdquo; The articles of capitulation (Oct. 3, 1691)
may be read in Thomas Leland&rsquo;s <i>History of Ireland</i> (1773)
or in F. P. Plowden&rsquo;s <i>History of Ireland</i> (1809); from the first
their interpretation was disputed. Hopes of religious liberty
were held out, but were not fulfilled. Lords Justices Porter
and Coningsby promised to do their utmost to obtain a parliamentary
ratification, but the Irish parliament would not be
persuaded. There was a paragraph in the original draft which
would have protected the property of the great majority of
Roman Catholics, but this was left out in the articles actually
signed. William thought the omission accidental, but this is
hardly possible. At all events he ratified the treaty in the sense
most favourable to the Catholics, while the Irish parliament
adhered to the letter of the document. Perhaps no breach of
faith was intended, but the sorrowful fact remains that the
modern settlement of Ireland has the appearance of resting on
a broken promise. More than 1,000,000 Irish acres were forfeited,
and, though some part returned to Catholic owners, the
Catholic interest in the land was further diminished. William III.
was the most liberally minded man in his dominions; but
the necessities of his position, such is the awful penalty of
greatness, forced him into intolerance against his will, and he
promised to discourage the Irish woollen trade. His manner
of disposing of the Irish forfeitures was inexcusable. The lands
were resumed by the English parliament, less perhaps from a sense
of justice than from a desire to humiliate the deliverer of England,
and were resold to the highest bidder. Nevertheless it became
the fashion to reward nameless English services at the expense
of Ireland. Pensions and sinecures which would not bear the
light in England were charged on the Irish establishment, and
even bishoprics were given away on the same principle. The
tremendous uproar raised by Swift about Wood&rsquo;s halfpence
was heightened by the fact that Wood shared his profits
with the duchess of Kendal, the mistress of George I.</p>

<p>From the first the victorious colonists determined to make
another 1641 impossible, and the English government failed to
moderate their severity. In 1708 Swift declared that the Papists
were politically as inconsiderable as the women and children.
In despair of effecting anything at home, the young and strong
enlisted in foreign armies, and the almost incredible number of
450,000 are said to have emigrated for this purpose between
1691 and 1745. This and the hatred felt towards James II.
prevented any rising in 1715 or 1745. The panic-stricken
severity of minorities is proverbial, but it is not to be forgotten
that the Irish Protestants had been turned out of house and
home twice within fifty years. The restrictions on Irish commerce
provoked Locke&rsquo;s friend William Molyneux (1656-1698)
to write his famous plea for legislative independence (1698).
Much of the learning contained in it now seems obsolete, but the
question is less an antiquarian one than he supposed. Later
events have shown that a mother country must have supreme
authority, or must relax the tie with self-governing colonies
merely into a close alliance. In the case of Ireland the latter
plan has always been impossible. In 1703 the Irish parliament
begged for a legislative union, but as that would have involved
at least partial free trade the English monopolists prevented
it. By Poynings&rsquo;s law (see above) England had control of all
Irish legislation, and was therefore an accomplice in the penal
<span class="sidenote">Penal laws.</span>
laws. These provided that no Papist might teach
a school or any child but his own, or send children
abroad, the burden of proof lying on the accused, and
the decision being left to magistrates without a jury. Mixed
marriages were forbidden between persons of property, and
the children might be forcibly brought up Protestants. A
Catholic could not be a guardian, and all wards in chancery
were brought up Protestants. The Protestant eldest son of
a Catholic landed proprietor might make his father tenant for
life and secure his own inheritance. Among Catholic children
land went in compulsory gavelkind. Catholics could not take
longer leases than <span class="correction" title="amended from thiry">thirty</span>-one years at two-thirds of a rack
rent; they were even required to conform within six months
of an inheritance accruing, on pain of being ousted by the next
Protestant heir. Priests from abroad were banished, and their
return declared treason. All priests were required to register
and to remain in their own parishes, and informers were to be
rewarded at the expense of the Catholic inhabitants. No
Catholic was allowed arms, two justices being empowered to
search; and if he had a good horse any Protestant might claim
it on tendering £5.</p>

<p>These laws were of course systematically evaded. The property
of Roman Catholics was often preserved through Protestant
trustees, and it is understood that faith was generally kept.
Yet the attrition if slow was sure, and by the end of the century
the proportion of land belonging to Roman Catholics was probably
not more than one-tenth of the whole. We can see now that
if the remaining Roman Catholic landlords had been encouraged
they would have done much to reconcile the masses to the
settlement. Individuals are seldom as bad as corporations,
and the very men who made the laws against priests practically
shielded them. The penal laws put a premium on hypocrisy,
and many conformed only to preserve their property or to enable
them to take office. Proselytizing schools, though supported by
public grants, entirely failed.</p>

<p>The restraints placed by English commercial jealousy on
Irish trade destroyed manufacturing industry in the south
and west (see the section <i>Economics</i> above). Driven
by the Caroline legislation against cattle into breeding
<span class="sidenote">Commercial restraints.</span>
sheep, Irish graziers produced the best wool in Europe.
Forbidden to export it, or to work it up profitably
at home, they took to smuggling, for which the indented coast
gave great facilities. The enormous profits of the contraband
trade with France enabled Ireland to purchase English goods
to an extent greater than her whole lawful traffic. The moral
effect was disastrous. The religious penal code it was thought
meritorious to evade; the commercial penal code was ostentatiously
defied; and both tended to make Ireland the least
law-abiding country in Europe. The account of the smugglers
is the most interesting and perhaps the most valuable part of
J. A. Froude&rsquo;s work in Ireland, and should be compared with
the Irish and Scottish chapters of Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p>

<p>When William III. promised to depress the Irish woollen
trade, he promised to do all he could for Irish linen. England
did not fulfil the second promise; still the Ulster
weavers were not crushed, and their industry flourished.
<span class="sidenote">Ulster prosperous.</span>
Some Huguenot refugees, headed by Louis Crommelin
(1652-1727), were established by William III. at
Lisburn, and founded the manufacturing prosperity of Ulster.
Other Huguenots attempted other industries, but commercial
restraints brought them to nought. The peculiar character
of the flax business has prevented it from crossing the mountains
which bound the northern province. Wool was the natural
staple of the south.</p>

<p>The Scottish Presbyterians who defended Londonderry
were treated little better than the Irish Catholics who besieged
it&mdash;the sacramental test of 1704 being the work
of the English council rather than of the Irish parliament.
<span class="sidenote">Dissenters.</span>
In 1715 the Irish House of Commons resolved
that any one who should prosecute a Presbyterian for accepting
a commission in the army without taking the test was an enemy
to the king and to the Protestant interest. Acts of indemnity
were regularly passed throughout the reign of George II., and
until 1780, when the Test Act was repealed. A bare toleration
had been granted in 1720. Various abuses, especially forced
labour on roads which were often private jobs, caused the
Oakboy Insurrection in 1764. Eight years later the Steelboys
rose against the exactions of absentee landlords, who often
turned out Protestant yeomen to get a higher rent from Roman
Catholic cottiers. The dispossessed men carried to America
an undying hatred of England which had much to say to the
American revolution, and that again reacted on Ireland. Lawless
Protestant associations, called Peep o&rsquo; Day Boys, terrorized
the north and were the progenitors of the Orangemen (1789).
Out of the rival &ldquo;defenders&rdquo; Ribbonism in part sprung, and
the United Irishmen drew from both sources (1791).</p>

<p>The Ulster peasants were never as badly off as those of the
south and west. Writers the most unlike each other&mdash;Swift
and Hugh Boulter, George Berkeley and George
Stone, Arthur Young and Dr Thomas Campbell&mdash;all
<span class="sidenote">Poverty of the peasantry.</span>
tell the same tale. Towards the end of the 17th
century Raleigh&rsquo;s fatal gift had already become the
food of the people. When Sir Stephen Rice (1637-1715), chief
baron of the Irish exchequer, went to London in 1688 to urge
the Catholic claims on James II., the hostile populace escorted
him in mock state with potatoes stuck on poles. Had manufactures
been given fair play in Ireland, population might have
preserved some relation to capital. As it was, land became
almost the only property, and the necessity of producing wool
for smuggling kept the country in grass. The poor squatted
where they could, receiving starvation wages, and paying
exorbitant rents for their cabins, partly with their own labour.
Unable to rise, the wretched people multiplied on their potato
plots with perfect recklessness. During the famine which began
in the winter of 1739 one-fifth of the population is supposed
to have perished; yet it is hardly noticed in literature, and seems
not to have touched the conscience of that English public which
in 1755 subscribed £100,000 for the sufferers by the Lisbon
earthquake. As might be expected where men were allowed
to smuggle and forbidden to work, redress was sought in illegal
combinations and secret societies. The dreaded name of Whiteboy
was first heard in 1761; and agrarian crime has never since
been long absent. Since the Union we have had the Threshers,
the Terry Alts, the Molly Maguires, the Rockites, and many others.
Poverty has been the real cause of all these disturbances, which
were often aggravated by the existence of factions profoundly
indicative of barbarism. Communism, cupidity, scoundrelism of
all kinds have contributed to every disturbance. The tendency
shown to screen the worst criminals is sometimes the result of
sympathy, but more often of fear. The cruelties which have
generally accompanied Whiteboyism is common to servile
insurrections all over the world. No wonder if Irish landlords
were formerly tyrannical, for they were in the position of slave-owners.
The steady application of modern principles, by extending
legal protection to all, has altered the slavish character of
the oppressed Irish. The cruelty has not quite died out, but
it is much rarer than formerly; and, generally speaking, the
worst agrarianism has of late years been seen in the districts
which retain most of the old features.</p>

<p>The medieval colony in Ireland was profoundly modified
by the pressure of the surrounding tribes. While partially
adopting their laws and customs, the descendants of the conquerors
often spoke the language of the natives, and in so doing
nearly lost their own. The <i>Book of Howth</i> and many documents
composed in the Pale during the 16th century show this clearly.
Those who settled in Ireland after 1641 were in a very different
mood. They hated, feared and despised the Irish, and took
pride in preserving their pure English speech. Molyneux and
Petty, who founded the Royal Society of Dublin in 1683, were
equally Englishmen, though the former was born in Ireland.
Swift and Berkeley did not consider themselves Irishmen at all.
Burke and Goldsmith, coming later, though they might not
call themselves Englishmen, were not less free from provincialism.
It would be hard to name <span class="correction" title="amended from other four">four other</span> men who, within the same
period, used Shakespeare&rsquo;s language with equal grace and force.
They were all educated at Trinity College, Dublin. The Sheridans
were men of Irish race, but with the religion they adopted the
literary tone of the dominant caste, which was small and exclusive,
with the virtues and the vices of an aristocracy.
Systematic infringement of English copyright was discreditable
in itself, but sure evidence of an appetite for reading. &ldquo;The
bookseller&rsquo;s property,&rdquo; says Gibbon of his first volume, &ldquo;was
twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin.&rdquo; The oratory of the
day was of a high order, and incursions into the wide field of
pamphlet literature often repay the student. Handel was
appreciated in Dublin at a time when it was still the fashion
to decry him in London. The public buildings of the Irish capital
have great architectural merit, and private houses still preserve
much evidence of a refined taste. Angelica Kauffmann worked
long in Ireland; James Barry and Sir Martin Archer Shee
were of Irish birth; and on the whole, considering the
small number of educated inhabitants, it must be admitted
that the Ireland of Flood and Grattan was intellectually
fertile.</p>

<p>The volunteers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flood, Henry</a></span>) extorted partial free
trade (1779), but manufacturing traditions had perished, and
common experience shows how hard these are to recover.
The demand for union was succeeded by a craving
<span class="sidenote">Struggle for independence.</span>
for independence. Poynings&rsquo;s law was repealed, and
in 1782, in Grattan&rsquo;s opinion, Ireland was at last a
nation. The ensuing period of eighteen years is the best known
in Irish history. The quarrel and reconciliation of Flood and
Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>), the kindly patriotism of Lord Charlemont, the
eloquence, the devotion, the corruption, are household words.
(Details will be found in the biographical articles on these and
other men of the period.) In the parliament of 1784, out of
300 members 82 formed the regular opposition, of whom 30
were the nominees of Whig potentates and 52 were really elected.
The majority contained 29 members considered independent,
44 who expected to be bought, 44 placemen, 12 sitting for
regular government boroughs, and 12 who were supposed to
support the government on public grounds. The remaining
seats were proprietary, and were let to government for valuable
consideration. The House of Lords, composed largely of borough
mongers and controlled by political bishops, was even less
independent. Only Protestant freeholders had votes, which
encouraged leases for lives, about the worst kind of tenure,
and the object of each proprietor was to control as many votes
as possible. The necessity of finding Protestants checked subdivision
for a time, but in 1793 the Roman Catholics received
the franchise, and it became usual to make leases in common,
so that each lessee should have a freehold interest of 40s. The
landlord indeed had little choice, for his importance depended
on the poll-book. Salaries, sinecures, even commissions in the
army were reserved for those who contributed to the return of
some local magnate.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span></p>

<p>But no political cause swelled the population as much as
the potato. Introduced by Raleigh in 1610, the cultivation
of this important tuber developed with extraordinary
rapidity. The Elizabethan wars were most injurious
<span class="sidenote">Dependence on the potato.</span>
to industry, for men will not sow unless they hope to
reap, and the very essence of military policy had been
to deprive a recalcitrant people of the means of living. The
Mantuan peasant was grieved at the notion of his harvest being
gathered by barbarian soldiers, and the Irishman could not
be better pleased to see his destroyed. There was no security
for any one, and every one was tempted to live from hand
to mouth. The decade of anarchy which followed 1641 stimulated
this tendency fearfully. The labour of one man could
plant potatoes enough to feed forty, and they could neither
be destroyed nor carried away easily. When Petty wrote,
early in Charles II.&rsquo;s reign, this demoralizing esculent was
already the national food. Potatoes cannot be kept very long,
but there was no attempt to keep them at all; they were left
in the ground, and dug as required. A frost which penetrated
deep caused the famine of 1739. Even with the modern system
of storing in pits the potato does not last through the summer,
and the &ldquo;meal months&rdquo;&mdash;June, July and August&mdash;always
brought great hardship. The danger increased as the growing
population pressed ever harder upon the available land. Between
1831 and 1842 there were six seasons of dearth, approaching
in some places to famine.</p>

<p>The population increased from 2,845,932 in 1785 to 5,356,594
in 1803. They married and were given in marriage. Wise
men foresaw the deluge, but people who were already half-starved
every summer did not think their case could well be
worse. In 1845 the population had swelled to 8,295,061, the
greater part of whom depended on the potato only. There
was no margin, and when the &ldquo;precarious exotic&rdquo; failed an
awful famine was the result.</p>

<p>Great public and private efforts were made to meet the case,
and relief works were undertaken, on which, in March 1847,
734,000 persons, representing a family aggregate of not less
than 3,000,000, were employed. It was found that labour and
exposure were not good for half-starved men. The jobbing was
frightful, and is probably inseparable from wholesale operations
of this kind. The policy of the government was accordingly
changed, and the task of feeding a whole people was undertaken.
More than 3,000,000 rations, generally cooked, were at one time
distributed, but no exertions could altogether avert death
in a country where the usual machinery for carrying, distributing
and preparing food was almost entirely wanting. From 200,000
to 300,000 perished of starvation or of fever caused by insufficient
food. An exodus followed which, necessary as it was,
caused dreadful hardship, and among the Roman Catholic
Irish in America Fenianism took its rise. One good result
of the famine was thoroughly to awaken Englishmen to their
duty towards Ireland. Since then, purse-strings have been
even too readily untied at the call of Irish distress.</p>

<p>Great brutalities disgraced the rebellion of 1798, but the
people had suffered much and had French examples before
them. The real originator of the movement was
Theobald Wolfe Tone (<i>q.v.</i>), whose proffered services
<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of 1798.</span>
were rejected by Pitt, and who founded the United
Irishmen. His Parisian adventures detailed by himself are most
interesting, and his tomb is still the object of an annual pilgrimage.
Tone was a Protestant, but he had imbibed socialist ideas,
and hated the priests whose influence counteracted his own. In
Wexford, where the insurrection went farthest, the ablest leaders
were priests, but they acted against the policy of their church.</p>

<p>The inevitable union followed (1st January 1801). From
this period the history of Ireland naturally becomes intermingled
with English politics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English History</a></span>), and
much of the detail will also be found in the biographical
<span class="sidenote">Union of Great Britain and Ireland.</span>
articles on prominent Irishmen and other politicians.
Pitt had some time before (1785) offered a commercial
partnership, which had been rejected on the ground
that it involved the ultimate right of England to tax Ireland.
He was not less liberally inclined in religious matters, but
George III. stood in the way, and like William III. the minister
would not risk his imperial designs. Carried in great measure
by means as corrupt as those by which the constitution of
&rsquo;82 had been worked, the union earned no gratitude. But it
was a political necessity, and Grattan never gave his countrymen
worse advice than when he urged them to &ldquo;keep knocking
at the union.&rdquo; The advice has, however, been taken. Robert
<span class="sidenote">Catholic Emancipation.</span>
Emmet&rsquo;s insurrection (1803) was the first emphatic
protest. Then came the struggle for emancipation.
It was proposed to couple the boon with a veto on
the appointment of Roman Catholic bishops. It was
the ghost of the old question of investitures. The remnant
of the Roman Catholic aristocracy would have granted it;
even Pius VII. was not invincibly opposed to it; but Daniel
O&rsquo;Connell took the lead against it. Under his guidance the
Catholic association became a formidable body. At last the
priests gained control of the elections; the victor of Waterloo
was obliged to confess that the king&rsquo;s government could no
longer be carried on, and Catholic emancipation had to be
granted in 1829. The tithe war followed, and this most oppressive
of all taxes was unfortunately commuted (1838) only in
deference to clamour and violence. The repeal agitation was
<span class="sidenote">Repeal agitation.</span>
unsuccessful, but let us not be extreme to mark
the faults of O&rsquo;Connell&rsquo;s later years. He doubtless
believed in repeal at first; probably he ceased to
believe in it, but he was already deeply committed, and
had abandoned a lucrative profession for politics. With some
help from Father Mathew he kept the monster meetings
in order, and his constant denunciations of lawless violence
distinguish him from his imitators. His trial took place in
1844. There is a sympathetic sketch of O&rsquo;Connell&rsquo;s career in
Lecky&rsquo;s <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (1871); Sir Thomas
Wyse&rsquo;s <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association</i>
(1829) gives the best account of the religious struggle,
and much may be learned from W. J. Fitzpatrick&rsquo;s <i>Life of
Bishop Doyle</i> (1880).</p>

<p>The national system of education introduced in 1833 was
the real recantation of intolerant opinions, but the economic
state of Ireland was fearful. The famine, emigration and the
new poor law nearly got rid of starvation, but the people never
became frankly loyal, feeling that they owed more to their own
importunity and to their own misfortunes than to the wisdom
of their rulers. The literary efforts of young Ireland eventuated
in another rebellion (1848); a revolutionary wave could not
roll over Europe without touching the unlucky island. After
the failure of that outbreak there was peace until the close
of the American civil war released a number of adventurers
trained to the use of arms and filled with hatred to England.</p>

<p>Already in 1858 the discovery of the Phoenix conspiracy
had shown that the policy of John Mitchel (1815-1875) and
his associates was not forgotten. John O&rsquo;Mahony, one of the
men of &rsquo;48, organized a formidable secret society in America,
which his historical studies led him to call the Fenian brotherhood
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fenians</a></span>).</p>

<p>The Fenian movement disclosed much discontent, and was
attended by criminal outrages in England. The disestablishment
of the Irish Church, the privileged position of which had long
been condemned by public opinion, was then decreed (1869)
and the land question was next taken in hand (1870). These
reforms did not, however, put an end to Irish agitation. The
Home Rule party which demanded the restoration of a
separate Irish  parliament, showed increased activity, and
the general election of 1874 gave it a strong representation
at Westminster, where one section of the party developed
into the &ldquo;obstructionists&rdquo; (see the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaac Butt</a></span>
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">C. S. Parnell</a></span>).</p>

<p>Isaac Butt, who died in May 1879, led a parliamentary party
of fifty-four, but the Conservatives were strong enough to outvote
them and the Liberals together. His procedure was
essentially lawyer-like, for he respected the House of Commons
and dreaded revolutionary violence. His death left the field
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
clear for younger and bolder men. William Shaw succeeded him
as chairman of the Irish party in Parliament; but after the
election of 1880, Parnell, who had the Land League at his back,
ousted him by 23 votes to 18.</p>

<p>The Land Law of 1860, known as Deasy&rsquo;s Act, had been
based on the principle that every tenancy rested on contract
either expressed or implied. The act of 1870, admitting
the divergence between theory and practice,
<span class="sidenote">The Land League.</span>
protected the tenants&rsquo; improvements and provided
compensation for disturbance within certain limits, but not
where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent. In good
times this worked well enough, but foreign competition began
to tell, and 1879 was the worst of several bad seasons. A succession
of wet summers told against all farmers, and in mountainous
districts it was difficult to dry the turf on which the people
depended for fuel. A famine was feared, and in the west there
was much real distress. The Land League, of which Michael
Davitt (<i>q.v.</i>) was the founder, originated in Mayo in August,
and at a meeting in Dublin in October the organization was
extended to all Ireland, with Parnell as president. The country
was thickly covered with branches before the end of the year,
and in December Parnell went to America to collect money.
He was absent just three months, visiting over sixty cities
and towns; and 200,000 dollars were subscribed. Parnell
had to conciliate the Clan-na-Gael and the Fenians generally,
both in Ireland and America, while abstaining from action
which would make his parliamentary position untenable. He
did not deny that he would like an armed rebellion, but acknowledged
that it was an impossibility. Speaking at Cincinnati
on the 23rd of February 1880, he declared that the first thing
necessary was to undermine English power by destroying the
Irish landlords. Ireland might thus become independent.
&ldquo;And let us not forget,&rdquo; he added, &ldquo;that that is the ultimate
goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be
in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied
until we have destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound
to England.&rdquo; At Galway in October of the same year he said
that he &ldquo;would not have taken off his coat&rdquo; to help the tenant
farmers had he not known that that was the way to legislative
independence. Fenianism and agrarianism, essentially different
as they are, might be worked to the same end.</p>

<p>To meet the partial failure of the potatoes in Connaught
and Donegal, very large sums were subscribed and administered
by two committees, one under the duchess of Marlborough
and the other under the lord mayor of Dublin. When Lord
Beaconsfield appealed to the country in March 1880, he reminded
the country in a letter to the viceroy, the duke of Marlborough,
that there was a party in Ireland &ldquo;attempting to sever the
constitutional tie which unites it to Great Britain in that bond
which has favoured the power and prosperity of both,&rdquo; and that
such an agitation might in the end be &ldquo;scarcely less disastrous
than pestilence and famine.&rdquo; But the general election did
not turn mainly upon Ireland, and the result gave Gladstone
a majority of 50 over Conservatives and Home Rulers combined.
Earl Cowper became lord-lieutenant, with W. E. Forster (<i>q.v.</i>)
as chief secretary, and Parnell remained chairman of his
own party in parliament. The Compensation for Disturbance
Bill, even where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent,
passed the House of Commons, but the Lords threw it out, and
this has often been represented as the great cause of future
trouble. Probably it made little real difference, for the extreme
party in Ireland were resolved to stop at nothing. It is not
easy to defend the principle that a landlord who has already
lost his rent should also have to pay the defaulter before getting
a new tenant or deriving a profit from the farm by working it
<span class="sidenote">Boycotting.</span>
himself. Speaking at Ennis on the 19th of September,
Parnell told the people to punish a man for taking
a farm from which another had been evicted &ldquo;by
isolating him from his kind as if he was a leper of old.&rdquo; The
advice was at once taken and its scope largely extended. For
refusing to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain
Boycott (1832-1897), Lord Erne&rsquo;s agent in Mayo, was severely
&ldquo;boycotted,&rdquo; the name of the first victim being given to the
new system. His servants were forced to leave him, his crops
were left unsaved, even the post and telegraph were interfered
with. The Ulster Orangemen resolved to get in the crops,
and to go in armed force sufficient for the purpose. The government
allowed 50 of them to go under the protection of about
900 soldiers. The cost seemed great, but the work was done
and the law vindicated. In Cork William Bence-Jones (1812-1882)
was attacked. The men in the service of the steam-packet
companies refused to put his cattle on board, and they were
eventually smuggled across the Channel in small lots. Several
associations were formed which had more or less success against
the League, and at last a direct attack was made. Parnell with
four other members of parliament and the chief officers of
the Land League were indicted for conspiracy in the Queen&rsquo;s
Bench. No means of intimidating the jurors was neglected,
and in the then state of public feeling a verdict was hardly
to be expected. On the 25th of January 1881 the jury disagreed,
and Parnell became stronger than ever.</p>

<p>Then followed a reign of terror which lasted for years. No
one was safe, and private spite worked freely in the name of
freedom. The system originated by Parnell&rsquo;s Ennis speech
became an all-devouring tyranny. In the House of Commons,
on the 24th of May 1882, Gladstone said that boycotting required
a sanction like every other creed, and that the sanction which
alone made it effective &ldquo;is the murder which is not to be
denounced.&rdquo; The following description by a resident in Munster
was published in <i>The Times</i> of the 5th of November 1885:
&ldquo;Boycotting means that a peaceable subject of the queen
is denied food and drink, and that he is ruined in his business;
that his cattle are unsaleable at fairs; that the smith will
not shoe his horse, nor the carpenter mend his cart; that old
friends pass him by on the other side, making the sign of the
cross; that his children are hooted at the village school; that
he sits apart like an outcast in his usual place of public worship:
all for doing nothing but what the law says he has a perfect
right to do. I know of a man who is afraid to visit his own son.
A trader who is even suspected of dealing with such a victim
of tyranny may be ruined by the mere imputation; his customers
shun him from fear, and he is obliged to get a character from
some notorious leaguer. Membership of the National League
is, in many cases, as necessary a protection as ever was a certificate
of civism under Robespierre. The real Jacobins are few,
but the masses groan and submit.&rdquo; Medicine was refused
by a shopkeeper even for the sick child of a boycotted person.
A clergyman was threatened for visiting a parishioner who
was under the ban of the League. Sometimes no one could be
found to dig a grave. The League interfered in every relation
of life, and the mere fact of not belonging to it was often severely
punished. &ldquo;The people,&rdquo; says the report of the Cowper Commission,
&ldquo;are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for
its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of the
judgments of the courts of justice. This unwritten law in some
districts is supreme.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The session of parliament of 1881 was chiefly occupied with
Ireland. &ldquo;With fatal and painful precision,&rdquo; Gladstone told
the House of Commons on the 28th of January,
&ldquo;the steps of crime dogged the steps of the Land
<span class="sidenote">Coercion.</span>
League,&rdquo; and the first thing was to restore the supremacy of
the law. In 1871 there had been an agrarian war in Westmeath,
and an act had been passed authorizing the arrest of suspected
persons and their detention without trial. The ringleaders
disappeared and the county became quiet again. It was now
proposed to do the same thing for the whole of Ireland, the power
of detention to continue until the 30th of September 1882.
Parnell cared nothing for the dignity of the House of Commons.
His leading idea was that no concession could be got from
England by fair means, and he made himself as disagreeable
as possible. Parliamentary forms were used with great success
to obstruct parliamentary action. The &ldquo;Coercion Bill&rdquo; was
introduced on the 24th of January 1881. There was a sitting
of 22 hours and another of 41 hours, and on the 2nd of February
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
the debate was closured by the Speaker on his own responsibility
and the bill read a first time. The Speaker&rsquo;s action was approved
by the House generally, but acrimonious debates were
raised by Irish members. Parnell and 35 of his colleagues were
suspended, and the bill became law on the 2nd of March, but
not before great and permanent changes were made in parliamentary
procedure. An Arms Bill, which excited the same sort
of opposition, was also passed into law.</p>

<p>That a Land Act should be passed was a foregone conclusion
as soon as the result of the general election was known. There
were many drafts and plans which never saw the
light, but it was at last resolved to adopt the policy
<span class="sidenote">Land Act, 1881.</span>
known as the &ldquo;Three F&rsquo;s&rdquo;&mdash;free sale, fixity of tenure
and fair rents. By the first tenants at will were empowered
to sell their occupation interests, the landlord retaining a right
of pre-emption. By the second the tenant was secured from
eviction except for non-payment of rent. By the third the
tenant was given the right to have a &ldquo;fair rent&rdquo; fixed by
a newly formed Land Commission Court, the element of competition
being entirely excluded. There were several exceptions
and qualifying clauses, but most of them have been swept
away by later acts. The act of 1881 can scarcely be said to have
worked well or smoothly, but it is not easy to see how any
sort of settlement could have been reached without accepting
the principle of having the rent fixed by a third party. Drastic
as the bill was, Parnell refused to be a party to it, and on the
second reading, which was carried by 352 to 176, he walked
out of the House with 35 of his followers. When the bill became
law in August he could not prevent the tenants from using
it, but he did what he could to discourage them in order to
please his American paymasters, who repudiated all parliamentary
remedies. In September a convention was held in
Dublin, and Parnell reported its action to the American Land
League: &ldquo;Resolutions were adopted for national self-government,
the unconditional liberation of the land for the people,
tenants not to use the rent-fixing clauses of the Land Act, but
follow old Land League lines, and rely on the old methods to
reach justice. The executive of the League is empowered to
select test cases, in order that tenants in surrounding districts
may realize, by the results of cases decided, the hollowness
of the act&rdquo; (Barry O&rsquo;Brien, <i>Life of C. S. Parnell</i>, i. 306). His
organ <i>United Ireland</i> declared that the new courts must be
cowed into giving satisfactory decisions. The League, however,
could not prevent the farmers from using the fair-rent clauses.
It was more successful in preventing free sale, maintaining the
doctrine that, rent or no rent, no evictions were to be allowed.
At the first sitting of the Land Commission in Dublin the crier,
perhaps by accident, declared &ldquo;the court of the Land League
to be open.&rdquo; Speaking at Leeds on the 7th of October, Gladstone
said &ldquo;the resources of civilization were not exhausted,&rdquo; adding
that Parnell &ldquo;stood between the living and the dead, not
like Aaron to stay the plague, but to spread the plague.&rdquo; Two
days later Parnell called the prime minister a &ldquo;masquerading
knight-errant,&rdquo; ready to oppress the unarmed, but submissive
to the Boers as soon as he found &ldquo;that they were able to shoot
straighter than his own soldiers.&rdquo; Four days after this Parnell
was arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
<span class="sidenote">Kilmainham &ldquo;Treaty.&rdquo;</span>
gaol. The Land League having retorted by ordering
the tenants to pay no rent, it was declared illegal,
and suppressed by proclamation. Parnell is said to
have disapproved of the no-rent manifesto, as also
Mr John Dillon, who was in Kilmainham with him, but both
of them signed it (<i>ib.</i> i. 319). At Liverpool on the 27th of
October Gladstone described Parnell and his party as &ldquo;marching
through rapine to the disintegration and dismemberment of
the empire.&rdquo; In 1881, 4439 agrarian outrages were reported;
nothing attracted more attention in England than the cruel
mutilations of cattle, which became very frequent. The Ladies&rsquo;
Land League tried to carry on the work of the suppressed
organization and there was even an attempt at a Children&rsquo;s
League. Sex had no effect in softening the prevalent style
of oratory, but the government thought it better to take no
notice. The imprisonment of suspects under the Coercion
Act had not the expected result, and outrages were incessant,
the agitation being supported by constant supplies of money
from America. Gladstone resolved on a complete change of
policy. It was decided to check evictions by an Arrears Bill,
and the three imprisoned members of parliament&mdash;Messrs
Parnell, Dillon and O&rsquo;Kelly&mdash;were released on the 2nd of May
1882, against the wishes of the Irish government. This was
known as the Kilmainham Treaty. Lord Cowper and Forster
at once resigned, and were succeeded by Lord Spencer and
Lord Frederick Cavendish, who entered Dublin on the 6th of
May.</p>

<p>That same evening Lord Frederick and the permanent under-secretary
Thomas Henry Burke were murdered in the Phoenix
Park in broad daylight. The weapons were amputating
knives imported for the purpose. The assassins drove
<span class="sidenote">Phoenix Park murders.</span>
rapidly away; no one, not even those who saw the
deed from a distance, knew what had been done.
A Dublin tradesman named Field, who had been a juror in a
murder trial, was attacked by the same gang and stabbed in
many places. He escaped with life, though with shattered
health, and it was the identification of the man who drove his
assailants&rsquo; car that afterwards led to the discovery of the whole
conspiracy. The clue was obtained by a private examination
of suspected persons under the powers given by the Crimes
Act. To obtain convictions the evidence of an informer was
wanted, and the person selected was James Carey, a member
of the Dublin Corporation and a chief contriver of the murders.
He swore that they had been ordered immediately after the
appearance of an article in the <i>Freeman&rsquo;s Journal</i> which declared
that a &ldquo;clean sweep&rdquo; should be made of Dublin Castle officials.
The evidence disclosed the fact that several abortive attempts
had been previously made to murder Forster. Out of twenty
persons, subsequently arraigned, five were hanged, and others
sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Carey embarked
for South Africa in the following July, and was murdered on
board ship by Patrick O&rsquo;Donnell, who was brought to
England, convicted, and hanged on the 17th of December
1883.</p>

<p>Mr (afterwards Sir) G. O. Trevelyan had been appointed
chief secretary in May 1882, and in July the Crimes Prevention
Act was passed for three years on lines indicated by
Lord Cowper. In the first six months of the year
<span class="sidenote">National League.</span>
2597 agrarian outrages were reported, and in the last
six months 836. They fell to 834 in 1883, and to 744 in 1884.
The Arrears Bill also became law. Money enough was advanced
out of the surplus property of the Irish Church to pay for tenants
of holdings under £30 one year&rsquo;s rent upon all arrears accruing
before November 1880, giving them a clear receipt to that
date on condition of their paying another year themselves;
of the many reasons against the measure the most important
was that it was a concession to agrarian violence. But the
same could be and was said of the Land Act of 1881. That
had been passed, and it was probably impossible to make it
work at all smoothly without checking evictions by dealing
with old arrears. The Irish National League was, however,
founded in October to take up the work of the defunct Land
League, and the country continued to be disturbed. The
law was paralysed, for no jury could be trusted to convict
even on the clearest evidence, and the National League branches
assumed judicial functions. Men were openly tried all over
the country for disobeying the revolutionary decrees, and
private spite was often the cause of their being accused.
&ldquo;Tenants,&rdquo; to quote the Cowper Commission again, &ldquo;who
have paid even the judicial rents have been summoned to appear
before self-constituted tribunals, and if they failed to do so,
or on appearing failed to satisfy those tribunals, have been
fined or boycotted.&rdquo; In February 1883 Mr Trevelyan gave
an account of his stewardship at Hawick, and said that all
law-abiding Irishmen, whether Conservative or Liberal, were
on one side, while on the other were those who &ldquo;planned and
executed the Galway and Dublin murders, the boycotting and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
firing into houses, the mutilation of cattle and intimidation
of every sort.&rdquo; In this year the campaign of outrage in Ireland
<span class="sidenote">Dynamite.</span>
was reinforced by one of dynamite in Great Britain.
The home secretary, Sir W. Harcourt, brought in an
Explosives Bill on the 9th of April, which was passed through
all its stages in one day and received the royal assent on the
next. The dynamiters were for the most part Irish-Americans,
who for obvious reasons generally spared Ireland, but one
land-agent&rsquo;s house in Kerry was shaken to its foundations in
November 1884. At Belfast in the preceding June Lord Spencer,
who afterwards became a Home Ruler, had announced that
the secret conspirators would &ldquo;not terrify the English nation.&rdquo;
On the 22nd of February 1883 Forster made his great attack
on Parnell in the House of Commons, accusing him of moral
complicity with Irish crime. A detailed answer was never
attempted, and public attention was soon drawn to the trial
of the &ldquo;Invincibles&rdquo; who contrived the Phoenix Park murders.
On the 11th of December Parnell received a present of £37,000
from his followers in Ireland. The tribute, as it was called,
was raised in spite of a papal prohibition. As a complement
<span class="sidenote">Labourers Act.</span>
to the Land Act and Arrears Act, boards of guardians
were this year empowered to build labourers&rsquo; cottages
with money borrowed on the security of the rates
and repayable out of them. Half an acre of land went with the
cottage, and by a later act this was unwisely extended to one
acre. That the labourers had been badly housed was evident,
and there was little chance of improvement by private capitalists,
for cottage property is not remunerative. But the working
of the Labourers Acts was very costly, cottages being often
assigned to people who were not agricultural labourers at all.
In many districts the building was quite overdone, and the rent
obtainable being far less than enough to recoup the guardians,
the system operated as out-door relief for the able-bodied and
as a rate in aid of wages.</p>

<p>The Explosives Act, strong as it was, did not at once effect
its object. In February 1884 there was a plot to blow up four
London railway stations by means of clockwork infernal machines
containing dynamite, brought from America. Three Irish-Americans
were convicted, of whom one, John Daly, who was
sentenced to penal servitude for life, lived to be mayor of Limerick
in 1899. In January 1885 Parnell visited Thurles, where he
gave a remarkable proof of his power by breaking down local
opposition to his candidate for Tipperary. In April the prince
and princess of Wales visited Ireland. At Dublin they were
well received, and at Belfast enthusiastically, but there were
hostile demonstrations at Mallow and Cork. In May it was
intended to renew the Crimes Prevention Act, but before that
was done the government was beaten on a financial question
by 264 to 252, Parnell and 39 of his followers voting with the
Conservatives. The Crimes Prevention Act expired on the
12th of July, and the want of it was at once felt. The number
of agrarian outrages reported in the first six months of the year
was 373; in the last six months they rose to 543, and the number
of persons boycotted was almost trebled. Lord Salisbury
came into office, with Lord Carnarvon as lord-lieutenant and
Sir W. Hart Dyke as chief secretary. The lord-lieutenant
had an interview with Parnell, of which very conflicting accounts
were given, but the Irish leader issued a manifesto advising
his friends to vote against the Liberals as oppressors and
coercionists, who promised everything and did nothing. The
constitutional Liberal party in Ireland was in fact annihilated
by the extension of the franchise to agricultural labourers and
very small farmers. The most important Irish measure of
<span class="sidenote">Ashbourne Act.</span>
the session was the Ashbourne Act, by which £5,000,000
was allotted on the security of the land for the creation
of an occupying proprietary. Later the same sum
was again granted, and there was still a good deal unexpended
when the larger measure of 1891 became law. In December
1885, when the general election was over, an anonymous scheme
of Home Rule appeared in some newspapers, and in spite of
disclaimers it was at once believed that Gladstone had made
up his mind to surrender. In October 1884, only fourteen
months before, he had told political friends that he had a sneaking
regard for Parnell, and that Home Rule might be a matter for
serious consideration within ten years (Sir A. West&rsquo;s <i>Recollections</i>,
1899, ii. 206). The shortening of the time was perhaps
accounted for by the fact that the new House of Commons
consisted of 331 Liberals, 249 Conservatives, 86 Home Rulers
and Independents, Parnell thus holding the balance of parties.
In Ireland there had been 66 elections contested, and out
of 451,000 voters 93,000 were illiterates. Such were the
constituencies to whom it was proposed to hand Ireland
over. On the 26th of January 1886 the government were
defeated by a combination of Liberal and Nationalists on an
issue not directly connected with Ireland, and their resignation
<span class="sidenote">Home Rule Bill, 1886.</span>
immediately followed. Gladstone became prime
minister, with Lord Aberdeen as lord-lieutenant
and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. Lord Hartington
and Mr Goschen were not included in this administration.
In February Parnell again showed his power by
forcing Captain O&rsquo;Shea upon the unwilling electors of Galway.
He introduced a Land Bill to relieve tenants from legal process
if they paid half their rent, and foretold disorder in consequence
of its rejection. In April the Government of Ireland Bill was
brought in, Mr Chamberlain (<i>q.v.</i>), Mr Trevelyan and others
leaving the ministry. The bill attempted to safeguard British
interests, while leaving Ireland at the mercy of the native
politicians. Irish members were excluded from the imperial
parliament. The local legislature was to consist of two orders
sitting and voting together, but with the power of separating
on the demand of either order present. The 28 representative
peers, with 75 other members having an income of £200, or a
capital of £4000, elected for ten years by £25 occupiers, were to
constitute the first order. The second was to have 204 members
returned for five years by the usual parliamentary electorate.
The status of the lord-lieutenant was unalterable by this legislature.
Holders of judicial offices and permanent civil servants
had the option of retiring with pensions, but the constabulary,
whom the Home Rulers had openly threatened to punish when
their time came, were to come after an interval under the
power of the Irish Parliament. Parnell accepted the bill,
but without enthusiasm.</p>

<p>The Government of Ireland Bill gave no protection to landowners,
but as the crisis was mainly agrarian, it would have
been hardly decent to make no show of considering them.
A Land Purchase Bill was accordingly introduced on the 16th
of April by the prime minister under &ldquo;an obligation of honour
and policy,&rdquo; to use his own words. Fifty millions sterling in
three years was proposed as payment for what had been officially
undervalued at 113 millions. It was assumed that there would
be a rush to sell, the choice apparently lying between that
and confiscation, and priority was to be decided by lot. The
Irish landlords, however, showed no disposition to sell their
country, and the Purchase Bill was quickly dropped, though
Gladstone had declared the two measures to be inseparable.
He reminded the landlords that the &ldquo;sands were running in
the hour-glass,&rdquo; but this threat had no effect. The Unionists
of Ireland had been taken by surprise, and out of Ulster they
had no organization capable of opposing the National League
and the government combined. Individuals went to England
and spoke wherever they could get a hearing, but it was uphill
work. In Ulster the Orange lodges were always available,
and the large Protestant population made itself felt. Terrible
riots took place at Belfast in June, July and August. In October
there was an inquiry by a royal commission with Mr Justice
Day at its head, and on the report being published in the following
January there were fresh riots. Foolish and criminal as
these disturbances were, they served to remind the English
people that Ireland would not cease to be troublesome under
Home Rule. In parliament the Home Rule Bill soon got
into rough water; John Bright declared against it. The &ldquo;dissentient
Liberals,&rdquo; as Gladstone always called them, were not
converted by the abandonment of the Purchase Bill, and on
the 7th of June 93 of them voted against the second reading,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
which was lost by 30 votes. A general election followed in
July, and 74 Liberal Unionists were returned, forming with
the Conservatives a Unionist party, which outnumbered Gladstonians
and Parnellites together by over a hundred. Gladstone
resigned, and Lord Salisbury became prime minister, with
Lord Londonderry as lord-lieutenant and Sir M. Hicks-Beach
(afterwards Lord St Aldwyn) as chief secretary.</p>

<p>The political stroke having failed, agrarianism again occupied
the ground. The &ldquo;plan of campaign&rdquo; was started, against
Parnell&rsquo;s wishes, towards the end of 1886. The gist
of this movement was that tenants should offer what
<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Plan of Campaign.&rdquo;</span>
they were pleased to consider a fair rent, and if it
was refused, should pay the money into the hands
of a committee. In March 1887 Sir M. Hicks-Beach resigned
on account of illness, and Mr Arthur Balfour (<i>q.v.</i>) became
chief secretary. The attempt to govern Ireland under what
was called &ldquo;the ordinary law&rdquo; was necessarily abandoned,
and a perpetual Crimes Act was passed which enabled the lord-lieutenant
to proclaim disturbed districts and dangerous associations,
and substituted trial by magistrates for trial by jury
in the case of certain acts of violence. In August the National
League was suppressed by proclamation. The conservative
instincts of the Vatican were alarmed by the lawless state of
Ireland, and an eminent ecclesiastic, Monsignor Persico, arrived
in the late summer on a special commission of inquiry. He made
no secret of his belief that the establishment of an occupying
proprietary was the only lasting cure, but the attitude of the
clergy became gradually more moderate. The government
passed a bill giving leaseholders the benefit of the act of 1881,
and prescribing a temporary reduction upon judicial rents
already fixed. This last provision was open to many great
and obvious objections, but was more or less justified by the
fall in prices which had taken place since 1881.</p>

<p>The steady administration of the Crimes Act by Mr Balfour
gradually quieted the country. Parnell had now gained the
bulk of the Liberal party, including Lord Spencer (in spite of
all that he had said and done) and Sir G. Trevelyan (in spite
of his Hawick speech). In the circumstances the best chance
for Home Rule was not to stir the land question. Cecil Rhodes,
hoping to help imperial federation, gave Parnell £10,000 for
the cause. In September 1887 a riot arising out of the &ldquo;plan
of campaign&rdquo; took place at Mitchelstown. The police fired,
and two lives were lost, Mr Henry Labouchere and Mr (afterwards
Sir John) Brunner, both members of parliament, being
present at the time. The coroner&rsquo;s jury brought in a verdict
against the police, but that was a matter of course, and the
government ignored it. A telegram sent by Gladstone a little
later, ending with the words &ldquo;remember Mitchelstown,&rdquo; created
a good deal of feeling, but it did the Home Rulers no good.
In October Mr Chamberlain visited Ulster, where he was received
with enthusiasm, and delivered several stirring Unionist speeches.
In November Lord Hartington and Mr Goschen were in Dublin,
and addressed a great loyalist meeting there.</p>

<p>In July 1888 an act was passed appointing a commission,
consisting of Sir James Hannen, Mr Justice Day and Mr Justice
A. L. Smith, to inquire into certain charges made by
<i>The Times</i> against Parnell and his party. What
<span class="sidenote">Parnell Commission.</span>
caused most excitement was the publication by <i>The
Times</i> on the 15th of May 1887 of a <i>facsimile</i> letter
purporting to have been written by Parnell on the 15th of
May 1882, nine days after the Phoenix Park murders. The
writer of this letter suggested that his open condemnation
of the murders had been a matter of expediency, and that
Burke deserved his fate. Parnell at once declared that this was
a forgery, but he did nothing more at the time. Other alleged
incriminating letters followed. The case of <i>O&rsquo;Donnell</i> v. <i>Walter</i>,
tried before the Lord Chief Justice of England in July 1888,
brought matters to a head, and the special commission followed.
The proceedings were necessarily of enormous length, and
the commissioners did not report until the 13th of February
1890, but the question of the letters was decided just twelve
months earlier, Richard Pigott, who shot himself at Madrid,
having confessed to the forgeries. A few days later, on the
8th of March 1889, Parnell was entertained at dinner by the
Eighty Club, Lords Spencer and Rosebery being present;
and he was well received on English platforms when he chose
to appear. Yet the special commission shed a flood of light on
the agrarian and Nationalist movement in Ireland. Eight
members of parliament were pronounced by name to have
conspired for the total political separation of the two islands.
The whole party were proved to have disseminated newspapers
tending to incite to sedition and the commission of crime,
to have abstained from denouncing the system of intimidation,
and to have compensated persons injured in committing crime.
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parnell</a></span>.)</p>

<p>The conduct of the agrarian war had in the meantime almost
passed from Parnell&rsquo;s hands. The &ldquo;plan of campaign&rdquo; was
not his work, still less its latest and most remarkable
exploit. To punish Mr Smith-Barry (afterwards
<span class="sidenote">New Tipperary.</span>
Lord Barrymore) for his exertions in favour of a brother
landlord, his tenants in Tipperary were ordered to give up
their holdings. A sum of £50,000 was collected to build &ldquo;New
Tipperary,&rdquo; and the fine shops and flourishing concerns in
the town were deserted to avoid paying small ground-rents.
The same course was pursued with the farmers, some of whom
had large capitals invested. Mr William O&rsquo;Brien presided at
the inaugural dinner on the 12th of April, and some English
M.P.&rsquo;s were present, but his chief supporter throughout was
Father Humphreys. Parnell was invited, but neither came
nor answered. No shopkeeper nor farmer had any quarrel
with his landlord. &ldquo;Heretofore,&rdquo; a tenant wrote in <i>The Times</i>
in the following December, &ldquo;people were boycotted for taking
farms; I am boycotted for not giving up mine, which I have
held for twenty-five years. A neighbour of mine, an Englishman,
is undergoing the same treatment, and we alone. We are
the only Protestant tenants on the Cashel estate. The remainder
of the tenants, about thirty, are clearing everything
off their land, and say they will allow themselves to be evicted.&rdquo;
In the end the attack on Mr Smith-Barry completely failed,
and he took back his misguided tenants. But the town of
Tipperary has not recovered its old prosperity.</p>

<p>The principal Irish measure passed in 1891 was Mr Balfour&rsquo;s
Purchase Act, to extend and modify the operation of the Ashbourne
acts. £30,000,000 were provided to convert
tenants into proprietors, the instalments paid being
<span class="sidenote">Land purchase.</span>
again available, so that all the tenanted land in
Ireland might ultimately be passed through if desired. The
land itself in one shape or another formed the security, and
guaranteed stock was issued which the holder might exchange
for consols. The 40th clause of the Land Act of 1896 greatly
stimulated the creation of occupying owners in the case of
over-incumbered estates, but solvent landlords were not in
a hurry to sell. The interests of the tenant were so carefully
guarded that the prices obtainable were ruinous to the vendor
unless he had other resources. The security of the treasury
was also so jealously scrutinized that even the price which
the tenant might be willing to pay was often disallowed. Thus
the Land Commission really fixed the price of all property, and
the last vestige of free contract was obliterated. Compulsory
purchase became a popular cry, especially in Ulster. Owners,
however, could not with any pretence of justice be forced to
sell at ruinous prices, nor tenants be forced to give more than
they thought fair. If the state, for purposes of its own, insisted
upon expropriating all landlords, it was bound to find the difference,
or to enter upon a course of undisguised confiscation.
The Purchase Act was not the only one relied on by Mr Balfour.
The Light Railways Act, passed by him in 1890, did much to
open up some of the poorest parts of the west, and the temporary
scarcity of that year was dealt with by relief works.</p>

<p>An action begun by Parnell against <i>The Times</i> was settled
by the payment of a substantial sum. The Nationalist leader
seemed to stand higher than ever, but the writ in the divorce
proceedings, brought by Captain O&rsquo;Shea against his wife, with
<span class="sidenote">Parnell&rsquo;s downfall.</span>
the Irish leader as co-respondent, was hanging over him. To
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
public astonishment, when the case came on for trial there was
no defence, and on the 17th of November 1890 a decree nisi
was granted. Parnell&rsquo;s subsequent marriage with
the respondent before a registrar did him no good
with his Roman Catholic supporters. The Irish
bishops remained silent, while in England the &ldquo;Nonconformist
conscience&rdquo; revolted. Three days after the verdict a great
meeting was held in the Leinster Hall, Dublin, attended by
25 members of the Irish parliamentary party. The result
was an enthusiastic vote of confidence in Parnell, moved by
Mr Justin M&lsquo;Carthy and seconded by Mr T. M. Healy. Five
days later he was unanimously re-elected chairman by his party
in parliament, but the meeting was scarcely over when Gladstone&rsquo;s
famous letter to Mr Morley became public. The writer
in effect demanded Parnell&rsquo;s resignation of the leadership as
the condition upon which he could continue at the head of
the Liberal party. He had to choose between the Nonconformist
vote and the Irish leader, and he preferred the former. Next
day the secession of the Irish members from their chief began.
Long and acrimonious debates followed in committee-room
15, and on the 6th of December Parnell was left in the chair
with only 26 supporters. The majority of 45 members&mdash;Anti-Parnellites,
as they came to be called&mdash;went into another room,
unanimously deposed him, and elected Mr Justin M&lsquo;Carthy
in his place. Parnell then began a campaign as hopeless as
that of Napoleon after Leipzig. He seized the office of <i>United
Ireland</i> in person. The Fenian element was with him, as he
admitted, but the clergy were against him, and the odds were
too great, especially against a Protestant politician. His
candidate in a by-election at Kilkenny was beaten by nearly
two to one, and he himself was injured in the eyes by lime
being thrown at him. Similar defeats followed at Sligo and
Carlow. He went over to France to meet Messrs Dillon and
O&rsquo;Brien, who had not yet taken sides, but nothing was agreed
to, and in the end both these former followers went against
him. Every Saturday he went from London to Dublin and
addressed some Sunday meeting in the country. The last was
on the 27th of September. On the 6th of October 1891
he died at Brighton, from the effects of a chill following on
overwork and excitement. His funeral at Glasnevin was
attended by 200,000 people. At the general election of 1892,
however, only 9 Parnellites&mdash;the section which under Mr John
Redmond remained staunch to his memory&mdash;were returned
to parliament.</p>

<p>The &ldquo;Parnellite split,&rdquo; as it was called, proved fatal to
the cause of Home Rule, for the Nationalist party broke up
into factions. No one of the sectional leaders commanded
general confidence, and personal rivalries were of the bitterest
kind. An important result of these quarrels was to stop the
supply of American money, without which neither the Land
League nor the Home Rule agitation could have been worked.
The Unionist party had adopted a policy of local government
for Ireland while opposing legislative independence, and a bill
was introduced into the House of Commons by Mr Balfour
in February 1892. The principle was affirmed by a great
majority, but the measure could not then be proceeded with.
At the general election in July the Gladstonians and Nationalists
together obtained a majority of 40 over Conservatives and
Liberal Unionists. Lord Salisbury resigned in August, and
was succeeded by Gladstone, with Lord Houghton (afterwards
earl of Crewe) as lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief
secretary. The Crimes Act, which had already been relaxed,
was altogether suspended, and the proclamation declaring the
National League illegal was revoked. The lord-lieutenant,
on taking up his quarters in Dublin, refused a loyal address
because of its Unionist tone; and in October the government
issued a commission, with Mr Justice Mathew as chairman,
which had the restoration of the evicted tenants as its avowed
object. Two of the commissioners very shortly resigned, and
the whole inquiry became somewhat farcical. It was given
in evidence that out of £234,431 collected under the plan of
campaign only £125,000 had been given to evicted tenants.
In February 1893, on the application of the sheriff of Kerry,
an order from Dublin Castle, refusing protection, was pronounced
illegal in the Queen&rsquo;s Bench, and persons issuing it were declared
liable to criminal prosecution. In the same month Gladstone
<span class="sidenote">Home Rule Bill 1893.</span>
introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which proposed
to retain 80 Irish members in the imperial
parliament instead of 103, but they were not to vote
on any proceedings expressly confined to Great Britain. On
the 8th of April 1886 he had told the House of Commons that
it &ldquo;passed the wit of man&rdquo; to draw a practical distinction
between imperial and non-imperial affairs. On the 20th of July
1888 he informed the same assembly that there was no difficulty
in doing so. It had become evident, in the meantime, to numberless
Englishmen that the exclusion of the Irish members would
mean virtual separation. The plan now proposed met with
no greater favour, for a good many English Home Rulers had
been mainly actuated all along by the wish to get the Irish
members out of their way. The financial provisions of the
bill were objected to by the Nationalists as tending to keep
Ireland in bondage.</p>

<p>During the year 1892 a vast number of Unionist meetings
were held throughout Ireland, the most remarkable being
the great Ulster convention in Belfast, and that of the three
other provinces in Dublin, on the 14th and 23rd of June. On
the 22nd of April 1893, the day after the second reading of
the bill, the Albert Hall in London was filled by enthusiastic
Unionist delegates from all parts of Ireland. Next day the
visitors were entertained by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield, the
duke of Devonshire, Mr Balfour, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain
being present. Between the second reading and the third
on 1st September the government majority fell from 43 to 34.
A great part of the bill was closured by what was known as the
device of the &ldquo;gag&rdquo; without discussion, although it occupied
the House of Commons altogether eighty-two nights. It was
thrown out by the Lords by 419 to 41, and the country undoubtedly
acquiesced in their action. On the 3rd of March
1894 Gladstone resigned, and Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>) became
prime minister. A bill to repeal the Crimes Act of 1887 was
read a second time in the Commons by 60, but went no farther.
A committee on the Irish Land Acts was closured at the end of
July by the casting vote of the chairman, Mr Morley, and
the minority refused to join in the report. The bill to restore
the evicted tenants, which resulted from the Mathew Commission,
was rejected in the Lords by 249 to 30. In March
1895 Mr Morley introduced a Land Bill, but the government
majority continued to dwindle. Another Crimes Act Repeal
Bill passed the second reading in May by only 222 to 208. In
July, however, the government were defeated on the question
of the supply of small-arms ammunition. A general election
followed, which resulted in a Unionist majority of 150. The
Liberal Unionists, whose extinction had once been so confidently
foretold, had increased from 46 to 71, and the Parnellites,
in spite of the most violent clerical opposition, from 9 to 12.
Lord Cadogan became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Mr Gerald
Balfour&mdash;who announced a policy of &ldquo;killing Home Rule by
kindness&rdquo;&mdash;chief secretary.</p>

<p>In the session of 1896 a new Land Act was added to the
statute-book. The general effect was to decide most disputed
points in favour of the tenants, and to repeal the
exceptions made by former acts in the landlord&rsquo;s
<span class="sidenote">Land Act 1896.</span>
favour. Dairy farms, to mention only a few of the
most important points which had been hitherto excluded,
were admitted within the scope of the Land Acts, and purely
pastoral holdings of between £50 and £100 were for the first
time included. A presumption of law in the tenant&rsquo;s favour
was created as to improvements made since 1850. The 40th
clause introduced the principle of compulsory sale to the tenants
of estates in the hands of receivers. The tendency of this
provision to lower the value of all property was partly, but only
partly, neutralized by the firmness of the land judge. The
landlords of Ireland, who had made so many sacrifices and
worked so hard to return Lord Salisbury to power, felt that
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
the measure was hardly what they had a right to expect from
a Unionist administration. In their opinion it unsettled the
agricultural mind, and encouraged judicial tenants to go to
law at the expiration of the first fifteen years&rsquo; term instead of
bargaining amicably with their landlords.</p>

<p>In the autumn of this year was published the report of the
royal commission on the financial relations between England
and Ireland. Mr Hugh C. E. Childers was the original
chairman of this commission, which was appointed
<span class="sidenote">Financial relations.</span>
in 1894 with the object of determining the fiscal
contribution of Ireland under Home Rule, and after his death
in 1896 The O&rsquo;Conor Don presided. The report&mdash;or rather
the collection of minority reports&mdash;gave some countenance
to those who held that Ireland was overtaxed, and there was
a strong agitation on the subject, in which some Irish Unionists
joined without perceiving the danger of treating the two islands
as &ldquo;separate entities.&rdquo; No individual Irishman was taxed
on a higher scale than any corresponding citizen of Great Britain.
No tax, either on commodities or property, was higher in Ireland
than in England. The alleged grievance was, however, exploited
to the utmost extent by the Nationalist party. In
1897 a royal commission, with Sir Edward Fry as chairman,
was appointed to inquire into the operation of the Land
Acts. Voluminous evidence was taken in different parts of
Ireland, and the commissioners reported in the following
year. The methods and procedure of the Land Commission
were much criticized, and many recommendations were made,
but no legislation followed. This inquiry proved, what
few in Ireland doubted, that the prices paid for occupancy
interest or tenant right increased as the landlord&rsquo;s rent was
cut down.</p>

<p>The session of 1898 was largely occupied with the discussion
of a bill to establish county and district councils on the lines
of the English Act of 1888. The fiscal jurisdiction
of grand juries, which had lasted for more than two
<span class="sidenote">Local Government Act 1898.</span>
centuries and a half, was entirely swept away. Local
government for Ireland had always been part of
the Unionist programme, and the vote on the abortive bill
of 1892 had committed parliament to legislation. It may,
nevertheless, be doubted whether enough attention was paid
to the local peculiarities of Ireland, and whether English precedents
were not too closely followed. In Ireland the poor-rate
used to be divided between landlord and tenant, except
on holdings valued at £4 and under, in which the landlord paid
the whole. Councils elected by small farmers were evidently
unfit to impose taxes so assessed. The poor-rate and the county
cess, which latter was mostly paid by the tenants, were consolidated,
and an agricultural grant of £730,000 was voted by
parliament in order to relieve both parties. The consolidated
rate was now paid by the occupier, who would profit by economy
and lose by extravagance. The towns gained nothing by
the agricultural grant, but union rating was established for
the first time. The net result of the county council elections
in the spring of 1899 was to displace, except in some northern
counties, nearly all the men who had hitherto done the local
business. Nationalist pledges were exacted, and long service
as a grand juror was an almost certain bar to election. The
Irish gentry, long excluded, as landlords and Unionists, from
political life, now felt to a great extent that they had no field
for activity in local affairs. The new councils very generally
passed resolutions of sympathy with the Boers in the South
African war. The one most often adopted, though sometimes
rejected as too mild, was that of the Limerick corporation,
hoping &ldquo;that it may end in another Majuba Hill.&rdquo; Efforts
not wholly unsuccessful were made to hinder recruiting in Ireland,
and every reverse or repulse of British arms was greeted with
Nationalist applause.</p>

<p>The scheme for a Roman Catholic University&mdash;of which
Mr Arthur Balfour, speaking for himself and not for the government,
made himself a prominent champion&mdash;was much canvassed
in 1899, but it came to nothing. It had not been forgotten
that this question wrecked the Liberal party in 1874.</p>

<p>The chief Irish measure of 1899 was an Agricultural and
Technical Instruction Act, which established a new department
(see the section <i>Economics</i> above) with the
chief secretary at its head and an elaborate system
<span class="sidenote">Board of Agriculture.</span>
of local committees. Considerable funds were made
available, and Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Plunkett,
who as an independent Conservative member had been active
in promoting associations for the improvement of Irish methods
in this direction, became the first vice-president. The new
county councils were generally induced to further attempts
at technical instruction and to assist them out of the rates,
but progress in this direction was necessarily slow in a country
where organized industries have hitherto been so few. In
agriculture, and especially in cattle-breeding, improvement
was formerly due mainly to the landlords, who had now been
deprived by law of much of their power. The gap has been partly
filled by the new department, and a good deal has been done.
Some experience has been gained not only through the voluntary
associations promoted by Sir H. Plunkett, but also from the
Congested Districts Board founded under the Land Purchase
Act of 1891. This board has power within the districts affected
by it to foster agriculture and fisheries, to enlarge holdings,
and to buy and hold land. In March 1899 it had from first
to last laid out a little more than half a million. The principal
source of income was a charge of £41,250 a year upon the Irish
Church surplus, but the establishment expenses were paid by
parliament.</p>

<p>At the opening of the session in January 1900 there was
a formal reconciliation of the Dillonite, Healyite, and Redmondite
or Parnellite factions. It was evident
from the speeches made on the occasion that there
<span class="sidenote">1900.</span>
was not much cordiality between the various leaders, but
the outward solidarity of the party was calculated to bring
in renewed subscriptions both at home and from America.
It was publicly agreed that England&rsquo;s difficulty in South Africa
was Ireland&rsquo;s opportunity, and that all should abstain from
supporting an amendment to the address which admitted
that the war would have to be fought out. Mr John Redmond
was chosen chairman, and the alliance of Nationalists and
Gladstonian Liberals was dissolved. The United Irish League,
founded in Mayo in 1898 by Mr William O&rsquo;Brien, had recently
become a sort of rival to the parliamentary party, its avowed
object being to break up the great grass farms, and its methods
resembling those of the old Land League.</p>

<p>The most striking event, however, in Ireland in the earlier
part of 1900 was Queen Victoria&rsquo;s visit. Touched by the gallantry
of the Irish regiments in South Africa, and moved to some extent,
no doubt, by the presence of the duke of Connaught in Dublin
as commander-in-chief, the queen determined in April to make
up for the loss of her usual spring holiday abroad by paying
a visit to Ireland. The last time the queen had been in Dublin
was in 1861 with the Prince Consort. Since then, besides the
visit of the prince and princess of Wales in 1885, Prince Albert
Victor and Prince George of Wales had visited Ireland in 1887,
and the duke and duchess of York (afterwards prince and
princess of Wales) in 1897; but the lack of any permanent
royal residence and the long-continued absence of the sovereign
in person had aroused repeated comment. Directly the announcement
of the queen&rsquo;s intention was made the greatest
public interest was taken in the project. Shortly before St
Patrick&rsquo;s Day the queen issued an order which intensified this
interest, that Irish soldiers might in future wear a sprig of
shamrock in their headgear on this national festival. For
some years past the &ldquo;wearing of the green&rdquo; had been regarded
by the army authorities as improper, and friction had consequently
occurred, but the queen&rsquo;s order put an end in a
graceful manner to what had formerly been a grievance. The
result was that St Patrick&rsquo;s Day was celebrated in London and
throughout the empire as it never had been before, and when
the queen went over to Dublin at the beginning of April she
was received with the greatest enthusiasm.</p>

<p>The general election later in the year made no practical
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
difference in the strength of parties, but Mr George Wyndham
took Mr Gerald Balfour&rsquo;s place as chief secretary, without a
seat in the Cabinet. Both before and after the election the
United Irish League steadily advanced, fresh branches continually
springing up.</p>

<p>The visit of Mr Redmond and others to America in 1901
was not believed to have brought in much money, and the
activity of the League was more or less restrained
by want of funds. Boycotting, however, became
<span class="sidenote">Recent years.</span>
rife, especially in Sligo, and paid agents also promoted
an agitation against grass farms in Tipperary, Clare
and other southern counties. In Roscommon there was a
strike against rent, especially on the property of Lord De Freyne.
This was due to the action of the Congested Districts Board in
buying the Dillon estate and reducing all the rents without
consulting the effect upon others. It was argued that no one
else&rsquo;s tenants could be expected to pay more. Some prosecutions
were undertaken, but the government was much
criticized for not using the special provisions of the Crimes
Act; and in April 1902 certain counties were &ldquo;proclaimed&rdquo;
under it. In February 1902 Lord Rosebery definitely repudiated
Home Rule, and steps to oppose his followers were at once
taken among Irish voters in English constituencies.</p>

<p>Lord Cadogan resigned the viceroyalty in July 1902, and
was succeeded by Lord Dudley. In November Sir Antony
Macdonnell (b. 1844), a member of the Indian Council, became
under-secretary to the lord-lieutenant. During a long and
successful career in India (1865-1901) Sir Antony had never
concealed his Nationalist proclivities, but his appointment,
about the form of which there was nothing peculiar, was favoured
by Lord Lansdowne and Lord George Hamilton, and ultimately
sanctioned by Mr Balfour, who had been prime minister since
Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s resignation in July. About the same time
a conference took place in Dublin between certain landlords
and some members of the Nationalist party, of whom Mr W.
O&rsquo;Brien was the most conspicuous. Lord Dunraven presided,
and it was agreed to recommend a great extension of the Land
Purchase system with a view to give the vendor as good an
income as before, while decreasing the tenants&rsquo; annual burden.
This was attempted in Mr Wyndham&rsquo;s Land Purchase Act
of 1903, which gave the tenants a material reduction, a bonus
of 12% on the purchase-money being granted to vendors
from funds provided by parliament. A judicial decision made
it doubtful whether this percentage became the private property
of tenants for life on settled estates, but a further act passed
in 1904 answered the question in the affirmative. After this
the sale of estates proceeded rapidly. In March 1903 was
published the report of the Royal Commission on Irish University
Education appointed two years before with Lord Robertson
as chairman, Trinity College, Dublin, being excluded from
the inquiry. The report, which was not really unanimous,
was of little value as a basis for legislation. It recommended
an examining university with the Queen&rsquo;s Colleges at Belfast,
Cork and Galway, and with a new and well-endowed Roman
Catholic college in Dublin.</p>

<p>In August was formed the Irish Reform Association out of
the wreckage of the late Land Conference and under Lord
Dunraven&rsquo;s presidency, and it was seen that Sir
A. Macdonnell took a great interest in the proceedings.
<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Devolution&rdquo; question.</span>
Besides transferring private bill legislation to Dublin
on the Scottish plan, to which no one in Ireland
objected, it was proposed to hand over the internal expenditure
of Ireland to a financial council consisting half of nominated
and half of elected members, and to give an Irish assembly
the initiative in public Irish bills. This policy, which was
called Devolution, found little support anywhere, and was
ultimately repudiated both by Mr Wyndham and by Mr Balfour.
But a difficult parliamentary crisis, caused by Irish Unionist
suspicions on the subject, was only temporarily overcome
by Mr Wyndham&rsquo;s resignation in March 1905. Mr Walter
Long succeeded him. One of the chief questions at issue was
the position actually occupied by Sir Antony Macdonnell. The
new chief secretary, while abstaining from displacing the under-secretary,
whose encouragement of &ldquo;devolution&rdquo; had caused
considerable commotion among Unionists, announced that
he considered him as on the footing of an ordinary and subordinate
civil servant, but Mr Wyndham had said that he was
&ldquo;invited by me rather as a colleague than as a mere under-secretary
to register my will,&rdquo; and Lord Lansdowne that he
&ldquo;could scarcely expect to be bound by the narrow rules of
routine which are applicable to an ordinary member of the
civil service.&rdquo; While Mr Long remained in office no further
complication arose, but in 1906 (Sir A. Macdonnell being retained
in office by the Liberal government) his Nationalist
leanings again became prominent, and the responsibility of the
Unionist government in introducing him into the Irish administration
became a matter of considerable heart-burning among
the Unionist party.</p>

<p>Mr Balfour resigned in December 1905 and was succeeded
by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Lord Aberdeen becoming
lord-lieutenant for the second time, with Mr James Bryce as
chief secretary. The general election at the beginning of 1906
was disastrous to the Unionist party, and the Liberal government
secured an enormous majority. Mr Walter Long, unseated
at Bristol, had made himself very popular among Irish
Unionists, and a seat was found him in the constituency of
South Dublin. Speaking in August 1906 he raised anew the
Macdonnell question and demanded the production of all
correspondence connected with the under-secretary&rsquo;s appointment.
Sir A. Macdonnell at once admitted through the newspapers
that he had in his possession letters (rumoured to be
&ldquo;embarrassing&rdquo; to the Unionist leaders) which he might
publish at his own discretion; and the discussion as to how
far his appointment by Mr Wyndham had prejudiced the
Unionist cause was reopened in public with much bitterness,
in view of the anticipation of further steps in the Home
Rule direction by the Liberal ministry. In 1908 Sir Antony
resigned and was created a peer as Baron Macdonnell. Soon
after the change of government in 1906 a royal commission,
with ex-Lord Justice Fry as chairman, was appointed to investigate
the condition of Trinity College, Dublin, and another
under Lord Dudley to inquire into the question of the congested
districts.</p>

<p>Mr Bryce being appointed ambassador to Washington,
Mr Birrell faced the session of 1907 as chief secretary. Before
he left office Mr Bryce publicly sketched a scheme of his own
for remodelling Irish University Education, but his scheme
was quietly put on the shelf by his successor and received almost
universal condemnation. Mr Birrell began by introducing
a bill for the establishment of an Irish Council, which would
have given the Home Rulers considerable leverage, but, to the
surprise of the English Liberals, it was summarily rejected by a
Nationalist convention in Dublin, and was forthwith abandoned.
The extreme party of Sinn Fein (&ldquo;ourselves alone&rdquo;) were against
it because of the power it gave to the government officials,
and the Roman Catholic clergy because it involved local control
of primary education, which would have imperilled their position
as managers. An Evicted Tenants Bill was however passed
at the end of the session, which gave the Estates Commissioners
unprecedented powers to take land compulsorily. In the late
summer and autumn, agitation in Ireland (led by Mr Ginnell,
M.P.) took the form of driving cattle off large grass farms, as
part of a campaign against what was known as &ldquo;ranching.&rdquo;
This reckless and lawless practice extended to several counties,
but was worst in Galway and Roscommon. The government
was determined not to use the Crimes Act, and the result was
that offenders nearly always went unpunished, benches of
magistrates being often swamped by the chairmen of district
councils who were <i>ex officio</i> justices under the act of 1898.</p>

<p>The general election of 1910 placed the Liberal and Unionist
parties in a position of almost exact equality in the House
of Commons, and it was at once evident that the Nationalists
under Mr Redmond&rsquo;s leadership would hold the balance of
power and control the fortunes of Mr Asquith&rsquo;s government.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
A small body of &ldquo;independent Nationalists,&rdquo; led by Mr William
O&rsquo;Brien and Mr T. M. Healy, voiced the general dislike in Ireland
of the Budget of 1909, the rejection of which by the House of
Lords had precipitated the dissolution of parliament. But
although this band of free-lances was a menace to Mr Redmond&rsquo;s
authority and to the solidarity of the &ldquo;pledge-bound&rdquo; Irish
parliamentary party, the two sections did not differ in their
desire to get rid of the &ldquo;veto&rdquo; of the House of Lords, which
they recognized as the standing obstacle to Home Rule, and
which it was the avowed policy of the government to abolish.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Ancient: The <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>,
ed. J. O&rsquo;Donovan (1851), compiled in Donegal under Charles I.,
gives a continuous account of Celtic Ireland down to 1616. The
independent <i>Annals of Lough Cé</i> (Rolls series) end with 1590. The
<i>Topographia and Expugnatio</i> of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls series)
are chiefly valuable for his account of the Anglo-Norman invaders
and for descriptions of the country. Sir J. T. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Viceroys of
Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1865) gives a connected view of the feudal establishment
to the accession of Henry VIII. The <i>Calendar of Documents
relating to Ireland</i> in the Public Record Office extends from 1171 to
1307. Christopher Pembridge&rsquo;s <i>Annals from 1162 to 1370</i> were
published by William Camden and reprinted in Sir J. T. Gilbert&rsquo;s
<i>Chartularies of St Mary&rsquo;s Abbey</i> (Dublin, 1884). <i>The Annals of Clyn,
Dowling and Grace</i> have been printed by the Irish Archaeological
Society and the Celtic Society.</p>

<p>For the 16th century see volumes ii. and iii. of the <i>Printed State
Papers</i> (1834), and the <i>Calendars of State Papers, Ireland</i>, including
that of the Carew MSS. 1515 to 1603. See also Richard Stanihurst&rsquo;s
<i>Chronicle</i>, continued by John Hooker, which is included in Holinshed&rsquo;s
<i>Chronicles</i>; E. Spenser, <i>View of the State of Ireland</i>, edited by
H. Morley (1890); Fynes Moryson, <i>History of Ireland</i> (1735);
Thomas Stafford, <i>Pacata Hibernia</i> (1810); and R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland
under the Tudors</i> (1885-1890).</p>

<p>For the 17th century see the <i>Calendars of Irish State Papers,
1603-1665</i> (Dublin, 1772); <i>Strafford Letters</i>, edited by W. Knowler
(1739): Thomas Carte, <i>Life of Ormonde</i> (1735-1736), and <i>Ormonde
Papers</i> (1739); Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, <i>State letters</i> (1743);
the <i>Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641-1652</i> (1879-1880),
and <i>History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland,
1641-1649</i> (1882-1891), both edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert; Edmund
Ludlow&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i>, edited by C. H. Firth (1894); the <i>Memoirs</i> of
James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven (1815); and <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Letters
and Speeches</i>, edited by T. Carlyle (1904). See also J. P. Prendergast,
<i>The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland</i> (1870); Denis Murphy,
<i>Cromwell in Ireland</i> (1885): M. A. Hickson, <i>Ireland in the 17th
Century</i> (1884); Sir John Temple, <i>History of the Irish Rebellion</i>
(1812); P. Walsh, <i>History of the Remonstrance</i> (1674); George
Story, <i>Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland</i> (1693); Thomas
Witherow, <i>Derry and Enniskillen</i> (1873); Philip Dwyer, <i>Siege of
Derry</i> (1893); Lord Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>; and S. R. Gardiner,
<i>History of England, 1603-1656</i>. Further writings which may be
consulted are: <i>The Embassy in Ireland of Rinuccini, 1645-1649</i>,
translated from the Italian by A. Hutton (1873); Sir William
Petty&rsquo;s <i>Down Survey</i>, edited by T. A. Larcom (1851), and his <i>Economic
Writings</i>, edited by C. H. Hull (1899); Charles O&rsquo;Kelly&rsquo;s <i>Macariae
Excidium</i>, edited by J. C. O&rsquo;Callaghan (1850); and <i>A Jacobite
Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688-91</i>, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert
(1892).</p>

<p>For the 18th century J. A. Froude&rsquo;s <i>English in Ireland</i> and W. E.
H. Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i> cover the whole ground. See also
the <i>Letters 1724-1738</i> of Archbishop Hugh Boulter, edited by
G. Faulkner (1770); the <i>Works</i> of Dean Swift; John Campbell&rsquo;s
<i>Philosophical Survey of Ireland</i> (1778); Arthur Young&rsquo;s <i>Tour in
Ireland</i> (1780); Henry Grattan&rsquo;s <i>Life of the Right Hon. Henry
Grattan</i> (1839-1846); the <i>Correspondence</i> of the Marquess Cornwallis,
edited by C. Ross (1859); Wolfe Tone&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i>, edited by
R. B. O&rsquo;Brien (1893); and R. R. Madden&rsquo;s <i>United Irishmen</i> (1842-1846).</p>

<p>For the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century see the
<i>Annual Register</i>; R. M. Martin, <i>Ireland before and after the Union</i>
(1848); Sir T. Wyse, <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association</i>
(1829); G. L. Smyth, <i>Ireland, Historical and Statistical</i> (1844-1849);
Sir C. E. Trevelyan, <i>The Irish Crisis</i> (1880); N. W. Senior,
<i>Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland</i> (1868);
Sir G. C. Lewis, <i>On Local Disturbances in Ireland and on the Irish
Church Question</i> (1836); John Morley, <i>Life of W. E. Gladstone</i>;
Lord Fitzmaurice, <i>Life of Lord Granville</i> (1905); and R. Barry
O&rsquo;Brien, <i>Life of Parnell</i> (1898). Other authorities are Isaac Butt,
<i>Irish Federalism</i> (1870); H. O. Arnold-Forster, <i>The Truth about
the Land League</i> (1883); A. V. Dicey, <i>England&rsquo;s Case against Home
Rule</i> (1886); W. E. Gladstone, <i>History of an Idea</i> (1886), and a
reply to this by J. E. Webb entitled <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Enemies in America</i>
(1886); and Mrs E. Lynn Linton, <i>About Ireland</i> (1890). See also
the <i>Report of the Parnell Special Commission</i> (1890); the <i>Report</i>
of the Bessborough Commission (1881), of the Richmond Commission
(1881), of the Cowper Commission (1887), and of the Mathew
Commission (1893), and the <i>Report</i> of the Congested Districts Board
(1899).</p>

<p>For the church in Ireland see: Henry Cotton, <i>Fasti ecclesiae
hibernicae</i> (1848-1878); W. M. Brady, <i>The Episcopal Succession</i>
(Rome, 1876); R. Mant, <i>History of the Church of Ireland</i> (1840);
J. T. Ball, <i>The Reformed Church in Ireland, 1537-1886</i> (1886); and
W. D. Killen, <i>Ecclesiastical History of Ireland</i> (1875). A. Theiner&rsquo;s
<i>Vetera Monumenta</i> (Rome, 1864) contains documents concerning
the medieval church, and there are many others in Ussher&rsquo;s Works,
and for a later period in Cardinal Moran&rsquo;s <i>Spicilegium Ossoriense</i>
(1874-1884). The <i>Works</i> of Sir James Ware, edited by Walter
Harris, are generally useful, and Alice S. Green&rsquo;s <i>The Making of
Ireland and its Undoing</i> (1908), although written from a partisan
standpoint, may also be consulted.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. Ba.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in
early times, and in particular the trade in wine, has been insisted
upon by H. Zimmer in papers in the <i>Abh. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wissenschaften</i>
(1909).</p>

<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the subject of Ptolemy&rsquo;s description of Ireland see articles
by G. H. Orpen in the <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
Ireland</i> (June 1894), and John MacNeill in the <i>New Ireland Review</i>
(September 1906).</p>

<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Scholars are only beginning to realize how close was the connexion
between Ireland and Wales from early times. Pedersen has
recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh loan
words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation
of Britain to the beginning of the literary period. Welsh writers
now assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the
Mabinogion.</p>

<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn
in Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate
in the north of Ireland. Findian of Moville spent some years there.</p>

<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The O&rsquo;Neills who played such an important part in later Irish
history do not take their name from Niall Nóigiallach, though they
are descended from him. They take their name from Niall Glúndub
(d. 919).</p>

<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between
Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between
the ruling families of both countries.</p>

<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This name survives in Fingall, the name of a district north of
Dublin city. Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall,
MacDowell.</p>

<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other
cities are always called Ostmen, <i>i.e.</i> Eastmen; hence the name
Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown, a part of the city of Dublin.</p>

<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the name see K. Meyer <i>Erin</i>, iv. pp. 71-73.</p>

<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of
the O&rsquo;Donavans, Donoban that of the O&rsquo;Donovans.</p>

<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The term <i>rath</i> was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both <i>lis</i>
and <i>rath</i> are used to denote the whole structure.</p>

<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See D&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Revue celtique</i>, xxv. 1 ff., 181 ff.</p>

<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The whole question is discussed by Mr J. H. Round in his article
on &ldquo;The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland&rdquo; (<i>Commune of London</i>,
1899, pp. 171-200), where further references will be found.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRELAND, CHURCH OF.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> The ancient Church of Ireland
(described in the Irish Church Act 1869 by this its historic
title) has a long and chequered history, which it will be interesting
to trace in outline. The beginnings of Christianity in
Ireland are difficult to trace, but there is no doubt that the first
Christian missionary whose labours were crowned with any
considerable success was Patrick (fl. <i>c.</i> 450), who has always
been reckoned the patron saint of the country. For six centuries
the Church of which he was the founder occupied a remarkable
position in Western Christendom. Ireland, in virtue at once
of its geographical situation and of the spirit of its people, was
less affected than other countries by the movements of European
thought; and thus its development, social and religious, was
largely independent of foreign influences, whether Roman
or English. In full communion with the Latin Church, the
Irish long preserved many peculiarities, such as their monastic
system and the date at which Easter was kept, which distinguished
them in discipline, though not conspicuously in doctrine, from
the Christians of countries more immediately under papal
control (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>: <i>Early History</i>). The incessant incursions
of the Danes, who were the scourge of the land for a period of
nearly three hundred years, prevented the Church from redeeming
the promise of her infancy; and at the date of the English
conquest of Ireland (1172) she had lost much of her ancient
zeal and of her independence. By this time she had come more
into line with the rest of Europe, and the Synod of Cashel
put the seal to a new policy by its acknowledgment of the
papal jurisdiction and by its decrees assimilating the Church,
in ritual and usages, to that of England. There was no thought
of a breach of continuity, but the distinctive features of Celtic
Christianity gradually disappeared from this time onwards.
English influence was strong only in the region round Dublin
(known as the Pale); and beyond this district the Irish were
not disposed to view with favour any ecclesiastical reforms
which had their origin in the sister country. Thus from the
days of Henry VIII. the Reformation movement was hindered
in Ireland by national prejudice, and it never succeeded in
gaining the allegiance of the Irish people as a whole. The
policy which directed its progress was blundering and stupid,
and reflects little credit on the English statesmen who were
responsible for it. No attempt was made to commend the
principles of the Reformation to the native Irish by conciliating
national sentiment; and the policy which forbade the translation
of the Prayer Book into the Irish language, and suggested
that where English was not understood Latin might be used
as an alternative, was doomed to failure from the beginning.
And, in fact, the reformed church of Ireland is to this day the
church of a small section only of the population.</p>

<p>The Reformation period begins with the passing of the Irish
Supremacy Act 1537. As in England, the changes in religion
of successive sovereigns alternately checked and promoted
the progress of the movement, although in Ireland the mass
of the people were less deeply affected by the religious controversies
of the times than in Great Britain. At Mary&rsquo;s accession
five bishops either abandoned, or were deprived of,
their sees; but the Anglo-Irish who remained faithful to the
Reformation were not subjected to persecution such as would
have been their fate on the other side of the Channel. Again,
under Elizabeth, while two bishops (William Walsh of Meath and
Thomas Leverous of Kildare) were deprived for open resistance
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
to the new order of things, and while stern measures were taken
to suppress treasonable plotting against the constitution, the
uniform policy of the government in ecclesiastical matters was
one of toleration. James I. caused the Supremacy Act to
be rigorously enforced, but on political rather than on religious
grounds. In distant parts of Ireland, indeed, the unreformed
order of service was often used without interference from the
secular authority, although the bishops had openly accepted
the Act of Uniformity.</p>

<p>The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reformation.
The Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have
been the true bishops of the Church, and in every case they
were followed by a line of lawful successors, leading down
to the present occupants of the several sees. The rival lines
of Roman Catholic titulars are not in direct succession to the
Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the
medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-Reformation
Church with the Church of the Celtic period before
the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten
out of eleven archbishops of Armagh who held office between
1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside Ireland, and there
is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them derived his
apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It
may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland
is the direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the 14th
and 15th centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated
that any existing organization is continuous with the Church
of St Patrick. In the reign of James I. the first Convocation
of the clergy was summoned in Ireland, of which assembly the
most notable act was the adoption of the &ldquo;Irish Articles&rdquo;
(1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more
decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles,
which were not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634,
when Strafford forced them on Convocation. During the
Commonwealth period the bishoprics which became vacant
were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the Church
was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the
most learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the
primatial see of Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other
bishops, among whom was Jeremy Taylor. The short period
during which the policy of James II. prevailed in Ireland was
one of disaster to the Church; but under William and Mary
she regained her former position. She had now been reformed
for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and
the tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by
the English government made her more unpopular than ever.
The clergy, finding their ministrations unacceptable to the
great mass of the population, were tempted to indolence and
non-residence; and although bright exceptions could be named,
there was much that called for reform. To William King (1650-1729),
bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin,
it was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized,
and the impulse which he gave it was felt all through the 18th
century. His ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct
opposition to Primate Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed
at making the Established Church the instrument for the
promotion of English political opinions rather than the spiritual
home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union was passed
by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until Disestablishment,
there was but one &ldquo;United Church of England and Ireland.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic
disabilities brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church
Temporalities Act, one of the most important provisions of
which was the reduction of the number of Irish archbishoprics
from four to two, and of bishoprics from eighteen to ten, the
funds thus released being administered by commissioners.
In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the payment
of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was
passed, and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It
became increasingly plain, however, as years passed, that all
such measures of relief were inadequate to allay the dissatisfaction
felt by the majority of Irishmen because of the continued
existence of the Established Church. Her position had been
pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was undoubtedly
the historical representative of the ancient Church of the land;
but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible
fact that she had not gained the affections of the people. The
census of 1861 showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967
only 693,357 belonged to the Established Church, 4,505,265
being Roman Catholics; and once this had been made clear,
the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was only a question
of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869,
it became law on the 1st of January 1871.</p>

<p>The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources,
and called on to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well
as to make provision for the maintenance of her future clergy.
A convention of the bishops, clergy, and laity was summoned
in 1870, and its first act was to declare the adherence of the Church
of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her determination to
uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and Apostolic
Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and Reformed,
against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitution
then agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church
is the General Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208
clerical and 416 lay representatives of the several dioceses,
whose local affairs are managed by subordinate Diocesan Synods.
The bishops are elected as vacancies arise, and, with certain
restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the Primate, whose see
is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their own number.
The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of nomination,
on which both the diocese and the parish are represented. The
Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and
two elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts
of first instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal
to the Court of the General Synod, composed of three bishops
and four laymen who have held judicial office. During the
years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the Prayer Book mainly
occupied the attention of the General Synod; but although
many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then
predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were
carried, and none which affected the Church&rsquo;s doctrinal position.
A two-thirds majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary
before any change can be made in the formularies, and an
ultimate veto rests, on certain conditions, with the house of
bishops.</p>

<p>The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and
partly evil. On the one hand, the Church has now all the
benefits of autonomy and is free from the anomalies incidental
to state control. Her laws are definite, and the authority
of her judicial courts is recognized by all her members. The
place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in them
the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church&rsquo;s progress.
And although there are few worldly inducements to men to
take orders in Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the
equals of their predecessors in social standing and in intellectual
equipment, while the standard of clerical activity is higher
than in pre-Disestablishment days. On the other hand, the
vesting of patronage in large bodies like synods, or (as is the
case in some districts) in nominators with little knowledge
of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not
an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers
of parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally
recognized than in the early years of Disestablishment.</p>

<p>The finances are controlled by the Representative Church
Body, to which the sum of £7,581,075, sufficient to provide
life annuities for the existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting
to £596,913, was handed over by the Church Temporalities
Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this fund administered,
and so generous were the contributions of clergy and laity,
at and since Disestablishment, that while on 31st December
1906 only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the
custody of the Representative Church Body amounted at
that date to £8,729,941. Of this sum no less than £6,525,952
represented the free-will offerings of the members of the Church
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
for the thirty-seven years ending 31st December 1906. Out
of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial
assessments, which are administered by the central office, provision
has to be made for two archbishops at £2500 per annum,
eleven bishops, who receive about £1500 each, and over 1500
parochial clergy. Of the clergy only 338 are curates, while
1161 are incumbents, the average annual income of a benefice
being about £240, with (in most cases) a house. The large
majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity
School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the
members of the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a
total population of 4,456,546.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See R. Mant, <i>History of the Church of Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1840);
<i>Essays on the Irish Church</i>, by various writers (Oxford, 1866);
Maziere Brady, <i>The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops</i> (London,
1877); A. T. Lee, <i>The Irish Episcopal Succession</i> (Dublin, 1867);
G. T. Stokes, <i>Ireland and the Celtic Church</i> (London, 1888), <i>Ireland
and the Anglo-Norman Church</i> (London, 1892), <i>Some Worthies of the
Irish Church</i> (London, 1900); T. Olden, <i>The Church of Ireland</i>
(London, 1892); J. T. Ball, <i>The Reformed Church of Ireland</i> (London,
1890); H. C. Groves, <i>The Titular Archbishops of Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1897);
W. Lawlor, <i>The Reformation in Ireland</i> (London, 1906); <i>Reports of
the Representative Church Body</i> (Dublin, 1872-1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. H. Be.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRENAEUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century,
was one of the most distinguished theologians of the ante-Nicene
Church. Very little is known of his early history.
His childhood was spent in Asia Minor, probably at or near
Smyrna; for he himself tells us (<i>Adv. haer.</i> iii. 3, 4, and Euseb.
<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> v. 20) that as a child he heard the preaching of Polycarp,
the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156). But
we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been
born very long after 130, for later on he frequently mentions
having met certain Christian presbyters who had actually
seen John, the disciple of our Lord. The circumstances under
which he came into the West are also unknown to us; the
only thing which is certain is that at the time of the persecution
of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was a
presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to
Rome on a mission from this church, to make representations
to Bishop Eleutherius in favour of a more lenient treatment
of the Montanists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montanism</a></span>.; Eus. v. 4. 2). On his
return he was called upon to undertake the direction of the
church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who had
perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried
on a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory
of Tours (<i>Hist. Franc.</i> i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded
in converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated,
from him at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in
Lyons and its neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention
to trying to reconcile the numerous sects which menaced the
existence of the church (see below). In the dispute on the
question of Easter, which for a long time disturbed the Christian
Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by means
of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to
exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome,
and his unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of
Africa, thus justifying his name of &ldquo;peace-maker&rdquo; (Eirenaios)
(Eus. <i>H. E.</i> v. 24. 28). The date of his death is unknown. His
martyrdom under Septimius Severus is related by Gregory of
Tours, but by no earlier writer.</p>

<p>The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his &ldquo;Refutation
and Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called&rdquo; (usually indicated
by the name <i>Against the Heresies</i>). Of the Greek original
of this work only fragments survive; it only exists in full in
an old Latin translation, the slavish fidelity of which to a certain
extent makes up for the loss of the original text. The treatise
is divided into five books: of these the first two contain a
minute and well-informed description and criticism of the tenets
of various heretical sects, especially the Valentinians; the
other three set forth the true doctrines of Christianity, and it
is from them that we find out the theological opinions of the
author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good writer.
And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such unmanageable
proportions that he could not succeed in throwing
them into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may
have handled his material, he has produced a work which is
even nowadays rightly valued as the first systematic exposition
of Catholic belief. The foundation upon which Irenaeus bases
his system consists in the episcopate, the canon of the Old and
New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their assistance
he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic dualism,
<i>i.e.</i> the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the Catholic
monism, <i>i.e.</i> the unity of the life of faith as willed by God.
The &ldquo;grace of truth&rdquo; (the <i>charisma</i>), which the apostles had
called down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-on
of hands, and which was to be imparted anew by way of
succession (<span class="grk" title="diadochê">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#942;</span>, <i>successio</i>) to the bishops from generation
to generation without a break, makes those who receive it
living witnesses of the salvation offered to the faithful by written
and spoken tradition. The Scriptures of the Old and New
Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone, give us
an insight into God&rsquo;s plan of salvation for mankind, and explain
to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses
and Christ; or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally,
the &ldquo;rule of faith&rdquo; (<i>regula fidei</i>), received at baptism, contains
in itself all the riches of Christian truth. To distribute these,
<i>i.e.</i> to elucidate the rule of faith as set forth in the creed, and
further to point out its agreement with the Scriptures, is the
object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he lays the greatest
stress on the conception of God&rsquo;s disposition of salvation towards
mankind (<i>oeconomia</i>), the object of which is that mankind,
who in Adam were sunk in sin and death, should in Christ,
comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life.
God, as the head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The
Son, the Word (<i>Logos</i>) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries
out His behests. The Holy Ghost (<i>Pneuma</i>), however, as the
Spirit of wisdom for ever dwelling with the Father, controls
what the Father has appointed and the Son fulfilled, and this
Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the divine plan of
salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God was
to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must
be God; for if not, the devil would have had a natural claim
on him, and he would have been no more exempt from death
than the other children of Adam; he must be <i>man</i>, if his blood
were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate the power of the
devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the reconciliation
between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true object,
namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has
drawn men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and
perishable nature imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it
has become deified, and death has been changed into immortality.
In the sacrament of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper it is the heavenly body
of the God-man which is actually partaken of in the elements.
This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the
incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especially
in the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa,
Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus). He himself was
especially influenced by St John and St Paul. Before him the
Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the Church; Irenaeus
made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is not that
of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos
not as the &ldquo;reason&rdquo; of God, but as the &ldquo;voice&rdquo; with which
the Father speaks in the revelation to mankind, as did the
writer of the Fourth Gospel. And the Pauline epistles are
adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus, according to the ideas
contained in them; his expositions often present the appearance
of a patchwork of St Paul&rsquo;s ideas. Certainly, it is only one
side of Paul&rsquo;s thought that he displays to us. The great conceptions
of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched
by Irenaeus. In Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving
about and against the law, who has had to break free from his
early tradition of Pharisaism.</p>

<p>Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of
Irenaeus are mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with
the exception of a fragment here or there. Recently, however,
two Armenian scholars, Karapet Ter-M&#283;k&#283;rttschian and Erwand
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
Ter-Minassianz, have published from an Armenian translation
a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor edition 1908) of the
work &ldquo;in proof of the apostolic teaching&rdquo; mentioned by Eusebius
(<i>H. E.</i> v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a dialogue with
one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a statement
of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest
catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop
Irenaeus was able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian
and expound it theoretically, but also to preach it to laymen.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet
(Paris, 1710 and 1734, reprinted in Migne, <i>Cursus patrologiae</i>, Series
Graeca, vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one,
till it was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge,
1857), the latter being the only edition which contains the Syriac
fragments. For an English translation see the <i>Ante-Nicene Library</i>.
Of modern monographs consult H. Ziegler, <i>Irenaeus, der Bischof
von Lyon</i> (Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, <i>Irenaeus-Handschriften</i>
(Leipzig, 1888); Johannes Werner, <i>Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus</i>
(Leipzig, 1889); Johannes Kunze, <i>Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus</i>
(Leipzig, 1891); Ernst Klebba, <i>Die Anthropologie des heiligen
Irenaeus</i> (Münster, 1894); Albert Dufourcq, <i>Saint Irénée</i> (Paris,
1904); Franz Stoll, <i>Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlösung
und Heiligung</i> (Mainz, 1905); also the histories of dogma, especially
Harnack, and Bethune-Baker, <i>An Introduction to the Early History
of Christian Doctrine</i> (London, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRENE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> the name of several Byzantine empresses.</p>

<p>1. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor.
Originally a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily
gained the love and confidence of her feeble husband, and at his
death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire and of
their ten-year-old son Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme
power in the name of the latter, Irene ruled the empire at her
own discretion for ten years, displaying great firmness and
sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was the
restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she
always had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it
in her husband&rsquo;s lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her
partisans, to the patriarchate (784), she summoned two church
councils. The former of these, held in 786 at Constantinople,
was frustrated by the opposition of the soldiers. The second,
convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the adoration of
images and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome.
As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive
under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force
was met and crushed by the empress, who demanded that the
oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone.
The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open
resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the Armenian guard,
formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole ruler. A hollow
semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine
and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but
the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with
the bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on
her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces,
but even there he was surrounded by participants in
the plot. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the
Bosporus, the emperor was carried back to the palace at Constantinople;
and there, by the orders of his mother, his eyes were
stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness of seventeen
days&rsquo; duration were attributed by the common superstition to
the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour
for five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a
marriage between herself and Charlemagne; but according to
Theophanes, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated
by Aëtius, one of her favourites. A projected alliance between
Constantine and Charlemagne&rsquo;s daughter, Rothrude, was in turn
broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon whom she had
lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her, and
placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The
haughty and unscrupulous princess, &ldquo;who never lost sight of
political power in the height of her religious zeal,&rdquo; was exiled
to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning. She
died the following year. Her zeal in restoring images and
monasteries has given her a place among the saints of the Greek
church.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (ed.
J. Bury, London, 1896), vol. v.; G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed.
1877, Oxford,) vol. ii.; F. C. Schlosser, <i>Geschichte der bilderstürmenden
Kaiser des oströmischen Reiches</i> (Frankfort, 1812); J. D.
Phoropoulos, <span class="grk" title="Eirênê hê autokrateira Rhômaiôn">&#917;&#7984;&#961;&#942;&#957;&#951; &#7969; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#945; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span> (Leipzig, 1887); J. B.
Bury, <i>The Later Roman Empire</i> (London, 1889), ii. 480-498; C. Diehl,
<i>Figures byzantines</i> (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>

<p>2. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (<i>c.</i> 1066-<i>c.</i> 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-known
fact of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she
endeavoured to divert the succession from her son John to
Nicephorus Bryennius, the husband of her daughter Anna.
Having failed to persuade Alexius, or, upon his death, to carry
out a <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> with the help of the palace guards, she retired
to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.</p>

<p>3. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She
was the daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law
of the Roman emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal.
The marriage was celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The
new empress, who had exchanged her earlier name of Bertha
for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a devoted wife, and
by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably with
most Byzantine queens of the age.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>H. v. Kap-Herr, <i>Die abendländische Politik des Kaisers Manuel</i>
(Strassburg, 1881).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRETON, HENRY<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1611-1651), English parliamentary general,
eldest son of German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire,
was baptized on the 3rd of November 1611, became a gentleman
commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A.
in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple the same year. On the
outbreak of the Civil War he joined the parliamentary army,
fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643, was made
by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year
served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the
second battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell
in his accusations of incompetency against the general. On the
night before the battle of Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded
in surprising the Royalist army and captured many prisoners,
and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he was made
commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left
wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under
Ireton was completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert,
and Ireton was wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout
of the enemy which ensued on the successful charge of Cromwell
he regained his freedom. He was present at the siege of Bristol
in the September following, and took an active part in the subsequent
victorious campaign which resulted in the overthrow
of the royal cause. On the 30th of October 1645 Ireton entered
parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with
the siege of Oxford he was, on the 15th of June 1646, married
to Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. This union brought
Ireton into still closer connexion with Cromwell, with whose
career he was now more completely identified. But while
Cromwell&rsquo;s policy was practically limited to making the best of
the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise,
Ireton&rsquo;s attitude was based on well-grounded principles of
statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes
of the extreme party, disliked especially the abstract and unpractical
theories of the Republicans and the Levellers, and
desired, while modifying their mutual powers, to retain the
constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged these
views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and
in the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted
with the drawing up of the army proposals, including the manifesto
called &ldquo;The Heads of the Proposals.&rdquo; He endeavoured
to prevent the breach between the army and the parliament,
but when the division became inevitable took the side of the
former. He persevered in supporting the negotiations with the
king till his action aroused great suspicion and unpopularity. He
became at length convinced of the hopelessness of dealing with
Charles, and after the king&rsquo;s flight to the Isle of Wight treated
his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
to establish an administration without him. Ireton served
under Fairfax in the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent
and Essex, and was responsible for the executions of Lucas and
Lisle at Colchester. After the rejection by the king of the last
offers of the army, he showed special zeal in bringing about his
trial, was one of the chief promoters of &ldquo;Pride&rsquo;s Purge,&rdquo; attended
the court regularly, and signed the death-warrant. The regiment
of Ireton having been chosen by lot to accompany Cromwell
in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed major-general;
and on the recall of his chief to take the command in Scotland,
he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to complete
Cromwell&rsquo;s work of reduction and replantation. This he proceeded
to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity
of his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly
bringing his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November
1651 of fever after the capture of Limerick. His loss &ldquo;struck
a great sadness into Cromwell,&rdquo; and perhaps there was no one
of the parliamentary leaders who could have been less spared,
for while he possessed very high abilities as a soldier, and great
political penetration and insight, he resembled in stern unflinchingness
of purpose the protector himself. By his wife,
Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles
Fleetwood, Ireton left one son and three daughters.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Article by C. H Firth in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> with
authorities there quoted; Wood&rsquo;s <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> iii. 298, and <i>Fasti</i>, i.
451; Cornelius Brown&rsquo;s <i>Lives of Notts Worthies</i>, 181; <i>Clarke Papers</i>
published by Camden Society; Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Civil War
and of the Commonwealth</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIARTE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Yriarte</span>) <b>Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE</b> (1750-1791),
Spanish poet, was born on the 18th of September 1750,
at Orotava in the island of Teneriffe, and received his literary
education at Madrid under the care of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte,
librarian to the king of Spain. In his eighteenth year the
nephew began his literary career by translating French plays
for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of Tirso
Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled <i>Hacer que
hacemos</i>. In the following year he became official translator
at the foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the
war department. In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in
<i>silvas</i> entitled <i>La Música</i>, which attracted some attention in
Italy as well as at home. The <i>Fábulas literarias</i> (1781), with
which his name is most intimately associated, are composed
in a great variety of metres, and show considerable ingenuity
in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but
their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later
years, partly in consequence of the <i>Fábulas</i>, Iriarte was absorbed
in personal controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisition
for his sympathies with the French philosophers. He died
on the 17th of September 1791.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio
Cotarelo y Mori.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIDACEAE<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of
flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class
Monocotyledons, containing about 800 species in 57 genera,
and widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. The
members of this order are generally perennial herbs growing
from a corm as in <i>Crocus</i> and <i>Gladiolus</i>, or a rhizome as in <i>Iris</i>;
more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb. A few South
African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers
are hermaphrodite and regular as in <i>Iris</i> (fig. 1) and <i>Crocus</i>
(fig. 3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in <i>Gladiolus</i>.
The petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three
members, which are joined below into a longer or shorter tube,
followed by one whorl of three stamens; the inferior ovary
is three-celled and contains numerous ovules on an axile placenta;
the style is branched and the branches are often petaloid. The
fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the partitions and
containing generally a large number of roundish or angular
seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles
that in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (<i>Narcissus</i>,
<i>Snowdrop</i>, &amp;c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl
of stamens.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:482px; height:658px" src="images/img793a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Yellow Iris, <i>Iris Pseudacorus</i>.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>1. Flower, from which the outer
petals and the stigmas have
been removed, leaving the
inner petals (<i>a</i>) and stamens.</p>

<p>2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>3. Fruit cut across showing the
three chambers containing
seeds.</p>

<p>4. A seed. 1-4 about ½ nat. size.</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:153px; height:238px" src="images/img793b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Seed-vessel
(capsule) of the
Flower-de-Luce (<i>iris</i>),
opening in a loculicidal
manner. The
three valves bear the
septa in the centre and
the opening takes
place through the
back of the chambers.
Each valve is formed
by the halves of contiguous
carpels.</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:312px; height:446px" src="images/img793c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;1. Crocus in flower, reduced.
2. Flower dissected. <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>&prime;, Upper and
lower membranous spathe-like bracts;
<i>c</i>, Tube of perianth; <i>d</i>, Ovary; <i>e</i>, Style;
<i>f</i>, Stigmas.</td></tr></table>

<p>The most important genera are <i>Crocus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with about 70
species, <i>Iris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with about 100, and <i>Gladiolus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with
150. <i>Ixia</i>, <i>Freesia</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) and <i>Tritonia</i> (including <i>Montbretia</i>),
all natives of South Africa, are well known in cultivation.
<i>Sisyrinchium</i>, blue-eyed grass, is a new-world genus extending
from arctic America to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles. One
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
species, <i>S. angustifolium</i>, an arctic and temperate North American
species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in Ireland. Other
British representatives of the order are: <i>Iris Pseudacorus</i>,
(yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, <i>I. foetidissima</i>
(stinking iris), <i>Gladiolus communis</i>, a rare plant found in the
New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and <i>Romulea Columnae</i>, a
small plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and
a short scape bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped
flowers, which occurs at Dawlish in Devonshire.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIDIUM<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1), one of the metals
of the platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant
during the examination of the residue left when platinum ores
are dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>; the element occurs in platinum
ores in the form of alloys of platinum and iridium, and of osmium
and iridium. Many methods have been devised for the separation
of these metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Platinum</a></span>), one of the best being that
of H. St. C Deville and H. J. Debray (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1874,
78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused with zinc
and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited
with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric
acid. The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as
oxide) by the addition of baryta, dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>, and
precipitated as iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of
ammonium chloride. The double chloride is fused with nitre,
the melt extracted with water and the residue fused with lead,
the excess of lead being finally removed by solution in nitric
acid and <i>aqua regia</i>. It is a brittle metal of specific gravity
22.4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with great difficulty.
It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting iridium
ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily
oxidizes when heated in air.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the <i>sesquioxide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>,
and the <i>dioxide</i>, IrO<span class="su">2</span>, corresponding to which there are two series of
salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts is also
known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. <i>Iridium
sesquioxide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide,
Ir(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to
iridium sodium chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol.
<i>Iridium dioxide</i>, IrO<span class="su">2</span>, may be obtained as small needles by heating the
metal to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer,
<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1890, 110, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide,
Ir(OH)<span class="su">4</span>, is formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium
chloride, or when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or
sodium carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydrochloric
acid, but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids.
On the oxides see L. Wöhler and W. Witzmann, <i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>
(1908), 57, p. 323. <i>Iridium sesquichloride</i>, IrCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when
one of the corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated
sulphuric acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus
obtained as an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and
alkalis. <i>Potassium iridium sesquichloride</i>, K<span class="su">3</span>IrCl<span class="su">6</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained
by passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate
in water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to
the solution (C. Claus, <i>Jour. prak. Chem.</i>, 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
ammonium compounds are known. <i>Iridium tetrachloride</i>, IrCl<span class="su">4</span>, is
obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in <i>aqua regia</i>; by
dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the
solution (not above 40° C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains
a little sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline
chlorides. For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, <i>Ber.</i>, 1909,
42, p. 3905. <i>Iridium sulphide</i>, IrS, is obtained when the metal is
ignited in sulphur vapour. The <i>sesquisulphide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a
brown precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solution
of one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium
sulphide. The <i>disulphide</i>, IrS<span class="su">2</span>, is formed when powdered iridium is
heated with sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown
powder. Iridium forms many ammine derivatives, which are analogous
to the corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff,
<i>Jahresb.</i>, 1852, p. 428; W. Palmer, <i>Ber.</i>, 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23,
p. 3810; 1891, 24, p. 2090; <i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1896, 13, p. 211).</p>

<p>Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into
the metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been
determined in various ways, C. Seubert (<i>Ber.</i>, 1878, 11, p. 1770), by the
analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192.74, and A.
Joly (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1890, 110, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191.78 (O = 15.88).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIGA,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva
Cáceres and near the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak
reaching a height of 4092 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297.
Iriga has a temperate climate. The soil in its vicinity is rich,
producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, pepper, cacao, cotton, abacá,
tobacco and copra. The neighbouring forests furnish ebony,
molave, tindalo and other very valuable hardwoods. The
language is Bicol.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIS,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the
Ocean nymph Electra (according to Hesiod), the personification
of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. As the rainbow
unites earth and heaven, Iris is the messenger of the gods to men;
in this capacity she is mentioned frequently in the <i>Iliad</i>, but never
in the <i>Odyssey</i>, where Hermes takes her place. She is represented
as a youthful virgin, with wings of gold, who hurries with the
swiftness of the wind from one end of the world to the other,
into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She is especially
the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with Hermes,
whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus
she carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts
to sleep all who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the
caduceus and a vase.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRIS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order
Iridaceae of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized
by a petaloid six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only
three stamens (the outer series), being thus distinguished from
the Amaryllidaceae family, which has six stamens. They are
handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name having been
applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus contains
about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north
temperate zone. Two of the species are British. <i>I. Pseudacorus</i>,
the yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks,
and in marshes and ditches. It is called the &ldquo;water-flag&rdquo;
or &ldquo;bastard floure de-luce&rdquo; by Gerard, who remarks that
&ldquo;although it be a water plant of nature, yet being planted in
gardens it prospereth well.&rdquo; Its flowers appear in June and July,
and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4 ft.
long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part
of the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous
and pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as
a substitute for coffee, of which, however, they have not the
properties. The astringent rhizome has diuretic, purgative
and emetic properties, and may, it is said, be used for dyeing
black, and in the place of galls for ink-making. The other
British species, <i>I. foetidissima</i>, the fetid iris, gladdon or roast-beef
plant, the <i>Xyris</i> or stinking gladdon of Gerard, is a native
of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland, southern
Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull,
leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to
the plant throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the
seeds scarlet. When bruised this species emits a peculiar and
disagreeable odour.</p>

<p><i>Iris florentina</i>, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of
the south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented
orris root used in perfumery. <i>Iris versicolor</i>, or blue flag, is
indigenous to North America, and yields &ldquo;iridin,&rdquo; a powerful
hepatic stimulant. <i>Iris germanica</i> of central Europe, &ldquo;the
most common purple Fleur de Luce&rdquo; of Ray, is the large common
blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur de luce and probably
the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers of <i>Iris florentina</i>
a pigment&mdash;the &ldquo;verdelis,&rdquo; &ldquo;vert d&rsquo;iris,&rdquo; or iris-green,
formerly used by miniature painters&mdash;was prepared by maceration,
the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was added.
The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English
iris are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers.
Along with some other species, as <i>I. reticulata</i> and <i>I. persica</i>,
both of which are fragrant, they form great favourites with
florists. All these just mentioned differ from those formerly
named in the nature of the underground stem, which forms
a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome as in <i>I. Pseudacorus</i>,
<i>germanica</i>, <i>florentina</i>, &amp;c. Some botanists separate these bulbous
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
irises from the genus <i>Iris</i>, and place them apart in the genus
<i>Xiphium</i>, the Spanish iris, including about 30 species, all from
the Mediterranean region and the East.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:167px; height:323px" src="images/img795a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:118px; height:121px" src="images/img795b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Gynoecium
of Iris, consisting of an
inferior ovary <i>o</i>, and a
style, with three petaloid
segments <i>s</i>, bearing
stigmas <i>st</i>.</td>
<td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram
of Trimerous Symmetrical
Flower of
Iris, with two whorls
of perianth, three
stamens in one whorl
and an ovary formed
of three carpels. The
three dots indicate
the position of an
inner whorl of
stamens which is
present in the allied
families Amaryllidaceae
and Liliaceae
but absent in Iridaceae.</td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation
between the shape of the flower and the position of the
pollen-receiving
and stigmatic
surfaces on the
one hand and the
visits of insects on
the other. The large
outer petals form a
landing-stage for a
flying insect which in
probing the perianth-tube
for honey will
first come in contact
with the stigmatic
surface which is borne
on the outer face of
a shelf-like transverse
projection on the
under side of the
petaloid style-arm.
The anther, which
opens towards the
outside, is sheltered
beneath the over-arching style arm below
the stigma, so that the insect comes in contact with its
pollen-covered surface only after passing the stigma, while in
backing out of the flower it will come in contact only with
the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect
bearing pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit
the pollen on the stigma, while in backing out of a flower
the pollen which it bears will not be rubbed off on the stigma
of the same flower.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (<i>I. Xiphium</i>)
and the English iris (<i>I. xiphioides</i>, so called, which is also of Spanish
origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in very light
open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather sheltered
position. Both these present a long series of beautiful varieties of
the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and July, the
smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are many
other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish from
excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good but
porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong <i>I. persica</i>, <i>reticulata</i>,
<i>filifolia</i>, <i>Histrio</i>, <i>juncea</i>, <i>Danfordiae</i> <i>Rosenbachiana</i> and others which
flower as early as February and March.</p>

<p>The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom
are the dwarf forms of <i>Iris pumila</i>, which blossom during March,
April and May; and during the latter month and the following one
most of the larger growing species, such as <i>I. germanica</i>, <i>florentina</i>,
<i>pallida</i>, <i>variegata</i>, <i>amoena</i>, <i>flavescens</i>, <i>sambucina</i>, <i>neglecta</i>, <i>ruthenica</i>,
&amp;c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many of the foregoing there
are, besides the typical form, a considerable number of named garden
varieties. <i>Iris unguicularis</i> (or <i>stylosa</i>) is a remarkable winter
flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue flowers blotched with
yellow, produced at irregular intervals from November to March,
the bleakest period of the year.</p>

<p>The beautiful Japanese <i>Iris Kaempferi</i> (or <i>I. laevigata</i>) is of comparatively
modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.</p>

<p>What are known as <i>Oncocyclus</i>, or cushion irises, constitute a
magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the
&ldquo;cushion&rdquo; varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-shaped
leaves and the blossoms are usually borne singly on the
stalks. The best-known kinds are <i>atrofusca</i>, <i>Barnumae</i>, <i>Bismarckiana</i>,
<i>Gatesi</i>, <i>Heylandiana</i>, <i>iberica</i>, <i>Lorteti</i>, <i>Haynei</i>, <i>lupina</i>, <i>Mariae</i>, <i>meda</i>,
<i>paradoxa</i>, <i>sari</i>, <i>sofarana</i> and <i>susiana</i>&mdash;the last-named being
popularly called the &ldquo;mourning&rdquo; iris owing to the dark silvery
appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered
the roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts
again naturally.</p>

<p>A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
<i>Regelia</i>, of which <i>Korolkowi</i>, <i>Leichtlini</i> and <i>vaga</i> are the best known.
Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two groups,
and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has been
produced under the name of <i>Regelio-Cyclus</i>. They are best planted
in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes being
lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRISH MOSS,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Carrageen</span> (Irish <i>carraigeen</i>, &ldquo;moss of the
rock&rdquo;), a sea-weed (<i>Chondrus crispus</i>) which grows abundantly
along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North
America. In its fresh condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous,
varying in colour from a greenish-yellow to a dark purple or
purplish-brown; but when washed and sun-dried for preservation
it has a yellowish translucent horn-like aspect and consistency.
The principal constituent of Irish moss is a mucilaginous
body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has
nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter
rich in iodine and sulphur. When softened in water it has a
sea-like odour, and from the abundance of its mucilage it will
form a jelly on boiling with from 20 to 30 times its weight of
water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as an occasional article
of food. It may also be used as a thickener in calico-printing
and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with <i>Gigartina
mammillosa</i>, <i>G. acicularis</i> and other sea-weeds with which it is
associated in growth.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRKUTSK,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia,
bounded on the W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the
N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia
and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area, 287,061 sq. m.
The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000 ft. in
altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the
Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the
north, and narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The
high road, now the Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt.
The south-western part of the government is occupied by
mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact orography is as
yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia, fringed
by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the
snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges,
7500 to 8500 ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going
from south to north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps,
the Kitoi Alps (both snow-clad nearly all the year round), the
Ida mountains and the Kuitun mountains. These are, however,
by no means regular chains, but on the contrary are a complex
result of upheavals which took place at different geological
epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful,
fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the
Tunka Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain,
but not so wide, stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession
of high plains, 2000 to 2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal
beds of Devonian (or Upper Silurian) sandstone and limestone,
extends to the north of the railway along the Angara, or Verkhnyaya
(<i>i.e.</i> upper) Tunguzka, and the upper Lena, as far as
Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a
prairie peopled by Buriats. A mountain region, usually described
as the Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several
ranges running north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and
scooped out to form the depression occupied by the lake, is
fringed on its north-western slope by horizontal beds of sandstone
and limestone. Farther north-east the space between the Lena
and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain region belonging
to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several parallel
mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower
Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E.
of Lake Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Transbaikalia.
The principal rivers of the government are the Angara,
which flows from this lake northwards, with numerous sharp
windings, and receives from the left several large tributaries.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and Iya. The Lena is the
principal means of communication both with the gold-mines
on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province of
Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to
join the Yenisei in the far north, and the mountain streams
tributary to the Vitim drain the north-east.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are
met with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast
series of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits&mdash;the first
two but slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are
built up of older, semi-crystalline Cambro-Silurian strata, which
attain a thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones
of the Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and
diabases protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of
basaltic lavas and other volcanic deposits are spread along the
border ridge of the high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut,
and on the upper Oka, where cones of extinct volcanoes are found
(Jun-bulak). Earthquakes are frequent in the neighbourhood of
Lake Baikal and the surrounding region. Gold is extracted in the
Nizhne-udinsk district; graphite is found on the Botu-gol and Alibert
mountains (abandoned many years since) and on the Olkhon island
of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic) is found in many places, and
coal on the Oka. The salt springs of Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk),
as also those on the Ilim and of Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield
annually about 7000 tons of salt. Fireclay, grindstones, marble and
mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and various semi-precious stones occur on
the Sludyanka (south-west corner of the Baikal).</p>

<p>The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk
(1520 ft), for the year 31° Fahr., for January &minus;6°, for July 65°; at
Shimki (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24°, for January
&minus;17°, for July 63°. The average rainfall is 15 in. a year. Virgin
forests cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.</p>
</div>

<p>The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 515,132 in
1897, of whom 238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban;
except about 109,000 Buriats and 1700 Tunguses, they are
Russians. The estimated population in 1906 was 552,700.
Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools
are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country
districts, and only 12% of the children receive education.
The soil is very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere,
and less than a million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley,
oats, buckwheat, potatoes). Grain has to be imported from
West Siberia and cattle from Transbaikalia. Fisheries on
Lake Baikal supply every year about 2,400,000 Baikal herring
(<i>omul</i>). Industry is only beginning to be developed (iron-works,
glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and all manufactured
goods are imported from Russia). The government is divided
into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk (<i>q.v.</i>),
Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhne-udinsk
and Verkholensk.</p>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRKUTSK,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the chief town of the above government, is the
most important place in Siberia, being not only the largest
centre of population and the principal commercial depot north
of Tashkent, but a fortified military post, an archbishopric
of the Orthodox Greek Church and the seat of several learned
societies. It is situated in 52° 17&prime; N. and 104° 16&prime; E., 3792 m.
by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512, (1900) 49,106.
The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a tributary
of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and on
the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which
has a breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The
Irkut, from which the town takes its name, is a small river which
joins the Angara directly opposite the town, the main portion
of which is separated from the monastery, the castle, the port
and the suburbs by another confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka.
Irkutsk has long been reputed a remarkably fine city&mdash;its streets
being straight, broad, well paved and well lighted; but in 1879,
on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the (then) governor-general,
the principal administrative and municipal offices and
many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire;
and the government archives, the library and museum of the
Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society were
utterly ruined. A cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt
of stone in 1718), the governor&rsquo;s palace, a school of medicine, a
museum, a military hospital, and the crown factories are among
the public institutions and buildings. An important fair is
held in December. Irkutsk grew out of the winter-quarters
established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the collection of the fur
tax from the Buriats. Its existence as a town dates from 1686.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRMIN,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Irminus</span>, in Teutonic mythology, a deified eponymic
hero of the Herminones. The chief seat of his worship was
Irminsal, or Ermensul, in Westphalia, destroyed in 772 by
Charlemagne. Huge wooden posts (Irmin pillars) were raised to
his honour, and were regarded as sacred by the Saxons.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRNERIUS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Iernerius, Gernerius,
Guarnerius, Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius), Italian jurist,
sometimes referred to as &ldquo;lucerna juris.&rdquo; He taught the &ldquo;free
arts&rdquo; at Bologna, his native city, during the earlier decades
of the 12th century. Of his personal history nothing is known,
except that it was at the instance of the countess Matilda,
Hildebrand&rsquo;s friend, who died in 1115, that he directed his
attention and that of his students to the <i>Institutes</i> and <i>Code</i>
of Justinian; that after 1116 he appears to have held some
office under the emperor Henry V.; and that he died, perhaps
during the reign of the emperor Lothair II., but certainly before
1140. He was the first of the Glossators (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gloss</a></span>), and
according to ancient opinion (which, however, has been much
controverted) was the author of the epitome of the <i>Novellae</i>
of Justinian, called the <i>Authentica</i>, arranged according to the
titles of the <i>Code</i>. His <i>Formularium tabellionum</i> (a directory
for notaries) and <i>Quaestiones</i> (a book of decisions) are no longer
extant. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.)</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Savigny, <i>Gesch. d. röm. Rechts im Mittelalter</i>, iii. 83; Vecchio,
<i>Notizie di Irnerio e della sua scuola</i> (Pisa, 1869); Ficker, <i>Forsch, z.
Reichs- u. Rechtsgesch. Italiens</i>, vol. iii. (Innsbruck, 1870); and
Fitting, <i>Die Anfänge der Rechtsschule zu Bologna</i> (Berlin, 1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (O = 16)], a metallic
chemical element. Although iron occurs only sparingly in the
free state, the abundance of ores from which it may be readily
obtained led to its application in the arts at a very remote period.
It is generally agreed, however, that the Iron Age, the period
of civilization during which this metal played an all-important
part, succeeded the ages of copper and bronze, notwithstanding
the fact that the extraction of these metals required greater
metallurgical skill. The Assyrians and Egyptians made considerable
use of the metal; and in Genesis iv. 22 mention
is made of Tubal-cain as the instructor of workers in iron and
copper. The earlier sources of the ores appear to have been
in India; the Greeks, however, obtained it from the Chalybes,
who dwelt on the south coast of the Black Sea; and the Romans,
besides drawing from these deposits, also exploited Spain,
Elba and the province of Noricum. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-work</a></span>.)</p>

<p>The chief occurrences of metallic iron are as minute spiculae
disseminated through basaltic rocks, as at Giant&rsquo;s Causeway
and in the Auvergne, and, more particularly, in meteorites (<i>q.v.</i>).
In combination it occurs, usually in small quantity, in most
natural waters, in plants, and as a necessary constituent of blood.
The economic sources are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span> below;
in the same place will be found accounts of the manufacture,
properties, and uses of the metal, the present article being
confined to its chemistry. The principal iron ores are the
oxides and carbonates, and these readily yield the metal by
smelting with carbon. The metal so obtained invariably contains
a certain amount of carbon, free or combined, and the proportion
and condition regulate the properties of the metal, giving
origin to the three important varieties: cast iron, steel, wrought
iron. The perfectly pure metal may be prepared by heating
the oxide or oxalate in a current of hydrogen; when obtained
at a low temperature it is a black powder which oxidizes in air
with incandescence; produced at higher temperatures the
metal is not pyrophoric. Péligot obtained it as minute tetragonal
octahedra and cubes by reducing ferrous chloride in hydrogen.
It may be obtained electrolytically from solutions of ferrous
and magnesium sulphates and sodium bicarbonate, a wrought
iron anode and a rotating cathode of copper, thinly silvered and
iodized, being employed (S. Maximowitsch, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>,
1905, 11, p. 52).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span></p>

<p>In bulk, the metal has a silvery white lustre and takes a
high polish. Its specific gravity is 7.84; and the average
specific heat over the range 15°-100° is 0.10983; this value
increases with temperature to 850°, and then begins to diminish.
It is the most tenacious of all the ductile metals at ordinary
temperatures with the exception of cobalt and nickel; it becomes
brittle, however, at the temperature of liquid air. It softens
at a red heat, and may be readily welded at a white heat;
above this point it becomes brittle. It fuses at about 1550°-1600°,
and may be distilled in the electric furnace (H. Moissan,
<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1906, 142, p. 425). It is attracted by a magnet
and may be magnetized, but the magnetization is quickly
lost. The variation of physical properties which attends iron
on heating has led to the view that the metal exists in allotropic
forms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>, below).</p>

<p>Iron is very reactive chemically. Exposed to atmospheric
influences it is more or less rapidly corroded, giving the familiar
rust (<i>q.v.</i>). S. Burnie (<i>Abst. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 469) has shown
that water is decomposed at all temperatures from 0° to 100°
by the finely divided metal with liberation of hydrogen, the
action being accelerated when oxides are present. The decomposition
of steam by passing it through a red-hot gun-barrel,
resulting in the liberation of hydrogen and the production
of magnetic iron oxide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, is a familiar laboratory method
for preparing hydrogen (<i>q.v.</i>). When strongly heated iron
inflames in oxygen and in sulphur vapour; it also combines
directly with the halogens. It dissolves in most dilute acids
with liberation of hydrogen; the reaction between sulphuric
acid and iron turnings being used for the commercial manufacture
of this gas. It dissolves in dilute cold nitric acid with
the formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates, no gases
being liberated; when heated or with stronger acid ferric
nitrate is formed with evolution of nitrogen oxides.</p>

<p>It was observed by James Keir (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1790, p. 359)
that iron, after having been immersed in strong nitric acid,
is insoluble in acids, neither does it precipitate metals from
solutions. This &ldquo;passivity&rdquo; may be brought about by immersion
in other solutions, especially by those containing such
oxidizing anions as NO&prime;<span class="su">3</span>, ClO&prime;<span class="su">3</span>, less strongly by the anions
SO&Prime;<span class="su">4</span> CN&prime;, CNS&prime;, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, OH&prime;, while Cl&prime;, Br&prime; practically inhibit
passivity; H&prime; is the only cation which has any effect, and this
tends to exclude passivity. It is also occasioned by anodic
polarization of iron in sulphuric acid. Other metals may
be rendered passive; for example, zinc does not precipitate
copper from solutions of the double cyanides and sulphocyanides,
nickel and cadmium from the nitrates, and iron from the sulphate,
but it immediately throws down nickel and cadmium from
the sulphates and chlorides, and lead and copper from the
nitrates (see O. Sackur, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>, 1904, 10, p. 841).
Anodic polarization in potassium chloride solution renders
molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium, tungsten, and vanadium
passive (W. Muthmann and F. Frauenberger, <i>Sitz. Bayer.
Akad. Wiss.</i>, 1904, 34, p. 201), and also gold in commercial
potassium cyanide solution (A. Coehn and C. L. Jacobsen,
<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 926). Several hypotheses have been
promoted to explain this behaviour, and, although the question
is not definitely settled, the more probable view is that it is
caused by the formation of a film of an oxide, a suggestion made
many years ago by Faraday (see P. Krassa, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>,
1909, 15, p. 490). Fredenhagen (<i>Zeit. physik. Chem.</i>, 1903,
43, p. 1), on the other hand, regarded it as due to surface films
of a gas; submitting that the difference between iron made
passive by nitric acid and by anodic polarization was explained
by the film being of nitrogen oxides in the first case and of
oxygen in the second case. H. L. Heathcote and others regard
the passivity as invariably due to electrolytic action (see papers
in the <i>Zeit. physik. Chem.</i>, 1901 et seq.).</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Compounds of Iron.</i></p>

<p><i>Oxides and Hydroxides.</i>&mdash;Iron forms three oxides: ferrous
oxide, FeO, ferric oxide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, and ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>.
The first two give origin to well-defined series of salts, the ferrous
salts, wherein the metal is divalent, and the ferric salts, wherein
the metal is trivalent; the former readily pass into the latter on
oxidation, and the latter into the former on reduction.</p>

<p><i>Ferrous oxide</i> is obtained when ferric oxide is reduced in
hydrogen at 300° as a black pyrophoric powder. Sabatier and
Senderens (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1892, 114, p. 1429) obtained it by
acting with nitrous oxide on metallic iron at 200°, and Tissandier
by heating the metal to 900° in carbon dioxide; Donau (<i>Monats.</i>,
1904, 25, p. 181), on the other hand, obtained a magnetic and
crystalline-ferroso-ferric oxide at 1200°. It may also be prepared
as a black velvety powder which readily takes up oxygen from
the air by adding ferrous oxalate to boiling caustic potash.
Ferrous hydrate, Fe(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, when prepared from a pure ferrous
salt and caustic soda or potash free from air, is a white powder
which may be preserved in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Usually,
however, it forms a greenish mass, owing to partial oxidation.
It oxidizes on exposure with considerable evolution of heat;
it rapidly absorbs carbon dioxide; and readily dissolves in acids
to form ferrous salts, which are usually white when anhydrous,
but greenish when hydrated.</p>

<p><i>Ferric oxide</i> or iron sesquioxide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, constitutes the valuable
ores red haematite and specular iron; the minerals brown
haematite or limonite, and göthite and also iron rust are hydrated
forms. It is obtained as a steel-grey crystalline powder by
igniting the oxide or any ferric salt containing a volatile acid.
Small crystals are formed by passing ferric chloride vapour over
heated lime. When finely ground these crystals yield a brownish
red powder which dissolves slowly in acids, the most effective
solvent being a boiling mixture of 8 parts of sulphuric acid and
3 of water. Ferric oxide is employed as a pigment, as jeweller&rsquo;s
rouge, and for polishing metals. It forms several hydrates, the
medicinal value of which was recognized in very remote times.
Two series of synthetic hydrates were recognized by Muck and
Tommasi: the &ldquo;red&rdquo; hydrates, obtained by precipitating ferric
salts with alkalis, and the &ldquo;yellow&rdquo; hydrates, obtained by
oxidizing moist ferrous hydroxide or carbonates. J. van Bemmelen
has shown that the red hydrates are really colloids, the
amount of water retained being such that its vapour pressure
equals the pressure of the aqueous vapour in the superincumbent
atmosphere. By heating freshly prepared red ferric hydrate
with water under 5000 atmospheres pressure Ruff (<i>Ber.</i>, 1901,
34, p. 3417) obtained definite hydrates corresponding to the
minerals limonite (30°-42.5°), göthite (42.5°-62.5°), and
hydrohaematite (above 62.5°). Thomas Graham obtained a
soluble hydrate by dissolving the freshly prepared hydrate in
ferric chloride and dialysing the solution, the soluble hydrate
being left in the dialyser. All the chlorine, however, does not
appear to be removed by this process, the residue having the
composition 82Fe(OH)<span class="su">3</span>·FeCl<span class="su">3</span>; but it may be by electrolysing
in a porous cell (Tribot and Chrétien, <i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1905, 140,
p. 144). On standing, the solution usually gelatinizes, a process
accelerated by the addition of an electrolyte. It is employed in
medicine under the name <i>Liquor ferri dialysati</i>. The so-called
soluble meta-ferric hydroxide, FeO(OH)(?), discovered by Péan
de St Gilles in 1856, may be obtained by several methods. By
heating solutions of certain iron salts for some time and then
adding a little sulphuric acid it is precipitated as a brown powder.
Black scales, which dissolve in water to form a red solution, are
obtained by adding a trace of hydrochloric acid to a solution of
basic ferric nitrate which has been heated to 100° for three days.
A similar compound, which, however, dissolves in water to form
an orange solution, results by adding salt to a heated solution of
ferric chloride. These compounds are insoluble in concentrated,
but dissolve readily in dilute acids.</p>

<p>Red ferric hydroxide dissolves in acids to form a well-defined
series of salts, the ferric salts, also obtained by oxidizing ferrous
salts; they are usually colourless when anhydrous, but yellow
or brown when hydrated. It has also feebly acidic properties,
forming <i>ferrites</i> with strong bases.</p>

<p><i>Magnetite</i>, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, may be regarded as ferrous ferrite,
FeO·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. This important ore of iron is most celebrated for
its magnetic properties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Compass</a></span>), but the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
mineral is not always magnetic, although invariably attracted
by a magnet. It may be obtained artificially by passing steam
over red-hot iron. It dissolves in acids to form a mixture of a
ferrous and ferric salt,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and if an alkali is added to the solution
a black precipitate is obtained which dries to a dark brown mass
of the composition Fe(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>; this substance is attracted
by a magnet, and thus may be separated from the admixed ferric
oxide. Calcium ferrite, magnesium ferrite and zinc ferrite,
RO·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> (R = Ca, Mg, Zn), are obtained by intensely heating
mixtures of the oxides; magnesium ferrite occurs in nature as
the mineral magnoferrite, and zinc ferrite as franklinite, both
forming black octahedra.</p>

<p><i>Ferric acid</i>, H<span class="su">2</span>FeO<span class="su">4</span>. By fusing iron with saltpetre and
extracting the melt with water, or by adding a solution of ferric
nitrate in nitric acid to strong potash, an amethyst or purple-red
solution is obtained which contains potassium ferrate. E.
Frémy investigated this discovery, made by Stahl in 1702, and
showed that the same solution resulted when chlorine is passed
into strong potash solution containing ferric hydrate in suspension.
Haber and Pick (<i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>, 1900, 7, p. 215) have
prepared potassium ferrate by electrolysing concentrated potash
solution, using an iron anode. A temperature of 70°, and a
reversal of the current (of low density) between two cast iron
electrodes every few minutes, are the best working conditions.
When concentrated the solution is nearly black, and on heating
it yields a yellow solution of potassium ferrite, oxygen being
evolved. Barium ferrate, BaFeO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, obtained as a dark red
powder by adding barium chloride to a solution of potassium
ferrate, is fairly stable. It dissolves in acetic acid to form a red
solution, is not decomposed by cold sulphuric acid, but with
hydrochloric or nitric acid it yields barium and ferric salts, with
evolution of chlorine or oxygen (Baschieri, <i>Gazetta</i>, 1906, 36,
ii. p. 282).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Halogen Compounds.</i>&mdash;Ferrous fluoride, FeF<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as
colourless prisms (with 8H<span class="su">2</span>O) by dissolving iron in hydrofluoric acid,
or as anhydrous colourless rhombic prisms by heating iron or ferric
chloride in dry hydrofluoric acid gas. Ferric fluoride, FeF<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained
as colourless crystals (with 4½H<span class="su">2</span>O) by evaporating a solution
of the hydroxide in hydrofluoric acid. When heated in air it yields
ferric oxide. Ferrous chloride, FeCl<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as shining scales
by passing chlorine, or, better, hydrochloric acid gas, over red-hot
iron, or by reducing ferric chloride in a current of hydrogen. It is
very deliquescent, and freely dissolves in water and alcohol. Heated
in air it yields a mixture of ferric oxide and chloride, and in steam
magnetic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen. It absorbs
ammonia gas, forming the compound FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·6NH<span class="su">2</span>, which on heating
loses ammonia, and, finally, yields ammonium chloride, nitrogen and
iron nitride. It fuses at a red-heat, and volatilizes at a yellow-heat;
its vapour density at 1300°-1400° corresponds to the formula
FeCl<span class="su">2</span>. By evaporating in vacuo the solution obtained by dissolving
iron in hydrochloric acid, there results bluish, monoclinic
crystals of FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, which deliquesce, turning greenish, on exposure
to air, and effloresce in a desiccator. Other hydrates are
known. By adding ammonium chloride to the solution, evaporating
in vacuo, and then volatilizing the ammonium chloride, anhydrous
ferrous chloride is obtained. The solution, in common with those of
most ferrous salts, absorbs nitric oxide with the formation of a
brownish solution.</p>

<p>Ferric chloride, FeCl<span class="su">3</span>, known in its aqueous solution to Glauber as
<i>oleum martis</i>, may be obtained anhydrous by the action of dry
chlorine on the metal at a moderate red-heat, or by passing hydrochloric
acid gas over heated ferric oxide. It forms iron-black plates
or tablets which appear red by transmitted and a metallic green by
reflected light. It is very deliquescent, and readily dissolves in
water, forming a brown or yellow solution, from which several
hydrates may be separated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>). The solution is best
prepared by dissolving the hydrate in hydrochloric acid and removing
the excess of acid by evaporation, or by passing chlorine into
the solution obtained by dissolving the metal in hydrochloric acid
and removing the excess of chlorine by a current of carbon dioxide.
It also dissolves in alcohol and ether; boiling point determinations
of the molecular weight in these solutions point to the formula
FeCl<span class="su">3</span>. Vapour density determinations at 448° indicate a partial
dissociation of the double molecule Fe<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">6</span>; on stronger heating it
splits into ferrous chloride and chlorine. It forms red crystalline
double salts with the chlorides of the metals of the alkalis and of the
magnesium group. An aqueous solution of ferric chloride is used in
pharmacy under the name <i>Liquor ferri perchloridi</i>; and an alcoholic
solution constitutes the quack medicine known as &ldquo;Lamotte&rsquo;s
golden drops.&rdquo; Many oxychlorides are known; soluble forms are
obtained by dissolving precipitated ferric hydrate in ferric chloride,
whilst insoluble compounds result when ferrous chloride is oxidized
in air, or by boiling for some time aqueous solutions of ferric chloride.</p>

<p>Ferrous bromide, FeBr<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as yellowish crystals by the
union of bromine and iron at a dull red-heat, or as bluish-green
rhombic tables of the composition FeBr<span class="su">2</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O by crystallizing a
solution of iron in hydrobromic acid. Ferric bromide, FeBr<span class="su">3</span>, is
obtained as dark red crystals by heating iron in an excess of bromine
vapour. It closely resembles the chloride in being deliquescent,
dissolving ferric hydrate, and in yielding basic salts. Ferrous iodide,
FeI<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as a grey crystalline mass by the direct union of
its components. Ferric iodide does not appear to exist.</p>

<p><i>Sulphur Compounds.</i>&mdash;Ferrous sulphide, FeS, results from the
direct union of its elements, best by stirring molten sulphur with a
white-hot iron rod, when the sulphide drops to the bottom of the
crucible. It then forms a yellowish crystalline mass, which readily
dissolves in acids with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Heated in air it at first partially oxidizes to ferrous sulphate, and at
higher temperatures it yields sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It
is unaltered by ignition in hydrogen. An amorphous form results
when a mixture of iron filings and sulphur are triturated with water.
This modification is rapidly oxidized by the air with such an elevation
of temperature that the mass may become incandescent. Another
black amorphous form results when ferrous salts are precipitated by
ammonium sulphide.</p>

<p>Ferric sulphide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by gently heating a mixture of
its constituent elements, or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
on ferric oxide at temperatures below 100°. It is also prepared by
precipitating a ferric salt with ammonium sulphide; unless the
alkali be in excess a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur is obtained.
It combines with other sulphides to form compounds of the
type M&prime;<span class="su">2</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">4</span>. Potassium ferric sulphide, K<span class="su">2</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">4</span>, obtained by
heating a mixture of iron filings, sulphur and potassium carbonate,
forms purple glistening crystals, which burn when heated in air.
Magnetic pyrites or pyrrhotite has a composition varying between
Fe<span class="su">7</span>S<span class="su">8</span> and Fe<span class="su">8</span>S<span class="su">9</span>, <i>i.e.</i> 5FeS·Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span> and 6FeS·Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>. It has a somewhat
brassy colour, and occurs massive or as hexagonal plates; it
is attracted by a magnet and is sometimes itself magnetic. The
mineral is abundant in Canada, where the presence of about 5% of
nickel makes it a valuable ore of this metal. Iron disulphide, FeS<span class="su">2</span>,
constitutes the minerals pyrite and marcasite (<i>q.v.</i>); copper pyrites
is (Cu, Fe)S<span class="su">2</span>. Pyrite may be prepared artificially by gently heating
ferrous sulphide with sulphur, or as brassy octahedra and cubes by
slowly heating an intimate mixture of ferric oxide, sulphur and sal-ammoniac.
It is insoluble in dilute acids, but dissolves in nitric
acid with separation of sulphur.</p>

<p>Ferrous sulphite, FeSO<span class="su">3</span>. Iron dissolves in a solution of sulphur
dioxide in the absence of air to form ferrous sulphite and thio-sulphate;
the former, being less soluble than the latter, separates
out as colourless or greenish crystals on standing.</p>

<p>Ferrous sulphate, green vitriol or copperas, FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O, was
known to, and used by, the alchemists; it is mentioned in the
writings of Agricola, and its preparation from iron and sulphuric
acid occurs in the <i>Tractatus chymico-philosophicus</i> ascribed to Basil
Valentine. It occurs in nature as the mineral melanterite, either
crystalline or fibrous, but usually massive; it appears to have been
formed by the oxidation of pyrite or marcasite. It is manufactured
by piling pyrites in heaps and exposing to atmospheric oxidation,
the ferrous sulphate thus formed being dissolved in water, and the
solution run into tanks, where any sulphuric acid which may be
formed is decomposed by adding scrap iron. By evaporation the
green vitriol is obtained as large crystals. The chief impurities are
copper and ferric sulphates; the former may be removed by adding
scrap iron, which precipitates the copper; the latter is eliminated by
recrystallization. Other impurities such as zinc and manganese
sulphates are more difficult to remove, and hence to prepare the pure
salt it is best to dissolve pure iron wire in dilute sulphuric acid.
Ferrous sulphate forms large green crystals belonging to the monoclinic
system; rhombic crystals, isomorphous with zinc sulphate, are
obtained by inoculating a solution with a crystal of zinc sulphate, and
triclinic crystals of the formula FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O by inoculating with
copper sulphate. By evaporating a solution containing free sulphuric
acid in a vacuum, the hepta-hydrated salt first separates, then
the penta-, and then a tetra-hydrate, FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, isomorphous
with manganese sulphate. By gently heating in a vacuum to 140°,
the hepta-hydrate loses 6 molecules of water, and yields a white
powder, which on heating in the absence of air gives the anhydrous
salt. The monohydrate also results as a white precipitate when
concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a saturated solution of ferrous
sulphate. Alcohol also throws down the salt from aqueous solution,
the composition of the precipitate varying with the amount of salt
and precipitant employed. The solution absorbs nitric oxide to form
a dark brown solution, which loses the gas on heating or by placing
in ä vacuum. Ferrous sulphate forms double salts with the alkaline
sulphates. The most important is ferrous ammonium sulphate,
FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·(NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, obtained by dissolving equivalent amounts
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
of the two salts in water and crystallizing. It is very stable and is
much used in volumetric analysis.</p>

<p>Ferric sulphate, Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by adding nitric acid to a
hot solution of ferrous sulphate containing sulphuric acid, colourless
crystals being deposited on evaporating the solution. The anhydrous
salt is obtained by heating, or by adding concentrated
sulphuric acid to a solution. It is sparingly soluble in water, and on
heating it yields ferric oxide and sulphur dioxide. The mineral
coquimbite is Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O. Many basic ferric sulphates are
known, some of which occur as minerals; carphosiderite is
Fe(FeO)<span class="su">5</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">4</span>·10H<span class="su">2</span>O; amarantite is Fe(FeO)(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O; utahite
is 3(FeO)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O; copiapite is Fe3(FeO)(SO4)<span class="su">5</span>·18H<span class="su">2</span>O; castanite
is Fe(FeO)(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O; römerite is FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·12H<span class="su">2</span>O. The
iron alums are obtained by crystallizing solutions of equivalent
quantities of ferric and an alkaline sulphate. Ferric potassium
sulphate, the common iron alum, K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·24H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms
bright violet octahedra.</p>

<p><i>Nitrides, Nitrates, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Several nitrides are known. Guntz
(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1902, 135, p. 738) obtained ferrous nitride, Fe<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>,
and ferric nitride, FeN, as black powders by heating lithium nitride
with ferrous potassium chloride and ferric potassium chloride respectively.
Fowler (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1901, p. 285) obtained a
nitride Fe<span class="su">2</span>N by acting upon anhydrous ferrous chloride or bromide,
finely divided reduced iron, or iron amalgam with ammonia at 420°;
and, also, in a compact form, by the action of ammonia on red-hot
iron wire. It oxidizes on heating in air, and ignites in chlorine; on
solution in mineral acids it yields ferrous and ammonium salts,
hydrogen being liberated. A nitride appears to be formed when
nitrogen is passed over heated iron, since the metal is rendered
brittle. Ferrous nitrate, Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is a very unstable salt, and
is obtained by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate and barium
nitrate, filtering, and crystallizing in a vacuum over sulphuric acid.
Ferric nitrate, Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by dissolving iron in nitric acid
(the cold dilute acid leads to the formation of ferrous and ammonium
nitrates) and crystallizing, when cubes of Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O or monoclinic
crystals of Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. It is used as a
mordant.</p>

<p>Ferrous solutions absorb nitric oxide, forming dark green to black
solutions. The coloration is due to the production of unstable
compounds of the ferrous salt and nitric oxide, and it seems that in
neutral solutions the compound is made up of one molecule of salt
to one of gas; the reaction, however, is reversible, the composition
varying with temperature, concentration and nature of the salt.
Ferrous chloride dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbs two
molecules of the gas (Kohlschütter and Kutscheroff, <i>Ber.</i>, 1907, 40,
p. 873). Ferric chloride also absorbs the gas. Reddish brown
amorphous powders of the formulae 2FeCl<span class="su">3</span>·NO and 4FeCl<span class="su">3</span>·NO are
obtained by passing the gas over anhydrous ferric chloride. By
passing the gas into an ethereal solution of the salt, nitrosyl chloride
is produced, and on evaporating over sulphuric acid, black needles
of FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·NO·2H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained, which at 60° form the yellow
FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·NO. Complicated compounds, discovered by Roussin in
1858, are obtained by the interaction of ferrous sulphate and alkaline
nitrites and sulphides. Two classes may be distinguished:&mdash;(1) the
ferrodinitroso salts, <i>e.g.</i> K[Fe(NO)<span class="su">2</span>S], potassium ferrodinitrososulphide,
and (2) the ferroheptanitroso salts, <i>e.g.</i> K[Fe<span class="su">4</span>(NO)<span class="su">7</span>S<span class="su">8</span>],
potassium ferroheptanitrososulphide. These salts yield the corresponding
acids with sulphuric acid. The dinitroso acid slowly
decomposes into sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and
the heptanitroso acid. The heptanitroso acid is precipitated as a
brown amorphous mass by dilute sulphuric acid, but if the salt be
heated with strong acid it yields nitrogen, nitric oxide, sulphur, sulphuretted
hydrogen, and ferric, ammonium and potassium sulphates.</p>

<p><i>Phosphides, Phosphates.</i>&mdash;H. Le Chatelier and S. Wologdine (<i>Compt.
rend.</i>, 1909, 149, p. 709) have obtained Fe<span class="su">3</span>P, Fe<span class="su">2</span>P, FeP, Fe<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">3</span>,
but failed to prepare five other phosphides previously described.
Fe<span class="su">3</span>P occurs as crystals in the product of fusing iron with phosphorus;
it dissolves in strong hydrochloric acid. Fe<span class="su">2</span>P forms crystalline
needles insoluble in acids except aqua regia; it is obtained by fusing
copper phosphide with iron. FeP is obtained by passing phosphorus
vapour over Fe<span class="su">2</span>P at a red-heat. Fe<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">3</span> is prepared by the action of
phosphorus iodide vapour on reduced iron. Ferrous phosphate,
Fe<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs in nature as the mineral vivianite. It may
be obtained artificially as a white precipitate, which rapidly turns
blue or green on exposure, by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate
and sodium phosphate. It is employed in medicine. Normal ferric
phosphate, FePO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs as the mineral strengite, and is
obtained as a yellowish-white precipitate by mixing solutions of
ferric chloride and sodium phosphate. It is insoluble in dilute acetic
acid, but dissolves in mineral acids. The acid salts Fe(H<span class="su">2</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span> and
2FeH<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O have been described. Basic salts have been
prepared, and several occur in the mineral kingdom; dufrenite is
Fe<span class="su">2</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>.</p>

<p><i>Arsenides, Arsenites, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Several iron arsenides occur as minerals;
lölingite, FeAs<span class="su">2</span>, forms silvery rhombic prisms; mispickel or arsenical
pyrites, Fe<span class="su">2</span>AsS<span class="su">2</span>, is an important commercial source of arsenic.
A basic ferric arsenite, 4Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·As<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a flocculent
brown precipitate by adding an arsenite to ferric acetate, or by
shaking freshly prepared ferric hydrate with a solution of arsenious
oxide. The last reaction is the basis of the application of ferric
hydrate as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Normal ferric
arsenate, FeAsO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, constitutes the mineral scorodite; pharmacosiderite
is the basic arsenate 2FeAsO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe(OK)<span class="su">3</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O. An acid
arsenate, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>(HAsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a white precipitate by
mixing solutions of ferric chloride and ordinary sodium phosphate.
It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.</p>

<p><i>Carbides, Carbonates.</i>&mdash;The carbides of iron play an important part
in determining the properties of the different modifications of the
commercial metal, and are discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>.</p>

<p>Ferrous carbonate, FeCO<span class="su">3</span>, or spathic iron ore, may be obtained as
microscopic rhombohedra by adding sodium bicarbonate to ferrous
sulphate and heating to 150° for 36 hours. Ferrous sulphate and
sodium carbonate in the cold give a flocculent precipitate, at first
white but rapidly turning green owing to oxidation. A soluble
carbonate and a ferric salt give a precipitate which loses carbon
dioxide on drying. Of great interest are the carbonyl compounds.
Ferropentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)<span class="su">5</span>, obtained by L. Mond, Quincke and
Langer (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1891; see also ibid. 1910, p. 798) by
treating iron from ferrous oxalate with carbon monoxide, and heating
at 150°, is a pale yellow liquid which freezes at about &minus;20°, and
boils at 102.5°. Air and moisture decompose it. The halogens give
ferrous and ferric haloids and carbon monoxide; hydrochloric and
hydrobromic acids have no action, but hydriodic decomposes it.
By exposure to sunlight, either alone or dissolved in ether or ligroin,
it gives lustrous orange plates of diferrononacarbonyl, Fe<span class="su">2</span>(CO)<span class="su">9</span>.
If this substance be heated in ethereal solution to 50°, it deposits
lustrous dark-green tablets of ferrotetracarbonyl, Fe(CO)<span class="su">4</span>, very
stable at ordinary temperatures, but decomposing at 140°-150° into
iron and carbon monoxide (J. Dewar and H. O. Jones, <i>Abst. J.C.S.</i>,
1907, ii. 266). For the cyanides see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prussic Acid</a></span>.</p>

<p>Ferrous salts give a greenish precipitate with an alkali, whilst
ferric give a characteristic red one. Ferrous salts also give a bluish
white precipitate with ferrocyanide, which on exposure turns to a
dark blue; ferric salts are characterized by the intense purple
coloration with a thiocyanate. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>, § <i>Analytical</i>).
For the quantitative estimation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assaying</a></span>.</p>

<p>A recent atomic weight determination by Richards and Baxter
(<i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1900, 23, p. 245; 1904, 38, p. 232), who found the
amount of silver bromide given by ferrous bromide, gave the value
55.44 [O = 16].</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Pharmacology.</i></p>

<p>All the official salts and preparations of iron are made directly or
indirectly from the metal. The pharmacopoeial forms of iron are as
follow:&mdash;</p>

<p>1. <i>Ferrum</i>, annealed iron wire No. 35 or wrought iron nails free
from oxide; from which we have the preparation <i>Vinum ferri</i>, iron
wine, iron digested in sherry wine for thirty days. (Strength, 1
in 20.)</p>

<p>2. <i>Ferrum redactum</i>, reduced iron, a powder containing at least
75% of metallic iron and a variable amount of oxide. A preparation
of it is <i>Trochiscus ferri redacti</i> (strength, 1 grain of reduced iron in
each).</p>

<p>3. <i>Ferri sulphas</i>, ferrous sulphate, from which is prepared <i>Mistura
ferri composita</i>, &ldquo;Griffiths&rsquo; mixture,&rdquo; containing ferrous sulphate
25 gr., potassium carbonate 30 gr., myrrh 60 gr., sugar 60 gr.,
spirit of nutmeg 50 m., rose water 10 fl. oz.</p>

<p>4. <i>Ferri sulphas exsiccatus</i>, which has two subpreparations:
(<i>a</i>) <i>Pilula ferri</i>, &ldquo;Blaud&rsquo;s pill&rdquo; (exsiccated ferrous sulphate 150,
exsiccated sodium carbonate 95, gum acacia 50, tragacanth 15,
glycerin 10, syrup 150, water 20, each to contain about 1 grain of
ferrous carbonate); (<i>b</i>) <i>Pilula aloes et ferri</i> (Barbadoes aloes 2,
exsiccated ferrous sulphate 1, compound powder of cinnamon 3,
syrup of glucose 3).</p>

<p>5. <i>Ferri carbonas saccharatus</i>, saccharated iron carbonate. The
carbonate forms about one-third and is mixed with sugar into a
greyish powder.</p>

<p>6. <i>Ferri arsenas</i>, iron arsenate, ferrous and ferric arsenates with
some iron oxides, a greenish powder.</p>

<p>7. <i>Ferri phosphas</i>, a slate-blue powder of ferrous and ferric phosphates
with some oxide. Its preparations are: (<i>a</i>) <i>Syrupus ferri
phosphatis</i> (strength, 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate in each fluid drachm);
(<i>b</i>) <i>Syrupus ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina</i>, &ldquo;Easton&rsquo;s
syrup&rdquo; (iron wire 75 grs., concentrated phosphoric acid 10 fl. dr.,
powdered strychnine 5 gr., quinine sulphate 130 gr., syrup 14
fl. oz., water to make 20 fl. oz.), in which each fluid drachm represents
1 gr. of ferrous phosphate, <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> gr. of quinine sulphate, and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span> gr. of
strychnine.</p>

<p>8. <i>Syrupus ferri iodidi</i>, iron wire, iodine, water and syrup
(strength, 5.5 gr. of ferrous iodide in one fl. dr.).</p>

<p>9. <i>Liquor ferri perchloridi fortis</i>, strong solution of ferric chloride
(strength, 22.5% of iron); its preparations only are prescribed, viz.
<i>Liquor ferri perchloridi</i> and <i>Tinctura ferri perchloridi</i>.</p>

<p>10. <i>Liquor ferri persulphatis</i>, solution of ferric sulphate.</p>

<p>11. <i>Liquor ferri pernitratus</i>, solution of ferric nitrate (strength,
3.3% of iron).</p>

<p>12. <i>Liquor ferri acetatis</i>, solution of ferric acetate.</p>

<p>13. The scale preparations of iron, so called because they are
dried to form scales, are three in number, the base of all being ferric
hydrate:</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span></p>

<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Ferrum tartaratum</i>, dark red scales, soluble in water.</p>

<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Ferri et quininae citratis</i>, greenish yellow scales soluble in
water.</p>

<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Ferri et ammonii citratis</i>, red scales soluble in water, from
which is prepared <i>Vinum ferri citratis</i> (ferri et ammonii citratis
1 gr., orange wine 1 fl. dr.).</p>

<p>Substances containing tannic or gallic acid turn black when compounded
with a ferric salt, so it cannot be used in combination
with vegetable astringents except with the infusion of quassia or
calumba. Iron may, however, be prescribed in combination with
digitalis by the addition of dilute phosphoric acid. Alkalis and their
carbonates, lime water, carbonate of calcium, magnesia and its
carbonate give green precipitates with ferrous and brown with ferric
salts.</p>

<p>Unofficial preparations of iron are numberless, and some of them
are very useful. Ferri hydroxidum (U.S.P.), the hydrated oxide of
iron, made by precipitating ferric sulphate with ammonia, is used
solely as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. The Syrupus ferri
phosphatis Co. is well known as &ldquo;Parrish&rsquo;s&rdquo; syrup or chemical food,
and the Pilulae ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, known
as Easton&rsquo;s pills, form a solid equivalent to Easton&rsquo;s syrup.</p>

<p>There are numerous organic preparations of iron. Ferratin is a
reddish brown substance which claims to be identical with the iron
substance found in pig&rsquo;s liver. Carniferrin is another tasteless
powder containing iron in combination with the phosphocarnic acid
of muscle preparations, and contains 35% of iron. Ferratogen is
prepared from ferric nuclein. Triferrin is a paranucleinate of iron,
and contains 22% of iron and 2½% of organically combined phosphorus,
prepared from the casein of cow&rsquo;s milk. Haemoglobin is
extracted from the blood of an ox and may be administered in bolus
form. Dieterich&rsquo;s solution of peptonated iron contains about 2 gr.
of iron per oz. Vachetta has used the albuminate of iron with
striking success in grave cases of anaemia. Succinate of iron has
been prepared by Hausmann. Haematogen, introduced by Hommel,
claims to contain the albuminous constituents of the blood serum
and all the blood salts as well as pure haemoglobin. Sicco, the name
given to dry haematogen, is a tasteless powder. Haemalbumen,
introduced by Dahmen, is soluble in warm water.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><i>Therapeutics.</i></p>

<p>Iron is a metal which is used both as a food and as a medicine and
has also a definite local action. Externally, it is not absorbed by the
unbroken skin, but when applied to the broken skin, sores, ulcers
and mucous surfaces, the ferric salts are powerful astringents, because
they coagulate the albuminous fluids in the tissues themselves.
The salts of iron quickly cause coagulation of the blood, and the clot
plugs the bleeding vessels. They thus act locally as haemostatics or
styptics, and will often arrest severe haemorrhage from parts which
are accessible, such as the nose. They were formerly used in the
treatment of <i>post partum</i> haemorrhage. The perchloride, sulphate
and pernitrate are strongly astringent; less extensively they are
used in chronic discharges from the vagina, rectum and nose, while
injected into the rectum they destroy worms.</p>

<p>Internally, a large proportion of the various articles of ordinary
diet contains iron. When given medicinally preparations of iron
have an astringent taste, and the teeth and tongue are blackened
owing to the formation of sulphide of iron. It is therefore advisable
to take liquid iron preparations through a glass tube or a quill.</p>

<p>In the stomach all salts of iron, whatever their nature, are converted
into ferric chloride. If iron be given in excess, or if the
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice be deficient, iron acts directly
as an astringent upon the mucous membrane of the stomach wall.
Iron, therefore, may disorder the digestion even in healthy subjects.
Acid preparations are more likely to do this, and the acid set free
after the formation of the chloride may act as an irritant. Iron,
therefore, must not be given to subjects in whom the gastric functions
are disturbed, and it should always be given after meals. Preparations
which are not acid, or are only slightly acid, such as reduced
iron, dialysed iron, the carbonate and scale preparations, do not
disturb the digestion. If the sulphate is prescribed in the form of a
pill, it may be so coated as only to be soluble in the intestinal digestive
fluid. In the intestine the ferric chloride becomes changed into an
oxide of iron; the sub-chloride is converted into a ferrous carbonate,
which is soluble. Lower down in the bowel these compounds are
converted into ferrous sulphide and tannate, and are eliminated with
the faeces, turning them black. Iron in the intestine causes an
astringent or constipating effect. The astringent salts are therefore
useful occasionally to check diarrhoea and dysentery. Thus most
salts of iron are distinctly constipating, and are best used in combination
with a purgative. The pill of iron and aloes (B.P.) is designed
for this purpose. Iron is certainly absorbed from the intestinal
canal. As the iron in the food supplies all the iron in the body of a
healthy person, there is no doubt that it is absorbed in the organic
form. Whether inorganic salts are directly absorbed has been a
matter of much discussion; it has, however, been directly proved
by the experiments of Kunkel (<i>Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie
des Menschen und der Tiere</i>, lxi.) and Gaule. The amount of iron
existing in the human blood is only 38 gr.; therefore, when an
excess of iron is absorbed, part is excreted immediately by the bowel
and kidneys, and part is stored in the liver and spleen.</p>

<p>Iron being a constituent part of the blood itself, there is a direct
indication for the physician to prescribe it when the amount of
haemoglobin in the blood is lowered or the red corpuscles are
diminished. In certain forms of anaemia the administration of iron
rapidly improves the blood in both respects. The exact method in
which the prescribed iron acts is still a matter of dispute. Ralph
Stockman points out that there are three chief theories as to the
action of iron in anaemia. The first is based on the fact that the iron
in the haemoglobin of the blood must be derived from the food,
therefore iron medicinally administered is absorbed. The second
theory is that there is no absorption of iron given by the mouth, but
it acts as a local stimulant to the mucous membrane, and so improves
anaemia by increasing the digestion of the food. The third theory is
that of Bunge, who says that in chlorotic conditions there is an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen in the bowel, changing the food iron into
sulphide of iron, which Bunge states cannot be absorbed. He
believes that inorganic iron saves the organic iron of the food by
combining with the sulphur, and improves anaemia by protecting
the organic food iron. Stockman&rsquo;s own experiments are, however,
directly opposed to Bunge&rsquo;s view. Wharfinger states that in chlorosis
the specific action of iron is only obtained by administering those
inorganic preparations which give a reaction with the ordinary reagents;
the iron ions in a state of dissociation act as a catalytic
agent, destroying the hypothetical toxin which is the cause of
chlorosis. Practical experience teaches every clinician that, whatever
the mode of action, iron is most valuable in anaemia, though in
many cases, where there is well-marked toxaemia from absorption of
the intestinal products, not only laxatives in combination with iron
but intestinal antiseptics are necessary. That form of neuralgia
which is associated with anaemia usually yields to iron.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow liquid is
obtained, which on concentration over sulphuric acid gives yellow
deliquescent crusts of ferroso-ferric chloride, Fe<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">8</span>·18H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON AGE,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the third of the three periods, Stone, Bronze
and Iron Ages, into which archaeologists divide prehistoric
time; the weapons, utensils and implements being as a general
rule made of iron (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>). The term has no real
chronological value, for there has been no universal synchronous
sequence of the three epochs in all quarters of the world. Some
countries, such as the islands of the South Pacific, the interior
of Africa, and parts of North and South America, have passed
direct from the Stone to the Iron Age. In Europe the Iron
Age may be said to cover the last years of the prehistoric and
the early years of the historic periods. In Egypt, Chaldaea,
Assyria, China, it reaches far back, to perhaps 4000 years before
the Christian era. In Africa, where there has been no Bronze
Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the use of stone.
In the Black Pyramid of Abusir (VIth Dynasty), at least 3000
<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron, and in the
funeral text of Pepi I. (about 3400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the metal is mentioned.
The use of iron in northern Europe would seem to have been
fairly general long before the invasion of Caesar. But iron was
not in common use in Denmark until the end of the 1st century
<span class="scs">A.D.</span> In the north of Russia and Siberia its introduction was
even as late as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800, while Ireland enters upon her Iron Age
about the beginning of the 1st century. In Gaul, on the other
hand, the Iron Age dates back some 800 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; while in
Etruria the metal was known some six centuries earlier. Homer
represents Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred
years before our era. The knowledge of iron spread from the
south to the north of Europe. In approaching the East from
the north of Siberia or from the south of Greece and the Troad,
the history of iron in each country eastward is relatively later;
while a review of European countries from the north towards
the south shows the latter becoming acquainted with the metal
earlier than the former It is suggested that these facts support
the theory that it is from Africa that iron first came into use.
The finding of worked iron in the Great Pyramids seems to
corroborate this view. The metal, however, is singularly scarce
in collections of Egyptian antiquities. The explanation of this
would seem to lie in the fact that the relics are in most cases
the paraphernalia of tombs, the funereal vessels and vases, and
iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians
it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious
purposes. This idea of impurity would seem a further proof
of the African origin of iron. It was attributed to Seth, the
spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the
central deserts of Africa. The Iron Age in Europe is characterized
by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements and
utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape,
and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
rectilinear, the forms and character of the ornamentation of the
northern European weapons resembling in some respects Roman
arms, while in others they are peculiar and evidently representative
of northern art. The dead were buried in an extended
position, while in the preceding Bronze Age cremation had
been the rule.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (1865; 1900); Sir J. Evans,
<i>Ancient Stone Implements</i> (1897); <i>Horae Ferales, or Studies in
the Archaeology of Northern Nations</i>, by Kemble (1863); Gaston C. C.
Maspero, <i>Guide du Musée de Boulaq</i>, 296; <i>Scotland in Pagan Times&mdash;The
Iron Age</i>, by Joseph Anderson (1883).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON AND STEEL.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 1. Iron, the most abundant and the
cheapest of the heavy metals, the strongest and most magnetic
of known substances, is perhaps also the most indispensable
of all save the air we breathe and the water we drink. For one
kind of meat we could substitute another; wool could be
replaced by cotton, silk or fur; were our common silicate glass
gone, we could probably perfect and cheapen some other of
the transparent solids; but even if the earth could be made
to yield any substitute for the forty or fifty million tons of
iron which we use each year for rails, wire, machinery, and
structural purposes of many kinds, we could not replace either
the steel of our cutting tools or the iron of our magnets, the
basis of all commercial electricity. This usefulness iron owes
in part, indeed, to its abundance, through which it has led
us in the last few thousands of years to adapt our ways to its <span class="correction" title="added properties">properties</span>;
but still in chief part first to the single qualities in which it
excels, such as its strength, its magnetism, and the property
which it alone has of being made at will extremely hard by sudden
cooling and soft and extremely pliable by slow cooling; second,
to the special combinations of useful properties in which it
excels, such as its strength with its ready welding and shaping
both hot and cold; and third, to the great variety of its properties.
It is a very Proteus. It is extremely hard in our
files and razors, and extremely soft in our horse-shoe nails,
which in some countries the smith rejects unless he can bend
them on his forehead; with iron we cut and shape iron. It
is extremely magnetic and almost non-magnetic; as brittle
as glass and almost as pliable and ductile as copper; extremely
springy, and springless and dead; wonderfully strong, and
very weak; conducting heat and electricity easily, and again
offering great resistance to their passage; here welding readily,
there incapable of welding; here very infusible, there melting
with relative ease. The coincidence that so indispensable a
thing should also be so abundant, that an iron-needing man
should be set on an iron-cored globe, certainly suggests design.
The indispensableness of such abundant things as air, water
and light is readily explained by saying that their very abundance
has evolved a creature dependent on them. But the indispensable
qualities of iron did not shape man&rsquo;s evolution, because
its great usefulness did not arise until historic times, or even,
as in case of magnetism, until modern times.</p>

<p>These variations in the properties of iron are brought about
in part by corresponding variations in mechanical and thermal
treatment, by which it is influenced profoundly, and in part by
variations in the proportions of certain foreign elements which
it contains; for, unlike most of the other metals, it is never
used in the pure state. Indeed pure iron is a rare curiosity.
Foremost among these elements is carbon, which iron inevitably
absorbs from the fuel used in extracting it from its ores. So
strong is the effect of carbon that the use to which the metal
is put, and indeed its division into its two great classes, the
malleable one, comprising steel and wrought iron, with less
than 2.20% of carbon, and the unmalleable one, cast iron,
with more than this quantity, are based on carbon-content.
(See Table I.)</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>General Classification of Iron and Steel according (1) to Carbon-Content and (2) to Presence or Absence of Inclosed Slag.</i></p>

<table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="tccm allb">Containing very little Carbon (say, less than 0.30%).</td>
<td class="tccm allb">Containing an Intermediate Quantity of Carbon (say, between 0.30 and 2.2%).</td>
<td class="tccm allb">Containing much Carbon (say, from 2.2 to 5%).</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm allb">Slag-bearing or &rdquo;Weld-metal&rdquo; Series.</td>
<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Wrought Iron.</span><br />Puddled and bloomary, or Charcoal-hearth iron belong here.</td>
<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Weld Steel.</span><br />Puddled and blister steel belong here.</td>
<td class="allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm allb cl" rowspan="3">Slagless or &ldquo;Ingot-Metal&rdquo; Series.</td>
<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Low-Carbon</span> or <span class="sc">Mild Steel</span>,<br /> sometimes called &ldquo;ingot-iron.&rdquo;</td>
<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Half-Hard</span> and <span class="sc">High-Carbon Steels</span><br />sometimes called &ldquo;ingot-steel.&rdquo;</td>
<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Cast Iron.</span></td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm rb">It may be either Bessemer, open-hearth, or crucible steel.</td>
<td class="tcl rb"><p>They may be either Bessemer, open-hearth, or crucible steel. Malleable cast iron also often belongs here.</p></td>
<td class="tcl rb"><p>Normal cast iron, &rdquo;washed&rdquo; metal, and most &ldquo;malleable cast iron&rdquo; belong here.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td>
<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Alloy Steels.</span><br />Nickel, manganese, tungsten, and chrome steels belong here.</td>
<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Alloy Cast Irons.</span>*<br />Spiegeleisen, ferro-manganese, and silico-spiegel belong here.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">* The term &ldquo;Alloy Cast Irons&rdquo; is not actually in frequent use, not because of any question as to its fitness or meaning, but because
the need of such a generic term rarely arises in the industry.</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2">2. <i>Nomenclature.</i>&mdash;Until about 1860 there were only three
important classes of iron&mdash;wrought iron, steel and cast iron.
The essential characteristic of wrought iron was its nearly
complete freedom from carbon; that of steel was its moderate
carbon-content (say between 0.30 and 2.2%), which, though
great enough to confer the property of being rendered intensely
hard and brittle by sudden cooling, yet was not so great but
that the metal was malleable when cooled slowly; while that of
cast iron was that it contained so much carbon as to be very
brittle whether cooled quickly or slowly. This classification
was based on carbon-content, or on the properties which it gave.
Beyond this, wrought iron, and certain classes of steel which
then were important, necessarily contained much slag or &ldquo;cinder,&rdquo;
because they were made by welding together pasty particles
of metal in a bath of slag, without subsequent fusion.  But the
best class of steel, crucible steel, was freed from slag by fusion in
crucibles; hence its name, &ldquo;cast steel.&rdquo; Between 1860 and
1870 the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes
introduced a new class of iron to-day called &ldquo;mild&rdquo; or &ldquo;low-carbon
steel,&rdquo; which lacked the essential property of steel, the
hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought
iron in freedom from slag, and from cast iron in being very
malleable. Logically it was wrought iron, the essence of which
was that it was (1) &ldquo;iron&rdquo; as distinguished from steel, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
(2) malleable, <i>i.e.</i> capable of being &ldquo;wrought.&rdquo; This name did
not please those interested in the new product, because existing
wrought iron was a low-priced material. Instead of inventing
a wholly new name for the wholly new product, they appropriated
the name &ldquo;steel,&rdquo; because this was associated in the public
mind with superiority. This they did with the excuse that the
new product resembled one class of steel&mdash;cast steel&mdash;in being
free from slag; and, after a period of protest, all acquiesced in
calling it &ldquo;steel,&rdquo; which is now its firmly established name.
The old varieties of wrought iron, steel and cast iron preserve
their old names; the new class is called steel by main force.
As a result, certain varieties, such as blister steel, are called
&ldquo;steel&rdquo; solely because they have the hardening power, and
others, such as low-carbon steel, solely because they are free
from slag. But the former lack the essential quality, slaglessness,
which makes the latter steel, and the latter lack the essential
quality, the hardening power, which makes the former steel.
&ldquo;Steel&rdquo; has come gradually to stand rather for excellence than
for any specific quality. These anomalies, however confusing
to the general reader, in fact cause no appreciable trouble to
important makers or users of iron and steel, beyond forming
an occasional side-issue in litigation.</p>

<p>3. <i>Definitions.</i>&mdash;<i>Wrought iron</i> is slag-bearing malleable iron,
containing so little carbon (0.30% or less), or its equivalent, that
it does not harden greatly when cooled suddenly.</p>

<p><i>Steel</i> is iron which is malleable at least in some one range of
temperature, and also is either (<i>a</i>) cast into an initially malleable
mass, or (<i>b</i>) is capable of hardening greatly by sudden cooling,
or (<i>c</i>) is both so cast and so capable of hardening. (Tungsten
steel and certain classes of manganese steel are malleable only
when red-hot.) Normal or carbon steel contains between 0.30
and 2.20% of carbon, enough to make it harden greatly when
cooled suddenly, but not enough to prevent it from being usefully
malleable when hot.</p>

<p><i>Cast iron</i> is, generically, iron containing so much carbon
(2.20% or more) or its equivalent that it is not usefully malleable
at any temperature. Specifically, it is cast iron in the form of
castings other than pigs, or remelted cast iron suitable for such
castings, as distinguished from pig iron, <i>i.e.</i> the molten cast iron
as it issues from the blast furnace, or the pigs into which it is
cast.</p>

<p><i>Malleable cast iron</i> is iron which has been cast in the condition
of cast iron, and made malleable by subsequent treatment
without fusion.</p>

<p><i>Alloy steels</i> and <i>cast irons</i> are those which owe their properties
chiefly to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon.</p>

<p><i>Ingot iron</i> is slagless steel with less than 0.30% of carbon.</p>

<p><i>Ingot steel</i> is slagless steel containing more than 0.30% of
carbon.</p>

<p><i>Weld steel</i> is slag-bearing iron malleable at least at some one
temperature, and containing more than 0.30% of carbon.</p>

<p>4. <i>Historical Sketch.</i>&mdash;The iron oxide of which the ores of
iron consist would be so easily deoxidized and thus brought to
the metallic state by the carbon, <i>i.e.</i> by the glowing coals of any
primeval savage&rsquo;s wood fire, and the resulting metallic iron
would then differ so strikingly from any object which he had
previously seen, that its very early use by our race is only natural.
The first observing savage who noticed it among his ashes might
easily infer that it resulted from the action of burning wood
on certain extremely heavy stones. He could pound it out into
many useful shapes. The natural steps first of making it intentionally
by putting such stones into his fire, and next of improving
his fire by putting it and these stones into a cavity on the weather
side of some bank with an opening towards the prevalent wind,
would give a simple forge, differing only in size, in lacking forced
blast, and in details of construction, from the Catalan forges
and bloomaries of to-day. Moreover, the coals which deoxidized
the iron would inevitably carburize some lumps of it, here so
far as to turn it into the brittle and relatively useless cast iron,
there only far enough to convert it into steel, strong and very
useful even in its unhardened state. Thus it is almost certain
that much of the earliest iron was in fact steel. How soon after
man&rsquo;s discovery, that he could beat iron and steel out while
cold into useful shapes, he learned to forge it while hot is hard
to conjecture. The pretty elaborate appliances, tongs or their
equivalent, which would be needed to enable him to hold it
conveniently while hot, could hardly have been devised till a
very much later period; but then he may have been content
to forge it inconveniently, because the great ease with which
it mashes out when hot, perhaps pushed with a stout stick from
the fire to a neighbouring flat stone, would compensate for much
inconvenience. However this may be, very soon after man began
to practise hot-forging he would inevitably learn that sudden
cooling, by quenching in water, made a large proportion of his
metal, his steel, extremely hard and brittle, because he would
certainly try by this very quenching to avoid the inconvenience
of having the hot metal about. But the invaluable and rather
delicate art of tempering the hardened steel by a very careful
and gentle reheating, which removes its extreme brittleness
though leaving most of its precious hardness, needs such skilful
handling that it can hardly have become known until very long
after the art of hot-forging.</p>

<p>The oxide ores of copper would be deoxidized by the savage&rsquo;s
wood fire even more easily than those of iron, and the resulting
copper would be recognized more easily than iron, because it
would be likely to melt and run together into a mass conspicuous
by its bright colour and its very great malleableness. From
this we may infer that copper and iron probably came into use
at about the same stage in man&rsquo;s development, copper before
iron in regions which had oxidized copper ores, whether they
also had iron ores or not, iron before copper in places where
there were pure and easily reduced ores of iron but none of copper.
Moreover, the use of each metal must have originated in many
different places independently. Even to-day isolated peoples
are found with their own primitive iron-making, but ignorant
of the use of copper.</p>

<p>If iron thus preceded copper in many places, still more must
it have preceded bronze, an alloy of copper and tin much less
likely than either iron or copper to be made unintentionally.
Indeed, though iron ores abound in many places which have
neither copper nor tin, yet there are but few places which have
both copper and tin. It is not improbable that, once bronze
became known, it might replace iron in a measure, perhaps even
in a very large measure, because it is so fusible that it can be
cast directly and easily into many useful shapes. It seems to
be much more prominent than iron in the Homeric poems;
but they tell us only of one region at one age. Even if a nation
here or there should give up the use of iron completely, that all
should is neither probable nor shown by the evidence. The
absence of iron and the abundance of bronze in the relics of a
prehistoric people is a piece of evidence to be accepted with
caution, because the great defect of iron, its proneness to rust,
would often lead to its complete disappearance, or conversion
into an unrecognizable mass, even though tools of bronze
originally laid down beside it might remain but little corroded.
That the ancients should have discovered an art of hardening
bronze is grossly improbable, first because it is not to be hardened
by any simple process like the hardening of steel, and second
because, if they had, then a large proportion of the ancient
bronze tools now known ought to be hard, which is not the case.</p>

<p>Because iron would be so easily made by prehistoric and even
by primeval man, and would be so useful to him, we are hardly
surprised to read in Genesis that Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent
from Adam, discovered it; that the Assyrians had knives and
saws which, to be effective, must have been of hardened steel,
<i>i.e.</i> of iron which had absorbed some carbon from the coals
with which it had been made, and had been quenched in water
from a red heat; that an iron tool has been found embedded in
the ancient pyramid of Kephron (probably as early as 3500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>);
that iron metallurgy had advanced at the time of Tethmosis
(Thothmes) III. (about 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) so far that bellows were used
for forcing the forge fire; that in Homer&rsquo;s time (not later than
the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the delicate art of hardening and tempering
steel was so familiar that the poet used it for a simile, likening
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
the hissing of the stake which Ulysses drove into the eye of
Polyphemus to that of the steel which the smith quenches in
water, and closing with a reference to the strengthening effect
of this quenching; and that at the time of Pliny (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23-79)
the relative value of different baths for hardening was known,
and oil preferred for hardening small tools. These instances of
the very early use of this metal, intrinsically at once so useful
and so likely to disappear by rusting away, tell a story like that
of the single foot-print of the savage which the waves left for
Robinson Crusoe&rsquo;s warning. Homer&rsquo;s familiarity with the art
of tempering could come only after centuries of the wide use
of iron.</p>

<p>3. <i>Three Periods.</i>&mdash;The history of iron may for convenience
be divided into three periods: a first in which only the direct
extraction of wrought iron from the ore was practised; a
second which added to this primitive art the extraction of iron
in the form of carburized or cast iron, to be used either as such
or for conversion into wrought iron; and a third in which the
iron worker used a temperature high enough to melt wrought
iron, which he then called molten steel. For brevity we may
call these the periods of wrought iron, of cast iron, and of molten
steel, recognizing that in the second and third the earlier processes
continued in use. The first period began in extremely
remote prehistoric times; the second in the 14th century; and
the third with the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>6. <i>First Period.</i>&mdash;We can picture to ourselves how in the first
period the savage smith, step by step, bettered his control over his
fire, at once his source of heat and his deoxidizing agent. Not content
to let it burn by natural draught, he would blow it with his own
breath, would expose it to the prevalent wind, would urge it with a
fan, and would devise the first crude valveless bellows, perhaps the
pigskin already familiar as a water-bottle, of which the psalmist says:
&ldquo;I am become as a bottle in the smoke.&rdquo; To drive the air out of this
skin by pressing on it, or even by walking on it, would be easy; to
fill it again with air by pulling its sides apart with his fingers would
be so irksome that he would soon learn to distend it by means of
strings. If his bellows had only a single opening, that through which
they delivered the blast upon the fire, then in inflating them he
would draw back into them the hot air and ashes from the fire. To
prevent this he might make a second or suction hole, and thus he
would have a veritable engine, perhaps one of the very earliest of all.
While inflating the bellows he would leave the suction port open and
close the discharge port with a pinch of his finger; and while blowing
the air against the fire he would leave the discharge port open and
pinch together the sides of the suction port.</p>

<p>The next important step seems to have been taken in the 4th
century when some forgotten Watt devised valves for the bellows.
But in spite of the activity of the iron manufacture in many of the
Roman provinces, especially England, France, Spain, Carinthia and
near the Rhine, the little forges in which iron was extracted from the
ore remained, until the 14th century, very crude and wasteful of
labour, fuel, and iron itself: indeed probably not very different from
those of a thousand years before. Where iron ore was found, the
local smith, the <i>Waldschmied</i>, converted it with the charcoal of the
surrounding forest into the wrought iron which he worked up.
Many farmers had their own little forges or smithies to supply the iron
for their tools.</p>

<p>The fuel, wood or charcoal, which served both to heat and to
deoxidize the ore, has so strong a carburizing action that it would
turn some of the resultant metal into &ldquo;natural steel,&rdquo; which differs
from wrought iron only in containing so much carbon that it is relatively
hard and brittle in its natural state, and that it becomes
intensely hard when quenched from a red heat in water. Moreover,
this same carburizing action of the fuel would at times go so far as
to turn part of the metal into a true cast iron, so brittle that it could
not be worked at all. In time the smith learnt how to convert this
unwelcome product into wrought iron by remelting it in the forge,
exposing it to the blast in such a way as to burn out most of its
carbon.</p>

<p>7. <i>Second Period.</i>&mdash;With the second period began, in the 14th
century, the gradual displacement of the direct extraction of wrought
iron from the ore by the intentional and regular use of this indirect
method of first carburizing the metal and thus turning it into cast
iron, and then converting it into wrought iron by remelting it in the
forge. This displacement has been going on ever since, and it is not
quite complete even to-day. It is of the familiar type of the replacing
of the simple but wasteful by the complex and economical,
and it was begun unintentionally in the attempt to save fuel and
labour, by increasing the size and especially the height of the forge,
and by driving the bellows by means of water-power. Indeed it was
the use of water-power that gave the smith pressure strong enough
to force his blast up through a longer column of ore and fuel, and thus
enabled him to increase the height of his forge, enlarge the scale of his
operations, and in turn save fuel and labour. And it was the lengthening
of the forge, and the length and intimacy of contact between ore
and fuel to which it led, that carburized the metal and turned it into
cast iron. This is so fusible that it melted, and, running together
into a single molten mass, freed itself mechanically from the
&ldquo;gangue,&rdquo; as the foreign minerals with which the ore is mixed are
called. Finally, the improvement in the quality of the iron which
resulted from thus completely freeing it from the gangue turned out
to be a great and unexpected merit of the indirect process, probably
the merit which enabled it, in spite of its complexity, to drive out the
direct process. Thus we have here one of these cases common in the
evolution both of nature and of art, in which a change, made for a
specific purpose, has a wholly unforeseen advantage in another
direction, so important as to outweigh that for which it was made
and to determine the path of future development.</p>

<p>With this method of making molten cast iron in the hands of a
people already familiar with bronze founding, iron founding, <i>i.e.</i> the
casting of the molten cast iron into shapes which were useful in spite
of its brittleness, naturally followed. Thus ornamental iron castings
were made in Sussex in the 14th century, and in the 16th cannons
weighing three tons each were cast.</p>

<p>The indirect process once established, the gradual increase in the
height and diameter of the high furnace, which has lasted till our
own days, naturally went on and developed the gigantic blast
furnaces of the present time, still called &ldquo;high furnaces&rdquo; in French
and German. The impetus which the indirect process and the acceleration
of civilization in the 15th and 16th centuries gave to the
iron industry was so great that the demands of the iron masters for
fuel made serious inroads on the forests, and in 1558 an act of Queen
Elizabeth&rsquo;s forbade the cutting of timber in certain parts of the
country for iron-making. Another in 1584 forbade the building of
any more iron-works in Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. This increasing
scarcity of wood was probably one of the chief causes of the attempts
which the iron masters then made to replace charcoal with mineral
fuel. In 1611 Simon Sturtevant patented the use of mineral coal for
iron-smelting, and in 1619 Dud Dudley made with this coal both
cast and wrought iron with technical success, but through the
opposition of the charcoal iron-makers all of his many attempts were
defeated. In 1625 Stradda&rsquo;s attempts in Hainaut had no better
success, and it was not till more than a century later that iron-smelting
with mineral fuel was at last fully successful. It was then,
in 1735, that Abraham Darby showed how to make cast iron with
coke in the high furnace, which by this time had become a veritable
blast furnace.</p>

<p>The next great improvement in blast-furnace practice came in
1811, when Aubertot in France used for heating steel the furnace
gases rich in carbonic oxide which till then had been allowed to burn
uselessly at the top of the blast furnace. The next was J. B. Neilson&rsquo;s
invention in 1828 of heating the blast, which increased the production
and lessened the fuel-consumption of the furnace wonderfully.
Very soon after this, in 1832, the work of heating the blast
was done by means of the waste gases, at Wasseralfingen in Bavaria.</p>

<p>Meanwhile Henry Cort had in 1784 very greatly simplified the
conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. In place of the old forge,
in which the actual contact between the iron and the fuel, itself an
energetic carburizing agent, made decarburization difficult, he
devised the reverberatory puddling furnace (see fig. 14 below), in
which the iron lies in a chamber apart from the fire-place, and is thus
protected from the carburizing action of the fuel, though heated by
the flame which that fuel gives out.</p>

<p>The rapid advance in mechanical engineering in the latter part of
this second period stimulated the iron industry greatly, giving it in
1728 Payn and Hanbury&rsquo;s rolling mill for rolling sheet iron, in 1760
John Smeaton&rsquo;s cylindrical cast-iron bellows in place of the wooden
and leather ones previously used, in 1783 Cort&rsquo;s grooved rolls for
rolling bars and rods of iron, and in 1838 James Nasmyth&rsquo;s steam
hammer. But even more important than these were the advent of
the steam engine between 1760 and 1770, and of the railroad in
1825, each of which gave the iron industry a great impetus. Both
created a great demand for iron, not only for themselves but for the
industries which they in turn stimulated; and both directly aided
the iron master: the steam engine by giving him powerful and convenient
tools, and the railroad by assembling his materials and
distributing his products.</p>

<p>About 1740 Benjamin Huntsman introduced the &ldquo;crucible
process&rdquo; of melting steel in small crucibles, and thus freeing it from
the slag, or rich iron silicate, with which it, like wrought iron, was
mechanically mixed, whether it was made in the old forge or in the
puddling furnace. This removal of the cinder very greatly improved
the steel; but the process was and is so costly that it is used only for
making steel for purposes which need the very best quality.</p>

<p>8. <i>Third Period.</i>&mdash;The third period has for its great distinction the
invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, which are like
Huntsman&rsquo;s crucible process in that their essence is their freeing
wrought iron and low carbon steel from mechanically entangled
cinder, by developing the hitherto unattainable temperature, rising
to above 1500° C., needed for melting these relatively infusible products.
These processes are incalculably more important than
Huntsman&rsquo;s, both because they are incomparably cheaper, and
because their products are far more useful than his.</p>

<p>Thus the distinctive work of the second and third periods is freeing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
the metal from mechanical impurities by fusion. The second period,
by converting the metal into the fusible cast iron and melting this,
for the first time removed the gangue of the ore; the third period by
giving a temperature high enough to melt the most infusible forms
of iron, liberated the slag formed in deriving them from cast iron.</p>

<p>In 1856 Bessemer not only invented his extraordinary process of
making the heat developed by the rapid oxidation of the impurities
in pig iron raise the temperature above the exalted melting-point of
the resultant purified steel, but also made it widely known that this
steel was a very valuable substance. Knowing this, and having in
the Siemens regenerative gas furnace an independent means of generating
this temperature, the Martin brothers of Sireuil in France in
1864 developed the open-hearth process of making steel of any
desired carbon-content by melting together in this furnace cast and
wrought iron. The great defect of both these processes, that they
could not remove the baneful phosphorus with which all the ores
of iron are associated, was remedied in 1878 by S. G. Thomas, who
showed that, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, the whole of the
phosphorus could be removed readily.</p>

<p>9. After the remarkable development of the blast furnace, the
Bessemer, and the open-hearth processes, the most important work
of this, the third period of the history of iron, is the birth and growth
of the science and art of iron metallography. In 1868 Tschernoff
enunciated its chief fundamental laws, which were supplemented in
1885 by the laws of Brinell. In 1888 F. Osmond showed that the
wonderful changes which thermal treatment and the presence of certain
foreign elements cause were due to allotropy, and from these and like
teachings have come a rapid growth of the use of the so-called &ldquo;alloy
steels&rdquo; in which, thanks to special composition and treatment, the
iron exists in one or more of its remarkable allotropic states. These
include the austenitic or gamma non-magnetic manganese steel,
already patented by Robert Hadfield in 1883, the first important
known substance which combined great malleableness with great
hardness, and the martensitic or beta &ldquo;high speed tool steel&rdquo; of
White and Taylor, which retains its hardness and cutting power even
at a red heat.</p>
</div>

<p>10. <i>Constitution of Iron and Steel.</i>&mdash;The constitution of the
various classes of iron and steel as shown by the microscope
explains readily the great influence of carbon which was outlined
in §§ 2 and 3. The metal in its usual slowly cooled state is a
conglomerate like the granitic rocks. Just as a granite is a
conglomerate or mechanical mixture of distinct crystalline
grains of three perfectly definite minerals, mica, quartz, and
felspar, so iron and steel in their usual slowly cooled state consist
of a mixture of microscopic particles of such definite quasi-minerals,
diametrically unlike. These are cementite, a definite
iron carbide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, harder than glass and nearly as brittle, but
probably very strong under gradually and axially applied stress;
and ferrite, pure or nearly pure metallic &alpha;-iron, soft, weak, with
high electric conductivity, and in general like copper except in
colour. In view of the fact that the presence of 1% of carbon
implies that 15% of the soft ductile ferrite is replaced by the
glass-hard cementite, it is not surprising that even a little
carbon influences the properties of the metal so profoundly.</p>

<p>But carbon affects the properties of iron not only by giving
rise to varying proportions of cementite, but also both by itself
shifting from one molecular state to another, and by enabling
us to hold the iron itself in its unmagnetic allotropic forms,
&beta;- and &gamma;-iron, as will be explained below. Thus, sudden cooling
from a red heat leaves the carbon not in definite combination
as cementite, but actually dissolved in &beta;- and &gamma;-allotropic iron,
in the conditions known as martensite and austenite, not granitic
but glass-like bodies, of which the &ldquo;hardened&rdquo; and &ldquo;tempered&rdquo;
steel of our cutting tools in large part consists. Again, if more
than 2% of carbon is present, it passes readily into the state of
pure graphitic carbon, which, in itself soft and weak, weakens
and embrittles the metal as any foreign body would, by breaking
up its continuity.</p>

<p>11. The <i>Roberts-Austen</i> or <i>carbon-iron diagram</i> (fig. 1), in
which vertical distances represent temperatures and horizontal
ones the percentage of carbon in the iron, aids our study of these
constituents of iron. If, ignoring temporarily and for simplicity
the fact that part of the carbon may exist in the state of graphite,
we consider the behaviour of iron in cooling from the molten
state, AB and BC give the temperature at which, for any given
percentage of carbon, solidification begins, and A<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>B, and B<i>c</i>
that at which it ends. But after solidification is complete and
the metal has cooled to a much lower range of temperature,
usually between 900° and 690° C., it undergoes a very remarkable
series of transformations. GHS<i>a</i> gives the temperature at which,
for any given percentage of carbon, these transformations begin,
and PSP&prime; that at which they end.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:469px" src="images/img804.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Roberts-Austen or Carbon-Iron diagram.
The Cementite-Austenite or Metastable form.</td></tr></table>

<p>These freezing-point curves and transformation curves thus
divide the diagram into 8 distinct regions, each with its own
specific state or constitution of the metal, the molten state for
region 1, a mixture of molten metal and of solid austenite for
region 2, austenite alone for region 4 and so on. This will be
explained below. If the metal followed the laws of equilibrium,
then whenever through change of temperature it entered a new
region, it would forthwith adopt the constitution normal to that
region. But in fact the change of constitution often lags greatly,
so that the metal may have the constitution normal to a region
higher than that in which it is, or even a patchwork constitution,
representing fragments of those of two or more regions. It is
by taking advantage of this lagging that thermal treatment
causes such wonderful changes in the properties of the cold
metal.</p>

<p>12. With these facts in mind we may now study further these
different constituents of iron.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Austenite, gamma</i> (&gamma;) <i>iron</i>.&mdash;Austenite is the name of the solid
solution of an iron carbide in allotropie &gamma;-iron of which the metal
normally consists when in region 4. In these solid solutions, as in
aqueous ones, the ratios in which the different chemical substances
are present are not fixed or definite, but vary from case to case, not
<i>per saltum</i> as between definite chemical compounds, but by infinitesimal
steps. The different substances are as it were dissolved in
each other in a state which has the indefiniteness of composition, the
absolute merging of identity, and the weakness of reciprocal chemical
attraction, characteristic of aqueous solutions.</p>

<p>On cooling into region 6 or 8 austenite should normally split up
into ferrite and cementite, after passing through the successive
stages of martensite, troostite and sorbite, Fe<span class="su">x</span>C = Fe<span class="su">3</span>C + Fe(<span class="su">x&minus;3</span>).
But this change may be prevented so as to preserve the austenite in
the cold, either very incompletely, as when high-carbon steel is
&ldquo;hardened,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> is cooled suddenly by quenching in water, in
which case the carbon present seems to act as a brake to retard the
change; or completely, by the presence of a large quantity of
manganese, nickel, tungsten or molybdenum, which in effect sink the
lower boundary GHS<i>a</i> of region 4 to below the atmospheric temperature.
The important manganese steels of commerce and certain
nickel steels are manganiferous and niccoliferous austenite, unmagnetic
and hard but ductile.</p>

<p>Austenite may contain carbon in any proportion up to about 2.2%.
It is non-magnetic, and, when preserved in the cold either by quenching
or by the presence of manganese, nickel, &amp;c., it has a very
remarkable combination of great malleability with very marked hardness,
though it is less hard than common carbon steel is when hardened,
and probably less hard than martensite. When of eutectoid composition,
it is called &ldquo;hardenite.&rdquo; Suddenly cooled carbon steel,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
even if rich in austenite, is strongly magnetic because of the very
magnetic &alpha;-iron which inevitably forms even in the most rapid
cooling from region 4. Only in the presence of much manganese,
nickel, or their equivalent can the true austenite be preserved in the
cold so completely that the steel remains non-magnetic.</p>

<p>13. <i>Beta</i> (&beta;) <i>iron</i>, an unmagnetic, intensely hard and brittle
allotropic form of iron, though normal and stable only in the little
triangle GHM, is yet a state through which the metal seems always
to pass when the austenite of region 4 changes into the ferrite and
cementite of regions 6 and 8. Though not normal below MHSP&prime;,
yet like &gamma;-iron it can be preserved in the cold by the presence of about
5% of manganese, which, though not enough to bring the lower
boundary of region 4 below the atmospheric temperature and thus
to preserve austenite in the cold, is yet enough to make the
transformation of &beta; into &alpha; iron so sluggish that the former
remains untransformed even during slow cooling.</p>

<p>Again, &beta;-iron may be preserved incompletely as in the &ldquo;hardening
of steel,&rdquo; which consists in heating the steel into the austenite state
of region 4, and then cooling it so rapidly, <i>e.g.</i> by quenching it in cold
water, that, for lack of the time needed for the completion of the
change from austenite into ferrite and cementite, much of the iron is
caught in transit in the &beta; state. According to our present theory, it
is chiefly to beta iron, preserved in one of these ways, that all of our
tool steel proper, <i>i.e.</i> steel used for cutting as distinguished from
grinding, seems to owe its hardness.</p>

<p>14. <i>Martensite</i>, <i>Troostite</i> and <i>Sorbite</i> are the successive stages
through which the metal passes in changing from austenite into
ferrite and cementite. <i>Martensite</i>, very hard because of its large
content of &beta;-iron, is characteristic of hardened steel, but the two
others, far from being definite substances, are probably only roughly
bounded stages of this transition. <i>Troostite</i> and <i>sorbite</i>, indeed,
seem to be chiefly very finely divided mixtures of ferrite and cementite,
and it is probably because of this fineness that sorbitic steel has its
remarkable combination of strength and elasticity with ductility
which fits it for resisting severe vibratory and other dynamic stresses,
such as those to which rails and shafting are exposed.</p>

<p>15. <i>Alpha</i> (&alpha;) <i>iron</i> is the form normal and stable for regions 5, 6
and 8, <i>i.e.</i> for all temperatures below MHSP&prime;. It is the common,
very magnetic form of iron, in itself ductile but relatively soft and
weak, as we know it in wrought iron and mild or low-carbon steel.</p>

<p>16. <i>Ferrite</i> and <i>cementite</i>, already described in § 10, are the final
products of the transformation of austenite in slow-cooling. &beta;-ferrite
and austenite are the normal constituents for the triangle
GHM, &alpha;-ferrite (<i>i.e.</i> nearly pure &alpha;-iron) with austenite for the space
MHSP, cementite with austenite for region 7, and &alpha;-ferrite and
cementite jointly for regions 6 and 8. Ferrite and cementite are thus
the normal and usual constituents of slowly cooled steel, including all
structural steels, rail steel, &amp;c., and of white cast iron (see § 18).</p>

<p>17. <i>Pearlite.</i>&mdash;The ferrite and cementite present interstratify
habitually as a &ldquo;eutectoid&rdquo;<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> called &ldquo;pearlite&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
Pl., fig. 11), in the ratio of about 6 parts of ferrite to 1 of cementite,
and hence containing about 0.90% of carbon. Slowly cooled steel
containing just 0.90% of carbon (S in fig. 1) consists of pearlite
alone. Steel and white cast iron with more than this quantity
of carbon consist typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
envelopes of free cementite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 13) sufficient in
quantity to represent their excess of carbon over the eutectoid ratio;
they arc called &ldquo;hyper-eutectoid,&rdquo; and are represented by region 8
of Fig. 1. Steel containing less than this quantity of carbon consists
typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 12) sufficient in quantity to represent their
excess of iron over this eutectoid ratio; is called &ldquo;hypo-eutectoid&rdquo;;
and is represented by region 6 of Fig. 1. This typical &ldquo;envelope and
kernel&rdquo; structure is often only rudimentary.</p>

<p>The percentage of pearlite and of free ferrite or cementite in these
products is shown in fig. 2, in which the ordinates of the line ABC
represent the percentage of pearlite corresponding to each percentage
of carbon, and the intercept ED, MN or KF, of any point H, P or L,
measures the percentage of the excess of ferrite or cementite for hypo- and
hyper-eutectic steel and white cast iron respectively.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:188px" src="images/img805a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Relation between the carbon-content and the percentage
of the several constituents of slowly cooled steel and white cast
iron.</td></tr></table>

<p>18. <i>The Carbon-Content, i.e. the Ratio of Ferrite to Cementite, of
certain typical Steels.</i>&mdash;Fig. 3 shows how, as the carbon-content rises
from 0 to 4.5%, the percentage of the glass-hard cementite, which is
15 times that of the carbon itself, rises, and that of the soft copper-like
ferrite falls, with consequent continuous increase of hardness
and loss of malleableness and ductility. The tenacity or tensile
strength increases till the carbon-content reaches about 1.25%, and
the cementite about 19%, and then in turn falls, a result by no means
surprising. The presence of a small quantity of the hard cementite
ought naturally to strengthen the mass, by opposing the tendency of
the soft ferrite to flow under any stress applied to it; but more
cementite by its brittleness naturally weakens the mass, causing it to
crack open under the distortion which stress inevitably causes.
The fact that this decrease of strength begins shortly after the carbon-content
rises above the eutectoid or pearlite ratio of 0.90% is
natural, because the brittleness of the cementite which, in hyper-eutectoid
steels, forms a more or less continuous skeleton (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
Pl., fig. 13) should be much more effective in starting cracks under
distortion than that of the far more minute particles of cementite
which lie embedded, indeed drowned, in the sixfold greater mass of
ferrite with which they are associated in the pearlite itself. The
large massive plates of cementite which form the network or skeleton
in hyper-eutectoid steels should, under distortion, naturally tend to
cut, in the softer pearlite, chasms too serious to be healed by the
inflowing of the plastic ferrite, though this ferrite flows around and
immediately heals over any cracks which form in the small quantity
of cementite interstratified with it in the pearlite of hypo-eutectoid
steels.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:488px; height:215px" src="images/img805b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Physical properties and assumed microscopic constitution
of the pearlite series, graphiteless steel slowly cooled
and white cast iron. By &ldquo;total ferrite&rdquo; is meant both that which
forms part of the pearlite and that which is in excess of the pearlite,
taken jointly. So with the &ldquo;total cementite.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">As the carbon-content increases the welding power naturally
decreases rapidly, because of the rapid fall of the &ldquo;solidus curve&rdquo;
at which solidification is complete (A<i>a</i> of fig. 1), and hence of the
range in which the steel is coherent enough to be manipulated, and,
finally, of the attainable pliancy and softness of the metal. Clearly
the mushy mixture of solid austenite and molten iron of which the
metal in region 2 consists cannot cohere under either the blows or
the pressure by means of which welding must be done. Rivet steel,
which above all needs extreme ductility to endure the distortion of
being driven home, and tube steel which must needs weld easily, no
matter at what sacrifice of strength, are made as free from carbon,
<i>i.e.</i> of as nearly pure ferrite, as is practicable. The distortion which
rails undergo in manufacture and use is incomparably less than that
to which rivets are subjected, and thus rail steel may safely be much
richer in carbon and hence in cementite, and therefore much stronger
and harder, so as to better endure the load and the abrasion of the
passing wheels. Indeed, its carbon-content is made small quite as
much because of the violence of the shocks from these wheels as because
of any actual distortion to be expected, since, within limits, as the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
carbon-content increases the shock-resisting power decreases. Here,
as in all cases, the carbon-content must be the result of a compromise,
neither so small that the rail flattens and wears out like lead, nor so
great that it snaps like glass. Boiler plates undergo in shaping and
assembling an intermediate degree of distortion, and therefore they
must be given an intermediate carbon-content, following the general
rule that the carbon-content and hence the strength should be as
great as is consistent with retaining the degree of ductility and the
shock-resisting power which the object will need in actual use. Thus
the typical carbon-content may be taken as about 0.05% for rivets
and tubes, 0.20% for boiler plates, and 0.50 to 0.75% for rails,
implying the presence of 0.75% of cementite in the first two, 3% in
the third and 7.5% to 11.25% in the last.</p>

<p>19. <i>Carbon-Content of Hardened Steels.</i>&mdash;Turning from these cases
in which the steel is used in the slowly cooled state, so that it is a
mixture of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, <i>i.e.</i> is pearlitic, to those
in which it is used in the hardened or martensitic state, we find that
the carbon-content is governed by like considerations. Railway car
springs, which are exposed to great shock, have typically about
0.75% of carbon; common tool steel, which is exposed to less
severe shock, has usually between 0.75 and 1.25%; file steel, which
is subject to but little shock, and has little demanded of it but to bite
hard and stay hard, has usually from 1.25 to 1.50%. The carbon-content
of steel is rarely greater than this, lest the brittleness be
excessive. But beyond this are the very useful, because very fusible,
cast irons with from 3 to 4% of carbon, the embrittling effect of
which is much lessened by its being in the state of graphite.</p>

<p>20. <i>Slag or Cinder</i>, a characteristic component of wrought iron,
which usually contains from 0.20 to 2.00% of it, is essentially a
silicate of iron (ferrous silicate), and is present in wrought iron
simply because this product is made by welding together pasty
granules of iron in a molten bath of such slag, without ever melting
the resultant mass or otherwise giving the envelopes of slag thus
imprisoned a chance to escape completely.</p>

<p>21. <i>Graphite</i>, nearly pure carbon, is characteristic of &ldquo;gray cast
iron,&rdquo; in which it exists as a nearly continuous skeleton of very
thin laminated plates or flakes (fig. 27), usually curved, and forming
from 2.50% to 3.50% of the whole. As these flakes readily split
open, when a piece of this iron is broken rupture passes through them,
with the result that, even though the graphite may form only some
3% of the mass by weight (say 10% by volume), practically nothing
but graphite is seen in the fracture. Hence the weakness and the
dark-grey fracture of this iron, and hence, by brushing this fracture
with a wire brush and so detaching these loosely clinging flakes of
graphite, the colour can be changed nearly to the very light-grey of
pure iron. There is rarely any important quantity of graphite in
commercial steels. (See § 26.)</p>

<p>22. <i>Further Illustration of the Iron-Carbon Diagram.</i>&mdash;In order to
illustrate further the meaning of the diagram (fig. 1), let us follow
by means of the ordinate QUw the undisturbed slow cooling of molten
hyper-eutectoid steel containing 1% of carbon, for simplicity assuming
that no graphite forms and that the several transformations occur
promptly as they fall due. When the gradually falling temperature
reaches 1430° (<i>q</i>), the mass begins to freeze as &gamma;-iron or austenite,
called &ldquo;primary&rdquo; to distinguish it from that which forms part of the
eutectic. But the freezing, instead of completing itself at a fixed
temperature as that of pure water does, continues until the temperature
sinks to r on the line Aa. Thus the iron has rather a freezing-range
than a freezing-point. Moreover, the freezing is &ldquo;selective.&rdquo;
The first particles of austenite to freeze contain about 0.33% of
carbon (<i>p</i>). As freezing progresses, at each successive temperature
reached the frozen austenite has the carbon-content of the point on
Aa which that temperature abscissa cuts, and the still molten part or
&ldquo;mother-metal&rdquo; has the carbon-content horizontally opposite this
on the line AB. In other words, the composition of the frozen part
and that of the mother-metal respectively are p and q at the beginning
of the freezing, and <i>r</i> and <i>t</i>&prime; at the end; and during freezing they
slide along A<i>a</i> and AB from <i>p</i> to <i>r</i> and from <i>q</i> to <i>t</i>&prime;. This, of course,
brings the final composition of the frozen austenite when freezing is
complete exactly to that which the molten mass had before freezing
began.</p>

<p>The heat evolved by this process of solidification retards the fall
of temperature; but after this the rate of cooling remains regular
until T (750°) on the line S<i>a</i> (Ar<span class="su">3</span>) is reached, when a second retardation
occurs, due to the heat liberated by the passage within the
pasty mass of part of the iron and carbon from a state of mere
solution to that of definite combination in the ratio Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, forming
microscopic particles of cementite, while the remainder of the iron
and carbon continue dissolved in each other as austenite. This
formation of cementite continues as the temperature falls, till at
about 690° C., (U, called Ar<span class="su">2&minus;1</span>) so much of the carbon (in this case
about 0.10%) and of the iron have united in the form of cementite,
that the composition of the remaining solid-solution or &ldquo;mother-metal&rdquo;
of austenite has reached that of the eutectoid, hardenite;
<i>i.e.</i> it now contains 0.90 % of carbon. The cementite which has thus
far been forming may be called &ldquo;pro-eutectoid&rdquo; cementite, because
it forms before the remaining austenite reaches the eutectoid composition.
As the temperature now falls past 690°, this hardenite
mother-metal in turn splits up, after the fashion of eutectics, into
alternate layers of ferrite and cementite grouped together as pearlite,
so that the mass as a whole now becomes a mixture of pearlite with
cementite. The iron thus liberated, as the ferrite of this pearlite,
changes simultaneously to &alpha;-ferrite. The passage of this large
quantity of carbon and iron, 0.90% of the former and 12.6 of the
latter, from a state of mere solution as hardenite to one of definite
chemical union as cementite, together with the passage of the iron
itself from the &gamma; to the &alpha; state, evolves so much heat as actually to
heat the mass up so that it brightens in a striking manner. This
phenomenon is called the &ldquo;recalescence.&rdquo;</p>

<p>This change from austenite to ferrite and cementite, from the &gamma;
through the &beta; to the &alpha; state, is of course accompanied by the loss of
the &ldquo;hardening power,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the power of being hardened by sudden
cooling, because the essence of this hardening is the retention of the &beta;
state. As shown in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 13, the slowly cooled steel now
consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of the cementite
which was born of the austenite in cooling from T to U.</p>

<p>23. To take a second case, molten hypo-eutectoid steel of 0.20%
of carbon on freezing from K to x passes in the like manner to the
state of solid austenite, &gamma;-iron with this 0.20% of carbon dissolved
in it. Its further cooling undergoes three spontaneous retardations,
one at K&prime; (Ar<span class="su">3</span> about 820°), at which part of the iron begins to isolate
itself within the austenite mother-metal in the form of envelopes of
&beta;-ferrite, <i>i.e.</i> of free iron of the &beta; allotropic modification, which
surrounds the kernels or grains of the residual still undecomposed
part of the austenite. At the second retardation, K&Prime; (Ar<span class="su">2</span>, about 770°)
this ferrite changes to the normal magnetic &alpha;-ferrite, so that the
mass as a whole becomes magnetic. Moreover, the envelopes of
ferrite which began forming at Ar<span class="su">3</span> continue to broaden by the
accession of more and more ferrite born from the austenite progressively
as the temperature sinks, till, by the time when Ar<span class="su">1</span> (about
690°) is reached, so much free ferrite has been formed that the remaining
mother-metal has been enriched to the composition of
hardenite, <i>i.e.</i> it now contains 0.90% of carbon. Again, as the
temperature in turn falls past Ar<span class="su">1</span> this hardenite mother-metal splits
up into cementite and ferrite grouped together as pearlite, with the
resulting recalescence, and the mass, as shown in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 12,
then consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite.
All these phenomena are parallel with those of 1.00% carbon steel
at this same critical point Ar<span class="su">1</span>. As such steel cools slowly past Ar<span class="su">3</span>,
Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span>, it loses its hardening power progressively.</p>

<p>In short, from Ar<span class="su">3</span> to Ar<span class="su">1</span> the excess substance ferrite or cementite,
in hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels respectively, progressively
crystallizes out as a network or skeleton within the austenite mother-metal,
which thus progressively approaches the composition of
hardenite, reaching it at Ar<span class="su">1</span>, and there splitting up into ferrite and
cementite interstratified as pearlite. Further, any ferrite liberated
at Ar<span class="su">3</span> changes there from &gamma; to &beta;, and any present at Ar<span class="su">2</span> changes
from &beta; to &alpha;. Between H and S, Ar<span class="su">3</span> and Ar<span class="su">2</span> occur together, as do
Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span> between S and P&prime; and Ar<span class="su">3</span>, Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span> at S itself; so
that these critical points in these special cases are called Ar<span class="su">3&minus;2</span>, Ar<span class="su">2&minus;1</span>
and Ar<span class="su">3&minus;2&minus;1</span> respectively. The corresponding critical points which
occur during rise of temperature, with the reverse transformations,
are called Ac<span class="su">1</span>, Ac<span class="su">2</span>, Ac<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c. A (Tschernoff) is the generic name, r
refers to falling temperature (<i>refroidissant</i>) and c to rising temperature
(<i>chauffant</i>, Osmond).</p>

<p>24. The freezing of molten cast iron of 2.50% of carbon goes on
selectively like that of these steels which we have been studying,
till the enrichment of the molten mother-metal in carbon brings its
carbon-contents to B, 4.30%, the eutectic<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> carbon-content, <i>i.e.</i> that
of the greatest fusibility or lowest melting-point. At this point
selection ceases; the remaining molten metal freezes as a whole, and
in freezing splits up into a conglomerate eutectic of (1) austenite of
about 2.2 % of carbon, and therefore saturated with that element,
and (2) cementite; and with this eutectic is mixed the &ldquo;primary&rdquo;
austenite which froze out as the temperature sank from <i>v</i> to <i>v</i>&prime;.
The white-hot, solid, but soft mass is now a conglomerate of (1)
&ldquo;primary&rdquo; austenite, (2) &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; austenite and (3) &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo;
cementite. As the temperature sinks still farther, pro-eutectoid
cementite (see § 22) forms progressively in the austenite both primary
and eutectic, and this pro-eutectoid cementite as it comes into
existence tends to assemble in the form of a network enveloping the
kernels or grains of the austenite from which it springs. The reason
for its birth, of course, is that the solubility of carbon in austenite progressively
decreases as the temperature falls, from about 2.2% at
1130° (<i>a</i>), to 0.90% at 690° (Ar<span class="su">1</span>), as shown by the line <i>a</i>S, with the
consequence that the austenite keeps rejecting in the form of this
pro-eutectoid cementite all carbon in excess of its saturation-point
for the existing temperature. Here the mass consists of (1) primary
austenite, (2) eutectic austenite and cementite interstratified and
(3) pro-eutectoid cementite.</p>

<p>This formation of cementite through the rejection of carbon by
both the primary and the eutectic austenite continues quite as in the
case of 1.00% carbon steel, with impoverishment of the austenite to
the hardenite or eutectoid ratio, and the splitting up of that hardenite
into pearlite at Ar<span class="su">1</span>, so that the mass when cold finally consists of (1)
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
the primary austenite now split up into kernels of pearlite surrounded
by envelopes of pro-eutectoid cementite, (2) the eutectic of cementite
plus austenite, the latter of which has in like manner split up into a
mixture of pearlite plus cementite. Such a mass is shown in fig. 4.
Here the black bat-like patches are the masses of pearlite plus pro-eutectoid
cementite resulting from the splitting up of the primary
austenite. The magnification is too small to show the zebra striping
of the pearlite. In the black-and-white ground mass the white is
the eutectic cementite, and the black the eutectic austenite, now
split up into pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, which cannot here
be distinguished from each other.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:386px" src="images/img807a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;The constitution of hypo-eutectic white or cementitiferous
cast iron (washed metal), W. Campbell. The black bat-like
areas are the primary austenite, the zebra-marked ground mass the
eutectic, composed of white stripes of cementite and black stripes of
austenite. Both the primary and eutectic austenite have changed in
cooling into a mixture of pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, too
fine to be distinguished here.</td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">25. As we pass to cases with higher and higher carbon-content, the
primary austenite which freezes in cooling across region 2 forms a
smaller and smaller proportion of the whole, and the austenite-cementite
eutectic which forms at the eutectic freezing-point, 1130°
(aB), increases in amount until, when the carbon-content reaches the
eutectic ratio, 4.30%, there is but a single freezing-point, and the
whole mass when solid is made up of this eutectic. If there is more
than 4.30% of carbon, then in cooling through region 3 the excess
of carbon over this ratio freezes out as &ldquo;primary&rdquo; cementite. But
in any event the changes which have just been described for cast
iron of 2.50% of carbon occur in crossing region 7, and at Ar<span class="su">1</span>
(PSP&prime;).</p>

<p>Just as variations in the carbon-content shift the temperature of
the freezing-range and of the various critical points, so do variations
in the content of other elements, notably silicon, phosphorus, manganese,
chromium, nickel and tungsten. Nickel and manganese
lower these critical points, so that with 25% of nickel Ar<span class="su">3</span> lies below
the common temperature 20° C. With 13% of manganese Ar<span class="su">3</span> is very
low, and the austenite decomposes so slowly that it is preserved
practically intact by sudden cooling. These steels then normally
consist of &gamma;-iron, modified by the large amount of nickel or manganese
with which it is alloyed. They are non-magnetic or very feebly
magnetic. But the critical points of such nickel steel though thus
depressed, are not destroyed; and if it is cooled in liquid air below
its Ar<span class="su">2</span>, it passes to the &alpha; state and becomes magnetic.</p>

<p>26. <i>Double Nature of the Carbon-Iron Diagram.</i>&mdash;The part played
by graphite in the constitution of the iron-carbon compounds,
hitherto ignored for simplicity, is shown in fig. 5. Looking at the
matter in a broad way, in all these carbon-iron alloys, both steel and
cast irons, part of the carbon may be dissolved in the iron, usually
as austenite, <i>e.g.</i> in regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of Fig. 1; the rest, <i>i.e.</i> the
carbon which is not dissolved, or the &ldquo;undissolved carbon,&rdquo; forms
either the definite carbide, cementite, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, or else exists in the free
state as graphite. Now, just as fig. 1 shows the constitution of these
iron-carbon alloys for all temperatures and all percentages of carbon
when the undissolved carbon exists as cementite, so there should be
a diagram showing this constitution when all the undissolved carbon
exists as graphite. In short, there are two distinct carbon-iron
diagrams, the iron-cementite one shown in fig. 1 and studied at
length in §§ 22 to 25, and the iron-graphite one shown in fig. 5 in
unbroken lines, with the iron-cementite diagram reproduced in
broken lines for comparison. What here follows represents our
present rather ill-established theory. These two diagrams naturally
have much the same general shape, but though the boundaries of the
several regions in the iron-cementite diagram are known pretty
accurately, and though the relative positions of the boundaries of the
two diagrams are probably about as here shown, the exact topography
of the iron-graphite diagram is not yet known. In it the normal constituents
are, for region II., molten metal + primary austenite; for
region III., molten metal + primary graphite; for region IV., primary
austenite; for region VII., eutectic austenite, eutectic graphite, and a
quantity of pro-eutectoid graphite which increases as we pass from
the upper to the lower part of the region, together with primary
austenite at the left of the eutectic point B&prime; and primary graphite at
the right of that point. Thus when iron containing 2.50% of carbon
(<i>v.</i> fig. 1) solidifies, its carbon may form cementite following the
cementite-austenite diagram so that white, <i>i.e.</i> cementitiferous, cast
iron results; or graphite, following the graphite-austenite diagram,
so that ultra-grey, <i>i.e.</i> typical graphitic cast iron results; or, as
usually happens, certain molecules may follow one diagram while the
rest follow the other diagram, so that cast iron which has both
cementite and graphite results, as in most commercial grey cast iron,
and typically in &ldquo;mottled cast iron,&rdquo; in which there are distinct
patches of grey and others of white cast iron.</p>

<p>Though carbon passes far more readily under most conditions into
the state of cementite than into that of graphite, yet of the two
graphite is the more stable and cementite the less stable, or the
&ldquo;metastable&rdquo; form. Thus cementite is always tending to change
over into graphite by the reaction Fe<span class="su">3</span>C = 3Fe + Gr, though this
tendency is often held in check by different causes; but graphite
never changes back directly into cementite, at least according to our
present theory. The fact that graphite may dissolve in the iron as
austenite, and that when this latter again breaks up it is more likely
to yield cementite than graphite, is only an apparent and not a real
exception to this law of the greater stability of graphite than of
cementite.</p>

<p>Slow cooling, slow solidification, the presence of an abundance of
carbon, and the presence of silicon, all favour the formation of
graphite; rapid cooling, the presence of sulphur, and in most cases
that of manganese, favour the formation of cementite. For instance,
though in cast iron, which is rich in carbon, that carbon
passes comparatively easily into the state of graphite, yet in steel,
which contains much less carbon, but little graphite forms under most
conditions. Indeed, in the common structural steels which contain
only very little carbon, hardly any of that carbon exists as graphite.</p>

<p>27. <i>Thermal Treatment.</i>&mdash;The hardening, tempering and annealing
of steel, the chilling and annealing of cast iron, and the annealing of
malleable cast iron are explained readily by the facts just set forth.</p>

<p>28. <i>The hardening of steel</i> consists in first transforming it into
austenite by heating it up into region 4 of fig. 1, and then quenching
it, usually in cold water, so as to cool it very suddenly, and thus to
deny the time which the complete transformation of the austenite
into ferrite and cementite requires, and thereby to catch much of
the iron in transit in the hard brittle &beta; state. In the cold this transformation
cannot take place, because of molecular rigidity or some
other impediment. The suddenly cooled metal is hard and brittle,
because the cold &beta;-iron which it contains is hard and brittle.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:362px" src="images/img807b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Graphite-austenite or stable carbon-iron, diagram.</td></tr></table>

<p>The degree of hardening which the steel undergoes increases with
its carbon-content, chiefly because, during sudden cooling, the
presence of carbon acts like a brake to impede the transformations,
and thus to increase the quantity of &beta;-iron caught in transit, but
probably also in part because the hardness of this &beta;-iron increases
with its carbon-content. Thus, though sudden cooling has very
little effect on steel of 0.10% of carbon, it changes that of 1.50%
from a somewhat ductile body to one harder and more brittle than
glass.</p>

<p>29. <i>The Tempering and Annealing of Steel.</i>&mdash;But this sudden cooling
goes too far, preserving so much &beta;-iron as to make the steel too brittle
for most purposes. This brittleness has therefore in general to be
mitigated or &ldquo;tempered,&rdquo; unfortunately at the cost of losing part
of the hardness proper, by reheating the hardened steel slightly,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
usually to between 200° and 300° C., so as to relax the molecular
rigidity and thereby to allow the arrested transformation to go on a
little farther, shifting a little of the &beta;-iron over into the &alpha; state.
The higher the tempering-temperature, <i>i.e.</i> that to which the
hardened steel is thus reheated, the more is the molecular rigidity
relaxed, the farther on does the transformation go, and the softer
does the steel become; so that, if the reheating reaches a dull-red
heat, the transformation from austenite into ferrite and cementite
completes itself slowly, and when now cooled the steel is as soft and
ductile as if it had never been hardened. It is now said to be
&ldquo;annealed.&rdquo;</p>

<p>30. <i>Chilling cast iron</i>, <i>i.e.</i> hastening its cooling by casting it in a
cool mould, favours the formation of cementite rather than of
graphite in the freezing of the eutectic at aBc, and also, in case of
hyper-eutectic iron, in the passage through region 3. Like the
hardening of steel, it hinders the transformation of the austenite,
whether primary or eutectic, into pearlite + cementite, and thus
catches part of the iron in transit in the hard &beta; state. The annealing
of such iron may occur in either of two degrees&mdash;a small one, as in
making common chilled cast iron objects, such as railway car wheels,
or a great one, as in making malleable cast iron. In the former case,
the objects are heated only to the neighbourhood of Ac<span class="su">1</span>, say to
730° C., so that the &beta;-iron may slip into the a state, and the transformation
of the austenite into pearlite and cementite may complete
itself. The joint effect of such chilling and such annealing is to make
the metal much harder than if slowly cooled, because for each 1%
of graphite which the chilling suppresses, 15% of the glass-hard
cementite is substituted. Thus a cast iron which, if cooled slowly,
would have been &ldquo;grey,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> would have consisted chiefly of graphite
with pearlite and ferrite (which are all relatively soft bodies), if thus
chilled and annealed consists of cementite and pearlite. But in
most such cases, in spite of the annealing, this hardness is accompanied
by a degree of brittleness too great for most purposes. The
process therefore is so managed that only the outer shell of the casting
is chilled, and that the interior remains graphitic, <i>i.e.</i> grey cast
iron, soft and relatively malleable.</p>

<p>31. In making <i>malleable castings</i> the annealing, <i>i.e.</i> the change
towards the stable state of ferrite + graphite, is carried much farther
by means of a much longer and usually a higher heating than in the
manufacture of chilled castings. The castings, initially of white
cast iron, are heated for about a week, to a temperature usually above
730° C. and often reaching 900° C. (1346° and 1652° F.). For about
60 hours the heat is held at its highest point, from which it descends
extremely slowly. The molecular freedom which this high temperature
gives enables the cementite to change gradually into a mixture
of graphite and austenite with the result that, after the castings
have been cooled and their austenite has in cooling past Ac<span class="su">1</span> changed
into pearlite and ferrite, the mixture of cementite and pearlite of
which they originally consisted has now given place to one of fine or
&ldquo;temper&rdquo; graphite and ferrite, with more or less pearlite according to
the completeness of the transfer of the carbon to the state of graphite.</p>

<p>Why, then, is this material malleable, though the common grey
cast iron, which is made up of about the same constituents and often
in about the same proportion, is brittle? The reason is that the
particles of temper graphite which are thus formed within the solid
casting in its long annealing are so finely divided that they do not
break up the continuity of the mass in a very harmful way; whereas
in grey cast iron both the eutectic graphite formed in solidifying,
and also the primary graphite which, in case the metal is hyper-eutectic,
forms in cooling through region 3 of fig. 1, surrounded as
it is by the still molten mother-metal out of which it is growing,
form a nearly continuous skeleton of very large flakes, which do break
up in a most harmful way the continuity of the mass of cast iron in
which they are embedded.</p>

<p>In carrying out this process the castings are packed in a mass of
iron oxide, which at this temperature gradually removes the fine or
&ldquo;temper&rdquo; graphite by oxidizing that in the outer crust to carbonic
oxide, whereon the carbon farther in begins diffusing outwards by
&ldquo;molecular migration,&rdquo; to be itself oxidized on reaching the crust.
This removal of graphite doubtless further stimulates the formation
of graphite, by relieving the mechanical and perhaps the osmotic
pressure. Thus, first, for the brittle glass-hard cementite there is
gradually substituted the relatively harmless temper graphite; and,
second, even this is in part removed by surface oxidation.</p>

<p>32. <i>Fineness of Structure.</i>&mdash;Each of these ancient processes thus
consists essentially in so manipulating the temperature that, out
of the several possible constituents, the metal shall actually consist
of a special set in special proportions. But in addition there is
another very important principle underlying many of our thermal
processes, viz. that the state of aggregation of certain of these constituents,
and through it the properties of the metal as a whole, are
profoundly affected by temperature manipulations. Thus, prior
exposure to a temperature materially above Ac<span class="su">3</span> coarsens the structure
of most steel, in the sense of giving it when cold a coarse fracture,
and enlarging the grains of pearlite, &amp;c., later found in the slowly
cooled metal. This coarsening and the brittleness which accompanies
it increase with the temperature to which the metal has been exposed.
Steel which after a slow cooling from about 722° C. will bend 166°
before breaking, will, after slow cooling from about 1050° C., bend
only 18° before breaking. This injury fortunately can be cured
either by <i>reheating</i> the steel to Ac<span class="su">3</span> when it &ldquo;refines,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> returns
spontaneously to its fine-grained ductile state (<i>cooling</i> past Ar<span class="su">3</span> does
not have this effect); or by breaking up the coarse grains by <i>mechanical
distortion</i>, <i>e.g.</i> by forging or rolling. For instance, if steel has
been coarsened by heating to 1400° C., and if, when it has cooled
to a lower temperature, say 850° C. we forge it, its grain-size and
ductility when cold will be approximately those which it would have
had if heated only to 850°. Hence steel which has been heated very
highly, whether for welding, or for greatly softening it so that it can
be rolled to the desired shape with but little expenditure of power,
ought later to be refined, either by reheating it from below Ar<span class="su">3</span> to
slightly above Ac<span class="su">3</span> or by rolling it after it has cooled to a relatively
low temperature, <i>i.e.</i> by having a low &ldquo;finishing temperature.&rdquo;
Steel castings have initially the extremely coarse structure due to
cooling without mechanical distortion from their very high temperature
of solidification; they are &ldquo;annealed,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> this coarseness
and the consequent brittleness are removed, by reheating them much
above Ac<span class="su">3</span>, which also relieves the internal stresses due to the different
rates at which different layers cool, and hence contract, during and
after solidification. For steel containing less than about 0.13%
of carbon, the embrittling temperature is in a different range, near
700° C., and such steel refines at temperatures above 900° C.</p>
</div>

<p>33. <i>The Possibilities of Thermal Treatment.</i>&mdash;When we consider
the great number of different regions in fig. 1, each with its own
set of constitutents, and remember that by different rates of
cooling from different temperatures we can retain in the cold
metal these different sets of constituents in widely varying
proportions; and when we further reflect that not only the
proportion of each constituent present but also its state of
aggregation can be controlled by thermal treatment, we see
how vast a field is here opened, how great a variety of different
properties can be induced in any individual piece of steel, how
enormous the variety of properties thus attainable in the different
varieties collectively, especially since for each percentage of
carbon an incalculable number of varieties of steel may be made
by alloying it with different proportions of such elements as
nickel, chromium, &amp;c. As yet there has been only the roughest
survey of certain limited areas in this great field, the further
exploration of which will enormously increase the usefulness
of this wonderful metal.</p>

<p>34. <i>Alloy steels</i> have come into extensive use for important
special purposes, and a very great increase of their use is to
be expected. The chief ones are nickel steel, manganese steel,
chrome steel and chrome-tungsten steel. The general order of
merit of a given variety or specimen of iron or steel may be
measured by the degree to which it combines strength and
hardness with ductility. These two classes of properties tend
to exclude each other, for, as a general rule, whatever tends
to make iron and steel hard and strong tends to make it correspondingly
brittle, and hence liable to break treacherously,
especially under shock. Manganese steel and nickel steel form
an important exception to this rule, in being at once very strong
and hard and extremely ductile. <i>Nickel steel</i>, which usually
contains from 3 to 3.50% of nickel and about 0.25% of carbon,
combines very great tensile strength and hardness, and a very
high limit of elasticity, with great ductility. Its combination
of ductility with strength and hardening power has given it very
extended use for the armour of war-vessels. For instance,
following Krupp&rsquo;s formula, the side and barbette armour of
war-vessels is now generally if not universally made of nickel
steel containing about 3.25% of nickel, 0.40% of carbon,
and 1.50% of chromium, deeply carburized on its impact face.
Here the merit of nickel steel is not so much that it resists
perforation, as that it does not crack even when deeply penetrated
by a projectile. The combination of ductility, which lessens the
tendency to break when overstrained or distorted, with a very
high limit of elasticity, gives it great value for shafting, the
merit of which is measured by its endurance of the repeated
stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its alignment
is not mathematically straight. The alignment of marine
shafting, changing with every passing wave, is an extreme
example. Such an intermittently applied stress is far more
destructive to iron than a continuous one, and even if it is
only half that of the limit of elasticity, its indefinite repetition
eventually causes rupture. In a direct competitive test the
presence of 3.25% of nickel increased nearly sixfold the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
number of rotations which a steel shaft would endure before
breaking.</p>

<p>35. As actually made, <i>manganese steel</i> contains about 12%
of manganese and 1.50% of carbon. Although the presence
of 1.50% of manganese makes steel relatively brittle, and
although a further addition at first increases this brittleness, so
that steel containing between 4 and 5.5% can be pulverized
under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives very great
ductility, accompanied by great hardness&mdash;a combination of
properties which was not possessed by any other known substance
when this remarkable alloy, known as Hadfield&rsquo;s manganese
steel, was discovered. Its ductility, to which it owes its value, is
profoundly affected by the rate of cooling. Sudden cooling
makes the metal extremely ductile, and slow cooling makes it
brittle. Its behaviour in this respect is thus the opposite of
that of carbon steel. But its great hardness is not materially
affected by the rate of cooling. It is used extensively for objects
which require both hardness and ductility, such as rock-crushing
machinery, railway crossings, mine-car wheels and safes. The
burglar&rsquo;s blow-pipe locally &ldquo;draws the temper,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> softens a
spot on a hardened carbon steel or chrome steel safe by simply
heating it, so that as soon as it has again cooled he can drill
through it and introduce his charge of dynamite. But neither
this nor any other procedure softens manganese steel rapidly.
Yet this very fact that it is unalterably hard has limited its use,
because of the great difficulty of cutting it to shape, which has
in general to be done with emery wheels instead of the usual
iron-cutting tools. Another defect is its relatively low elastic
limit.</p>

<p>36. <i>Chrome steel</i>, which usually contains about 2% of chromium
and 0.80 to 2% of carbon, owes its value to combining, when
in the &ldquo;hardened&rdquo; or suddenly cooled state, intense hardness
with a high elastic limit, so that it is neither deformed permanently
nor cracked by extremely violent shocks. For this reason it is
the material generally if not always used for armour-piercing
projectiles. It is much used also for certain rock-crushing
machinery (the shoes and dies of stamp-mills) and for safes.
These are made of alternate layers of soft wrought iron and
chrome steel hardened by sudden cooling. The hardness of the
hardened chrome steel resists the burglar&rsquo;s drill, and the ductility
of the wrought iron the blows of his sledge.</p>

<p>Vanadium in small quantities, 0.15 or 0.20%, is said to improve
steel greatly, especially in increasing its resistance to shock
and to often-repeated stress. But the improvement may be
due wholly to the considerable chromium content of these so-called
vanadium steels.</p>

<p>37. <i>Tungsten steel</i>, which usually contains from 5 to 10% of
tungsten and from 1 to 2% of carbon, is used for magnets,
because of its great retentivity.</p>

<p>38. <i>Chrome-tungsten or High-speed Steel.</i>&mdash;Steel with a large
content of both chromium and tungsten has the very valuable
property of &ldquo;red-hardness,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of retaining its hardness and
hence its power of cutting iron and other hard substances,
even when it is heated to dull redness, say 600° C. (1112° F.) by
the friction of the work which it is doing. Hence a machinist
can cut steel or iron nearly six times as fast with a lathe tool
of this steel as with one of carbon steel, because with the latter
the cutting speed must be so slow that the cutting tool is not
heated by the friction above say 250° C. (482° F.), lest it be unduly
softened or &ldquo;tempered&rdquo; (§ 29). This effect of chromium,
tungsten and carbon jointly consists essentially in raising the
&ldquo;tempering temperature,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> that to which the metal, in which
by suitable thermal treatment the iron molecules have been
brought to the allotropic &gamma; or &beta; state or a mixture of both, can
be heated without losing its hardness through the escape of that
iron into the &alpha; state. In short, these elements seem to impede
the allotropic change of the iron itself. The composition of this
steel is as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">The usual limits.</td> <td class="tcc">Apparently the best.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon</td> <td class="tcc">0.32 to 1.28</td> <td class="tcc">0.68 to 0.67</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese</td> <td class="tcc">0.03 to 0.30</td> <td class="tcc">0.07 to 0.11</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Chromium</td> <td class="tcc">2.23 to 7.02</td> <td class="tcc">5.95 to 5.47</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Tungsten</td> <td class="tcc">9.25 to 25.45</td> <td class="tcc">17.81 to 18.19</td></tr>
</table>

<p>39. <i>Impurities.</i>&mdash;The properties of iron and steel, like those
of most of the metals, are profoundly influenced by the presence
of small and sometimes extremely small quantities of certain
impurities, of which the most important are phosphorus and
sulphur, the former derived chiefly from apatite (phosphate of
lime) and other minerals which accompany the iron ore itself,
the latter from the pyrite found not only in most iron ores but
in nearly all coal and coke. All commercial iron and steel
contain more or less of both these impurities, the influence of
which is so strong that a variation of 0.01%, <i>i.e.</i> of one part in
10,000, of either of them has a noticeable effect. The best tool
steel should not contain more than 0.02% of either, and in
careful practice it is often specified that the phosphorus and
sulphur respectively shall not exceed 0.04 and 0.05% in the
steel for important bridges, or 0.06 and 0.07% in rail steel,
though some very prudent engineers allow as much as .085%
or even 0.10% of phosphorus in rails.</p>

<p>40. The specific effect of <i>phosphorus</i> is to make the metal
cold-short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle in the cold, apparently because it increases
the size and the sharpness of demarcation of the crystalline
grains of which the mass is made up. The specific effect of <i>sulphur</i>
is to make the metal red-short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle, when at a red heat,
by forming a network of iron sulphide which encases these
crystalline grains and thus plays the part of a weak link in a
strong chain.</p>

<p>41. <i>Oxygen</i>, probably dissolved in the iron as ferrous oxide
FeO, also makes the metal red-short.</p>

<p>42. <i>Manganese</i> by itself rather lessens than increases the
malleableness and, indeed, the general merit of the metal, but
it is added intentionally, in quantities even as large as 1.5%
to palliate the effects of sulphur and oxygen. With sulphur
it forms a sulphide which draws together into almost harmless
drops, instead of encasing the grains of iron. With oxygen it
probably forms manganous oxide, which is less harmful than
ferrous oxide. (See § 35.)</p>

<p>43. <i>Ores of Iron.</i>&mdash;Even though the earth seems to be a huge
iron meteor with but a thin covering of rocks, the exasperating
proneness of iron to oxidize explains readily why this metal is
only rarely found native, except in the form of meteorites.
They are four important iron ores, magnetite, haematite,
limonite and siderite, and one of less but still considerable
importance, pyrite or pyrites.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>44. <i>Magnetite</i>, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, contains 72.41% of iron. It crystallizes in
the cubical system, often in beautiful octahedra and rhombic
dodecahedra. It is black with a black streak. Its specific gravity
is 5.2, and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5. It is very magnetic, and sometimes
polar.</p>

<p>45. <i>Haematite</i>, or red haematite, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, contains 70% of iron.
It crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Its colour varies from
brilliant bluish-grey to deep red. Its streak is always red. Its
specific gravity is 5.3 and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5.</p>

<p>46. <i>Limonite</i>, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, 3H<span class="su">2</span>O, contains 59.9% of iron. Its colour
varies from light brown to black. Its streak is yellowish-black,
its specific gravity 3.6 to 4.0, and its hardness 5 to 5.5. Limonite
and the related minerals, turgite, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, and göthite,
Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, are grouped together under the term &ldquo;brown haematite.&rdquo;</p>

<p>47. <i>Siderite</i>, or spathic iron ore, FeCO<span class="su">3</span>, crystallizes in the rhombohedral
system and contains 48.28% of iron. Its colour varies from
yellowish-brown to grey. Its specific gravity is 3.7 to 3.9, and its
hardness 3.5 to 4.5. The clayey siderite of the British coal measures
is called &ldquo;clay band,&rdquo; and that containing bituminous matter
is called &ldquo;black band.&rdquo;</p>

<p>48. <i>Pyrite</i>, FeS<span class="su">2</span>, contains 46.7% of iron. It crystallizes in the
cubic system, usually in cubes, pentagonal dodecahedra or octahedra,
often of great beauty and perfection. It is golden-yellow,
with a greenish or brownish-black streak. Its specific gravity is
4.83 to 5.2, its hardness 6 to 6.5. Though it contains far too much
sulphur to be used in iron manufacture without first being desulphurized,
yet great quantities of slightly cupriferous pyrite, after yielding
nearly all their sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and
most of the remainder in the wet extraction of their copper, are then
used under the name of &ldquo;blue billy&rdquo; or &ldquo;purple ore,&rdquo; as an ore of
iron, a use which is likely to increase greatly in importance with the
gradual exhaustion of the richest deposits of the oxidized ores.</p>
</div>

<p>49. <i>The Ores actually Impure.</i>&mdash;As these five minerals actually
exist in the earth&rsquo;s crust they are usually more or less impure
chemically, and they are almost always mechanically mixed with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
barren mineral matter, such as quartz, limestone and clay,
collectively called &ldquo;the gangue.&rdquo; In some cases the iron-bearing
mineral, such as magnetite or haematite, can be separated from
the gangue after crashing, either mechanically or magnetically,
so that the part thus enriched or &ldquo;concentrated&rdquo; alone need be
smelted.</p>

<p>50. <i>Geological Age.</i>&mdash;The Archaean crystalline rocks abound
in deposits of magnetite and red haematite, many of them very
large and rich. These of course are the oldest of our ores, and
from deposits of like age, especially those of the more readily
decomposed silicates, has come the iron which now exists in the
siderites and red and brown haematites of the later geological
formations.</p>

<p>51. <i>The World&rsquo;s Supply of Iron Ore.</i>&mdash;The iron ores of the
earth&rsquo;s crust will probably suffice to supply our needs for a
very long period, perhaps indeed for many thousand years.
It is true that an official statement, which is here reproduced,
given in 1905 by Professor Tornebohm to the Swedish parliament,
credited the world with only 10,000,000,000 tons of ore, and that,
if the consumption of iron should continue to increase hereafter
as it did between 1893 and 1906, this quantity would last only
until 1946. How then can it be that there is a supply for
thousands of years? The two assertions are not to be reconciled
by pointing out that Professor Tornebohm underestimated, for
instance crediting the United States with only 1.1 billion tons,
whereas the United States Geological Survey&rsquo;s expert credits
that country with from ten to twenty times this quantity;
nor by pointing out that only certain parts of Europe and a
relatively small part of North America have thus far been
carefully explored for iron ore, and that the rest of these two
continents and South America, Asia and Africa may reasonably
be expected to yield very great stores of iron, and that pyrite,
one of the richest and most abundant of ores, has not been
included. Important as these considerations are, they are
much less important than the fact that a very large proportion
of the rocks of the earth&rsquo;s crust contain more or less iron, and
therefore are potential iron ores.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>&mdash;<i>Professor Tornebohm&rsquo;s Estimate of the World&rsquo;s
Ore Supply.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Workable<br />Deposits.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual<br />Output.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual<br />Consumption.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,100,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,900</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia and Finland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">10,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">100,000,000</td></tr>
</table>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Note to Table.</i>&mdash;Though this estimate seems to be near the truth as
regards the British ores, it does not credit the United States with
one-tenth, if indeed with one-twentieth, of their true quantity as
estimated by that country&rsquo;s Geological Survey in 1907.</p>
</div>

<p class="pt1">52. <i>What Constitutes an Iron Ore.</i>&mdash;Whether a ferruginous
rock is or is not ore is purely a question of current demand and
supply. That is ore from which there is reasonable hope that
metal can be extracted with profit, if not to-day, then within a
reasonable length of time. Rock containing 2½% of gold is ah
extraordinarily rich gold ore; that with 2½% of copper is a
profitable one to-day; that containing 2½% of iron is not so
to-day, for the sole reason that its iron cannot be extracted with
profit in competition with the existing richer ores. But it will
become a profitable ore as soon as the richer ore shall have
been exhausted. Very few of the ores which, are mined to-day
contain less than 25% of iron, and some of them contain over
60%. As these richest ores are exhausted, poorer and poorer
ones will be used, and the cost of iron will increase progressively
if measured either in units of the actual energy used in mining
and smelting it, or in its power of purchasing animal and vegetable
products, cotton, wool, corn, &amp;c., the supply of which is renewable
and indeed capable of very great increase, but probably not if
measured in its power of purchasing the various mineral products,
<i>e.g.</i> the other metals, coal, petroleum and the precious stones,
of which the supply is limited. This is simply one instance of the
inevitable progressive increase in cost of the irrecreatable mineral
relatively to the recreatable animal and vegetable. When, in
the course of centuries, the exhaustion of richer ores shall have
forced us to mine, crush and concentrate mechanically or by
magnetism the ores which contain only 2 or 3% of iron, then
the cost of iron in the ore, measured in terms of the energy
needed to mine and concentrate it, will be comparable with the
actual cost of the copper in the ore of the copper-mines of to-day.
But, intermediate in richness between these two extremes, the
iron ores mined to-day and these 2 and 3% ores, there is an
incalculably great quantity of ore capable of mechanical concentration,
and another perhaps vaster store of ore which we do
not yet know how to concentrate mechanically, so that the day
when a pound of iron in the ore will cost as much as a pound of
copper in the ore costs to-day is immeasurably distant.</p>

<p>53. <i>Future Cost of Ore.</i>&mdash;The cost of iron ore is likely to rise
much less rapidly than that of coal, because the additions to our
known supply are likely to be very much greater in the case of
ore than in that of coal, for the reason that, while rich and great
iron ore beds may exist anywhere, those of coal are confined
chiefly to the Carboniferous formation, a fact which has led to the
systematic survey and measurement of this formation in most
countries. In short, a very large part of the earth&rsquo;s coal supply
is known and measured, but its iron ore supply is hardly to be
guessed. On the other hand, the cost of iron ore is likely to
rise much faster than that of the potential aluminium ores,
clay and its derivatives, because of the vast extent and richness
of the deposits of this latter class. It is possible that, at some
remote day, aluminium, or one of its alloys, may become the
great structural material, and iron be used chiefly for those
objects for which it is especially fitted, such as magnets, springs
and cutting tools.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In passing, it may be noted that the cost of the ore itself forms
a relatively small part of the cost even of the cruder forms of steel,
hardly a quarter of the cost of such simple products as rails, and an
insignificant part of the cost of many most important finished
objects, such as magnets, cutting tools, springs and wire, for which
iron is almost indispensable. Thus, if the use of ores very much
poorer than those we now treat, and the need of concentrating them
mechanically, were to double the cost of a pound of iron in the
concentrated ore ready for smelting, that would increase the cost of
rails by only one quarter. Hence the addition to the cost of finished
steel objects which is due to our being forced to use progressively
poorer and poorer ores is likely to be much less than the addition
due to the progressive rise in the cost of coal and in the cost of labour,
because of the ever-rising scale of living. The effect of each of these
additions will be lessened by the future improvements in processes
of manufacture, and more particularly by the progressive replacement
of that ephemeral source of energy, coal, by the secular sources,
the winds, waves, tides, sunshine, the earth&rsquo;s heat and, greatest of
all, its momentum.</p>
</div>

<p>54. <i>Ore Supply of the Chief Iron-making Countries.</i>&mdash;The
United States mine nearly all of their iron ores, Austria-Hungary,
Russia and France mine the greater part of theirs, but none of
these countries exports much ore. Great Britain and Germany,
besides mining a great deal of ore, still have to import much
from Spain, Sweden and in the case of Germany from Luxemburg,
although, because of the customs arrangement between these
last two countries, this importation is not usually reported.
Belgium imports nearly all of its ore, while Sweden and Spain
export most of the ore which they mine.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>55. <i>Great Britain</i> has many valuable ore beds, some rich in iron,
many of them near to beds of coal and to the sea-coast, to canals or
to navigable rivers. They extend from Northamptonshire to near
Glasgow. About two-thirds of the ore mined is clayey siderite.
In 1905 the Cleveland district in North Yorkshire supplied 41%
of the total British product of iron ores; Lincolnshire, 14.8%;
Northamptonshire, 13.9%; Leicestershire, 4.7%; Cumberland,
8.6%; North Lancashire, 2.7%; Staffordshire, 6.1%; and
Scotland, 5.7%. The annual production of British iron ore reached
18,031,957 tons in 1882, but in 1905 it had fallen to 14,590,703 tons,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
valued at £3,482,184. In addition 7,344,786 tons, or about half
as much as was mined in Great Britain, were imported, 78.5% of
it from Spain. The most important British ore deposit is the Lower
Cleveland bed of oolitic siderite in the Middle Lias, near Middlesborough.
It is from 10 to 17 ft. thick, and its ore contains about
30% of iron.</p>

<p>56. <i>Geographical Distribution of the British Works.</i>&mdash;Most of the
British iron works lie in and near the important coal-fields in
Scotland between the mouth of the Clyde and the Forth, in Cleveland
and Durham, in Cumberland and Lancashire, in south Yorkshire,
Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire, in Staffordshire and Northamptonshire,
and in south Wales in spite of its lack of ore.</p>

<p>The most important group is that of Cleveland and Durham,
which makes about one-third of all the British pig iron. It has the
great Cleveland ore bed and the excellent Durham coal near tidewater
at Middlesbrough. The most important seat of the manufacture
of cutlery and the finer kinds of steel is at Sheffield.</p>

<p>57. The <i>United States</i> have great deposits of ore in many different
places. The rich beds near Lake Superior, chiefly red haematite,
yielding at present about 55% of iron, are thought to contain between
1½ and 2 billion tons, and the red and brown haematites of the
southern states about 10 billion tons. The middle states, New York,
New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are known to have many great
deposits of rich magnetite, which supplied a very large proportion
of the American ores till the discovery of the very cheaply
mined ores of Lake Superior. In 1906 these latter formed 80%
of the American production, and the southern states supplied
about 13% of it, while the rich deposits of the middle states are
husbanded in accordance with the law that ore bodies are drawn
on in the order of their apparent profitableness.</p>

<p>The most important American iron-making district is in and
about Pittsburg, to whose cheap coal the rich Lake Superior ores are
brought nearly 1000 m., about four-fifths of the distance in the large
ore steamers of the Great Lakes. Chicago, nearer to the Lake ores,
though rather far from the Pittsburg coal-field, is a very important
centre for rail-making for the railroads of the western states. Ohio,
the Lake Erie end of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania and
Maryland have very important works, the ore for which comes in
part from Lake Superior and in part from Pennsylvania, New York
and Cuba, and the fuel from Pennsylvania and its neighbourhood.
Tennessee and Alabama in the south rely on southern ore and fuel.</p>

<p>58. <i>Germany</i> gets about two-thirds of her total ore supply from
the great Jurassic &ldquo;Minette&rdquo; ore deposit of Luxemburg and Lorraine,
which reaches also into France and Belgium. In spite of its containing
only about 36% of iron, this deposit is of very great value
because of its great size, and of the consequent small cost of mining.
It stretches through an area of about 8 m. wide and 40 m. long, and
in some places it is nearly 60 ft. thick. There are valuable deposits
also in Siegerland and in many other parts of the country.</p>

<p>59. <i>Sweden</i> has abundant, rich and very pure iron ores, but her
lack of coal has restricted her iron manufacture chiefly to the very
purest and best classes of iron and steel, in making which her thrifty
and intelligent people have developed very rare skill. The magnetite
ore bodies which supply this industry lie in a band about 180 m. long,
reaching from a little north of Stockholm westerly toward the
Norwegian frontier, between the latitudes 59° and 61° N. In Swedish
Lapland, near the Arctic circle, are the great Gellivara, Kirunavara
and Luossavara magnetite beds, among the largest in Europe.
From these beds, which in some parts are about 300 ft. thick, much
ore is sent to Germany and Great Britain.</p>

<p>60. <i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;Spain has large, rich and pure iron ore
beds, near both her northern and her southern sea coast. She exports
about 90% of all the iron ore which she mines, most of it to England.
France draws most of her iron ore from her own part of the great
Minette ore deposit, and from those parts of it which were taken from
her when she lost Alsace and Lorraine. Russia&rsquo;s most valuable ore
deposit is the very large and easily mined one of Krivoi Rog in the
south, from which comes about half of the Russian iron ore. It is
near the Donetz coal-field, the largest in Europe. There are also
important ore beds in the Urals, near the border of Finland, and at the
south of Moscow. In Austria-Hungary, besides the famous Styrian
Erzberg, with its siderite ore bed about 450 ft. thick, there are cheaply
mined but poor and impure ores near Prague, and important ore beds
in both northern and southern Hungary. Algeria, Canada, Cuba
and India have valuable ore bodies.</p>

<p>61. <i>Richness of Iron Ores.</i>&mdash;The American ores now mined are
decidedly richer than those of most European countries. To make
a ton of pig iron needs only about 1.9 tons of ore in the United States,
2 tons in Sweden and Russia, 2.4 tons in Great Britain and Germany,
and about 2.7 tons in France and Belgium, while about 3 tons of the
native British ores are needed per ton of pig iron.</p>
</div>

<p>62. <i>The general scheme of iron manufacture</i> is shown diagrammatically
in fig. 6. To put the iron contained in iron ore
into a state in which it can be used as a metal requires essentially,
first its deoxidation, and second its separation from the other
mineral matter, such as clay, quartz, &amp;c. with which it is found
associated. These two things are done simultaneously by heating
and melting the ore in contact with coke, charcoal or anthracite,
in the iron blast furnace, from which issue intermittently two
molten streams, the iron now deoxidized and incidentally
carburized by the fuel with which it has been in contact, and
the mineral matter, now called &ldquo;slag.&rdquo; This crude cast iron,
called &ldquo;pig iron,&rdquo; may be run from the blast furnace directly
into moulds, which give the metal the final shape in which it
is to be used in the arts; but it is almost always either remelted,
following path 1 of fig. 6, and then cast into castings of cast
iron, or converted into wrought iron or steel by purifying it,
following path 2.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:493px; height:257px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;General Scheme of Iron Manufacture.</td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>If it is to follow path 1, the castings into which it is made may be
either (<i>a</i>) grey or (<i>b</i>) chilled or (<i>c</i>) malleable. Grey iron castings are
made by remelting the pig iron either in a small shaft or &ldquo;cupola&rdquo;
furnace, or in a reverberatory or &ldquo;air&rdquo; furnace, with very little
change of chemical composition, and then casting it directly into
suitable moulds, usually of either &ldquo;baked,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> oven-dried, or
&ldquo;green,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> moist undried, sand, but sometimes of iron covered
with a refractory coating to protect it from being melted or overheated
by the molten cast iron. The general procedure in the manufacture
of chilled and of malleable castings has been described in
§§ 30 and 31.</p>

<p>If the pig iron is to follow path 2, the purification which converts
it into wrought iron or steel consists chiefly in oxidizing and thereby
removing its carbon, phosphorus and other impurities, while it is
molten, either by means of the oxygen of atmospheric air blown
through it as in the Bessemer process, or by the oxygen of iron ore
stirred into it as in the puddling and Bell-Krupp processes, or by
both together as in the open hearth process.</p>

<p>On its way from the blast furnace to the converter or open hearth
furnace the pig iron is often passed through a great reservoir called
a &ldquo;mixer,&rdquo; which acts also as an equalizer, to lessen the variation in
composition of the cast iron, and as a purifier, removing part of the
sulphur and silicon.</p>
</div>

<p>63. <i>Shaping and Adjusting Processes.</i>&mdash;Besides these extraction
and purification processes there are those of adjustment
and shaping. The <i>adjusting processes</i> adjust either the
ultimate composition, <i>e.g.</i> carburizing wrought iron by long
heating in contact with charcoal (cementation), or the proximate
composition or constitution, as in the hardening, tempering
and annealing of steel already described (§§ 28, 29), or both,
as in the process of making malleable cast iron (§ 31). The
<i>shaping processes</i> include the <i>mechanical</i> ones, such as rolling,
forging and wire-drawing, and the <i>remelting</i> ones such as the
crucible process of melting wrought iron or steel in crucibles
and casting it in ingots for the manufacture of the best kinds
of tool steel. Indeed, the remelting of cast iron to make grey
iron castings belongs here. This classification, though it helps
to give a general idea of the subject, yet like most of its kind
cannot be applied rigidly. Thus the crucible process in its
American form both carburizes and remelts, and the open
hearth process is often used rather for remelting than for
purifying.</p>

<p>64. The <i>iron blast furnace</i>, a crude but very efficient piece
of apparatus, is an enormous shaft usually about 80 ft. high
and 20 ft. wide at its widest part. It is at all times full from
top to bottom, somewhat as sketched in figs. 7 and 8, of a solid
column of lumps of fuel, ore and limestone, which are charged
through a hopper at the top, and descend slowly as the lower
end of the column is eaten off through the burning away of
its coke by means of very hot air or &ldquo;blast&rdquo; blown through
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
holes or &ldquo;tuyeres&rdquo; near the bottom or &ldquo;hearth,&rdquo; and through
the melting away, by the heat thus generated, both of the iron
itself which has been deoxidized in its descent, and of the other
minerals of the ore, called the &ldquo;gangue,&rdquo; which unite with the
lime of the limestone and the ash of the fuel to form a complex
molten silicate called the &ldquo;cinder&rdquo; or &ldquo;slag.&rdquo;</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:526px; height:1340px" src="images/img812a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Section of Duquesne Blast Furnace.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>GG, Flanges on the ore bucket;</p>
<p>HH, Fixed flanges on the top of the furnace;</p>
<p>J, Counterweighted false bell;</p>
<p>K, Main bell;</p>
<p>O, Tuyere;</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>P, Cinder notch;</p>
<p>RR&prime;, Water cooled boxes;</p>
<p>S, Blast pipe;</p>
<p>T, Cable for allowing conical bottom of bucket to drop.</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:399px" src="images/img812b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Lower Part of the Blast Furnace.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:77px" src="images/img812c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>* The ore and lime actually exist here in powder. They are
shown in lump form because of the difficulty of presenting to the
eye their powdered state.</p>
</div>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:537px" src="images/img812d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Method of transferring charge from bucket to main charging
bell, without permitting escape of furnace gas (lettering as in
fig. 7).</td></tr></table>

<p>Interpenetrating this descending column of solid ore, limestone
and coke, there is an upward rushing column of hot gases, the
atmospheric nitrogen of the blast from the tuyeres, and the
carbonic oxide from the combustion of the coke by that blast.
The upward ascent of the column of gases is as swift as the
descent of the solid charge is slow. The former occupies but a
very few seconds, the latter from 12 to 15 hours.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span></p>

<p>In the upper part of the furnace the carbonic oxide deoxidizes
the iron oxide of the ore by such reactions as xCO + FeO<span class="su">x</span> =
Fe + xCO<span class="su">2</span>. Part of the resultant carbonic acid is again deoxidized
to carbonic oxide by the surrounding fuel, CO<span class="su">2</span> + C = 2CO,
and the carbonic oxide thus formed deoxidizes more iron oxide,
&amp;c. As indicated in fig. 7, before the iron ore has descended
very far it has given up nearly the whole of its oxygen, and thus
lost its power of oxidizing the rising carbonic oxide, so that
from here down the atmosphere of the furnace consists essentially
of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.</p>

<p>But the transfer of heat from the rising gases to the sinking
solids, which has been going on in the upper part of the furnace,
continues as the solid column gradually sinks downward to
the hearth, till at the &ldquo;fusion level&rdquo; (A in fig. 7) the solid
matter has become so hot that the now deoxidized iron melts,
as does the slag as fast as it is formed by the union of its three
constituents, the gangue, the lime resulting from the decomposition
of the limestone and the ash of the fuel. Hence from
this level down the only solid matter is the coke, in lumps which
are burning rapidly and hence shrinking, while between them
the molten iron and slag trickle, somewhat as sketched in fig. 8,
to collect in the hearth in two layers as distinct as water and
oil, the iron below, the slag above.</p>

<p>As they collect, the molten iron is drawn off at intervals
through a hole A (fig. 8), temporarily stopped with clay, at the
very bottom, and the slag through another hole a little higher
up, called the &ldquo;cinder notch.&rdquo; Thus the furnace may be said
to have four zones, those of (1) deoxidation, (2) heating, (3)
melting, and (4) collecting, though of course the heating is
really going on in all four of them.</p>

<p>In its slow descent the deoxidized iron nearly saturates
itself with carbon, of which it usually contains between 3.5
and 4%, taking it in part from the fuel with which it is in such
intimate contact, and in part from the finely divided carbon
deposited within the very lumps of ore, by the reaction 2CO =
C + CO<span class="su">2</span>. This carburizing is an indispensable part of the process,
because through it alone can the iron be made fusible enough
to melt at the temperature which can be generated in the furnace,
and only when liquid can it be separated readily and completely
from the slag. In fact, the molten iron is heated so far above
its melting point that, instead of being run at once into pigs
as is usual, it may, without solidifying, be carried even several
miles in large clay-lined ladles to the mill where it is to be
converted into steel.</p>

<p>65. The <i>fuel</i> has, in addition to its duties of deoxidizing
and carburizing the iron and yielding the heat needed for melting
both the iron and slag, the further task of desulphurizing the
iron, probably by the reaction FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The desulphurizing effect of this transfer of the sulphur from
union with iron to union with calcium is due to the fact that, whereas
iron sulphide dissolves readily in the molten metallic iron, calcium
sulphide, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, does not, but by
preference enters the slag, which may thus absorb even as much as
3% of sulphur. This action is of great importance whether the
metal is to be used as cast iron or is to be converted into wrought
iron or steel. In the former case there is no later chance to remove
sulphur, a minute quantity of which does great harm by leading
to the formation of cementite instead of graphite and ferrite, and
thus making the cast-iron castings too hard to be cut to exact shape
with steel tools; in the latter case the converting or purifying processes,
which are essentially oxidizing ones, though they remove
the other impurities, carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese,
are not well adapted to desulphurizing, which needs rather deoxidizing
conditions, so as to cause the formation of calcium sulphide, than
oxidizing ones.</p>
</div>

<p>66. The <i>duty of the limestone</i> (CaCO<span class="su">3</span>) is to furnish enough
lime to form with the gangue of the ore and the ash of the
fuel a lime silicate or slag of such a composition (1) that it
will melt at the temperature which it reaches at about level
A, of fig. 7, (2) that it will be fluid enough to run out through
the cinder notch, and (3) that it will be rich enough in lime
to supply that needed for the desulphurizing reaction
FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO. In short, its duty is to &ldquo;flux&rdquo;
the gangue and ash, and wash out the sulphur.</p>

<p>67. In order that the <i>slag</i> shall have these properties its
composition usually lies between the following limits: silica,
26 to 35%; lime, <i>plus</i> 1.4 times the magnesia, 45 to 55%;
alumina, 5 to 20%. Of these the silica and alumina are chiefly
those which the gangue of the ore and the ash of the fuel introduce,
whereas the lime is that added intentionally to form with
these others a slag of the needed physical properties.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Thus the more gangue the ore contains, <i>i.e.</i> the poorer it is in iron,
the more limestone must in general be added, and hence the more
slag results, though of course an ore the gangue of which initially
contains much lime and little silica needs a much smaller addition
of limestone than one of which the gangue is chiefly silica. Further,
the more sulphur there is to remove, the greater must be the quantity
of slag needed to dissolve it as calcium sulphide. In smelting the
rich Lake Superior ores the quantity of slag made was formerly as
small as 28% of that of the pig iron, whereas in smelting the Cleveland
ores of Great Britain it is usually necessary to make as much as
1½ tons of slag for each ton of iron.</p>
</div>

<p>68. <i>Shape and Size of the Blast-Furnace.</i>&mdash;Large size has here,
as in most metallurgical operations, not only its usual advantage
of economy of installation, labour and administration per unit
of product, but the further very important one that it lessens
the proportion which the outer heat-radiating and hence heat-wasting
surface bears to the whole. The limits set to the furnace
builder&rsquo;s natural desire to make his furnace as large as possible,
and its present shape (an obtuse inverted cone set below an
acute upright one, both of them truncated), have been reached
in part empirically, and in part by reasoning which is open
to question, as indeed are the reasons which will now be offered
reservedly for both size and shape.</p>

<p>First the width at the tuyeres (fig. 7) has generally been
limited to about 12½ ft. by the fear that, if it were greater,
the blast would penetrate so feebly to the centre that the difference
in conditions between centre and circumference would
be so great as to cause serious unevenness of working. Of
late furnaces have been built even as wide as 17 ft. in the hearth,
and it may prove that a width materially greater than 12½ ft.
can profitably be used. With the width at the bottom thus
limited, the furnace builder naturally tries to gain volume as
rapidly as possible by flaring or &ldquo;battering&rdquo; his walls outwards,
<i>i.e.</i> by making the &ldquo;bosh&rdquo; or lower part of his furnace an
inverted cone as obtuse as is consistent with the free descent
of the solid charge. In practice a furnace may be made to
work regularly if its boshes make an angle of between 73° and
76° with the horizontal, and we may assume that one element
of this regularity is the regular easy sliding of the charge over
this steep slope. A still steeper one not only gives less available
room, but actually leads to irregular working, perhaps because
it unduly favours the passage of the rising gas along the walls
instead of up and through the charge, and thus causes the
deoxidation of the central core to lag behind that of the periphery
of the column, with the consequence that this central core arrives
at the bottom incompletely deoxidized.</p>

<p>In the very swift-running furnaces of the Pittsburg type
this outward flare of the boshes ceases at about 12 ft. above
the tuyeres, and is there reversed, as in fig. 7, so that the furnace
above this is a very acute upright cone, the walls of which
make an angle of about 4° with the vertical, instead of an obtuse
inverted cone.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In explanation or justification of this it has been said that a much
easier descent must be provided above this level than is needed
below it. Below this level the solid charge descends easily, because
it consists of coke alone or nearly alone, and this in turn because the
temperature here is so high as to melt not only the iron now deoxidized
and brought to the metallic state, but also the gangue of the
ore and the limestone, which here unite to form the molten slag,
and run freely down between the lumps of coke. This coke descends
freely even through this fast-narrowing space, because it is perfectly
solid and dry without a trace of pastiness. But immediately above
this level the charge is relatively viscous, because here the temperature
has fallen so far that it is now at the melting or formation point of
the slag, which therefore is pasty, liable to weld the whole mass
together as so much tar would, and thus to obstruct the descent of
the charge, or in short to &ldquo;scaffold.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The reason why at this level the walls must form an upright
instead of an inverted cone, why the furnace must widen downward
instead of narrowing, is, according to some metallurgists, that this
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
shape is needed in order that, in spite of the pastiness of the slag in
this formative period of incipient fusion, this layer may descend
freely as the lower part of the column is gradually eaten away.
To this very plausible theory it may be objected that in many slow-running
furnaces, which work very regularly and show no sign of
scaffolding, the outward flare of the boshes continues (though
steepened) far above this region of pastiness, indeed nearly half-way
to the top of the furnace. This proves that the regular descent of the
material in its pasty state can take place even in a space which is
narrowing downwards. To this objection it may in turn be answered
that, though this degree of freedom of descent may suffice for a slow-running
furnace, particularly if the slag is given such a composition
that it passes quickly from the solid state to one of decided fluidity,
yet it is not enough for swift-running ones, especially if the composition
of the slag is such that, in melting, it remains long in a very
sticky condition. In limiting the diameter at the tuyeres to 12½ ft.,
the height of the boshes to one which will keep their upper end
below the region of pastiness, and their slope to one over which the
burning coke will descend freely, we limit the width of the furnace
at the top of the boshes and thus complete the outline of the lower
part of the furnace.</p>
</div>

<p>The height of the furnace is rarely as great as 100 ft., and in
the belief of many metallurgists it should not be much more
than 80 ft. There are some very evident disadvantages of
excessive height; for instance, that the weight of an excessively
high column of solid coke, ore and limestone tends to crush the
coke and jam the charge in the lower and narrowing part of the
furnace, and that the frictional resistance of a long column
calls for a greater consumption of power for driving the blast
up through it. Moreover, this resistance increases much more
rapidly than the height of the furnace, even if the rapidity with
which the blast is forced through is constant; and it still further
increases if the additional space gained by lengthening the
furnace is made useful by increasing proportionally the rate
of production, as indeed would naturally be done, because
the chief motive for gaining this additional space is to increase
production.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The reason why the frictional resistance would be further increased
is the very simple one that the increase in the rate of production
implies directly a corresponding increase in the quantity of blast
forced through, and hence in the velocity of the rising gases, because
the chemical work of the blast furnace needs a certain quantity of
blast for each ton of iron made. In short, to increase the rate of
production by lengthening the furnace increases the frictional
resistance of the rising gases, both by increasing their quantity and
hence their velocity and by lengthening their path.</p>

<p>Indeed, one important reason for the difficulties in working very
high furnaces, <i>e.g.</i> those 100 ft. high, may be that this frictional
resistance becomes so great as actually to interrupt the even descent
of the charge, parts of which are at times suspended like a ball in
the rising jet of a fountain, to fall perhaps with destructive violence
when some shifting condition momentarily lessens the friction.
We see how powerful must be the lifting effect of the rising gases
when we reflect that their velocity in a 100 ft. furnace rapidly driven
is probably at least as great as 2000 ft. per minute, or that of a
&ldquo;high wind.&rdquo; Conceive these gases passing at this great velocity
through the narrow openings between the adjoining lumps of coke
and ore. Indeed, the velocity must be far greater than this where the
edge or corner of one lump touches the side of another, and the only
room for the passage of this enormous quantity of gas is that left
by the roughness and irregularity of the individual lumps.</p>
</div>

<p>The furnace is made rather narrow at the top or &ldquo;stock line,&rdquo;
in order that the entering ore, fuel and flux may readily be
distributed evenly. But extreme narrowness would not only
cause the escaping gases to move so swiftly that they would sweep
much of the fine ore out of the furnace, but would also throw
needless work on the blowing engines by throttling back the
rising gases, and would lessen unduly the space available for
the charge in the upper part of the furnace.</p>

<p>From its top down, the walls of the furnace slope outward at
an angle of between 3° and 8°, partly in order to ease the descent
of the charge, here impeded by the swelling of the individual
particles of ore caused by the deposition within them of great
quantities of fine carbon, by the reaction of 2CO = C + CO<span class="su">2</span>.
To widen it more abruptly would indeed increase the volume of
the furnace, but would probably lead to grave irregularities in
the distribution of the gas and charge, and hence in the working
of the furnace.</p>

<p>When we have thus fixed the height of the furnace, its
diameter at its ends, and the slope of its upper and lower
parts, we have completed its outline closely enough for our
purpose here.</p>

<p>69. <i>Hot Blast and Dry Blast.</i>&mdash;On its way from the blowing
engine to the tuyeres of the blast-furnace, the blast, <i>i.e.</i> the air
forced in for the purpose of burning the fuel, is usually pre-heated,
and in some of the most progressive works is dried by Gayley&rsquo;s
refrigerating process. These steps lead to a saving of fuel so
great as to be astonishing at first sight&mdash;indeed in case of Gayley&rsquo;s
blast-drying process incredible to most writers, who proved
easily and promptly to their own satisfaction that the actual
saving was impossible. But the explanation is really so very
simple that it is rather the incredulity of these writers that is
astonishing. In the hearth of the blast furnace the heat made
latent by the fusion of the iron and slag must of course be supplied
by some body which is itself at a temperature above the melting
point of these bodies, which for simplicity of exposition we may
call the critical temperature of the blast-furnace process, because
heat will flow only from a hotter to a cooler object. Much the
same is true of the heat needed for the deoxidation of the silica,
SiO<span class="su">2</span> + 2C = Si + 2CO<span class="su">2</span>. Now the heat developed by the combustion
of coke to carbonic oxide with cold air containing the
usual quantity of moisture, develops a temperature only slightly
above this critical point; and it is only the heat represented by
this narrow temperature-margin that is available for doing this
critical work of fusion and deoxidation. That is the crux of the
matter. If by pre-heating the blast we add to the sum of the
heat available; or if by drying it we subtract from the work
to be done by that heat the quantity needed for decomposing
the atmospheric moisture; or if by removing part of its nitrogen
we lessen the mass over which the heat developed has to be
spread&mdash;if by any of these means we raise the temperature
developed by the combustion of the coke, it is clear that we
increase the proportion of the total heat which is available for
this critical work in exactly the way in which we should increase
the proportion of the water of a stream, initially 100 in. deep,
which should flow over a waste weir initially 1 in. beneath the
stream&rsquo;s surface, by raising the upper surface of the water 10 in.
and thus increasing the depth of the water to 110 in. Clearly
this raising the level of the water by 10% increases tenfold, or
by 1000%, the volume of water which is above the level of the
weir.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The special conditions of the blast-furnace actually exaggerate
the saving due to this widening of the available temperature-margin,
and beyond this drying the blast does great good by preventing the
serious irregularities in working the furnace caused by changes in
the humidity of the air with varying weather.</p>
</div>

<p>70. <i>Means of Heating the Blast.</i>&mdash;After the ascending column
of gases has done its work of heating and deoxidizing the ore,
it still necessarily contains so much carbonic oxide, usually
between 20 and 26% by weight, that it is a very valuable fuel,
part of which is used for raising steam for generating the blast
itself and driving the rolling mill engines, &amp;c., or directly in
gas engines, and the rest for heating the blast. This heating
was formerly done by burning part of the gases, after their
escape from the furnace top, in a large combustion chamber,
around a series of cast iron pipes through which the blast passed
on its way from the blowing engine to the tuyeres. But these
&ldquo;iron pipe stoves&rdquo; are fast going out of use, chiefly because
they are destroyed quickly if an attempt is made to heat the
blast above 1000° F. (538° C.), often a very important thing.
In their place the regenerative stoves of the Whitwell and
Cowper types (figs. 10 and 11) are used. With these the regular
temperature of the blast at some works is about 1400° F.
(760° C.), and the usual blast temperature lies between 900°
and 1200° F. (480° and 650° C.).</p>

<p>Like the Siemens furnace, described in § 99, they have two
distinct phases: one, &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; during which part of the waste
gas of the blast-furnace is burnt within the stove, highly heating
the great surface of brickwork which for that purpose is provided
within it; the other, &ldquo;on wind,&rdquo; during which the blast is
heated by passing it back over these very surfaces which
have thus been heated. They are heat-filters or heat-traps for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
impounding the heat developed by the combustion of the furnace
gas, and later returning it to the blast. Each blast-furnace is
now provided with three or even four of these stoves, which
collectively may be nearly thrice as large as the furnace itself.
At any given time one of these is &ldquo;on wind&rdquo; and the others
&ldquo;on gas.&rdquo;</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:627px" src="images/img815a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Whitwell Hot-Blast Stove, as
modified by H. Kennedy. When &ldquo;on wind,&rdquo;
the cold blast is forced in at A, and passes
four times up and down, as shown by means
of unbroken arrows, escaping as hot-blast at
B. When &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; the gas and air enter at
the bottom of each of the three larger
vertical chambers, pass once up through the
stove, and escape at the top, as shown by
means of broken arrows. Hence this is a four-pass
stove when on wind, but a one-pass
stove when on gas.</td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="pt2">The Whitwell stove (fig. 10), by means of the surface of several
fire-brick walls, catches in one phase the heat evolved by the burning
gas as it sweeps
through, and in the
other phase returns
that heat to the
entering blast as it
sweeps through from
left to right. In the
original Whitwell
stove, which lacks
the chimneys shown
at the top of fig. 10,
both the burning gas
and the blast pass
up and down repeatedly.
In the H.
Kennedy modification,
shown in fig. 10,
the gas and air in
one phase enter at
the bottom of all
three of the large
vertical chambers,
burn in passing upwards,
and escape at
once at the top, as
shown by the broken
arrows. In the other
phase the cold blast,
forced in at A, passes
four times up and
down, as shown by
the unbroken arrows,
and escapes as hot
blast at B. This,
then, is a &ldquo;one-pass&rdquo;
stove when on gas
but a &ldquo;four-pass&rdquo;
one when on wind.</p>

<p>The Cowper stove
(Fig. 11) differs from
the Whitwell (1) in
having not a series
of flat smooth walls,
but a great number
of narrow vertical
flues, E, for the alternate
absorption and
emission of the heat,
with the consequence
that, for given outside
dimensions, it
offers about one-half
more heating surface than the true Whitwell stove; and (2)
in that the gas and the blast pass only once up and once down
through it, instead of twice up and twice down as in the modern
true Whitwell stoves. As regards frictional resistance, this smaller
number of reversals of direction compensates in a measure for the
smaller area of the Cowper flues. The large combustion chamber
B permits thorough combustion of the gas.</p>
</div>

<p>71. <i>Preservation of the Furnace Walls.</i>&mdash;The combined fluxing
and abrading action of the descending charge tends to wear
away the lining of the furnace where it is hottest, which of
course is near its lower end, thus changing its shape materially,
lessening its efficiency, and in particular increasing its consumption
of fuel. The walls, therefore, are now made thin, and are
thoroughly cooled by water, which circulates through pipes or
boxes bedded in them. James Gayley&rsquo;s method of cooling, shown
in fig. 7, is to set in the brickwork walls several horizontal rows
of flat water-cooled bronze boxes, RR&prime;, extending nearly to the
interior of the furnace, and tapered so that they can readily be
withdrawn and replaced in case they burn through. The brickwork
may wear back to the front edges of these boxes, or even,
as is shown at R&prime;, a little farther. But in the latter case their
edges still determine the effective profile of the furnace walls
because the depressions at the back of these edges become filled
with carbon and scoriaceous matter when the furnace is in normal
working. Each of these rows, of which five are shown in fig. 7,
consists of a great number of short segmental boxes.</p>

<p>72. <i>Blast-furnace Gas Engines.</i>&mdash;When the gas which escapes
from the furnace top is used in gas engines it generates about
four times as much power as when it is used for raising steam.
It has been calculated that the gas from a pair of old-fashioned
blast-furnaces making 1600 tons of iron per week would in this
way yield some 16,000 horse-power in excess of their own needs,
and that all the available blast-furnace gas in the United States
would develop about 1,500,000 horse-power, to develop which
by raising steam would need about 20,000,000 tons of coal a
year. Of this power about half would be used at the blast-furnaces
themselves,
leaving
750,000 horse-power
available
for driving the
machinery of the
rolling mills, &amp;c.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:357px; height:856px" src="images/img815b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Cowper Hot-Blast
Stove at Duquesne. (After J. Kennedy.) Broken
arrows show the path of the gas and air
while the stove is &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; and solid arrows
that of the blast while it is &ldquo;on wind.&rdquo;</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Entrance for blast-furnace gas.</p>
<p>B, B, Combustion chamber.</p>
<p>C, Chimney valve.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>D, Cold blast main.</p>
<p>E, Hollow bricks.</p></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="pt2">This use of the gas
engine is likely to
have far-reaching
results. In order to
utilize this power,
the converting mill,
in which the pig iron
is converted into
steel, and the rolling
mills must adjoin
the blast-furnace.
The numerous converting
mills which
treat pig iron made
at a distance will
now have the crushing
burden of providing
in other ways
the power which
their rivals get from
the blast-furnace, in
addition to the severe
disadvantage under
which they already
suffer, of wasting the
initial heat of the
molten cast iron as
it runs from the blast-furnace.
Before its
use in the gas engine,
the blast-furnace gas
has to be freed carefully
from the large
quantity of fine ore
dust which it carries
in suspension.</p>
</div>

<p>73. <i>Mechanical
Appliances.</i>&mdash;Moving
the raw materials
and the products:
In order to
move economically
the great quantity
of materials which
enter and issue from
each furnace daily,
mechanical appliances
have at many
works displaced
hand labour wholly,
and indeed that any
of the materials
should be shovelled by hand is not to be thought of in designing
new works.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The arrangement at the Carnegie Company&rsquo;s Duquesne works
(fig. 12) may serve as an example of modern methods of handling.
The standard-gauge cars which bring the ore and coke to Duquesne
pass over one of three very long rows of bins, A, B, and C (fig. 12),
of which A and B receive the materials (ore, coke and limestone)
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
for immediate use, while C receives those to be stored for winter
use. From A and B the materials are drawn as they are needed
into large buckets D standing on cars, which carry them to the foot
of the hoist track EE, up which they are hoisted to the top of the
furnace. Arrived here, the material is introduced into the furnace
by an ingenious piece of mechanism which completely prevents the
furnace gas from escaping into the air. The hoist-engineer in the
house F at the foot of the furnace, when informed by means of an
indicator that the bucket has arrived at the top, lowers it so that
its flanges GG (fig. 7) rest on the corresponding fixed flanges HH, as
shown in fig. 9. The farther descent of the bucket being thus
arrested, the special cable T is now slackened, so that the conical
bottom of the bucket drops down, pressing down by its weight the
counter-weighted false cover J of the furnace, so that the contents
of the bucket slide down into the space between this false cover
and the true charging bell, K. The special cable T is now tightened
again, and lifts the bottom of the bucket so as both to close it and
to close the space between J and K, by allowing J to rise back to
its initial place. The bucket then descends along the hoist-track
to make way for the next succeeding one, and K is lowered, dropping
the charge into the furnace. Thus some 1700 tons of materials
are charged daily into each of these furnaces without being shovelled
at all, running by gravity from bin to bucket and from bucket to
furnace, and being hoisted and charged into the furnace by a single
engineer below, without any assistance or supervision at the
furnace-top.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:900px; height:375px" src="images/img816a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the Carnegie Blast-Furnace Plant at Duquesne, Pa.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>A and B, Bins for stock for immediate use.</p>
<p>C, Receiving bin for winter stock pile.</p>
<p>D, D, Ore bucket.</p>
<p>EE, Hoist-track.</p>
<p>F, Hoist-engine house.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>LL, Travelling crane commanding stock pile.</p>
<p>M, Ore bucket receiving ore for stock pile.</p>
<p>M&prime;, Bucket removing ore from stock pile.</p>
<p>N, N, N, Ladles carrying the molten cast iron to the works, where
  it is converted into steel by the open hearth process.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The winter stock of materials is drawn from the left-hand row of
bins, and distributed over immense stock piles by means of the
great crane LL (fig. 12), which transfers it as it is needed to the
row A of bins, whence it is carried to the furnace, as already explained.</p>
</div>

<p>74. <i>Casting the Molten Pig Iron.</i>&mdash;The molten pig iron at many
works is still run directly from the furnace into sand or iron
moulds arranged in a way which suggests a nursing litter of pigs;
hence the name &ldquo;pig iron.&rdquo; These pigs are then usually broken
by hand. The Uehling casting machine (fig. 13) has displaced
this method in many works. It consists essentially of a series
of thin-walled moulds, BB, carried by endless chains past the
lip of a great ladle A. This pours into them the molten cast iron
which it has just received directly from the blast-furnace. As
the string of moulds, each thus containing a pig, moves slowly
forward, the pigs solidify and cool, the more quickly because
in transit they are sprayed with water or even submerged in
water in the tank EE. Arrived at the farther sheave C, the now
cool pigs are dumped into a railway car.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:900px; height:304px" src="images/img816b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Pig-Casting Machine.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>A, Ladle bringing the cast iron from the blast-furnace.</p>
<p>BB, The moulds.</p>
<p>C, D, Sheaves carrying the endless chain of moulds.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>EE, Tank in which the moulds are submerged.</p>
<p>F, Car into which the cooled pigs are dropped.</p>
<p>G, Distributing funnel.</p></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="pt2">Besides a great saving of labour, only partly offset by the cost of
repairs, these machines have the great merit of making the management
independent of a very troublesome set of labourers, the hand
pig-breakers, who were not only absolutely indispensable for every
cast and every day, because the pig iron must be removed promptly
to make way for the next succeeding cast of iron, but very difficult
to replace because of the great
physical endurance which their
work requires.</p>
</div>

<p>75. <i>Direct Processes for making
Wrought Iron and Steel.</i>&mdash;The
present way of getting the iron of the ore into the form of wrought
iron and steel by first making cast iron and then purifying it,
<i>i.e.</i> by first putting carbon and silicon into the iron and then
taking them out again at great expense, at first sight seems
so unreasonably roundabout that many &ldquo;direct&rdquo; processes
of extracting the iron without thus charging it with carbon and
silicon have been proposed, and some of them have at times been
important. But to-day they have almost ceased to exist.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>That the blast-furnace process must be followed by a purifying
one, that carburization must at once be undone by decarburization,
is clearly a disadvantage, but it is one which is far out weighed by
five important incidental advantages. (1) The strong deoxidizing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
action incidental to this carburizing removes the sulphur easily and
cheaply, a thing hardly to be expected of any direct process so far
as we can see. (2) The carburizing incidentally carburizes the
brickwork of the furnace, and thus protects it against corrosion by
the molten slag. (3) It protects the molten iron against reoxidation,
the greatest stumbling block in the way of the direct processes
hitherto. (4) This same strong deoxidizing action leads to the
practically complete deoxidation and hence extraction of the iron.
(5) In that carburizing lowers the melting point of the iron greatly,
it lowers somewhat the temperature to which the mineral matter of
the ore has to be raised in order that the iron may be separated
from it, because this separation requires that both iron and slag
shall be very fluid. Indeed, few if any of the direct processes have
attempted to make this separation, or to make it complete, leaving
it for some subsequent operation, such as the open hearth process.</p>

<p>In addition, the blast-furnace uses a very cheap source of energy,
coke, anthracite, charcoal, and even certain kinds of raw bituminous
coal, and owing first to the intimacy of contact between this fuel and
the ore on which it works, and second to the thoroughness of the
transfer of heat from the products of that fuel&rsquo;s combustion in
their long upward journey through the descending charge, even
this cheap energy is used most effectively.</p>

<p>Thus we have reasons enough why the blast-furnace has displaced
all competing processes, without taking into account its further
advantage in lending itself easily to working on an enormous scale
and with trifling consumption of labour, still further lessened by the
general practice of transferring the molten cast iron in enormous
ladles into the vessels in which its conversion into steel takes place.
Nevertheless, a direct process may yet be made profitable under
conditions which specially favour it, such as the lack of any fuel
suitable for the blast-furnace, coupled with an abundance of cheap
fuel suitable for a direct process and of cheap rich ore nearly free
from sulphur.</p>
</div>

<p>76. The chief difficulty in the way of modifying the blast-furnace
process itself so as to make it accomplish what the direct
processes aim at, by giving its product less carbon and silicon
than pig iron as now made contains, is the removal of the sulphur.
The processes for converting cast iron into steel can now remove
phosphorus easily, but the removal of sulphur in them is so
difficult that it has to be accomplished for the most part in the
blast-furnace itself. As desulphurizing seems to need the direct
and energetic action of carbon on the molten iron itself, and as
molten iron absorbs carbon most greedily, it is hard to see how
the blast-furnace is to desulphurize without carburizing almost
to saturation, <i>i.e.</i> without making cast iron.</p>

<p>77. <i>Direct Metal and the Mixer.</i>&mdash;Until relatively lately the
cast iron for the Bessemer and open-hearth processes was nearly
always allowed to solidify in pigs, which were next broken up
by hand and remelted at great cost. It has long been seen that
there would be a great saving if this remelting could be avoided
and &ldquo;direct metal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the molten cast iron direct from the blast-furnace,
could be treated in the conversion process. The obstacle
is that, owing to unavoidable irregularities in the blast-furnace
process, the silicon- and sulphur-content of the cast iron vary
to a degree and with an abruptness which are inconvenient for
any conversion process and intolerable for the Bessemer process.
For the acid variety of this process, which does not remove
sulphur, this most harmful element must be held below a limit
which is always low, though it varies somewhat with the use to
which the steel is to be put. Further, the point at which the
process should be arrested is recognized by the appearance of
the flame which issues from the converter&rsquo;s mouth, and variations
in the silicon-content of the cast iron treated alter this appearance,
so that the indications of the flame become confusing, and control
over the process is lost. Moreover, the quality of the resultant
steel depends upon the temperature of the process, and this in
turn depends upon the proportion of silicon, the combustion
of which is the chief source of the heat developed. Hence the
importance of having the silicon-content constant. In the basic
Bessemer process, also, unforeseen variations in the silicon-content
are harmful, because the quantity of lime added should
be just that needed to neutralize the resultant silica and the
phosphoric acid and no more. Hence the importance of having
the silicon-content uniform. This uniformity is now given by
the use of the &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; invented by Captain W. R. Jones.</p>

<p>This &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; is a great reservoir into which successive lots
of molten cast iron from all the blast-furnaces available are
poured, forming a great molten mass of from 200 to 750 tons.
This is kept molten by a flame playing above it, and successive
lots of the cast iron thus mixed are drawn off, as they are needed,
for conversion into steel by the Bessemer or open-hearth process.
An excess of silicon or sulphur in the cast iron from one blast-furnace
is diluted by thus mixing this iron with that from the
other furnaces. Should several furnaces simultaneously make
iron too rich in silicon, this may be diluted by pouring into the
mixer some low-silicon iron melted for this purpose in a cupola
furnace. This device not only makes the cast iron much more
uniform, but also removes much of its sulphur by a curious
slow reaction. Many metals have the power of dissolving their
own oxides and sulphides, but not those of other metals. Thus
iron, at least highly carburetted, <i>i.e.</i> cast iron, dissolves its own
sulphide freely, but not that of either calcium or manganese.
Consequently, when we deoxidize calcium in the iron blast-furnace,
it greedily absorbs the sulphur which has been dissolved
in the iron as iron sulphide, and the sulphide of calcium thus
formed separates from the iron. In like manner, if the molten
iron in the mixer contains manganese, this metal unites with the
sulphur present, and the manganese sulphide, insoluble in the
iron, slowly rises to the surface, and as it reaches the air, its
sulphur oxidizes to sulphurous acid, which escapes. Further,
an important part of the silicon may be removed in the mixer
by keeping it very hot and covering the metal with a rather
basic slag. This is very useful if the iron is intended for either
the basic Bessemer or the basic open-hearth process, for both
of which silicon is harmful.</p>

<p>78. <i>Conversion or Purifying Processes for converting Cast Iron
into Steel or Wrought Iron.</i>&mdash;As the essential difference between
cast iron on one hand and wrought iron and steel on the other
is that the former contains necessarily much more carbon,
usually more silicon, and often more phosphorus that are suitable
or indeed permissible in the latter two, the chief work of
all these conversion processes is to remove the excess of these
several foreign elements by oxidizing them to carbonic oxide
CO, silica SiO<span class="su">2</span>, and phosphoric acid P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, respectively. Of
these the first escapes immediately as a gas, and the others
unite with iron oxide, lime, or other strong base present to form
a molten silicate or silico-phosphate called &ldquo;cinder&rdquo; or &ldquo;slag,&rdquo;
which floats on the molten or pasty metal. The ultimate source
of the oxygen may be the air, as in the Bessemer process, or rich
iron oxide as in the puddling process, or both as in the open-hearth
process; but in any case iron oxide is the chief immediate source,
as is to be expected, because the oxygen of the air would naturally
unite in much greater proportion with some of the great quantity
of iron offered to it than with the small quantity of these impurities.
The iron oxide thus formed immediately oxidizes
these foreign elements, so that the iron is really a carrier of oxygen
from air to impurity. The typical reactions are something like
the following: Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + 4C = 4CO + 3Fe; Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + C = 3FeO + CO;
2P + 5Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> = 12FeO + 3FeO,P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>; Si + 2Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> =
3FeO,SiO<span class="su">2</span> + 3FeO. Beside this their chief and easy work of oxidizing carbon,
silicon and phosphorus, the conversion processes have the harder
task of removing sulphur, chiefly by converting it into calcium
sulphide, CaS, or manganous sulphide, MnS, which rise to the
top of the molten metal and there enter the overlying slag,
from which the sulphur may escape by oxidizing to the gaseous
compound, sulphurous acid, SO<span class="su">2</span>.</p>

<p>79. In the <i>puddling process</i> molten cast iron is converted into
wrought iron, <i>i.e.</i> low-carbon slag-bearing iron, by oxidizing its
carbon, silicon and phosphorus, by means of iron oxide stirred
into it as it lies in a thin shallow layer in the &ldquo;hearth&rdquo; or flat
basin of a reverberatory furnace (fig. 14), itself lined with iron
ore. As the iron oxide is stirred into the molten metal laboriously
by the workman or &ldquo;puddler&rdquo; with his hook or &ldquo;rabble,&rdquo;
it oxidizes the silicon to silica and the phosphorus to phosphoric
acid, and unites with both these products, forming with them
a basic iron silicate rich in phosphorus, called &ldquo;puddling&rdquo;
or &ldquo;tap cinder.&rdquo; It oxidizes the carbon also, which escapes
in purple jets of burning carbonic oxide. As the melting point of
the metal is gradually raised by the progressive decarburization,
it at length passes above the temperature of the furnace, about
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
1400° C., with the consequence that the metal, now below its
melting point, solidifies in pasty grains, or &ldquo;comes to nature.&rdquo;
These grains the puddler welds together by means of his rabble
into rough 80-&#8468; balls, each like a sponge of metallic iron
particles with its pores filled with the still molten cinder. These
balls are next worked into merchantable shape, and the cinder
is simultaneously expelled in large part, first by hammering
them one at a time under a steam hammer (fig. 37) or by squeezing
them, and next by rolling them. The squeezing is usually
done in the way shown in fig. 15.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:204px" src="images/img818a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Puddling Furnace.</td></tr></table>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:213px" src="images/img818b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Plan of Burden&rsquo;s
Excentric Revolving Squeezer
for Puddled Balls.</td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Here BB is a large fixed iron cylinder, corrugated within, and C
an excentric cylinder, also corrugated, which, in turning to the
right, by the friction of its corrugated
surface rotates the puddled
ball D which has just entered at A,
so that, turning around its own
axis, it travels to the right and is
gradually changed from a ball into
a bloom, a rough cylindrical mass
of white hot iron, still dripping
with cinder. This bloom is immediately
rolled down into a long
flat bar, called &ldquo;muck bar,&rdquo; and
this in turn is cut into short lengths
which, piled one on another, are
reheated and again rolled down,
sometimes with repeated cutting,
piling and re-rolling, into the
final shape in which it is actually
to be used. But, roll and re-roll
as often as we like, much cinder remains imbedded in the iron, in
the form of threads and rods drawn out in the direction of rolling,
and of course weakening the metal in the transverse direction.</p>
</div>

<p>80. <i>Machine Puddling.</i>&mdash;The few men who have, and are
willing to exercise, the great strength and endurance which the
puddler needs when he is stirring the pasty iron and balling it
up, command such high wages, and with their little 500-&#8468;
charges turn out their iron so slowly, that many ways of puddling
by machinery have been tried. None has succeeded permanently,
though indeed one offered by J. P. Roe is not without promise.
The essential difficulty has been that none of them could subdivide
the rapidly solidifying charge into the small balls which
the workman dexterously forms by hand, and that if the charge
is not thus subdivided but drawn as a single ball, the cinder
cannot be squeezed out of it thoroughly enough.</p>

<p>81. <i>Direct Puddling.</i>&mdash;In common practice the cast iron as
it runs from the blast-furnace is allowed to solidify and cool
completely in the form of pigs, which are then graded by their
fracture, and remelted in the puddling furnace itself. At
Hourpes, in order to save the expense of this remelting, the
molten cast iron as it comes from the blast-furnace is poured
directly into the puddling furnace, in large charges of about
2200 &#8468;, which are thus about four times as large as those
of common puddling furnaces. These large charges are puddled
by two gangs of four men each, and a great saving in fuel and
labour is effected.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Attractive as are these advances in puddling, they have not been
widely adopted, for two chief reasons: First, owners of puddling
works have been reluctant to spend money freely in plant for a
process of which the future is so uncertain, and this unwillingness
has been the more natural because these very men are in large
part the more conservative fraction, which has resisted the temptation
to abandon puddling and adopt the steel-making processes.
Second, in puddling iron which is to be used as a raw material for
making very fine steel by the crucible process, quality is the thing
of first importance. Now in the series of operations, the blast-furnace,
puddling and crucible processes, through which the iron
passes from the state of ore to that of crucible tool steel, it is so
difficult to detect just which are the conditions essential to excellence
in the final product that, once a given procedure has been found to
yield excellent steel, every one of its details is adhered to by the
more cautious ironmasters, often with surprising conservatism.
Buyers of certain excellent classes of Swedish iron have been said
to object even to the substitution of electricity for water-power as
a means of driving the machinery of the forge. In case of direct
puddling and the use of larger charges this conservatism has some
foundation, because the established custom of allowing the cast iron
to solidify gives a better opportunity of examining its fracture,
and thus of rejecting unsuitable iron, than is afforded in direct
puddling. So, too, when several puddlers are jointly responsible
for the thoroughness of their work, as happens in puddling large
charges, they will not exercise such care (nor indeed will a given
degree of care be so effective) as when responsibility for each charge
rests on one man.</p>
</div>

<p>82. The <i>removal of phosphorus</i>, a very important duty of the
puddling process, requires that the cinder shall be &ldquo;basic,&rdquo;
<i>i.e.</i> that it shall have a great excess of the strong base, ferrous
oxide, FeO, for the phosphoric acid to unite with, lest it be
deoxidized by the carbon of the iron as fast as it forms, and so
return to the iron, following the general rule that oxidized bodies
enter the slag and unoxidized ones the metallic iron. But this
basicity implies that for each part of the silica or silicic acid
which inevitably results from the oxidation of the silicon of the
pig iron, the cinder shall contain some three parts of iron oxide,
itself a valuable and expensive substance. Hence, in order to
save iron oxide the pig iron used should be nearly free from
silicon. It should also be nearly free from sulphur, because of
the great difficulty of removing this element in the puddling
process. But the strong deoxidizing conditions needed in the
blast-furnace to remove sulphur tend strongly to deoxidize
silica and thus to make the pig iron rich in silicon.</p>

<p>83. The <i>&rdquo;refinery process&rdquo;</i> of fitting pig iron for the puddling
process by removing the silicon without the carbon, is sometimes
used because of this difficulty in making a pig iron initially low
in both sulphur and silicon. In this process molten pig iron
with much silicon but little sulphur has its silicon oxidized to
silica and thus slagged off, by means of a blast of air playing on
the iron through a blanket of burning coke which covers it.
The coke thus at once supplies by its combustion the heat
needed for melting the iron and keeping it hot, and by itself
dissolving in the molten metal returns carbon to it as fast as
this element is burnt out by the blast, so that the &ldquo;refined&rdquo;
cast iron which results, though still rich in carbon and therefore
easy to melt in the puddling process, has relatively little silicon.</p>

<p>84. In the <i>Bessemer or &ldquo;pneumatic&rdquo; process</i>, which indeed
might be called the &ldquo;fuel-less&rdquo; process, molten pig iron is
converted into steel by having its carbon, silicon and manganese,
and often its phosphorus and sulphur, oxidized and thus removed
by air forced through it in so many fine streams and hence so
rapidly that the heat generated by the oxidation of these impurities
suffices in and by itself, unaided by burning any other
fuel, not only to keep the iron molten, but even to raise its
temperature from a point initially but little above the melting
point of cast iron, say 1150° to 1250° C., to one well above the
melting point of the resultant steel, say 1500° C. The &ldquo;Bessemer
converter&rdquo; or &ldquo;vessel&rdquo; (fig. 16) in which this wonderful
process is carried out is a huge retort, lined with clay, dolomite
or other refractory material, hung aloft and turned on trunnions,
DD, through the right-hand one of which the blast is carried
to the gooseneck E, which in turn delivers it to the tuyeres Q
at the bottom.</p>

<p>There are two distinct varieties of this process, the original
undephosphorizing or &ldquo;acid&rdquo; Bessemer process, so called
because the converter is lined with acid materials, <i>i.e.</i> those rich
in silicic acid, such as quartz and clay, and because the slag is
consequently acid, <i>i.e.</i> siliceous; and the dephosphorizing or
&ldquo;Thomas&rdquo; or &ldquo;basic Bessemer&rdquo; process, so called because
the converter is lined with basic materials, usually calcined
dolomite, a mixture of lime and magnesia, bound together with
tar, and because the slag is made very basic by adding much
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
lime to it. In the basic Bessemer process phosphorus is readily
removed by oxidation, because the product of its oxidation,
phosphoric acid, P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, in the presence of an excess of base forms
stable phosphates of lime and iron which pass into the slag,
making it valuable as an artificial manure. But this dephosphorization
by oxidation can be carried out only in the case slag
is basic. If it is acid, <i>i.e.</i> if it holds much more than 20% of
so powerful an acid as silica, then the phosphoric acid has so
feeble a hold on the base in the slag that it is immediately re-deoxidized
by the carbon of the metal, or even by the iron itself,
P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span> + 5Fe = 2P + 5FeO, and the resultant deoxidized phosphorus
immediately recombines with the iron. Now in an acid-lined
converter the slag is necessarily acid, because even an initially
basic slag would immediately corrode away enough of the acid
lining to make itself acid. Hence phosphorus cannot be removed
in an acid-lined converter. Though all this is elementary to-day,
not only was it unknown, indeed unguessed, at the time of the
invention of the Bessemer process, but even when, nearly a
quarter of a century later, a young English metallurgical chemist,
Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850-1885), offered to the British Iron
and Steel Institute a paper describing his success in dephosphorizing
by the Bessemer process
with a basic-lined converter
and a basic slag, that body
rejected it.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:490px; height:486px" src="images/img819a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;12-15 ton Bessemer Converter.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>A, Trunnion-ring.</p>
<p>B, Main shell.</p>
<p>C, Upper part of shell.</p>
<p>D, Trunnions.</p>
<p>E, Goose-neck.</p>
<p>F, Tuyere-box.</p>
<p>N, Lid of tuyere-box.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>O, Tuyere-plate.</p>
<p>P, False plate.</p>
<p>Q, Tuyeres.</p>
<p>R, Keys holding lid of tuyere-box.</p>
<p>S, Refractory lining.</p>
<p>U, Key-link holding bottom.</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:242px; height:184px" src="images/img819b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Bessemer Converter,
turned down in position to receive
and discharge the molten metal.</td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">85. In carrying out the acid
Bessemer process, the converter,
preheated to about
1200° C. by burning coke in it,
is turned into the position
shown in fig. 17, and the charge
of molten pig iron, which
sometimes weighs as much
as 20 tons, is poured into it
through its mouth. The converter is then turned upright
into the position shown in fig. 16, so that the blast, which has
been let on just before this, entering through the great number
of tuyere holes in the bottom, forces its way up through the
relatively shallow layer of iron, throwing it up within the converter
as a boiling foam, and oxidizing the foreign elements so
rapidly that in some cases their removal is complete after 5
minutes. The oxygen of the blast having been thus taken up by the
molten metal, its nitrogen issues from the mouth of the converter
as a pale spark-bearing cone. Under normal conditions the silicon
oxidizes first. Later, when most of it has been oxidized, the
carbon begins to oxidize to carbonic oxide, which in turn burns
to carbonic acid as it meets the outer air on escaping from the
mouth of the converter, and generates a true flame which grows
bright, then brilliant, then almost blinding, as it rushes and roars,
then &ldquo;drops,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> shortens and suddenly grows quiet when the
last of the carbon has burnt away, and no flame-forming substance
remains. Thus may a 20-ton charge of cast iron be converted
into steel in ten minutes.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is by the appearance of the flame
that the operator or &ldquo;blower&rdquo; knows when to end the process,
judging by its brilliancy, colour, sound, sparks, smoke and other
indications.</p>

<p>86. <i>Recarburizing.</i>&mdash;The process may be interrupted as soon
as the carbon-content has fallen to that which the final product
is to have, or it may be continued till nearly the whole of the
carbon has been burned out, and then the needed carbon may
be added by &ldquo;recarburizing.&rdquo; The former of these ways is
followed by the very skilful and intelligent blowers in Sweden,
who, with the temperature and all other conditions well under
control, and with their minds set on the quality rather than on
the quantity of their product, can thus make steel of any desired
carbon-content from 0.10 to 1.25%. But even with all their
skill and care, while the carbon-content is still high the indications
of the flame are not so decisive as to justify them in omitting to
test the steel before removing it from the converter, as a check
on the accuracy of their blowing. The delay which this test
causes is so unwelcome that in all other countries the blower
continues the blow until decarburization is nearly complete,
because of the very great accuracy with which he can then read
the indications of the flame, an accuracy which leaves little to
be desired. Then, without waiting to test the product, he
&ldquo;recarburizes&rdquo; it, <i>i.e.</i> adds enough carbon to give it the content
desired, and then immediately pours the steel into a great clay-lined
casting ladle by turning the converter over, and through
a nozzle in the bottom of this ladle pours the steel into its ingot
moulds. In making very low-carbon steel this recarburizing
proper is not needed; but in any event a considerable quantity
of manganese must be added unless the pig iron initially contains
much of that metal, in order to remove from the molten steel
the oxygen which it has absorbed from the blast, lest this make
it redshort. If the carbon-content is not to be raised materially,
this manganese is added in the form of preheated lumps of
&ldquo;ferro-manganese,&rdquo; which contains about 80% of manganese,
5% of carbon and 15% of iron, with a little silicon and other
impurities. If, on the other hand, the carbon-content is to be
raised, then carbon and manganese are usually added together
in the form of a manganiferous molten pig iron, called spiegeleisen,
<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;mirror-iron,&rdquo; from the brilliancy of its facets, and
usually containing somewhere about 12% of manganese and
4% of carbon, though the proportion between these two elements
has to be adjusted so as to introduce the desired quantity of
each into the molten steel. Part of the carbon of this spiegeleisen
unites with the oxygen occluded in the molten iron to
form carbonic oxide, and again a bright flame, greenish with
manganese, escapes from the converter.</p>

<p>87. <i>Darby&rsquo;s Process.</i>&mdash;Another way of introducing the carbon
is Darby&rsquo;s process of throwing large paper bags filled with
anthracite, coke or gas-carbon into the casting ladle as the
molten steel is pouring into it. The steel dissolves the carbon
of this fuel even more quickly than water would dissolve salt
under like conditions.</p>

<p>88. <i>Bessemer and Mushet.</i>&mdash;Bessemer had no very wide
knowledge of metallurgy, and after overcoming many stupendous
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
difficulties he was greatly embarrassed by the brittleness or
&ldquo;redshortness&rdquo; of his steel, which he did not know how to
cure. But two remedies were quickly offered, one by the skilful
Swede, Göransson, who used a pig iron initially rich in manganese
and stopped his blow before much oxygen had been taken up;
and the other by a British steel maker, Robert Mushet, who
proposed the use of the manganiferous cast iron called spiegeleisen,
and thereby removed the only remaining serious obstacle to the
rapid spread of the process.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>From this many have claimed for Mushet a part almost or even
quite equal to Bessemer&rsquo;s in the development of the Bessemer process,
even calling it the &ldquo;Bessemer-Mushet process.&rdquo; But this
seems most unjust. Mushet had no such exclusive knowledge of the
effects of manganese that he alone could have helped Bessemer;
and even if nobody had then proposed the use of spiegeleisen, the
development of the Swedish Bessemer practice would have gone on,
and, the process thus established and its value and great economy
thus shown in Sweden, it would have been only a question of time
how soon somebody would have proposed the addition of manganese.
Mushet&rsquo;s aid was certainly valuable, but not more than Göransson&rsquo;s,
who, besides thus offering a preventive of redshortness, further
helped the process on by raising its temperature by the simple
expedient of further subdividing the blast, thus increasing the
surface of contact between blast and metal, and thus in turn hastening
the oxidation. The two great essential discoveries were first
that the rapid passage of air through molten cast iron raised its
temperature above the melting point of low-carbon steel, or as it
was then called &ldquo;malleable iron,&rdquo; and second that this low-carbon
steel, which Bessemer was the first to make in important quantities,
was in fact an extraordinarily valuable substance when made under
proper conditions.</p>
</div>

<p>89. <i>Source of Heat.</i>&mdash;The carbon of the pig iron, burning as it
does only to carbonic oxide within the converter, does not by
itself generate a temperature high enough for the needs of the
process. The oxidation of manganese is capable of generating
a very high temperature, but it has the very serious disadvantage
of causing such thick clouds of smoky oxide of manganese as
to hide the flame from the blower, and prevent him from
recognizing the moment when the blow should be ended. Thus
it comes about that the temperature is regulated primarily by
adjusting the quantity of silicon in the pig iron treated, 1¼%
of this element usually sufficing. If any individual blow proves
to be too hot, it may be cooled by throwing cold &ldquo;scrap&rdquo; steel
such as the waste ends of rails and other pieces, into the converter,
or by injecting with the blast a little steam, which is decomposed
by the iron by the endothermic reaction H<span class="su">2</span>O + Fe = 2H + FeO.
If the temperature is not high enough, it is raised by managing
the blast in such a way as to oxidize some of the iron itself
permanently, and thus to generate much heat.</p>

<p>90. The <i>basic</i> or dephosphorizing variety of the Bessemer
process, called in Germany the &ldquo;Thomas&rdquo; process, differs from
the acid process in four chief points: (1) that its slag is made
very basic and hence dephosphorizing by adding much lime to
it; (2) that the lining is basic, because an acid lining would
quickly be destroyed by such a basic slag; (3) that the process
is arrested not at the &ldquo;drop of the flame&rdquo; (§85) but at a predetermined
length of time after it; and (4) that phosphorus
instead of silicon is the chief source of heat. Let us consider
these in turn.</p>

<p>91. The <i>slag</i>, in order that it may have such an excess of base
that this will retain the phosphoric acid as fast as it is formed
by the oxidation of the phosphorus of the pig iron, and prevent
it from being re-deoxidized and re-absorbed by the iron, should,
according to von Ehrenwerth&rsquo;s rule which is generally followed,
contain enough lime to form approximately a tetra-calcic silicate,
4CaO,SiO<span class="su">2</span> with the silica which results from the oxidation of
the silicon of the pig iron and tri-calcic phosphate, 3CaO,P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>,
with the phosphoric acid which forms. The danger of this
&ldquo;rephosphorization&rdquo; is greatest at the end of the blow, when
the recarburizing additions are made. This lime is charged in
the form of common quicklime, CaO, resulting from the calcination
of a pure limestone, CaCO<span class="su">3</span>, which should be as free as
possible from silica. The usual composition of this slag is iron
oxide, 10 to 16%; lime, 40 to 50%; magnesia, 5%; silica,
6 to 9%; phosphoric acid, 16 to 20%. Its phosphoric acid
makes it so valuable as a fertilizer that it is a most important
by-product. In order that the phosphoric acid may be the
more fully liberated by the humic acid, &amp;c., of the earth, a little
silicious sand is mixed with the still molten slag after it has been
poured off from the molten steel. The slag is used in agriculture
with no further preparation, save very fine grinding.</p>

<p>92. The <i>lining of the converter</i> is made of 90% of the mixture
of lime and magnesia which results from calcining dolomite,
(Ca,Mg)CO<span class="su">3</span>, at a very high temperature, and 10% of coal tar
freed from its water by heating. This mixture may be rammed in
place, or baked blocks of it may be laid up like a masonry wall.
In either case such a lining is expensive, and has but a short life,
in few works more than 200 charges, and in some only 100,
though the silicious lining of the acid converter lasts thousands
of charges. Hence, for the basic process, spare converters must
be provided, so that there may always be some of them re-lining,
either while standing in the same place as when in use, or, as
in Holley&rsquo;s arrangement, in a separate repair house, to which
these gigantic vessels are removed bodily.</p>

<p>93. <i>Control of the Basic Bessemer Process.</i>&mdash;The removal of
the greater part of the phosphorus takes place after the carbon
has been oxidized and the flame has consequently &ldquo;dropped,&rdquo;
probably because the lime, which is charged in solid lumps,
is taken up by the slag so slowly that not until late in the
operation does the slag become so basic as to be retentive of
phosphoric acid. Hence in making steel rich in carbon it is not
possible, as in the acid Bessemer process, to end the operation
as soon as the carbon in the metal has fallen to the point sought,
but it is necessary to remove practically all of the carbon, then
the phosphorus, and then &ldquo;recarburize,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> add whatever
carbon the steel is to contain. The quantity of phosphorus in
the pig iron is usually known accurately, and the dephosphorization
takes place so regularly that the quantity of air which it
needs can be foretold closely. The blower therefore stops the
process when he has blown a predetermined quantity of air
through, counting from the drop of the flame; but as a check
on his forecast he usually tests the blown metal before recarburizing
it.</p>

<p>94. <i>Source of Heat.</i>&mdash;Silicon cannot here be used as the chief
source of heat as it is in the acid Bessemer process, because most
of the heat which its oxidation generates is consumed in heating
the great quantities of lime needed for neutralizing the resultant
silica. Fortunately the phosphorus, turned from a curse into a
blessing, develops by its oxidation the needed temperature,
though the fact that this requires at least 1.80% of phosphorus
limits the use of the process, because there are few ores which
can be made to yield so phosphoric a pig iron. Further objections
to the presence of silicon are that the resultant silica (1)
corrodes the lining of the converter, (2) makes the slag froth so
that it both throws much of the charge out and blocks up the
nose of the converter, and (3) leads to rephosphorization. These
effects are so serious that until very lately it was thought that
the silicon could not safely be much in excess of 1%. But
Massenez and Richards, following the plan outlined by Pourcel
in 1879, have found that even 3% of silicon is permissible if,
by adding iron ore, the resultant silica is made into a fluid slag,
and if this is removed in the early cool part of the process, when
it attacks the lining of the converter but slightly. Manganese
to the extent of 1.80% is desired as a means of preventing the
resultant steel from being redshort, <i>i.e.</i> brittle at a red or forging
heat. The pig iron should be as nearly free as possible from
sulphur, because the removal of any large quantity of this
injurious element in the process itself is both difficult and
expensive.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>95. The <i>car casting</i> system deserves description chiefly because it
shows how, when the scale of operations is as enormous as it is in
the Bessemer process, even a slight simplification and a slight heat-saving
may be of great economic importance.</p>

<p>Whatever be the form into which the steel is to be rolled, it must
in general first be poured from the Bessemer converter in which it
is made into a large clay-lined ladle, and thence cast in vertical
pyramidal ingots. To bring them to a temperature suitable for
rolling, these ingots must be set in heating or soaking furnaces
(§ 125), and this should be done as soon as possible after they are
cast, both to lessen the loss of their initial heat, and to make way
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
for the next succeeding lot of ingots, a matter of great importance,
because the charges of steel follow each other at such very brief
intervals. A pair of working converters has made 4958 charges
of 10 tons each, or a total of 50,547 tons, in one month, or at an
average rate of a charge every seven minutes and twenty-four seconds
throughout every working day. It is this extraordinary rapidity
that makes the process so economical and determines the way in
which its details must be carried out. Moreover, since the mould
acts as a covering to retard the loss of heat, it should not be removed
from the ingot until just before the latter is to be placed in its
soaking furnace. These conditions are fulfilled by the car casting
system of F. W. Wood, of Sparrows Point, Md., in which the moulds,
while receiving the steel, stand on a train of cars, which are immediately
run to the side of the soaking furnace. Here, as soon
as the ingots have so far solidified that they can be lifted without
breaking, their moulds are removed and set on an adjoining train
of cars, and the ingots are charged directly into the soaking furnace.
The mould-train now carries its empty moulds to a cooling yard,
and, as soon as they are cool enough to be used again, carries them
back to the neighbourhood of the converters to receive a new lot
of steel. In this system there is for each ingot and each mould
only one handling in which it is moved as a separate unit, the mould
from one train to the other, the ingot from its train into the furnace.
In the other movements, all the moulds and ingots of a given charge
of steel are grouped as a train, which is moved as a unit by a locomotive.
The difficulty in the way of this system was that, in pouring
the steel from ladle to mould, more or less of it occasionally spatters,
and these spatterings, if they strike the rails or the running
gear of the cars, obstruct and foul them, preventing the movement
of the train, because the solidified steel is extremely tenacious. But
this cannot be tolerated, because the economy of the process requires
extreme promptness in each of its steps. On account of this difficulty
the moulds formerly stood, not on cars, but directly on the floor of
a casting pit while receiving the molten steel. When the ingots had
so far solidified that they could be handled, the moulds were removed
and set on the floor to cool, the ingots were set on a car and carried
to the soaking furnace, and the moulds were then replaced in the
casting pit. Here each mould and each ingot was handled as a
separate unit twice, instead of only once as in the car casting system;
the ingots radiated away great quantities of heat in passing naked
from the converting mill to the soaking furnaces, and the heat
which they and the moulds radiated while in the converting mill
was not only wasted, but made this mill, open-doored as it was,
so intolerably hot, that the cost of labour there was materially increased.
Mr Wood met this difficulty by the simple device of so
shaping the cars that they completely protect both their own
running gear and the track from all possible spattering, a device
which, simple as it is, has materially lessened the cost of the steel
and greatly increased the production. How great the increase has
been, from this and many other causes, is shown in Table III.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>&mdash;<i>Maximum Production of Ingots by a Pair of
American Converters.</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Gross Tons per Week.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">1870</td> <td class="tcr">254</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">1880</td> <td class="tcr">3,433</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">1889</td> <td class="tcr">8,549</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">1899 (average for a month)</td> <td class="tcr">11,233</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">1903</td> <td class="tcr">15,704</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">Thus in thirty-three years the rate of production per pair of vessels
increased more than sixty-fold. The production of European
Bessemer works is very much less than that of American. Indeed,
the whole German production of acid Bessemer steel in 1899 was
at a rate but slightly greater than that here given for one pair of
American converters; and three pairs, if this rate were continued,
would make almost exactly as much steel as all the sixty-five active
British Bessemer converters, acid and basic together, made in 1899.</p>

<p>96. <i>Range in Size of Converters.</i>&mdash;In the Bessemer process, and
indeed in most high-temperature processes, to operate on a large
scale has, in addition to the usual economies which it offers in other
industries, a special one, arising from the fact that from a large
hot furnace or hot mass in general a very much smaller proportion
of its heat dissipates through radiation and like causes than from a
smaller body, just as a thin red-hot wire cools in the air much faster
than a thick bar equally hot. Hence the progressive increase which
has occurred in the size of converters, until now some of them can
treat a 20-ton charge, is not surprising. But, on the other hand,
when only a relatively small quantity of a special kind of steel is
needed, very much smaller charges, in some cases weighing even less
than half a ton, have been treated with technical success.</p>

<p>97. <i>The Bessemer Process for making Steel Castings.</i>&mdash;This has
been particularly true in the manufacture of steel castings, <i>i.e.</i>
objects usually of more or less intricate shape, which are cast initially
in the form in which they are to be used, instead of being forged or
rolled to that form from steel cast originally in ingots. For making
castings, especially those which are so thin and intricate that, in
order that the molten steel may remain molten long enough to run
into the thin parts of the mould, it must be heated initially very far
above its melting-point, the Bessemer process has a very great
advantage in that it can develop a much higher temperature than is
attainable in either of its competitors, the crucible and the open-hearth
processes. Indeed, no limit has yet been found to the
temperature which can be reached, if matters are so arranged that
not only the carbon and silicon of the pig iron, but also a considerable
part of the metallic iron which is the iron itself, are oxidized by the
blast; or if, as in the Walrand-Legenisel modification, after the
combustion of the initial carbon and silicon of the pig iron has already
raised the charge to a very high temperature, a still further rise of
temperature is brought about by adding more silicon in the form of
ferro-silicon, and oxidizing it by further blowing. But in the
crucible and the open-hearth processes the temperature attainable
is limited by the danger of melting the furnace itself, both because
some essential parts of it, which, unfortunately, are of a destructible
shape, are placed most unfavourably in that they are surrounded
by the heat on all sides, and because the furnace is necessarily
hotter than the steel made within it. But no part of the Bessemer
converter is of a shape easily affected by the heat, no part of it is
exposed to the heat on more than one side, and the converter itself
is necessarily cooler than the metal within it, because the heat is
generated within the metal itself by the combustion of its silicon and
other calorific elements. In it the steel heats the converter, whereas
in the open-hearth and crucible processes the furnace heats the steel.</p>
</div>

<p>98. The <i>open-hearth process</i> consists in making molten steel
out of pig or cast iron and &ldquo;scrap,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> waste pieces of steel
and iron melted together on the &ldquo;open hearth,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the uncovered
basin-like bottom of a reverberatory furnace, under
conditions of which fig. 18 may give a general idea. The conversion
of cast iron into steel, of course, consists in lessening its
content of the several foreign elements, carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
&amp;c. The open-hearth process does this by two distinct
steps: (1) by oxidizing and removing these elements by means
of the flame of the furnace, usually aided by the oxygen of
light charges of iron ore, and (2) by diluting them with scrap
steel or its equivalent. The &ldquo;pig and ore&rdquo; or &ldquo;Siemens&rdquo;
variety of the process works chiefly by oxidation, the &ldquo;pig
and scrap&rdquo; or &ldquo;Siemens-Martin&rdquo; variety chiefly by dilution,
sometimes indeed by extreme dilution, as when 10 parts of
cast iron are diluted with 90 parts of scrap. Both varieties
may be carried out in the basic and dephosphorizing way,
<i>i.e.</i> in presence of a basic slag and in a basic- or neutral-lined
furnace; or in the acid and undephosphorizing way, in presence
of an acid, <i>i.e.</i> silicious slag, and in a furnace with a silicious
lining.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:494px; height:160px" src="images/img821.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Open-Hearth Process.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>Half Section showing condition
of charge when boiling very
gently.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>Half Section showing condition
of charge when boiling violently
during oreing.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The charge may be melted down on the &ldquo;open hearth&rdquo;
itself, or, as in the more advanced practice, the pig iron may
be brought in the molten state from the blast furnace in which
it is made. Then the furnaceman, controlling the decarburization
and purification of the molten charge by his examination
of test ingots taken from time to time, gradually oxidizes and
so removes the foreign elements, and thus brings the metal
simultaneously to approximately the composition needed
and to a temperature far enough above its present melting-point
to permit of its being cast into ingots or other castings.
He then pours or taps the molten charge from the furnace into
a large clay-lined casting ladle, giving it the final additions
of manganese, usually with carbon and often with silicon,
needed to give it exactly the desired composition. He then
casts it into its final form through a nozzle in the bottom of the
casting ladle, as in the Bessemer process.</p>

<p>The oxidation of the foreign elements must be very slow,
lest the effervescence due to the escape of carbonic oxide from
the carbon of the metal throw the charge out of the doors and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
ports of the furnace, which itself must be shallow in order
to hold the flame down close to the charge. It is in large part
because of this shallowness, which contrasts so strongly with
the height and roominess of the Bessemer converter, that
the process lasts hours where the Bessemer process lasts minutes,
though there is the further difference that in the open-hearth
process the transfer of heat from flame to charge through the
intervening layer of slag is necessarily slow, whereas in the
Bessemer process the heat, generated as it is in and by the
metallic bath itself, raises the temperature very rapidly. The
slowness of this rise of the temperature compels us to make
the removal of the carbon slow for a very simple reason. That
removal progressively raises the melting-point of the metal,
after line A<i>a</i> of Fig. 1, <i>i.e.</i> makes the charge more and more
infusible; and this progressive rise of the melting-point of the
charge must not be allowed to outrun the actual rise of temperature,
or in other words the charge must always be kept molten,
because once solidified it is very hard to remelt. Thus the necessary
slowness of the heating up of the molten charge would
compel us to make the removal of the carbon slow, even if this
slowness were not already forced on us by the danger of having
the charge froth so much as to run out of the furnace.</p>

<p>The general plan of the open-hearth process was certainly
conceived by Josiah Marshall Heath in 1845, if not indeed
by Réaumur in 1722, but for lack of a furnace in which a high
enough temperature could be generated it could not be carried
out until the development of the Siemens regenerative gas
furnace about 1860. It was in large part through the efforts
of Le Chatelier that this process, so long conceived, was at
last, in 1864, put into actual use by the brothers Martin, of
Sireuil in France.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>99. <i>Siemens Open-Hearth Furnace.</i>&mdash;These furnaces are usually
stationary, but in that shown in figs. 19 to 22 the working chamber
or furnace body, G of fig. 22, rotates about its own axis, rolling on
the rollers M shown in fig. 21. In this working chamber, a long
quasi-cylindrical vessel of brickwork, heated by burning within it
pre-heated gas with pre-heated air, the charge is melted and brought
to the desired composition and temperature. The working chamber
indeed is the furnace proper, in which the whole of the open-hearth
process is carried out, and the function of all the rest of the apparatus,
apart from the tilting mechanism, is simply to pre-heat the air and
gas, and to lead them to the furnace proper and thence to the chimney.
How this is done may be understood more easily if figs. 19
and 20 are regarded for a moment as forming a single diagrammatic
figure instead of sections in different planes. The unbroken arrows
show the direction of the incoming gas and air, the broken ones the
direction of the escaping products of their combustion. The air
and gas, the latter coming from the gas producers or other source,
arrive through H and J respectively, and their path thence is determined
by the position of the reversing valves K and K&prime;. In the
position shown in solid lines, these valves deflect the air and gas
into the left-hand pair of &ldquo;regenerators&rdquo; or spacious heat-transferring
chambers. In these, bricks in great numbers are piled
loosely, in such a way that, while they leave ample passage for the
gas and air, yet they offer to them a very great extent of surface,
and therefore readily transfer to them the heat which they have as
readily sucked out of the escaping products of combustion in the
last preceding phase. The gas and air thus separately pre-heated
to about 1100° C. (2012° F.) rise thence as two separate streams
through the uptakes (fig. 22), and first mix at the moment of entering
the working chamber through the ports L and L&prime; (fig. 19). As they
are so hot at starting, their combustion of course yields a very much
higher temperature than if they had been cold before burning, and
they form an enormous flame, which fills the great working chamber.
The products of combustion are sucked by the pull of the chimney
through the farther or right-hand end of this chamber, out through
the exit ports, as shown by the dotted arrows, down through the
right-hand pair of regenerators, heating to perhaps 1300° C. the
upper part of the loosely-piled masses of brickwork within them,
and thence past the valves K and K&prime; to the chimney-flue O. During
this phase the incoming gas and air have been withdrawing heat
from the left-hand regenerators, which have thus been cooling down,
while the escaping products of combustion have been depositing
heat in the right-hand pair of regenerators, which have thus been
heating up. After some thirty minutes this condition of things is
reversed by turning the valves K and K&prime; 90° into the positions
shown in dotted lines, when they deflect the incoming gas and air
into the right-hand regenerators, so that they may absorb in passing
the heat which has just been stored there; thence they pass up
through the right-hand uptakes and ports into the working chamber,
where as before they mix, burn and heat the charge. Thence they
are sucked out by the chimney-draught through the left-hand ports,
down through the uptakes and regenerators, here again meeting and
heating the loose mass of &ldquo;regenerator&rdquo; brickwork, and finally
escape by the chimney-flue O. After another thirty minutes the
current is again reversed to its initial direction, and so on. These
regenerators are the essence of the Siemens or &ldquo;regenerative
furnace&rdquo;; they are heat-traps, catching and storing by their
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
enormous surface of brickwork the heat of the escaping products
of combustion, and in the following phase restoring the heat to the
entering air and gas. At any given moment one pair of regenerators
is storing heat, while the other is restoring it.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="caption pt2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Section on EF through Furnace and Port Ends.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:370px" src="images/img822a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Plan through Regenerators, Flues and Reversing Valves.</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:273px" src="images/img822b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Section on CD through Body of Furnace.</td></tr></table>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:438px; height:326px" src="images/img822c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Section on AB through Uptake, Slag Pocket
and Regenerator.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 19 to 22.&mdash;Diagrammatic Sections of Tilting Siemens Furnace.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>G,  Furnace body.</p>
<p>H,  Air supply.</p>
<p>J,  Gas supply.</p>
<p>K,  Air reversing valve.</p>
<p>K&prime;, Gas reversing valve.</p>
<p>L,  Air port.</p>
<p>L&prime;, Gas port.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>M,  Rollers on which the furnace tilts.</p>
<p>N,  Hydraulic cylinder for tilting the furnace.</p>
<p>O,  Flue leading to chimney.</p>
<p>P,  Slag pockets.</p>
<p>R,  Charging boxes.</p>
<p>W,  Water-cooled joints between furnace proper, G, and ports L, L&prime;.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The tilting working chamber is connected with the stationary
ports L and L&prime; by means of the loose water-cooled joint W in
Campbell&rsquo;s system, which is here shown. The furnace, resting on
the rollers M, is tilted by the hydraulic cylinder N. The slag-pockets
P (fig. 22), below the uptakes, are provided to catch the
dust carried out of the furnace proper by the escaping products of
combustion, lest it enter and choke the regenerators. Wellman&rsquo;s
tilting furnace rolls on a fixed rack instead of on rollers. By his
charging system a charge of as much as fifty tons is quickly introduced.
The metal is packed by unskilled labourers in iron boxes,
R (fig. 21), standing on cars in the stock-yard. A locomotive
carries a train of these cars to the track running beside a long line
of open-hearth furnaces. Here the charging machine lifts one box
at a time from its car, pushes it through the momentarily opened
furnace door, and empties the metal upon the hearth of the furnace
by inverting the box, which it then replaces on its car.</p>

<p>100. The proportion of pig to scrap used depends chiefly on the
relative cost of these two materials, but sometimes in part also on
the carbon content which the resultant steel is to have. Thus part
at least of the carbon which a high-carbon steel is to contain may
be supplied by the pig iron from which it is made. The length of
the process increases with the proportion of pig used. Thus in the
Westphalian pig and scrap practice, scrap usually forms 75 or even
80% of the charge, and pig only from 20 to 25%, indeed only
enough to supply the carbon inevitably burnt out in melting the
charge and heating it up to a proper casting temperature; and here
the charge lasts only about 6 hours. In some British and Swedish
&ldquo;pig and ore&rdquo; practice (§ 98), on the other hand, little or no scrap
is used, and here the removal of the large quantity of carbon, silicon
and phosphorus prolongs the process to 17 hours. The common
practice in the United States is to use about equal parts of pig and
scrap, and here the usual length of a charge is about ll½ hours.
The pig and ore process is held back, first by the large quantity
of carbon, and usually of silicon and phosphorus, to be removed,
and second by the necessary slowness of their removal. The gangue
of the ore increases the quantity of slag, which separates the metal
from the source of its heat, the flame, and thus delays the rise of
temperature; and the purification by &ldquo;oreing,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> by means of
the oxygen of the large lumps of cold iron ore thrown in by hand,
is extremely slow, because the ore must be fed in very slowly lest
it chill the metal both directly and because the reaction by which
it removes the carbon of the metal, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + C = 2FeO + CO, itself
absorbs heat. Indeed, this local cooling aggravates the frothing.
A cold lump of ore chills the slag immediately around it, just where
its oxygen, reacting on the carbon of the metal, generates carbonic
oxide; the slag becomes cool, viscous, and hence easily made to
froth, just where the froth-causing gas is evolved.</p>

<p>The length of these varieties of the process just given refers to the
basic procedure. The acid process goes on much faster, because in
it the heat insulating layer of slag is much thinner. For instance it
lasts only about 8½ hours when equal parts of pig and scrap are used,
instead of the 11½ hours of the basic process. Thus the actual cost
of conversion by the acid process is materially less than by the
basic, but this difference is more than outweighed in most places
by the greater cost of pig and scrap free enough from phosphorus
to be used in the undephosphorizing acid process.</p>

<p>101. <i>Three special varieties of the open-hearth process</i>, the
Bertrand-Thiel, the Talbot and the Monell, deserve notice. Bertrand
and Thiel oxidize the carbon of molten cast iron by pouring it into
a bath of molten iron which has first been oxygenated, <i>i.e.</i> charged
with oxygen, and superheated, in an open-hearth furnace. The
two metallic masses coalesce, and the reaction between the oxygen
of one and the carbon of the other is therefore extremely rapid
because it occurs throughout their depth, whereas in common procedure
oxidation occurs only at the upper surface of the bath of
cast iron at its contact with the overlying slag. Moreover, since
local cooling, with its consequent viscosity and tendency to froth,
are avoided, the frothing is not excessive in spite of the rapidity of
the reaction. The oxygenated metal is prepared by melting cast
iron diluted with as much scrap steel as is available, and oxidizing
it with the flame and with iron ore as it lies in a thin molten layer
on the hearth of a large open-hearth furnace; the thinness of the
layer hastens the oxidation, and the large size of the furnace permits
considerable frothing. But the oxygenated metal might be prepared
easily in a Bessemer converter.</p>

<p>To enlarge the scale of operations makes strongly for economy
in the open-hearth process as in other high temperature ones. Yet
the use of an open-hearth furnace of very great capacity, say of
200 tons per charge, has the disadvantage that such very large lots
of steel, delivered at relatively long intervals, are less readily managed
in the subsequent operations of soaking and rolling down to the
final shape, than smaller lots delivered at shorter intervals. To
meet this difficulty Mr B. Talbot carries on the process as a quasi-continuous
instead of an intermittent one, operating on 100-ton or
200-ton lots of cast iron in such a way as to draw off his steel in
20-ton lots at relatively short intervals, charging a fresh 20-ton lot
of cast iron to replace each lot of steel thus drawn off, and thus keeping
the furnace full of metal from Monday morning till Saturday
night. Besides minor advantages, this plan has the merit of avoiding
an ineffective period which occurs in common open-hearth procedure
just after the charge of cast iron has been melted down. At this
time the slag is temporarily rich in iron oxide and silica, resulting
from the oxidation of the iron and of its silicon as the charge slowly
melts and trickles down. Such a slag not only corrodes the furnace
lining, but also impedes dephosphorization, because it is irretentive
of phosphorus. Further, the relatively low temperature impedes
decarburization. Clearly, no such period can exist in the continuous
process.</p>

<p>At a relatively low temperature, say 1300° C., the phosphorus
of cast iron oxidizes and is removed much faster than its carbon,
while at a higher temperature, say 1500° C., carbon oxidizes in preference
to phosphorus. It is well to remove this latter element
early, so that when the carbon shall have fallen to the proportion
which the steel is to contain, the steel shall already be free from
phosphorus, and so ready to cast. In common open-hearth procedure,
although the temperature is low early in the process, viz.
at the end of the melting down, dephosphorization is then impeded
by the temporary acidity of the slag, as just explained. At the
Carnegie works Mr Monell gets the two dephosphorizing conditions,
low temperature and basicity of slag, early in the process, by pouring
his molten but relatively cool cast iron upon a layer of pre-heated
lime and iron oxide on the bottom of the open-hearth furnace.
The lime and iron oxide melt, and, in passing up through the overlying
metal, the iron oxide very rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus and
thus drags it into the slag as phosphoric acid. The ebullition from
the formation of carbonic oxide puffs up the resultant phosphoric
slag enough to make most of it run out of the furnace, thus both
removing the phosphorus permanently from danger of being later
deoxidized and returned to the steel, and partly freeing the bath of
metal from the heat-insulating blanket of slag. Yet frothing is
not excessive, because the slag is not, as in common practice, locally
chilled and made viscous by cold lumps of ore.</p>

<p>102. In the <i>duplex process</i> the conversion of the cast iron into
steel is begun in the Bessemer converter and finished in the open-hearth
furnace. In the most promising form of this process an acid
converter and a basic open-hearth furnace are used. In the former
the silicon and part of the carbon are moved rapidly, in the latter
the rest of the carbon and the phosphorus are removed slowly, and
the metal is brought accurately to the proper temperature and
composition. The advantage of this combination is that, by simplifying
the conditions with which the composition of the pig iron has
to comply, it makes the management of the blast furnace easier,
and thus lessens the danger of making &ldquo;misfit&rdquo; pig iron, <i>i.e.</i> that
which, because it is not accurately suited to the process for which
it is intended, offers us the dilemma of using it in that process at
poor advantage or of putting it to some other use, a step which
often implies serious loss.</p>

<p>For the acid Bessemer process the sulphur-content must be small
and the silicon-content should be constant; for the basic open-hearth
process the content of both silicon and sulphur should be
small, a thing difficult to bring about, because in the blast furnace
most of the conditions which make for small sulphur-content make
also for large silicon-content. In the acid Bessemer process the
reason why the sulphur-content must be small is that the process
removes no sulphur; and the reason why the silicon-content should
be constant is that, because silicon is here the chief source of heat,
variations in its content cause corresponding variations in the
temperature, a most harmful thing because it is essential to the
good quality of the steel that it shall be finished and cast at the
proper temperature. It is true that the use of the &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; (§ 77)
lessens these variations, and that there are convenient ways of
mitigating their effects. Nevertheless, their harm is not completely
done away with. But if the conversion is only begun in the
converter and finished on the open-hearth, then there is no need
of regulating the temperature in the converter closely, and variations
in the silicon-content of the pig iron thus become almost harmless
in this respect. In the basic open-hearth process, on the other hand,
silicon is harmful because the silica which results from its oxidation
not only corrodes the lining of the furnace but interferes with the
removal of the phosphorus, an essential part of the process. The
sulphur-content should be small, because the removal of this element
is both slow and difficult. But if the silicon of the pig iron is
removed by a preliminary treatment in the Bessemer converter, then
its presence in the pig iron is harmless as regards the open-hearth
process. Hence the blast furnace process, thus freed from the
hampering need of controlling accurately the silicon-content, can
be much more effectively guided so as to prevent the sulphur from
entering the pig iron.</p>

<p>Looking at the duplex process in another way, the preliminary
desilicidizing in the Bessemer converter should certainly be an
advantage; but whether it is more profitable to give this treatment
in the converter than in the mixer remains to be seen.</p>
</div>

<p>103. In the <i>cementation process</i> bars of wrought iron about
½ in. thick are carburized and so converted into high carbon
&ldquo;blister steel,&rdquo; by heating them in contact with charcoal in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
a closed chamber to about 1000° C. (1832° F.) for from 8 to 11
days. Low-carbon steel might thus be converted into high-carbon
steel, but this is not customary. The carbon dissolves
in the hot but distinctly solid &gamma;-iron (compare fig. 1) as salt
dissolves in water, and works its way towards the centre of the
bar by diffusion. When the mass is cooled, the carbon changes
over into the condition of cementite as usual, partly interstratified
with ferrite in the form of pearlite, partly in the form
of envelopes enclosing kernels of this pearlite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
Pl. fig. 13). Where the carbon, in thus diffusing inwards, meets
particles of the slag, a basic ferrous silicate which is always
present in wrought iron, it forms carbonic oxide, FeO + C = Fe + CO,
which puffs the pliant metal up and forms blisters.
Hence the name &ldquo;blister steel.&rdquo; It was formerly sheared to
short lengths and formed into piles, which were then rolled
out, perhaps to be resheared and rerolled into bars, known
as &ldquo;single shear&rdquo; or &ldquo;double shear&rdquo; steel according to the
number of shearings. But now the chief use for blister steel
is for remelting in the crucible process, yielding a product which
is asserted so positively, so universally and by such competent
witnesses to be not only better but very much better
than that made from any other material, that we must believe
that it is so, though no clear reason can yet be given why it
should be. For long all the best high-carbon steel was made
by remelting this blister steel in crucibles (§ 106), but in the
last few years the electric processes have begun to make this
steel (§ 108).</p>

<p>104. <i>Case Hardening.</i>&mdash;The many steel objects which need
an extremely hard outer surface but a softer and more malleable
interior may be carburized superficially by heating them in
contact with charcoal or other carbonaceous matter, for instance
for between 5 and 48 hours at a temperature of 800° to 900° C.
This is known as &ldquo;case hardening.&rdquo; After this carburizing
these objects are usually hardened by quenching in cold water
(see § 28).</p>

<p>105. <i>Deep Carburizing; Harvey and Krupp Processes.</i>&mdash;Much
of the heavy side armour of war-vessels (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armour-Plate</a></span>)
is made of nickel steel initially containing so little carbon
that it cannot be hardened, <i>i.e.</i> that it remains very ductile
even after sudden cooling. The impact face of these plates
is given the intense hardness needed by being converted into
high-carbon steel, and then hardened by sudden cooling. The
impact face is thus carburized to a depth of about 1¼ in. by
being held at a temperature of 1100° for about a week, pressed
strongly against a bed of charcoal (Harvey process). The plate
is then by Krupp&rsquo;s process heated so that its impact face is
above while its rear is below the hardening temperature, and
the whole is then cooled suddenly with sprays of cold water.
Under these conditions the hardness, which is very extreme
at the impact face, shades off toward the back, till at about
quarter way from face to back all hardening ceases, and the rest of
the plate is in a very strong, shock-resisting state. Thanks
to the glass-hardness of this face, the projectile is arrested
so abruptly that it is shattered, and its energy is delivered
piecemeal by its fragments; but as the face is integrally united
with the unhardened, ductile and slightly yielding interior and
back, the plate, even if it is locally bent backwards somewhat
by the blow, neither cracks nor flakes.</p>

<p>106. The <i>crucible process</i> consists essentially in melting one
or another variety of iron or steel in small 80-&#8468;. charges in
closed crucibles, and then casting it into ingots or other castings,
though in addition the metal while melting may be carburized.
Its chief, indeed almost its sole use, is for making tool steel,
the best kinds of spring steel and other very excellent kinds
of high-carbon and alloy steel. After the charge has been fully
melted, it is held in the molten state from 30 to 60 minutes.
This enables it to take up enough silicon from the walls of the
crucible to prevent the evolution of gas during solidification,
and the consequent formation of blowholes or internal gas
bubbles. In Great Britain the charge usually consists of blister
steel, and is therefore high in carbon, so that the crucible
process has very little to do except to melt the charge. In the
United States the charge usually consists chiefly of wrought
iron, and in melting in the crucible it is carburized by mixing
with it either charcoal or &ldquo;washed metal,&rdquo; a very pure cast
iron made by the Bell-Krupp process (§ 107).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Compared with the Bessemer process, which converts a charge
of even as much as 20 tons of pig iron into steel in a few minutes,
and the open-hearth process which easily treats charges of 75 tons,
the crucible process is, of course, a most expensive one, with its
little 80-&#8468; charges, melted with great consumption of fuel because
the heat is kept away from the metal by the walls of the crucible,
themselves excellent heat insulators. But it survives simply because
crucible steel is very much better than either Bessemer or open-hearth
steel. This in turn is in part because of the greater care
which can be used in making these small lots, but probably in chief
part because the crucible process excludes the atmospheric nitrogen,
which injures the metal, and because it gives a good opportunity for
the suspended slag and iron oxide to rise to the surface. Till Huntsman
developed the crucible process in 1740, the only kinds of steel
of commercial importance were blister steel made by carburizing
wrought iron without fusion, and others which like it were greatly
injured by the presence of particles of slag. Huntsman showed that
the mere act of freeing these slag-bearing steels from their slag by
melting them in closed crucibles greatly improved them. It is true
that Réaumur in 1722 described his method of making molten steel
in crucibles, and that the Hindus have for centuries done this on a
small scale, though they let the molten steel resolidify in the crucible.
Nevertheless, it is to Huntsman that the world is immediately
indebted for the crucible process. He could make only high-carbon
steel, because he could not develop within his closed crucibles the
temperature needed for melting low-carbon steel. The crucible
process remained the only one by which slagless steel could be
made, till Bessemer, by his astonishing invention, discovered at
once low-carbon steel and a process for making both it and high-carbon
steel extremely cheaply.</p>
</div>

<p>107. In the <i>Bell-Krupp</i> or &ldquo;pig-washing&rdquo; process, invented
independently by the famous British iron-master, Sir Lowthian
Bell, and Krupp of Essen, advantage is taken of the fact that,
at a relatively low temperature, probably a little above 1200° C.,
the phosphorus and silicon of molten cast iron are quickly oxidized
and removed by contact with molten iron oxide, though carbon
is thus oxidized but slowly. By rapidly stirring molten iron
oxide into molten pig iron in a furnace shaped like a saucer,
slightly inclined and turning around its axis, at a temperature
but little above the melting-point of the metal itself, the
phosphorus and silicon are removed rapidly, without removing
much of the carbon, and by this means an extremely pure cast
iron is made. This is used in the crucible process as a convenient
source of the carbon needed for high-carbon steel.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:178px" src="images/img824.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Heroult Double-arc
Electric Steel Purifying
Furnace.</td></tr></table>

<p>108. <i>Electric steel-making processes</i>, or more accurately
processes in which electrically heated furnaces are used, have
developed very rapidly. In steel-making, electric furnaces are
used for two distinct purposes, first for making steel sufficiently
better than Bessemer and open-hearth steels to replace these
for certain important purposes, and second for replacing the
very expensive crucible process for making the very best steel.
The advantages of the electric furnaces for these purposes can
best be understood after examining the furnaces themselves
and the way in which they are used. The most important ones
are either &ldquo;arc&rdquo; furnaces, <i>i.e.</i> those heated by electric arcs,
or &ldquo;induction&rdquo; ones, <i>i.e.</i> those in which the metal under treatment
is heated by its own resistance
to a current of electricity
induced in it from without. The
Heroult furnace, the best known
in the arc class, and the Kjellin
and Roechling-Rodenhauser furnaces,
the best known of the
induction class, will serve as
examples.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The Heroult furnace (fig. 23) is
practically a large closed crucible,
ABCA, with two carbon electrodes,
E and F, &ldquo;in series&rdquo; with the bath,
H, of molten steel. A pair of electric
arcs play between these electrodes and the molten steel, passing
through the layer of slag, G, and generating much heat. The
lining of the crucible may be of either magnesite (MgO) or
chromite (FeO·Cr<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>). The whole furnace, electrodes and all,
rotates about the line KL for the purpose of pouring out the molten
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
slag and purified metal through the spout J at the end of the
process. This spout and the charging doors A, A are kept closed
except when in actual use for pouring or charging.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:313px; height:196px" src="images/img825a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Kjellin Induction Electric
Steel Melting Furnace.</td></tr></table>

<p>The Kjellin furnace consists essentially of an annular trough,
AA (fig. 24), which contains the molten charge. This charge is
heated, like the filaments of a common household electric lamp, by
the resistance which it offers to the passage of a current of electricity
induced in it by means of
the core C and the frame
EEE. The ends of this
core are connected above,
below and at the right of
the trough A, by means
of that frame, so that the
trough and this core and
frame stand to each other
in a position like that of
two successive links of
a common oval-linked
chain. A current of great
electromotive force (intensity
or voltage) passed
through the coil D, induces,
by means of the core and frame, a current of enormous
quantity (volume or amperage), but very small electromotive force,
in the metal in the trough. Thus the apparatus is analogous to the
common transformers used for inducing from currents of great
electromotive force and small quantity, which carry energy through
long distances, currents of great quantity and small electromotive
force for incandescent lights and for welding. The molten metal
in the Kjellin trough forms the &ldquo;secondary&rdquo; circuit. Like the
Heroult furnace, the Kjellin furnace may be lined with either
magnesite or chromite, and it may be tilted for the purpose of
pouring off slag and metal.</p>

<p>The shape which the molten metal under treatment has in the
Kjellin furnace, a thin ring of large diameter, is evidently bad,
inconvenient for manipulation and with excessive heat-radiating
surface. In the Roechling-Rodenhauser induction furnace (fig. 25),
the molten metal lies chiefly in a large compact mass A, heated at
three places on its periphery by the current induced in it there by
means of the three coils and cores CCC. The molten metal also
extends round each of these three coils, in the narrow channels B.
It is in the metal in these channels and in that part of the main
mass of metal which immediately adjoins the coils that the current
is induced by means of the coils and cores, as in the Kjellin furnace.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:381px" src="images/img825b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Plan of Roechling-Rodenhauser Induction Electric
Furnace.</td></tr></table>

<p>When the Heroult furnace is used for completing the purification
of molten steel begun in the Bessemer or open-hearth process, and
this is its most appropriate use, the process carried out in it may
be divided into two stages, first dephosphorization, and second
deoxidation and desulphurization.</p>

<p>In the first stage the phosphorus is removed from the molten steel
by oxidizing it to phosphoric acid, P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, by means of iron oxide
contained in a molten slag very rich in lime, and hence very basic
and retentive of that phosphoric acid. This slag is formed by
melting lime and iron oxide, with a little silica sand if need be.
Floating on top of the molten metal, it rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus,
and the resultant phosphoric acid combines with the lime
in the overlying slag as phosphate of lime. When the removal of
the phosphorus is sufficiently complete, this slag is withdrawn from
the furnace.</p>

<p>Next comes the deoxidizing and desulphurizing stage, of which
the first step is to throw some strongly deoxidizing substance, such
as coke or ferro-silicon, upon the molten metal, in order to remove
thus the chief part of the oxygen which it has taken up during the
oxidation of the phosphorus in the preceding stage. Next the
metal is covered with a very basic slag, made by melting lime with
a little silica and fluor spar. Coke now charged into this slag first
deoxidizes any iron oxide contained in either slag or metal, and next
deoxidizes part of the lime of the slag and thus forms calcium,
which, uniting with the sulphur present in the molten metal, forms
calcium sulphide, CaO + FeS + C = CaS + Fe + CO. This sulphide is
nearly insoluble in the metal, but is readily soluble in the overlying
basic slag, into which it therefore passes. The thorough
removal of the sulphur is thus brought about by the deoxidation of
the calcium. It is by forming calcium sulphide that sulphur is
removed in the manufacture of pig iron in the iron blast furnace,
in the crucible of which, as in the electric furnaces, the conditions
are strongly deoxidizing. But in the Bessemer and open-hearth
processes this means of removing sulphur cannot be used, because in
each of them there is always enough oxygen in the atmosphere to
re-oxidize any calcium as fast as it is deoxidized. Here sulphur
may indeed be removed to a very important degree in the form of
manganese sulphide, which distributes itself between metal and
slag in rough accord with the laws of equilibrium. But if we rely
on this means we have difficulty in reducing the sulphur content
of the metal to 0.03% and very great difficulty in reducing it to
0.02%, whereas with the calcium sulphide of the electric furnaces
we can readily reduce it to less than 0.01%.</p>

<p>When the desulphurization is sufficiently complete, the sulphur-bearing
slag is removed, the final additions needed to give the metal
exactly the composition aimed at are made, and the molten steel is
tapped out of the furnace into its moulds. If the initial quantity
of phosphorus or sulphur is large, or if the removal of these impurities
is to be made very thorough, the dephosphorizing or the
desulphurizing slagging off may be repeated. While the metal lies
tranquilly on the bottom of the furnace, any slag mechanically
suspended in it has a chance to rise to the surface and unite with
the slag layer above.</p>

<p>In addition to this work of purification, the furnace may be used
for melting down the initial charge of cold metal, and for beginning
the purification&mdash;in short not only for finishing but also for roughing.
But this is rarely expedient, because electricity is so expensive that
it should be used for doing only those things which cannot be accomplished
by any other and cheaper means. The melting can be done
much more cheaply in a cupola or open-hearth furnace, and the first
part of the purification much more cheaply in a Bessemer converter
or open-hearth furnace.</p>

<p>The normal use of the Kjellin induction furnace is to do the work
usually done in the crucible process, <i>i.e.</i> to melt down very pure
iron for the manufacture of the best kinds of steel, such as fine tool
and spring steel, and to bring the molten metal simultaneously to
the exact composition and temperature at which it should be cast
into its moulds. This furnace may be used also for purifying the
molten metal, but it is not so well suited as the arc furnaces for
dephosphorizing. The reason for this is that in it the slag, by means
of which all the purification must needs be done, is not heated
effectively; that hence it is not readily made thoroughly liquid;
that hence the removal of the phosphoric slag made in the early
dephosphorizing stage of the process is liable to be incomplete;
and that hence, finally, the phosphorus of any of this slag which is
left in the furnace becomes deoxidized during the second or deoxidizing
stage, and is thereby returned to befoul the underlying
steel. The reason why the slag is not heated effectively is that the
heat is developed only in the layer of metal itself, by its resistance
to the induced current, and hence the only heat which the slag
receives is that supplied to its lower surface by the metal, while its
upper side is constantly radiating heat away towards the relatively
cool roof above.</p>

<p>The Roechling-Rodenhauser furnace is unfitted, by the vulnerability
of its interior walls, for receiving charges of cold metal to be
melted down, but it is used to good advantage for purifying molten
basic Bessemer steel sufficiently to fit it for use in the form of railway
rails.</p>
</div>

<p>We are now in a position to understand why electricity
should be used as a source of heat in making molten steel.
Electric furnaces are at an advantage over others as regards
the removal of sulphur and of iron oxide from the molten steel,
because their atmosphere is free from the sulphur always present
in the flame of coal-fired furnaces, and almost free from oxygen,
because this element is quickly absorbed by the carbon and
silicon of the steel, and in the case of arc furnaces by the carbon
of the electrodes themselves, and is replaced only very slowly
by leakage, whereas through the Bessemer converter and the
open-hearth furnace a torrent of air is always rushing. As
we have seen, the removal of sulphur can be made complete
only by deoxidizing calcium, and this cannot be done if much
oxygen is present. Indeed, the freedom of the atmosphere
of the electric furnaces from oxygen is also the reason indirectly
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
why the molten metal can be freed from mechanically suspended
slag more perfectly in them than in the Bessemer converter or
the open-hearth furnace. In order that this finely divided slag
shall rise to the surface and there coalesce with the overlying
layer, the metal must be tranquil. But tranquillity is clearly
impossible in the Bessemer converter, in which the metal can
be kept hot only by being torn into a spray by the blast. It is
practically unattainable in the open-hearth furnace, because
here the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere indirectly oxidizes
the carbon of the metal which is kept boiling by the escape of
the resultant carbonic oxide. In short the electric furnaces
can be used to improve the molten product of the Bessemer
converter and open-hearth furnace, essentially because their
atmosphere is free from sulphur and oxygen, and because they
can therefore remove sulphur, iron oxide and mechanically
suspended slag, more thoroughly than is possible in these older
furnaces. They make a better though a dearer steel.</p>

<p>Further, the electric furnaces, <i>e.g.</i> the Kjellin, can be used
to replace the crucible melting process (§ 106), chiefly because
their work is cheaper for two reasons. First, they treat a larger
charge, a ton or more, whereas the charge of each crucible is
only about 80 pounds. Second, their heat is applied far more
economically, directly to the metal itself, whereas in the crucible
process the heat is applied most wastefully to the outside of the
non-conducting walls of a closed crucible within which the charge
to be heated lies. Beyond this sulphur and phosphorus can be
removed in the electric furnace, whereas in the crucible process
they cannot. In short electric furnaces replace the old crucible
furnace primarily because they work more cheaply, though in
addition they may be made to yield a better steel than it can.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Thus we see that the purification in these electric furnaces has
nothing to do with electricity. We still use the old familiar purifying
agents, iron oxide, lime and nascent calcium. The electricity is
solely a source of heat, free from the faults of the older sources
which for certain purposes it now replaces. The electric furnaces
are likely to displace the crucible furnaces completely, because
they work both more cheaply and better. They are not likely
to displace either the open-hearth furnace or the Bessemer converter,
because their normal work is only to improve the product
of these older furnaces. Here their use is likely to be limited by its
costliness, because for the great majority of purposes the superiority
of the electrically purified steel is not worth the cost of the electric
purification.</p>
</div>

<p>109. <i>Electric Ore-smelting Processes.</i>&mdash;Though the electric
processes which have been proposed for extracting the iron from
iron ore, with the purpose of displacing the iron blast furnace,
have not become important enough to deserve description here,
yet it should be possible to devise one which would be useful
in a place (if there is one) which has an abundance of water
power and iron ore and a local demand for iron, but has not
coke, charcoal or bituminous coal suitable for the blast furnace.
But this ancient furnace does its fourfold work of deoxidizing,
melting, removing the gangue and desulphurizing, so very
economically that it is not likely to be driven out in other places
until the exhaustion of our coal-fields shall have gone so far as to
increase the cost of coke greatly.</p>

<p>110. <i>Comparison of Steel-making Processes.</i>&mdash;When Bessemer
discovered that by simply blowing air through molten cast iron
rapidly he could make low-carbon steel, which is essentially
wrought iron greatly improved by being freed from its essential
defect, its necessarily weakening and embrittling slag, the very
expensive and exhausting puddling process seemed doomed,
unable to survive the time when men should have familiarized
themselves with the use of Bessemer steel, and should have
developed the evident possibilities of cheapness of the Bessemer
process. Nevertheless the use of wrought iron actually continued
to increase. The first of the United States decennial censuses
to show a decrease in the production of wrought iron was that
in 1890, 35 years after the invention of the Bessemer process.
It is still in great demand for certain normal purposes for which
either great ease in welding or resistance to corrosion by rusting
is of great importance; for purposes requiring special forms of
extreme ductility which are not so confidently expected in steel;
for miscellaneous needs of many users, some ignorant, some
very conservative; and for remelting in the crucible process.
All the best cutlery and tool steel is made either by the crucible
process or in electric furnaces, and indeed all for which any
considerable excellence is claimed is supposed to be so made,
though often incorrectly. But the great mass of the steel of
commerce is made by the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes.
Open-hearth steel is generally thought to be better than Bessemer,
and the acid variety of each of these two processes is thought
to yield a better product than the basic variety. This may not
necessarily be true, but the acid variety lends itself more readily
to excellence than the basic. A very large proportion of ores
cannot be made to yield cast iron either free enough from
phosphorus for the acid Bessemer or the acid open-hearth
process, neither of which removes that most injurious element,
or rich enough in phosphorus for the basic Bessemer process,
which must rely on that element as its source of heat. But
cast iron for the basic open-hearth process can be made from
almost any ore, because its requirements, comparative freedom
from silicon and sulphur, depend on the management of the
blast-furnace rather than on the composition of the ore, whereas
the phosphorus-content of the cast iron depends solely on that
of the ore, because nearly all the phosphorus of the ore necessarily
passes into the cast iron. Thus the basic open-hearth process
is the only one which can make steel from cast iron containing
more than 0.10% but less than 1.80% of phosphorus.</p>

<p>The restriction of the basic Bessemer process to pig iron
containing at least 1.80% of phosphorus has prevented it from
getting a foothold in the United States; the restriction of the
acid Bessemer process to pig iron very low in phosphorus, usually
to that containing less than 0.10% of that element, has almost
driven it out of Germany, has of late retarded, indeed almost
stopped, the growth of its use in the United States, and has even
caused it to be displaced at the great Duquesne works of the
Carnegie Steel Company by the omnivorous basic open-hearth
process, the use of which has increased very rapidly. Under
most conditions the acid Bessemer process is the cheapest in
cost of conversion, the basic Bessemer next, and the acid open-hearth
next, though the difference between them is not great.
But the crucible process is very much more expensive than any
of the others.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Until very lately the Bessemer process, in either its acid or its
basic form, made all of the world&rsquo;s rail steel; but even for this work
it has now begun to be displaced by the basic open-hearth process,
partly because of the fast-increasing scarcity of ores which yield pig
iron low enough in phosphorus for the acid Bessemer process, and
partly because the increase in the speed of trains and in the loads on
the individual engine- and car-wheels has made a demand for rails of
a material better than Bessemer steel.</p>
</div>

<p>111. <i>Iron founding</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the manufacture of castings of cast
iron, consists essentially in pouring the molten cast iron into
moulds, and, as preparatory steps, melting the cast iron itself
and preparing the moulds. These are usually made of sand
containing enough clay to give it the needed coherence, but of
late promising attempts have been made to use permanent iron
moulds. In a very few places the molten cast iron as it issues
from the blast furnace is cast directly in these moulds, but in
general it is allowed to solidify in pigs, and then remelted either
in cupola furnaces or in air furnaces. The cupola furnace (fig. 26)
is a shaft much like a miniature blast furnace, filled from top
to bottom by a column of lumps of coke and of iron. The blast
of air forced in through the tuyeres near the bottom of the
furnace burns the coke there, and the intense heat thus caused
melts away the surrounding iron, so that this column of coke and
iron gradually descends; but it is kept at its full height by
feeding more coke and iron at its top, until all the iron needed
for the day&rsquo;s work has thus been charged. As the iron melts
it runs out through a tap hole and spout at the bottom of the
furnace, to be poured into the moulds by means of clay-lined
ladles. The air furnace is a reverberatory furnace like that used
for puddling (fig. 14), but larger, and in it the pigs of iron, lying
on the bottom or hearth, are melted down by the flame from the
coal which burns in the firebox. The iron is then held molten
till it has grown hot enough for casting and till enough of its
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
carbon has been burnt away to leave just the carbon-content
desired, and it is then tapped out and poured into the moulds.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:369px; height:821px" src="images/img827a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Cupola Furnace for Remelting
Pig Iron.</td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Of the two the cupola is very much the more economical of fuel,
thanks to the direct transfer of heat from the burning coke to the
pig iron with which
it is in contact. But
this contact both
causes the iron to
absorb sulphur
from the coke to
its great harm, and
prevents it from
having any large
part of its carbon
burnt away, which
in many cases
would improve it
very greatly by
strengthening it.
Thus it comes about
that the cupola,
because it is so
economical, is used
for all but the relatively
few cases in
which the strengthening
of the iron by
the removal of part
of its carbon and
the prevention of
the absorption of
sulphur are so important
as to compensate
for the
greater cost of the
air-furnace melting.</p>
</div>

<p>112. <i>Cast iron
for foundry purposes</i>,
<i>i.e.</i> for
making castings of
cast iron. Though,
as we have seen in
§ 19, steel is rarely
given a carbon-content
greater
than 1.50% lest its
brittleness should
be excessive, yet
cast iron with between
3 and 4% of
carbon, the usual
cast iron of the
foundry, is very
useful. Because of the ease and cheapness with which, thanks to
its fluidity and fusibility (fig. 1), it can be melted and run even into
narrow and intricate moulds, castings made of it are very often
more economical, <i>i.e.</i> they serve a given purpose more cheaply, in
the long run, than either rolled or cast steel, in spite of their need
of being so massive that the brittleness of the material itself
shall be endurable. Indeed this high carbon-content, 3 to 4%,
in practice actually leads to less brittleness than can readily be
had with somewhat less carbon, because with it much of the
carbon can easily be thrown into the relatively harmless state
of graphite, whereas if the carbon amounts to less than 3% it
can be brought to this state only with difficulty. For crushing
certain kinds of rock, the hardness of which cast iron is capable
really makes it more valuable, pound for pound, than steel.</p>

<p>113. <i>Qualities needed in Cast Iron Castings.</i>&mdash;Different kinds
of castings need very different sets of qualities, and the composition
of the cast iron itself must vary from case to case so as
to give each the qualities needed. The iron for a statuette must
first of all be very fluid, so that it will run into every crevice in
its mould, and it must expand in solidifying, so that it shall
reproduce accurately every detail of that mould. The iron for
most engineering purposes needs chiefly to be strong and not
excessively brittle. That for the thin-walled water mains must
combine strength with the fluidity needed to enable it to run
freely into its narrow moulds; that for most machinery must
be soft enough to be cut easily to an exact shape; that for
hydraulic cylinders must combine strength with density lest the
water leak through; and that for car-wheels must be intensely
hard in its wearing parts, but in its other parts it must have that
shock-resisting power which can be had only along with great
softness. Though all true cast iron is brittle, in the sense that
it is not usefully malleable, <i>i.e.</i> that it cannot be hammered from
one shape into another, yet its degree of brittleness differs as
that of soapstone does from that of glass, so that there are the
intensely hard and brittle cast irons, and the less brittle ones,
softer and unhurt by a shock which would shiver the former.</p>

<p>Of these several qualities which cast iron may have, fluidity
is given by keeping the sulphur-content low and phosphorus-content
high; and this latter element must be kept low if
shock is to be resisted; but strength, hardness, endurance of
shock, density and expansion in solidifying are controlled
essentially by the distribution of the carbon between the states
of graphite and cementite, and this in turn is controlled chiefly
by the proportion of silicon, manganese and sulphur present,
and in many cases by the rate of cooling.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>114. <i>Constitution of Cast Iron.</i>&mdash;Cast iron naturally has a high
carbon-content, usually between 3 and 4%, because while molten
it absorbs carbon greedily from the coke with which it is in contact
in the iron blast furnace in which it is made, and in the cupola furnace
in which it is remelted for making most castings. This carbon may
all be present as graphite, as in typical grey cast iron; or all present
as cementite, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, as in typical white cast iron; or, as is far more
usual, part of it may be present as graphite and part as cementite.
Now how does it come about that the distribution of the carbon
between these very unlike states determines the strength, hardness
and many other valuable properties of the metal as a whole? The
answer to this is made easy by a careful study of the effect of this
same distribution on the constitution of the metal, because it is
through controlling this constitution that the condition of the carbon
controls these useful properties. To fix our ideas let us assume that
the iron contains 4% of carbon. If this carbon is all present as
graphite, so that in cooling the graphite-austenite diagram has been
followed strictly (§ 26), the constitution is extremely simple; clearly
the mass consists first of a metallic matrix, the carbonless iron itself
with whatever silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur happen
to be present, in short an impure ferrite, encased in which as a wholly
distinct foreign body is the graphite. The primary graphite (§ 26)
generally forms a coarse, nearly continuous skeleton of curved black
plates, like those shown in fig. 27; the eutectic graphite is much
finer; while the pro-eutectoid and eutectoid graphite, if they exist,
are probably in very fine particles. We must grasp clearly this
conception of metallic matrix and encased graphite skeleton if we
are to understand this subject.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:453px" src="images/img827b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Graphite in Grey Cast Iron.</td></tr></table>

<p>Now this matrix itself is equivalent to a very low-carbon steel,
strictly speaking to a carbonless steel, because it consists of pure
ferrite, which is just what such a steel consists of; and the cast iron
as a whole is therefore equivalent to a matrix of very low-carbon
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
steel in which is encased a skeleton of graphite plates, besides some
very fine scattered particles of graphite.</p>

<p>Next let us imagine that, in a series of cast irons all containing 4%
of carbon, the graphite of the initial skeleton changes gradually
into cementite and thereby becomes part of the matrix, a change
which of course has two aspects, first, a gradual thinning of the
graphite skeleton and a decrease of its continuity, and second, a
gradual introduction of cementite into the originally pure ferrite
matrix. By the time that 0.4% of graphite has thus changed,
and in changing has united with 0.4 × 14 = 5.6% of the iron of the
original ferrite matrix, it will have changed this matrix from pure
ferrite into a mixture of</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">Cementite</td> <td class="tcr">0.4 + 5.6 =  &ensp;6.0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">96.0 &minus; 5.6 = 90.4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">96.4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">The residual graphite skeleton forms</td> <td class="tcr">4   &minus; 0.4 = &ensp;3.6</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">But this matrix is itself equivalent to a steel of about 040% of
carbon (more accurately 0.40 × 100 ÷ 96.4 = 0.415%), a rail steel,
because it is of just such a mixture of ferrite and cementite in the
ratio of 90.4 : 6 or 94% and 6%, that such a rail steel consists. The
mass as a whole, then, consists of 96.4 parts of metallic matrix, which
itself is in effect a 0.415% carbon rail steel, weakened and embrittled
by having its continuity broken up by this skeleton of graphite
forming 3.6% of the whole mass by weight, or say 12% by volume.</p>

<p>As, in succeeding members of this same series of cast irons, more
of the graphite of the initial skeleton changes into cementite and
thereby becomes part of the metallic matrix, so the graphite skeleton
becomes progressively thinner and more discontinuous, and the
matrix richer in cementite and hence in carbon and hence equivalent
first to higher and higher carbon steel, such as tool steel of 1%
carbon, file steel of 1.50%, wire-die steel of 2% carbon and then
to white cast iron, which consists essentially of much cementite
with little ferrite. Eventually, when the whole of the graphite of
the skeleton has changed into cementite, the mass as a whole becomes
typical or ultra white cast iron, consisting of nothing but ferrite and
cementite, distributed as follows (see fig. 2):&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid cementite</td> <td class="tcr">6.7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid Interstratified as pearlite</td> <td class="tcr">46.7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Cementite, primary, eutectoid and pro-eutectoid</td> <td class="tcr">53.3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Total ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Total cementite</td> <td class="tcr">60.0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
</table>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:563px" src="images/img828.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Physical Properties and assumed Microscopic Constitution
of Cast Iron containing 4% of carbon, as affected by the distribution
of that carbon between the combined and graphitic states.</td></tr></table>

<p>The constitution and properties of such a series of cast irons,
all containing 4% of carbon but with that carbon shifting progressively
from the state of graphite to that of cementite as we pass
from specimen to specimen, may, with the foregoing picture of a
skeleton-holding matrix clearly in our minds be traced by means of
fig. 28. The change from graphite into cementite is supposed to
take place as we pass from left to right. BC and OH give the proportion
of ferrite and cementite respectively in the matrix, DEF,
KS and TU reproduced from fig. 3 give the consequent properties
of the matrix, and GAF, RS and VU give, partly from conjecture,
the properties of the cast iron as a whole. Above the diagram are
given the names of the different classes of cast iron to which different
stages in the change from graphite to cementite correspond, and
above these the names of kinds of steel or cast iron, to which at the
corresponding stages the constitution of the matrix corresponds,
while below the diagram are given the properties of the cast iron as
a whole corresponding to these stages, and still lower the purposes
for which these stages fit the cast iron, first because of its strength
and shock-resisting power, and second because of its hardness.</p>

<p>115. <i>Influence of the Constitution of Cast Iron on its Properties.</i>&mdash;How
should the hardness, strength and ductility, or rather shock-resisting
power, of the cast iron be affected by this progressive
change from graphite into cementite? First, the hardness (VU)
should increase progressively as the soft ferrite and graphite are
replaced by the glass-hard cementite. Second, though the brittleness
should be lessened somewhat by the decrease in the extent to
which the continuity of the strong matrix is broken up by the
graphite skeleton, yet this effect is outweighed greatly by that of
the rapid substitution in the matrix of the brittle cementite for the
very ductile copper-like ferrite, so that the brittleness increases
continuously (RS), from that of the very grey graphitic cast irons,
which, like that of soapstone, is so slight that the metal can endure
severe shock and even indentation without breaking, to that of the
pure white cast iron which is about as brittle as porcelain. Here
let us recognize that what gives this transfer of carbon from graphite
skeleton to metallic matrix such very great influence on the properties
of the metal is the fact that the transfer of each 1%
of carbon means substituting in the matrix no less than 15% of
the brittle, glass-hard cementite for the soft, very ductile ferrite.
Third, the tensile strength of steel proper, of which the matrix
consists, as we have already seen (fig. 3), increases with the carbon-content
till this reaches about 1.25%, and then in turn decreases
(fig. 28, DEF). Hence, as with the progressive transfer of the
carbon from the graphitic to the cementite state in our imaginary
series of cast irons, the combined carbon present in the matrix
increases, so does the tensile strength of the mass as a whole for
two reasons; first, because the strength of the matrix itself is increasing
(DE), and second, because the discontinuity is decreasing
with the decreasing proportion of graphite. With further transfer
of the carbon from the graphitic to the combined state, the matrix
itself grows weaker (EF); but this weakening is offset in a measure
by the continuing decrease of discontinuity due to the decreasing
proportion of graphite. The resultant of these two effects has not
yet been well established; but it is probable that the strongest
cast iron has a little more than 1% of carbon combined as cementite,
so that its matrix is nearly equivalent to the strongest of the steels.
As regards both tensile strength and ductility not only the quantity
but the distribution of the graphite is of great importance. Thus it
is extremely probable that the primary graphite, which forms large
sheets, is much more weakening and embrittling than the eutectic
and other forms, and therefore that, if either strength or ductility
is sought, the metal should be free from primary graphite, <i>i.e.</i>
that it should not be hyper-eutectic.</p>

<p>The presence of graphite has two further and very natural
effects. First, if the skeleton which it forms is continuous, then
its planes of junction with the metallic matrix offer a path of
low resistance to the passage of liquids or gases, or in short they
make the metal so porous as to unfit it for objects like the
cylinders of hydraulic presses, which ought to be gas-tight
and water-tight. For such purposes the graphite-content should
be low. Second, the very genesis of so bulky a substance as the
primary and eutectic graphite while the metal is solidifying
(fig. 5) causes a sudden and permanent expansion, which forces
the metal into even the finest crevices in its mould, a fact
which is taken advantage of in making ornamental castings and
others which need great sharpness of detail, by making them
rich in graphite.</p>

<p>To sum this up, as graphite is replaced by carbon combined
as cementite, the hardness, brittleness and density increase,
and the expansion in solidification decreases, in both cases
continuously, while the tensile strength increases till the combined
carbon-content rises a little above 1%, and then in turn
decreases. That strength is good and brittleness bad goes without
saying; but here a word is needed about hardness. The
expense of cutting castings accurately to shape, cutting on them
screw threads and what not, called &ldquo;machining&rdquo; in trade
parlance, is often a very large part of their total cost; and it
increases rapidly with the hardness of the metal. On the other
hand, the extreme hardness of nearly graphiteless cast iron is
of great value for objects of which the chief duty is to resist
abrasion, such as parts of crushing machinery. Hence objects
which need much machining are made rich in graphite, so that
they may be cut easily, and those of the latter class rich in
cementite so that they may not wear out.</p>

<p>116. <i>Means of controlling the Constitution of Cast Iron.</i>&mdash;The
distribution of the carbon between these two states, so as to give
the cast iron the properties needed, is brought about chiefly by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
adjusting the silicon-content, because the presence of this element
favours the formation of graphite. Beyond this, rapid cooling and
the presence of sulphur both oppose the formation of graphite, and
hence in cast iron rich in sulphur, and in thin and therefore rapidly
cooling castings, the silicon-content must be greater than in thick
ones and in those freer from sulphur. Thus thick machinery castings
usually contain between 1.50 and 2.25% of silicon, whereas
thin castings and ornamental ones which must reproduce the finest
details of the mould accurately may have as much as 3 or even
3.40% of it. Castings which, like hydraulic press cylinders and
steam radiators, must be dense and hence must have but little
graphite lest their contents leak through their walls, should not
have more than 1.75% of silicon and may have even as little as
1% if impenetrability is so important that softness and consequent
ease of machining must be sacrificed to it. Cast iron railroad car-wheels,
the tread or rim of which must be intensely hard so as to
endure the grinding action of the brakeshoe while their central
parts must have good shock-resisting power, are given such
moderate silicon-content, preferably between 0.50 and 0.80%, as in
and by itself leaves the tendencies toward graphite-forming and
toward cementite-forming nearly in balance, so that they are easily
controlled by the rate of cooling. The &ldquo;tread&rdquo; or circumferential
part of the mould itself is made of iron, because this, by conducting
the heat away from the casting rapidly, makes it cool quickly,
and thus causes most of the carbon here to form cementite, and
thus in turn makes the tread of the wheel intensely hard; while
those parts of the mould which come in contact with the central
parts of the wheel are made of sand, which conducts the heat away
from the molten metal so slowly that it solidifies slowly, with the
result that most of its carbon forms graphite, and here the metal
is soft and shock-resisting.</p>

<p>117. <i>Influence of Sulphur.</i>&mdash;Sulphur has the specific harmful
effects of shifting the carbon from the state of graphite to that of
cementite, and thus of making the metal hard and brittle; of
making it thick and sluggish when molten, so that it does not run
freely in the moulds; and of making it red short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle at a
red heat, so that it is very liable to be torn by the aeolotachic
contraction in cooling from the molten state; and it has no good
effects to offset these. Hence the sulphur present is, except in
certain rare cases, simply that which the metallurgist has been
unable to remove. The sulphur-content should not exceed 0.12%,
and it is better that it should not exceed 0.08 % in castings which
have to be soft enough to be machined, nor 0.05% in thin castings
the metal for which must be very fluid.</p>

<p>118. <i>Influence of Manganese.</i>&mdash;Manganese in many cases, but
not in all, opposes the formation of graphite and thus hardens the
iron, and it lessens the red shortness (§ 40), which sulphur causes,
by leading to the formation of the less harmful manganese sulphide
instead of the more harmful iron sulphide. Hence the manganese-content
needed increases with the sulphur-content which has to be
endured. In the better classes of castings it is usually between 0.40
and 0.70%, and in chilled railroad car-wheels it may well be between
0.15 and 0.30%; but skilful founders, confronted with the
task of making use of cast iron rich in manganese, have succeeded
in making good grey iron castings with even as much as 2.20% of
this element.</p>

<p>119. <i>Influence of Phosphorus.</i>&mdash;Phosphorus has, along with its
great merit of giving fluidity, the grave defect of causing brittleness,
especially under shock. Fortunately its embrittling effect on cast
iron is very much less than on steel, so that the upper limit or
greatest tolerable proportion of phosphorus, instead of being 0.10
or better 0.08% as in the case of rail steel, may be put at 0.50%
in case of machinery castings even if they are exposed to moderate
shocks; at 1.60% for gas and water mains in spite of the gravity
of the disasters which extreme brittleness here might cause; and
even higher for castings which are not exposed to shock, and
are so thin that the iron of which they are made must needs be very
fluid. The permissible phosphorus-content is lessened by the
presence of either much sulphur or much manganese, and by rapid
cooling, as for instance in case of thin castings, because each of these
three things, by leading to the formation of the brittle cementite,
in itself creates brittleness which aggravates that caused by phosphorus.</p>
</div>

<p>120. <i>Defects in Steel Ingots.</i>&mdash;Steel ingots and other steel
castings are subject to three kinds of defects so serious as to
deserve notice here. They are known as &ldquo;piping,&rdquo; &ldquo;blowholes&rdquo;
and &ldquo;segregation.&rdquo;</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:462px" src="images/img829a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Diagram
showing how a Pipe is formed.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">
<p>A, Superficial blowholes.</p>
<p>B, Deep-seated blowholes.</p>
<p>C, Pipe.</p></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>121. <i>Piping.</i>&mdash;In an early period of the solidification of a molten
steel ingot cast in a cold iron mould we may distinguish three
parts: (1) the outer layers, <i>i.e.</i> the outermost of the now solid
metal; (2) the inner layers, <i>i.e.</i> the remainder of the solid metal;
and (3) the molten lake, <i>i.e.</i> the part which still is molten. At this
instant the outer layers, because of their contact with the cold
mould, are cooling much faster than the inner ones, and hence tend
to contract faster. But this excess of their contraction is resisted
by the almost incompressible inner layers so that the outer layers
are prevented from contracting as much as they naturally would if
unopposed, and they are thereby virtually stretched. Later on the
cooling of the inner layers becomes more rapid than that of the
outer ones, and on this account their contraction tends to become
greater than that of the outer ones. Because the outer and inner
layers are integrally united, this excess of
contraction of the inner layers makes them
draw outward towards and against the outer
layers, and because of their thus drawing outward
the molten lake within no longer suffices
to fill completely the central space, so that
its upper surface begins to sink. This ebb
continues, and, combined with the progressive
narrowing of the molten lake as more and more
of it solidifies and joins the shore layers, gives
rise to the pipe, a cavity like an inverted pear,
as shown at C in fig. 29. Because this pipe is
due to the difference in the rates of contraction
of interior and exterior, it may be lessened
by retarding the cooling of the mass as a
whole, and it may be prevented from stretching
down deep by retarding the solidification
of the upper part of the ingot, as, for instance,
by preheating the top of the mould, or by
covering the ingot with a mass of burning fuel
or of molten slag. This keeps the upper part
of the mass molten, so that it continues to
flow down and feed the pipe during the early
part of its formation in the lower and quicker-cooling
part of the ingot. In making castings
of steel this same difficulty arises; and much
of the steel-founder&rsquo;s skill consists either in
preventing these pipes, or in so placing them
that they shall not occur in the finished casting,
or at least not in a harmful position.
In making armour-plates from steel ingots,
as much as 40% of the metal may be rejected
as unsound from this cause. An ingot
should always stand upright while solidifying,
so that the unsound region due to the pipe
may readily be cut off, leaving the rest of
the ingot solid. If the ingot lay on its side
while solidifying, the pipe would occur as
shown in fig. 30, and nearly the whole of the ingot would be
unsound.</p>

<p>122. <i>Blowholes.</i>&mdash;Iron, like water and many other substances,
has a higher solvent power for gases, such as hydrogen and nitrogen,
when molten, <i>i.e.</i> liquid, than when frozen, <i>i.e.</i> solid. Hence in the
act of solidifying it expels any excess of gas which it has dissolved
while liquid, and this gas becomes entangled in the freezing mass,
causing gas bubbles or <i>blowholes</i>, as at A and B in fig. 29. Because
the volume of the pipe represents the excess of the contraction of the
inner walls and the molten lake jointly over that of the outer walls,
between the time when the lake begins to ebb and the time when
even the axial metal is too firm to be drawn further open by this
contraction, the space occupied by blowholes must, by compensating
for part of this excess, lessen the size of the pipe, so that the more
abundant and larger the blowholes are, the smaller will the pipe be.
The interior surface of a blowhole which lies near the outer crust of
the ingot, as at A in fig. 29, is liable to become oxidized by the
diffusion of the atmospheric oxygen, in which case it can hardly be
completely welded later, since welding implies actual contact of
metal with metal; it thus forms a permanent flaw. But deep-seated
blowholes like those at B are relatively harmless in low-carbon
easily welding steel, because the subsequent operation of
forging or rolling usually obliterates them by welding their sides
firmly together.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:108px" src="images/img829b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing a Pipe so formed as to
render Ingot unsound.</td></tr></table>

<p>Blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented by adding
to the molten metal shortly before it solidifies either silicon or
aluminium, or both; even as little as 0.002% of aluminium is
usually sufficient. These additions seem to act in part by deoxidizing
the minute quantity of iron oxide and carbonic oxide present, in
part by increasing the solvent power of the metal for gas, so that
even after freezing it can retain in solution the gas which it had
dissolved when molten. But, because preventing blowholes increases
the volume of the pipe, it is often better to allow them to
form, but to control their position, so that they shall be deep-seated.
This is done chiefly by casting the steel at a relatively low temperature,
and by limiting the quantity of manganese and silicon which
it contains. Brinell finds that, for certain normal conditions, if
the sum of the percentage of manganese plus 5.2 times that of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
silicon equals 1.66, there will be no blowholes; if this sum is less,
blowholes will occur, and will be injuriously near the surface unless
this sum is reduced to 0.28. He thus finds that this sum should be
either as great as 1.66, so that blowholes shall be absent; or as low
as 0.28, so that they shall be harmlessly deep-seated. These numbers
must be varied with the variations in other conditions, such as
casting temperature, rapidity of solidification, &amp;c.</p>

<p>123. <i>Segregation.</i>&mdash;The solidification of an ingot of steel takes
place gradually from without inwards, and each layer in solidifying
tends to expel into the still molten interior the impurities which it
contains, especially the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, which by
this process are in part concentrated or <i>segregated</i> in the last-freezing
part of the ingot. This is in general around the lower part of the
pipe, so that here is a second motive for rejecting the piped part of
the ingot. While segregation injures the metal here, often fatally,
by giving it an indeterminate excess of phosphorus and sulphur, it
clearly purifies the remainder of the ingot, and on this account it
ought, under certain conditions, to be promoted rather than restrained.
The following is an extreme case:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb f80">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Carbon.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Silicon.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Manganese.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Phosphorus.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Sulphur.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Composition of the initial metal per cent</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.336</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.089</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.074</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Composition of the segregate</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.27</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.41&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.08</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.753</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.418</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">The surprising fact that the degree of segregation does not increase
greatly either with the slowness of solidification or with the size of the
ingot, at least between the limits of 5 in. sq. and 16 in. sq., has been
explained by the theory that the relative quiet due to the gentleness
of the convection currents in a slowly cooling mass favours the
formation of far outshooting pine-tree crystals, and that the tangled
branches of these crystals landlock much of the littoral molten
mother metal, and thus mechanically impede that centreward
diffusion and convection of the impurities which is the essence of
segregation.</p>
</div>

<p>124. <i>Castings and Forgings.</i>&mdash;There are two distinct ways of
making the steel objects actually used in the arts, such as rails,
gear wheels, guns, beams, &amp;c., out of the molten steel made by
the Bessemer, open hearth, or crucible process, or in an electric
furnace. The first is by &ldquo;steel founding,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> casting the steel
as a &ldquo;steel casting&rdquo; in a mould which has the exact shape of
the object to be made, <i>e.g.</i> a gear wheel, and letting it solidify
there. The second is by casting it into a large rough block called
an &ldquo;ingot,&rdquo; and rolling or hammering this out into the desired
shape. Though the former certainly seems the simpler way,
yet its technical difficulties are so great that it is in fact much
the more expensive, and therefore it is in general used only in
making objects of a shape hard to give by forging or rolling.
These technical difficulties are due chiefly to the very high melting
point of the metal, nearly 1500° C (2732° F.), and to the consequent
great contraction which it undergoes in cooling through
the long range between this temperature and that of the room.
The cooling of the thinner, the outer, and in general the more
exposed parts of the casting outruns that of the thicker and less
exposed parts, with the consequence that, at any given instant,
the different parts are contracting at very different rates, <i>i.e.</i>
aeolotachically; and this aeolotachic contraction is very likely
to concentrate severe stress on the slowest cooling parts at the
time when they are passing from the molten to the solid state,
when the steel is mushy, with neither the fluidity of a liquid
nor the strength and ductility of a solid, and thus to tear it
apart. Aeolotachic contraction further leads to the &ldquo;pipes&rdquo;
or contraction cavities already described in § 121, and the
procedure must be carefully planned first so as to reduce these
to a minimum, and second so as to induce them to form either
in those parts of the casting which are going to be cut off and
re-melted, or where they will do little harm. These and kindred
difficulties make each new shape or size a new problem, and
in particular they require that for each and every individual
casting a new sand or clay mould shall be made with care by a
skilled workman. If a thousand like gears are to be cast, a
thousand moulds must be made up, at least to an important
extent by hand, for even machine moulding leaves something
for careful manipulation by the moulder. It is a detail, one is
tempted to say a retail, manufacture.</p>

<p>In strong contrast with this is the procedure in making rolled
products such as rails and plates. The steel is cast in lots,
weighing in some cases as much as 75 tons, in enduring cast
iron moulds into very large ingots, which with their initial heat
are immediately rolled down by a series of powerful roll trains
into their final shape with but slight wear and tear of the moulds
and the machinery. But in addition to the greater cost of steel
founding as compared with rolling there are two facts which
limit the use of steel castings: (1) they are not so good as
rolled products, because the kneading which the metal undergoes
in rolling improves its quality, and closes up its cavities; and
(2) it would be extremely difficult and in most cases impracticable
to cast the metal directly into any of the forms in which the great
bulk of the steel of commerce is needed, such as rails, plates,
beams, angles, rods, bars, and wire, because the metal would
become so cool as to solidify before running far in such thin
sections, and because even the short pieces which could thus be
made would pucker or warp on account of their aeolotachic
contraction.</p>

<p>125. <i>Heating Furnaces</i> are used in iron manufacture chiefly
for bringing masses of steel or wrought iron to a temperature
proper for rolling or forging. In order to economize power in
these operations, the metal should in general be as soft and hence
as hot as is consistent with its reaching a low temperature before
the rolling or forging is finished, because, as explained in § 32,
undisturbed cooling from a high temperature injures the metal.
Many of the furnaces used for this heating are in a general way
like the puddling furnace shown in fig. 14, except that they are
heated by gas, that the hearth or bottom of the chamber in
which they are heated is nearly flat, and that it is usually very
much larger than that of a puddling furnace. But in addition
there are many special kinds of furnaces arranged to meet the
needs of each case. Of these two will be shown here, the Gjers
soaking pit for steel ingots, and the Eckman or continuous
furnace, as modified by C. H. Morgan for heating billets.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:245px; height:339px" src="images/img830.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Section of Gjers
Soaking Pit.</td></tr></table>

<p>126. <i>Gjers Soaking Pit.</i>&mdash;When the outer crust of a large
ingot in which a lot of molten steel has been cast has so far
cooled that it can be moved without breaking, the temperature
of the interior is still far above that suitable for rolling or hammering&mdash;so
far above that the surplus heat of the interior would
more than suffice to reheat the now cool crust to the rolling
temperature, if we could only
arrest or even greatly retard the
further escape of heat from that
crust. Bringing such an ingot,
then, to the rolling temperature
is not really an operation of heating,
because its average temperature
is already above the rolling
temperature, but one of equalizing
the temperature, by allowing
the internal excess of heat to
&ldquo;soak&rdquo; through the mass. Gjers
did this by setting the partly-solidified
ingot in a well-closed
&ldquo;pit&rdquo; of brickwork, preheated
by the excess heat of previous
lots of ingots. The arrangement,
shown in fig. 31, has three
advantages&mdash;(1) that the temperature
is adjusted with absolutely
no consumption of fuel; (2) that the waste of iron due
to the oxidation of the outer crust of the ingot is very slight,
because the little atmospheric oxygen initially in the pit is
not renewed, whereas in a common heating furnace the flame
brings a constant fresh supply of oxygen; and (3) that the ingot
remains upright during solidification, so that its pipe is concentrated
at one end and is thus removable. (See § 121.) In this
form the system is rather inflexible, for if the supply of ingots
is delayed the pits grow unduly cool, so that the next ensuing
lot of ingots either is not heated hot enough or is delayed too
long in soaking. This defect is usually remedied by heating
the pits by the Siemens regenerative system (see § 99); the greater
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
flexibility thus gained outweighs the cost of the fuel used and
the increased loss of iron by oxidation by the Siemens gas
flame.</p>

<p>127. <i>Continuous Heating Furnace.</i>&mdash;The Gjers system is not
applicable to small ingots or &ldquo;billets,&rdquo;<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> because they lack the
inner surplus heat of large ingots; indeed, they are now allowed
to cool completely. To heat these on the intermittent plan for
further rolling, <i>i.e.</i> to charge a lot of them as a whole in a heating
furnace, bring them as a whole to rolling temperature, and then
withdraw them as a whole for rolling, is very wasteful of heat,
because it is only in the first part of the heating that the outside
of the ingots is cool enough to abstract thoroughly the heat from
the flame. During all the latter part of the heating, when the
temperature of the ingot has approached that of the flame,
only an ever smaller and smaller part of the heat of that flame
can be absorbed by the ingots. Hence in the intermittent system
most of the heat generated within the furnace escapes from it
with the products of combustion. The continuous heating system
(fig. 32) recovers this heat by bringing the flame into contact
with successively cooler and cooler billets, A-F, and finally with
quite cold ones, of consequently great heat-absorbing capacity.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:700px; height:326px" src="images/img831a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Diagram of C. H. Morgan&rsquo;s Continuous Heating Furnace
for 2-inch billets 30 ft. long.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>A, Hottest billet ready for rolling.</p>
<p>B, Exit door.</p>
<p>C, Pusher, for forcing billets forward.</p>
<p>D, Water-cooled pipe on which billets are pushed forward.</p>
<p>E, Magnesite bricks on which the hot billets slide forward.</p>
<p>F, The billet last entered.</p>
<p>G, The suspended roof.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>H, The incoming air preheated by G and by the pipes N and
    brought from above G to between N by a flue not shown.</p>
<p>J, The incoming gas.</p>
<p>L, The flame.</p>
<p>M, The escaping products of combustion.</p>
<p>N, Pipes through which the products of combustion pass.</p></td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="pt2">As soon as a hot billet A is withdrawn by pushing it endwise out
of the exit door B, the whole row is pushed forward by a set of
mechanical pushers C, the billets sliding on the raised water-cooled
pipes D, and, in the hotter part of the furnace, on the magnesite
bricks E, on which iron slides easily when red-hot. A new cold
billet is then charged at the upper end of the hearth, and the new cycle
begins by pushing out through B a second billet, and so forth.
To lessen the loss in shape of &ldquo;crop ends,&rdquo; and for general economy,
these billets are in some cases 30 ft. long, as in the furnace shown
in fig. 32. It is to make it wide enough to receive such long billets
that its roof is suspended, as here shown, by two sets of iron tie-rods.
As the foremost end of the billet emerges from the furnace it enters the
first of a series of roll-trains, and passes immediately thence to
others, so that before half of the billet has emerged from the furnace
its front end has already been reduced by rolling to its final shape,
that of merchant-bars, which are relatively thin, round or square
rods, in lengths of 300 ft.</p>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:122px" src="images/img831b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Wire undergoing
Reduction in the Die.
</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:277px" src="images/img831c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Two-high Rolling
Mill.</td></tr></table>

<p>In the intermittent system the waste heat can, it is true, be
utilized either for raising steam (but inefficiently and inconveniently,
because of the intermittency), or by a regenerative method like the
Siemens, fig. 19; but this would probably recover less heat than the
continuous system, first, because it transfers the heat from flame to
metal indirectly instead of directly; and, second, because the brickwork
of the Siemens system is probably a poorer heat-catcher than
the iron billets of the continuous system, because its disadvantages
of low conductivity and low specific heat probably outweigh its
advantages of roughness and porosity.</p>
</div>

<p>128. <i>Rolling, Forging, and Drawing.</i>&mdash;The three chief processes
for shaping iron and steel, rolling, forging (<i>i.e.</i> hammering,
pressing or stamping) and drawing, all really proceed by squeezing
the metal into the desired shape. In forging, whether under a
hammer or under a press, the action is evidently a squeeze,
however skilfully guided. In drawing, the pull of the pincers
(fig. 33) upon the protruding end,
F, of the rod, transmitted to the
still undrawn part, E, squeezes the
yielding metal of the rod against
the hard unyielding die, C. As when
a half-opened umbrella is thrust
ferrule-foremost between the balusters
of a staircase, so when the rod is
drawn forward, its yielding metal is
folded and forced backwards and centrewards by the resistance
of the unyielding die, and thus it is reduced in diameter and
simultaneously lengthened proportionally, without material
change of volume or density.</p>

<p>129. <i>Methods of Rolling.</i>&mdash;Of rolling much the same is true.
The rolling mill in its simplest form is a pair of cylindrical rollers,
BB (figs. 34 and 35) turning about their axes in opposite directions
as shown by the arrows, and supported at their ends in strong
frames called &ldquo;housings,&rdquo; CC (fig. 35). The skin of the object,
D, which is undergoing rolling, technically called &ldquo;the piece,&rdquo;
is drawn forward powerfully by the friction of the revolving
rolls, and especially of that part of their surface which at any
given instant is moving horizontally (HH in fig. 34), much as,
the rod is drawn through the die
in fig. 33, while the vertical component
of the motion of the rear
part JJ of the rolls forces the
plastic metal of that part of
&ldquo;the piece&rdquo; with which they are
in contact backwards and centrewards,
reducing its area and simultaneously
lengthening it proportionally,
here again as in drawing
through a die. The rolls thus
both draw the piece forward like
the pincers of a wire die, and
themselves are a die which like a
river ever renews or rather maintains
its fixed shape and position,
though its particles themselves are
moving constantly forward with &ldquo;the piece&rdquo; which is passing
between them.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:222px" src="images/img831d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Two-high Rolling Mill.</td></tr></table>

<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:78px; height:157px" src="images/img832a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Three-high
Rolling Mill.</td></tr></table>

<p>After the piece has been reduced in thickness by its first
passage or &ldquo;pass&rdquo; between the rolls, it may be given a second
reduction and then a third and so on, either by bringing the
two rolls nearer together, as in case of the plain rolls BB at the
left in fig. 35, or by passing the piece through an aperture, F&prime;,
smaller than the first F, as in case of the grooved rolls, AA,
shown at the right, or by both means jointly. If, as sketched
in fig. 34, the direction in which each of the rolls turns is constant,
then after the piece has passed once through the rolls to the
right, it cannot undergo a second pass till it has been brought
back to its initial position at the left. But bringing it back
wastes power and, still worse, time, heat, and metal, because
the yellow- or even white-hot piece is rapidly cooling down and
oxidizing. In order to prevent this waste the direction in which
the rolls move may be reversed, so that the piece may be reduced
a second time in passing to the left, in which case the rolls are
usually driven by a pair of reversing engines; or the rolls may
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
be &ldquo;three high,&rdquo; as shown in fig. 36, with the upper and the lower
roll moving constantly to the right and the middle roll constantly
to the left, so that the piece first passes to the right between
the middle and lower rolls, and then to the left between the middle
and upper rolls. The advantage of the
&ldquo;reversing&rdquo; system is that it avoids lifting
the piece from below to above the middle
roll, and again lowering it, which is rather
difficult because the white-hot piece cannot
be guided directly by hand, but must be
moved by means of hooks, tongs, or even
complex mechanism. The advantage of the
three-high mill is that, because each of its
moving parts is always moving in the same
direction, it may be driven by a relatively
small and hence cheap engine, the power delivered by which
between the passes is taken up by a powerful fly-wheel, to be
given up to the rolls during the next pass. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rolling
Mill</a></span>.)</p>

<p>130. <i>Advantages and Applicability of Rolling.</i>&mdash;Rolling uses
very much less power than drawing, because the friction against
the fixed die in the latter process is very great. For much the
same reason rolling proceeds much faster than drawing, and on
both these accounts it is incomparably the cheaper of the two.
It is also very much cheaper than forging, in large part because
it works so quickly. The piece travels through the rolls very
rapidly, so that the reduction takes place over its whole length
in a very few seconds, whereas in forging, whether under hammer
or press, after one part of the piece has been compressed the piece
must next be raised, moved forward, and placed so that the
hammer or press may compress the next part of its length.
This moving is expensive, because it has to be done, or at least
guided, by hand, and it takes up much time, during which both
heat and iron are wasting. Thus it comes about that rolling is
so very much cheaper than either forging or drawing that these
latter processes are used only when rolling is impracticable.
The conditions under which it is impracticable are (1) when the
piece has either an extremely large or an extremely small cross
section, and (2) when its cross section varies materially in different
parts of its length. The number of great shafts for marine engines,
reaching a diameter of 22<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in the case of the &ldquo;Lusitania,&rdquo;
is so small that it would be wasteful to instal for their manufacture
the great and costly rolling mill needed to reduce them
from the gigantic ingots from which they must be made, with
its succession of decreasing passes, and its mechanism for
rotating the piece between passes and for transferring it from
pass to pass. Great armour plates can indeed be made by rolling,
because in making such flat plates the ingot is simply rolled
back and forth between a pair of plain cylindrical rolls, like
BB of fig. 35, instead of being transferred from one grooved
pass to another and smaller one. Moreover, a single pair of rolls
suffices for armour plates of any width or thickness, whereas
if shafts of different diameters were to be rolled, a special final
groove would be needed for each different diameter, and, as
there is room for only a few large grooves in a single set of rolls,
this would imply not only providing but installing a separate
set of rolls for almost every diameter of shaft. Finally the
quantity of armour plate needed is so enormous that it justifies
the expense of installing a great rolling mill. Krupp&rsquo;s armour-plate
mill, with rolls 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, can roll
an ingot 4 ft. thick.</p>

<p>Pieces of very small cross section, like wire, are more conveniently
made by drawing through a die than by rolling,
essentially because a single draft reduces the cross section of a
wire much more than a single pass between rolls can. This in
turn is because the direct pull of the pincers on the protruding
end of the wire is much stronger than the forward-drawing
pull due to the friction of the cold rolls on the wire, which is
necessarily cold because of its small section.</p>

<p>Pieces which vary materially in cross section from point
to point in their length cannot well be made by rolling, because
the cross section of the piece as it emerges from the rolls is
necessarily that of the aperture between the rolls from which
it is emerging, and this aperture is naturally of constant size
because the rolls are cylindrical. Of course, by making the rolls
eccentric, and by varying the depth and shape of the different
parts of a given groove cut in their surface, the cross section
of the piece made in this groove may vary somewhat from point
to point. But this and other methods of varying the cross section
have been used but little, and they do not seem capable of wide
application.</p>

<p>The fact that rolling is so much cheaper than forging has led
engineers to design their pieces so that they can be made by
rolling, <i>i.e.</i> to make them straight and of uniform cross section.
It is for this reason, for instance, that railroad rails are of constant
uniform section throughout their length, instead of having those
parts of their length which come between the supporting ties
deeper and stronger than the parts which rest on the ties. When,
as in the case of eye bars, it is imperative that one part should
differ materially in section from the rest, this part may be
locally thickened or thinned, or a special part may here be welded
on. When we come to pieces of very irregular shape, such as
crank-shafts, anchors, trunnions, &amp;c., we must resort to forging,
except for purposes for which unforged castings are good
enough.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:298px; height:464px" src="images/img832b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Steam Hammer.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>A, Round bar to be hammered.</p>
<p>B, Anvil.</p>
<p>C, Anvil block or foundation.</p>
<p>D, Falling tup.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>E, Steam piston.</p>
<p>F, Piston-rod for lifting tup and driving it down.</p>
<p>G, Steam cylinder.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">131. <i>Forging</i> proceeds by beating or squeezing the piece
under treatment from its initial into its final shape, as for instance
by hammering a square ingot or bloom first on one corner and
then on another until it is
reduced to a cylindrical
shape as shown at A in
fig. 37. As the ingot is
reduced in section, it is of
course lengthened proportionally.
Much as in the
smith&rsquo;s forge the object
forged rests on a massive
anvil and anvil block, B
and C, and is struck by
the tup D of the hammer.
This tup is raised and
driven down by steam
pressure applied below or
above the piston E of the
steam cylinder mounted
aloft, and connected with
the tup by means of the
strong piston-rod F. The
demand for very large
forgings, especially for
guns and armour plate,
led to the building of
enormous steam hammers.
The falling parts of the
largest of these, that at
Bethlehem, Pa., weigh 125
tons.</p>

<p>The first cost of a
hammer of moderate size
is much less than that of
a hydraulic press of like capacity, as is readily understood
when we stop to reflect what powerful pressure, if gradually
applied, would be needed to drive the nail which a light blow
from our hand hammer forces easily into the woodwork. Nevertheless
the press uses much less power than the hammer, because
much of the force of the latter is dissipated in setting up useless&mdash;indeed
harmful, and at times destructive&mdash;vibrations in the
foundations and the surrounding earth and buildings. Moreover,
the effect of the sharp blow of the hammer is relatively superficial,
and does not penetrate to the interior of a large piece as the
slowly applied pressure of the hydraulic press does. Because of
these facts the great hammers have given place to enormous
forging presses, the 125-ton Bethlehem hammer, for instance, to a
14,000-ton hydraulic press, moved by water under a pressure of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
7000 &#8468; per square inch, supplied by pumps of 16,000 horse
power.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IV.</span>&mdash;<i>Reduction in Cost of Iron Manufacture in America&mdash;C. Kirchoff.</i></p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Place represented.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Operation<br />represented.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Period<br />covered.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="7">Cost, Profit and Production, at End of Period in<br />Percentage of that at Beginning of Period.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">From</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">To</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Cost.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Profit<br />per<br />Ton.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Production<br />per<br />Furnace<br />&amp;c., per<br />Day.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Ore.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Fuel.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Labour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />excluding<br />raw<br />Material.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A large Southern Establishment</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manufacture of Pig Iron</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">63.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">167.7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North-eastern District</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">103.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">163.3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pittsburg District</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">46&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eastern District</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manufacture of Bessemer Steel Ingots</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">75&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">107</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pittsburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Not stated</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Rolling Wire Rods</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">63.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">325</td></tr>
</table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>132. <i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;The cheapening of manufacture by improvements
in processes and machinery, and by the increase in the scale of
operations, has been very great. The striking examples of it shown
in Table IV. are only typical of what has been going on continuously
since 1868. Note, for instance, a reduction of some 35% in the
total cost, and an even greater reduction in the cost of labour,
reaching in one case 54%, in a period of between seven and ten
years. This great economy is not due to reduction in wages. According
to Mr Carnegie, in one of the largest American steel works
the average wages in 1900 for all persons paid by the day, including
labourers, mechanics and boys, were more than $4 (say, 16s. 6d.) a day
for the 311 working days. How economical the methods of mining,
transportation and manufacture have become is shown by the fact
that steel billets have been sold at $13.96 (£2, 17s. 8d.) per ton, and
in very large quantities at $15 (£3, 2s.) per ton in the latter case,
according to Mr Carnegie, without further loss than that represented
by interest, although the cost of each ton includes that of mining
2 tons of ore and carrying them 1000 miles, mining and coking 1.3
tons of coal and carrying its coke 50 m., and quarrying one-third
of a ton of limestone and carrying it 140 m., besides the cost of
smelting the ore, converting the resultant cast iron into steel, and
rolling that steel into rails.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table V.</span>&mdash;<i>Reduction in Price of Certain Products.</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Yearly average Price in Pennsylvania, gross tons.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Bar (Wrought)<br />Iron.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wrought Iron<br />Rails.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Steel<br />Rails.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. 1<br />Foundry<br />Pig Iron.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr">$100.50</td> <td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="4">Hammered</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1815</td> <td class="tcr">144.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1824</td> <td class="tcr">82.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1837</td> <td class="tcr">111.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr">59.54</td> <td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="9">Best<br />refined<br />rolled</td> <td class="tcc rb">$47.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">$20.88</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr">106.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">98.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">$158.46<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">46.08</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr">78.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">106.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.23</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr">62.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">67.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.48</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr">45.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.18<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">31.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.41</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr">28.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.39<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">17.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.66</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr">44.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.51<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">32.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.98</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.03<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">28.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.98</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr bb">31.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.25<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17.25</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> July 1st.<br />
<span class="sp">2</span> Old. <i>i.e.</i> second-hand wrought iron rails.<br />
<span class="sp">3</span> 1868.</p>

<p class="pt2">Table V. shows the reduction in prices. The price of wrought iron
in Philadelphia reached $155 (£32, 0s. 8d.) in 1815, and, after
declining to $80 (£16, 10s. 8d.), again reached $115 (£23, 15s. 4d.) in
1837. Bessemer steel rails sold at $174 in the depreciated currency
of 1868 (equivalent to about £25, 17s. 4d. in gold), and at $17
(£3, 10s. 3d.) in 1898.</p>

<p>133. <i>Increase in Production.</i>&mdash;In 1810 the United States made
about 7%, and in 1830, 1850 and 1860 not far from 10% of the
world&rsquo;s production of pig iron, though, indeed, in 1820 their production
was only about one-third as great as in 1810. But after the
close of the Civil War the production increased by leaps and bounds,
till in 1907 it was thirty-one times as great as in 1865; and the
percentage which it formed of the world&rsquo;s production rose to some
14% in 1870, 21% in 1880, 35% in 1900 and 43% in 1907. In this
last year the United States production of pig iron was nearly 7 times,
and that of Germany and Luxemburg nearly 5 times, that of 1880.
In this same period the production of Great Britain increased 28%,
and that of the world more than tripled. The corresponding changes
in the case of steel are even more striking. The United States production
in 1907 was 1714 times that of 1865, and the proportion which it
formed of the world&rsquo;s steel rose from 3% in 1865 to 10% in 1870,
30% in 1880; 36% in 1890, 40% in 1899 and 46% in 1907. In
1907 the British steel production was nearly five times, that of the
United States, nearly nineteen times as great as in 1880. Of the
combined wrought iron and steel of the United States, steel formed
only 2% in 1865, but 37% in 1880, 85% in 1899 and 91% in 1907.
Thus in the nineteen years between 1880 and 1899 the age of iron
gave place to that of steel.</p>

<p>The <i>per capita</i> consumption of iron in Great Britain, excluding
exports, has been calculated as 144 &#8468; in 1855 and 250 &#8468; in 1890, that
of the United States as 117 &#8468; for 1855, 300 &#8468; for 1890 and some
378 &#8468; for 1899, and that of the United Kingdom, the United States
and Germany for 1906 as about a quarter of a ton, so that the British
<i>per capita</i> consumption is about four-fold and the American about
five-fold that of 1855. This great increase in the <i>per capita</i> consumption
of iron by the human race is of course but part of the
general advance in wealth and civilization. Among the prominent
causes of this increase is the diversion of mankind from agricultural
to manufacturing, <i>i.e.</i> machinery-using work, nearly all machinery
being necessarily made of iron. This diversion may be unwelcome,
but it is inevitable for the two simple reasons that the wonderful
improvements in agriculture decrease the number of men needed
to raise a given quantity of food, <i>i.e.</i> to feed the rest of the race; and
that with every decade our food forms a smaller proportion of our
needs, so rapidly do these multiply and diversify. Among the other
causes of the increase of the <i>per capita</i> consumption of iron are the
displacement of wood by iron for ships and bridge-building; the
great extension of the use of iron beams, columns and other pieces in
constructing buildings of various kinds; the growth of steam and
electric railways; and the introduction of iron fencing. The increased
importance of Germany and Luxemburg may be referred in
large part to the invention of the basic Bessemer and open-hearth
processes by Thomas, who by them gave an inestimable value to the
phosphoric ores of these countries. That of the United States is due
in part to the growth of its population; to the introduction of
labour-saving machinery in iron manufacture; to the grand scale on
which this manufacture is carried on; and to the discovery of the
cheap and rich ores of the Mesabi region of Lake Superior. But,
given all these, the 1000 m. which separate the ore fields of Lake
Superior from the cheap coal of Pennsylvania would have handicapped
the American iron industry most seriously but for the remarkable
cheapening of transportation which has occurred. As this
in turn has been due to the very men who have developed the iron
industry, it can hardly be questioned that, on further analysis, this
development must in considerable part be referred to racial qualities.
The same is true of the German iron development. We may note
with interest that the three great iron producers so closely related
by blood&mdash;Great Britain, the United States and Germany and
Luxemburg&mdash;made in 1907 81% of the world&rsquo;s pig iron and 83% of
its steel; and that the four great processes by which nearly all steel
and wrought iron are made&mdash;the puddling, crucible and both the
acid and basic varieties of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes,
as well as the steam-hammer and grooved rolls for rolling iron and
steel&mdash;were invented by Britons, though in the case of the open-hearth
process Great Britain must share with France the credit of
the invention.</p>

<p>Tables VI., VII., VIII. and IX. are compiled mainly from figures
given in J. M. Swank&rsquo;s <i>Reports</i> (American Iron and Steel Association).
Other authorities are indicated as follows: <span class="sp">a</span>, <i>The Mineral
Industry</i> (1892); <span class="sp">b</span>, <i>Idem</i> (1899); <span class="sp">c</span>, <i>Idem</i> (1907); <span class="sp">e</span>, <i>Journal Iron
and Steel Institute</i> (1881), 2; <span class="sp">i</span>, Eckel in <i>Mineral Resources of the
United States</i>, (published by the United States Geological Survey
(1906), pp. 92-93.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span></p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VI.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Pig Iron (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">United States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Great<br />Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Germany and<br />Luxemburg.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The World.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">825</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,825</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">565</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,750</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr rb">832</td> <td class="tcr rb">4825</td> <td class="tcr rb">972</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,250</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">5964</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,369</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,900</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">7749</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,685</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,950</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,203</td> <td class="tcr rb">7904</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,157</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,789</td> <td class="tcr rb">8960</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,386</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,973<span class="sp">c</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">25,781</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9924</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,672</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">59,721<span class="sp">c</span></td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VII.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Pig Iron in the United States (in
thousands of long tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Anthracite.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Charcoal.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coke and<br />Bituminous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">1614</td> <td class="tcc rb">480</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;1,741</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">1299</td> <td class="tcc rb">357</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;2,389</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,045</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">2186</td> <td class="tcc rb">628</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,203</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">1271</td> <td class="tcc rb">225</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,446</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1677</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,728</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,789</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1372</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">437</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23,972</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">25,781</td></tr>
</table>

<p>&ldquo;Anthracite&rdquo; here includes iron made with anthracite and coke
mixed, &ldquo;Bituminous&rdquo; includes iron made with coke, with raw
bituminous coal, or with both, and &ldquo;Charcoal&rdquo; in 1900 and 1907
includes iron made either with charcoal alone or with charcoal mixed
with coke.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VIII.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Wrought Iron, also that of Bloomary Iron
(in thousands of long tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wrought Iron.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bloomary Iron<br />direct from the Ore.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">1153</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2083(<span class="sp">1</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2518(<span class="sp">1</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">1202</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2200</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;975</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><span class="sp">1</span> Hammered products are excluded.</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IX.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Steel (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bessemer.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Open-<br />Hearth.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crucible<br />and<br />Miscellaneous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1870.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;31</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">292<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">(for 1873)</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">692<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1880.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;72</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,247</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,044</td> <td class="tcr rb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;80</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,375</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">608<span class="sp">a</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">87<span class="sp">a</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,205<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1890.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,689</td> <td class="tcr rb">513</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;75</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,277</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,015</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,564</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,679</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,127</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,902<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1900.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,685</td> <td class="tcr rb">853</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">105</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">10,188</td></tr>
       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,545</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tclm lb cl" rowspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,254</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">3,156</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">149</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">5,050</td></tr>
       <tr><td class="tcl rb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">491</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,541</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,273</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1907.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,270</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">145</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">23,363</td></tr>
       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,279</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,385</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">6,523<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">579</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,279</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tclm lb cl">Germany and</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">381<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">209<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">208<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">11,873</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb cl">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,098<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">3,976<span class="sp">1</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">50,375</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> Ingots only.<br />
 <span class="sp">2</span> Bessemer and open hearth only.<br />
 <span class="sp">3</span> Castings.</p>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table X.</span>&mdash;<i>Tonnage (gross register) of Iron and Steel Vessels built
under Survey of Lloyd&rsquo;s Registry (in thousands of tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wrought Iron</td> <td class="tcr rb">443</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcr rb">304</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Steel</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">162</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1079</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">863</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1305</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1492</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XI.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Iron Ore (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1907.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,526</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">47,750</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">51,721</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany and Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,074</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,312</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,260</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,591</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,732</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9,299</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7,279</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8,347</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5,954<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,812</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,330<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,297</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,431</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,639</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,024</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other Countries</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,457</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,297</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">113,751</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcc allb">123,773</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> Calculated from the production of pig iron.<br />
 <span class="sp">2</span> Approximately.</p>
</div>

<div class="author">(H. M. H.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;iron&rdquo; was in O. Eng. <i>iren</i>, <i>isern</i> or <i>isen</i>, cf. Ger. <i>Eisen</i>,
Dut. <i>ysen</i>, Swed. <i>järn</i>, Dan. <i>jern</i>; the original Teut. base is <i>isarn</i>, and
cognates are found in Celtic, Ir. <i>iarun</i>, Gael, <i>iarunn</i>, Breton, <i>houarn</i>,
&amp;c. The ulterior derivation is unknown; connexion has been
suggested without much probability with <i>is</i>, ice, from its hard bright
surface, or with Lat. <i>ars</i>, <i>aeris</i>, brass. The change from <i>isen</i> to <i>iren</i>
(in 16th cent. <i>yron</i>) is due to rhotacism, but whether direct from
<i>isen</i> or through <i>isern</i>, <i>irern</i> is doubtful. &ldquo;Steel&rdquo; represents the
O. Eng. <i>stél</i> or <i>stéle</i> (the true form; only found, however, with spelling
<i>stýle</i>, cf. <i>stýl-ecg</i>, steel-edged), cognate with Ger. <i>Stahl</i>, Dut. and Dan.
<i>staal</i>, &amp;c.; the word is not found outside Teutonic. Skeat (<i>Etym.
Dict.</i>, 1898) finds the ultimate origin in the Indo-European base
<i>stak</i>-, to be firm or still, and compares Lat. <i>stagnum</i>, standing-water.</p>

<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; is the last-freezing part of an alloy, and corresponds
to what the mother-liquor of a saline solution would become if such
a solution, after the excess of saline matter had been crystallized out,
were finally completely frozen. It is the mother-liquor or &ldquo;bittern&rdquo;
frozen. Its striking characteristics are: (1) that for given metals
alloyed together its composition is fixed, and does not vary with the
proportions in which those metals are present, because any &ldquo;excess
metal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> so much of either metal as is present in excess over the
eutectic ratio, freezes out before the eutectic; (2) that though thus
constant, its composition is not in simple atomic proportions; (3)
that its freezing-point is constant; and (4) that, when first formed, it
habitually consists of interstratified plates of the metals which
compose it. If the alloy has a composition very near that of its own
eutectic, then when solidified it of course contains a large proportion
of the eutectic, and only a small proportion of the excess metal. If
it differs widely from the eutectic in composition, then when solidified
it consists of only a small quantity of eutectic and a very large
quantity of the excess metal. But, far below the freezing-point,
transformations may take place in the solid metal, and follow a course
quite parallel with that of freezing, though with no suggestion of
liquidity. A &ldquo;eutectoid&rdquo; is to such a transformation in solid metal
what a eutectic is to freezing proper. It is the last part of the metal
to undergo this transformation and, when thus transformed, it is of
constant though not atomic composition, and habitually consists
of interstratified plates of its component metals.</p>

<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Note the distinction between the &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; or alloy of lowest
freezing-point, 1130°, B, with 4.30% of carbon, and the &ldquo;eutectoid,&rdquo;
hardenite and pearlite, or alloy of lowest transformation-point,
690° S, with 0.90% of carbon. (See § 17.)</p>

<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The length of the blow varies very greatly, in general increasing
with the proportion of silicon and with the size of charge. Thus
the small Swedish charges with but little silicon may be blown in
5 minutes, but for a 20-ton charge the time is more likely to reach,
or exceed 10 minutes, and sometimes reaches 20 minutes or even
more.</p>

<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A &ldquo;billet&rdquo; is a bar, 5 in. sq. or smaller, drawn down from a
bloom, ingot, or pile for further manufacture.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON MASK<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<i>masque de fer</i>). The identity of the &ldquo;man in
the iron mask&rdquo; is a famous historical mystery. The person
so called was a political prisoner under Louis XIV., who died
in the Bastille in 1703. To the mask itself no real importance
attaches, though that feature of the story gave it a romantic
interest; there is no historical evidence that the mask he was
said always to wear was made of anything but black velvet
(<i>velours</i>), and it was only afterwards that legend converted its
material into iron. As regards the &ldquo;man,&rdquo; we have the contemporary
official journals of Étienne du Junca (d. 1706), the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
king&rsquo;s lieutenant at the Bastille, from which we learn that on the
18th of September 1698 a new governor, Bénigne D&rsquo;Auvergne
de Saint-Mars, arrived from the fortress of the Isles Ste
Marguerite (in the bay of Cannes), bringing with him &ldquo;un
ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait à Pignerol&rdquo; (Pinerolo, in Piedmont),
whom he kept always masked and whose name remained untold.
(Saint-Mars, it may here be noted, had been commandant at
Pignerol from the end of 1664 till 1681; he was in charge there
of such important prisoners as Fouquet, from 1665 to his death
in 1680, and Lauzun, from 1671 till his release in 1681; he was
then in authority at Exiles from 1681 to 1687, and at Ste
Marguerite from 1687 to 1698). Du Junca subsequently records
that &ldquo;on Monday the 19th of November 1703, the unknown
prisoner, always masked with a black velvet mask, whom M. de
Saint-Mars had brought with him from the islands of Ste
Marguerite, and had kept for a long time,... died at about ten
o&rsquo;clock in the evening.&rdquo; He adds that &ldquo;this unknown prisoner
was buried on the 20th in the parish cemetery of Saint Paul,
and was registered under a name also unknown&rdquo;&mdash;noting in the
margin that he has since learnt that the name in the register
was &ldquo;M. de Marchiel.&rdquo; The actual name in the register of
the parish cemetery of Saint Paul (now destroyed, but a facsimile
is still in existence) was &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo;; and the age of the
deceased was there given as &ldquo;about 45.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The identity of this prisoner was already, it will be observed,
a mystery before he died in 1703, and soon afterwards we begin
to see the fruit of the various legends concerning him which
presumably started as early as 1670, when Saint-Mars himself
(see below) found it necessary to circulate &ldquo;fairy tales&rdquo; (<i>contes
jaunes</i>). In 1711 the Princess Palatine wrote to the Electress
Sophia of Hanover, and suggested that he was an English
nobleman who had taken part in a plot of the duke of Berwick
against William III. Voltaire, in his <i>Siècle de Louis XIV</i> (1751),
told the story of the mysterious masked prisoner with many
graphic details; and, under the heading of &ldquo;Ana&rdquo; in the
<i>Questions sur l&rsquo;encyclopédie</i> (Geneva, 1771), he asserted that
he was a bastard brother of Louis XIV., son of Mazarin and
Anne of Austria. Voltaire&rsquo;s influence in creating public interest
in the &ldquo;man in the mask&rdquo; was indeed enormous; he had himself
been imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and again in 1726; as
early as 1745 he is found hinting that he knows something;
in the <i>Siècle de Louis XIV</i> he justifies his account on the score
of conversations with de Bernaville, who succeeded Saint-Mars
(d. 1708) as governor of the Bastille, and others; and after Heiss
in 1770 had identified the &ldquo;mask&rdquo; with Mattioli (see below),
Voltaire was not above suggesting that he really knew more than
he had said, but thought it sufficient to have given the clue to the
enigma. According to the Abbé Soulavie, the duke of Richelieu&rsquo;s
advice was to reflect on Voltaire&rsquo;s &ldquo;last utterances&rdquo; on the
subject. In Soulavie&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> of Richelieu (London, 1790)
the masked man becomes (on the authority of an apocryphal
note by Saint-Mars himself) the legitimate twin brother of Louis
XIV. In 1801 the story went that this scion of the royal house of
France had a son born to him in prison, who settled in Corsica
under the name of &ldquo;De Buona Parte,&rdquo; and became the ancestor
of Napoleon! Dumas&rsquo;s <i>Vicomte de Bragelonne</i> afterwards did
much to popularize the theory that he was the king&rsquo;s brother.
Meanwhile other identifications, earlier or later, were also
supported, in whose case the facts are a sufficient refutation.
He was Louis, count of Vermandois, son of Louise de la Vallière
(<i>Mémoires secrets pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de Perse</i>, Amsterdam,
1745); Vermandois, however, died in 1683. He was the duke
of Monmouth (<i>Lettre de Sainte Foy</i> ... Amsterdam, 1768),
although Monmouth was beheaded in 1685. He was François
de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort, who disappeared (and pretty
certainly died) at the siege of Candia (1669); Avedick, an
Armenian patriarch seized by the Jesuits, who was not imprisoned
till 1706 and died in 1711; Fouquet, who undoubtedly died at
Pignerol in 1680; and even, according to A. Loquin (1883),
Molière!</p>

<p>Modern criticism, however, has narrowed the issue. The
&ldquo;man in the mask&rdquo; was either (1) Count Mattioli, who became
the prisoner of Saint-Mars at Pignerol in 1679, or (2) the person
called Eustache Dauger, who was imprisoned in July 1669
in the same fortress. The evidence shows conclusively that
these two were the only prisoners under Saint-Mars at Pignerol
who could have been taken by him to the Bastille in 1698.
The arguments in favour of Mattioli (first suggested by Heiss,
and strongly supported by Topin in 1870) are summed up,
with much weight of critical authority, by F. Funck-Brentano
in vol. lvi. of the <i>Revue historique</i> (1894); the claims of Eustache
Dauger were no less ably advocated by J. Lair in vol. ii. of his
<i>Nicolas Foucquet</i> (1890). But while we know who Mattioli
was, and why he was imprisoned, a further question still remains
for supporters of Dauger, because his identity and the reason
for his incarceration are quite obscure.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>It need only be added, so far as other modern theories are concerned,
that in 1873 M. Jung (<i>La Vérité sur la masque de fer</i>) had
brought forward another candidate, with the attractive name of
&ldquo;Marechiel,&rdquo; a soldier of Lorraine who had taken part in a poisoning
plot against Louis XIV., and was arrested at Peronne by Louvois in
1673, and said to be lodged in the Bastille and then sent to Pignerol.
But Jung&rsquo;s arguments, though strong destructively against the
Mattioli theory, break down as regards any valid proof either that the
prisoner arrested at Peronne was a Bastille prisoner in 1673 or that
he was ever at Pignerol, where indeed we find no trace of him.
Another theory, propounded by Captain Bazeries (<i>La Masque de fer</i>,
1883), identified the prisoner with General du Bulonde, punished for
cowardice at the siege of Cuneo; but Bulonde only went to Pignerol
in 1691, and has been proved to be living in 1705.</p>
</div>

<p><i>The Mattioli Theory</i>.&mdash;Ercole Antonio Mattioli (born at
Bologna on the 1st of December 1640) was minister of Charles
IV., duke of Mantua, who as marquess of Montferrat was in
possession of the frontier fortress of Casale, which was coveted
by Louis XIV. He negotiated the sale of Casale to the French
king for 100,000 crowns, and himself received valuable presents
from Louis. But on the eve of the occupation of Casale by the
French, Mattioli&mdash;actuated by a tardy sense of patriotism or
by the hope of further gain&mdash;betrayed the transaction to the
governments of Austria, Spain, Venice and Savoy. Louis,
in revenge, had him kidnapped (1679) by the French envoy,
J. F. d&rsquo;Estrades, abbé of Moissac, and Mattioli was promptly
lodged in the fortress of Pignerol. This kidnapping of Mattioli,
however, was no secret, and it was openly discussed in <i>La Prudenza
trionfante di Casale</i> (Cologne, 1682), where it was stated
that Mattioli was masked when he was arrested. In February
1680 he is described as nearly mad, no doubt from the effects
of solitary confinement. When Saint-Mars was made governor
of Exiles in 1681 we know from one of his letters that Mattioli
was left at Pignerol; but in March 1694, Pignerol being about
to be given up by France to Savoy, he and two other prisoners
were removed with much secrecy to Ste Marguerite, where
Saint-Mars had been governor since 1687. Funck-Brentano
emphasizes the fact that, although Eustache Dauger was then
at Ste Marguerite, the king&rsquo;s minister Barbezieux, writing
to Saint-Mars (March 20, 1694) about the transfer of these
prisoners, says: &ldquo;You know that they are of more consequence
(<i>plus de conséquence</i>), at least one&rdquo; (presumably Mattioli),
&ldquo;than those who are at present at the island.&rdquo; From this
point, however, the record is puzzling. A month after his
arrival at Ste Marguerite, a prisoner who had a valet died there.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
Now Mattioli undoubtedly had a valet at Pignerol, and nobody
else at Ste Marguerite is known at this time to have had one;
so that he may well have been the prisoner who died. In that
case he was clearly not &ldquo;the mask&rdquo; of 1698 and 1703. Funck-Brentano&rsquo;s
attempt to prove that Mattioli did <i>not</i> die in 1604
is far from convincing; but the assumption that he did is
inferential, and to that extent arguable. &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo; in the
burial register of Saint Paul naturally suggests indeed at first
that the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; taken by Saint-Mars to the
Bastille in 1698 was Mattioli, Saint-Mars himself sometimes
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
writing the name &ldquo;Marthioly&rdquo; in his letters; but further
consideration leaves this argument decidedly weak. In any
case the age stated in the burial register, &ldquo;about 45,&rdquo; was
fictitious, whether for Mattioli (63) or Dauger (at least 53);
and, as Lair points out, Saint-Mars is known to have given
false names at the burial of other prisoners. Monsignor Barnes,
in <i>The Man of the Mask</i> (1908), takes the entry &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo;
as making it certain that the prisoner was not Mattioli, on the
ground (1) that the law<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> explicitly ordered a false name to be
given, and (2) that after hiding his identity so carefully the
authorities were not likely to give away the secret by means
of a burial register.</p>

<p>In spite of Funck-Brentano it appears practically certain
that Mattioli must be ruled out. If he was the individual
who died in 1703 at the Bastille, the obscurity which gathered
round the nameless masked prisoner is almost incomprehensible,
for there was no real secret about Mattioli&rsquo;s incarceration.
The existence of a &ldquo;legend&rdquo; as to Dauger can, however, be
traced, as will be seen below, from the first. Any one who
accepts the Mattioli theory must be driven, as Lang suggests,
to suppose that the mystery which grew up about the unknown
prisoner was somehow transferred to Mattioli from Dauger.</p>

<p><i>The Dauger Theory.</i>&mdash;What then was Dauger&rsquo;s history?
Unfortunately it is only in his capacity as a prisoner that we
can trace it. On the 19th of July 1669 Louvois, Louis XIV.&rsquo;s
minister, writes to Saint-Mars at Pignerol that he is sending
him &ldquo;le nommé Eustache Dauger&rdquo; (Dauger, D&rsquo;Angers&mdash;the
spelling is doubtful),<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> whom it is of the last importance to
keep with special closeness; Saint-Mars is to threaten him with
death if he speaks about anything except his actual needs.
On the same day Louvois orders Vauroy, major of the citadel
of Dunkirk, to seize Dauger and conduct him to Pignerol. Saint-Mars
writes to Louvois (Aug. 21) that Vauroy had brought
Dauger, and that people &ldquo;believe him to be a marshal of France.&rdquo;
Louvois (March 26, 1670) refers to a report that one of Fouquet&rsquo;s
valets&mdash;there was constant trouble about them&mdash;had spoken
to Dauger, who asked to be left in peace, and he emphasizes
the importance of there being no communication. Saint-Mars
(April 12, 1670) reports Dauger as &ldquo;resigné à la volonté de
Dieu et du Roy,&rdquo; and (again the legend grows) says that &ldquo;there
are persons who are inquisitive about my prisoner, and I am
obliged to tell <i>contes jaunes pour me moquer d&rsquo;eux.</i>&rdquo; In 1672
Saint-Mars proposes&mdash;the significance of this action is discussed
later&mdash;to allow Dauger to act as &ldquo;valet&rdquo; to Lauzun; Louvois
firmly refuses, but in 1675 allows him to be employed as valet
to Fouquet, and he impresses upon Saint-Mars the importance
of nobody learning about Dauger&rsquo;s &ldquo;past.&rdquo; After Fouquet&rsquo;s
death (1680) Dauger and Fouquet&rsquo;s other (old-standing) valet
La Rivière are put together, by Louvois&rsquo;s special orders, in one
lower dungeon; Louvois evidently fears their knowledge of
things heard from Fouquet, and he orders Lauzun (who had
recently been allowed to converse freely with Fouquet) to be
told that they are released. When Saint-Mars is transferred
to Exiles, he is ordered to take these two with him, as too
important to be in other hands; Mattioli is left behind. At
Exiles they are separated and guarded with special precautions;
and in January 1687 one of them (all the evidence admittedly
pointing to La Rivière) dies. When Saint-Mars is again transferred,
in May 1687, to Ste Marguerite, he takes his &ldquo;prisoner&rdquo;
(apparently he now has only one&mdash;Dauger) with great show of
caution; and next year (Jan. 8, 1688) he writes to Louvois
that &ldquo;mon prisonnier&rdquo; is believed &ldquo;in all this province&rdquo; to
be a son of Oliver Cromwell, or else the duke of Beaufort (a
point which at once rules out Beaufort). In 1691 Louvois&rsquo;s
successor, Barbezieux, writes to him about his &ldquo;prisonnier
de vingt ans&rdquo; (Dauger was first imprisoned in 1669, Mattioli
in 1679), and Saint-Mars replies that &ldquo;nobody has seen him
but myself.&rdquo; Subsequently Barbezieux and the governor
continue to write to one another about their &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo;
(Jan. 6, 1696; Nov. 17, 1697). When, therefore, we come to
Saint-Mars&rsquo;s appointment to the Bastille in 1698, Dauger appears
almost certainly to be the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; he took with
him.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> There is at least good ground for supposing Mattioli&rsquo;s
death to have been indicated in 1694, but nothing is known that
would imply Dauger&rsquo;s, unless it was he who died in 1703.</p>

<p><i>Theories as to Dauger&rsquo;s Identity.</i>&mdash;Here we find not only
sufficient indication of the growth of a legend as to Dauger,
but also the existence in fact of a real mystery as to who he
was and what he had done, two things both absent in Mattioli&rsquo;s
case. The only &ldquo;missing link&rdquo; is the want of any precise
allusion to a mask in the references to Dauger. But in spite
of du Junca&rsquo;s emphasis on the mask, it is in reality very questionable
whether the wearing of a mask was an unusual practice.
It was one obvious way of enabling a prisoner to appear in
public (for exercise or in travelling) without betrayal of identity.
Indeed three years before the arrival of Saint-Mars we hear
(<i>Gazette d&rsquo;Amsterdam</i>, March 14, 1695) of another masked man
being brought to the Bastille, who eventually was known to be
the son of a Lyons banker.</p>

<p>Who then was Dauger, and what was his &ldquo;past&rdquo;? We will
take first a theory propounded by Andrew Lang in <i>The Valet&rsquo;s
Tragedy</i> (1903). As the result of research in the diplomatic
correspondence at the Record Office in London<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Mr Lang finds
a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot, Roux de Marsilly,
the secret agent for a Protestant league against France between
Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of
Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had
been negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II.&rsquo;s
knowledge), for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin
remaining behind. On the 14th of April 1669 Marsilly was
kidnapped for Louis XIV. in Switzerland, in defiance of international
right, taken to Paris and on the 22nd of June tortured
to death on a trumped-up charge of rape. The duke of York
is said to have betrayed him to Colbert, the French ambassador
in London. The English intrigue was undoubtedly a serious
matter, because the shifty Charles II. was at the same time
negotiating with Louis XIV. a secret alliance against Holland,
in support of the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England.
It would therefore be desirable for both parties to remove
anybody who was cognizant of the double dealing. Now
Louvois&rsquo;s original letter to Saint-Mars concerning Dauger
(July 19, 1669), after dealing with the importance of his being
guarded with special closeness, and of Saint-Mars personally
taking him food and threatening him with death if he speaks,
proceeds as follows (in a second paragraph, as printed in Delort,
i. 155, 156):&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;Je mande au Sieur Poupart de faire incessamment travailler à ce
que vous désirerez, et vous ferez préparer les meubles qui sont
nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera, observant que
comme ce n est qu&rsquo;un valet, il ne lui en faut pas de bien considérables,
et je vous ferai rembourser tant de la déspenses des meubles, que de
ce que vous désirerez pour sa nourriture.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>Assuming the words here, &ldquo;as he is only a valet,&rdquo; to refer
to Dauger, and taking into account the employment of Dauger
from 1675 to 1680 as Fouquet&rsquo;s valet, Mr Lang now obtains a
solution of the problem of why a mere valet should be a political
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
prisoner of so much concern to Louis XIV. at this time. He
points out that Colbert, on the 3rd, 10th and 24th of June,
writes from London to Louis XIV. about his efforts to get Martin,
Roux de Marsilly&rsquo;s valet, to go to France, and on the 1st of July
expresses a hope that Charles II. will surrender &ldquo;the valet.&rdquo;
Then, on the 19th of July, Dauger is arrested at Dunkirk,
the regular port from England. Mr Lang regards his conclusion
as to the identity between these valets as irresistible. It is
true that what is certainly known about Martin hardly seems
to provide sufficient reason for Eustache Dauger being regarded
for so long a time as a specially dangerous person. But Mr
Lang&rsquo;s answer on that point is that this humble supernumerary
in Roux de Marsilly&rsquo;s conspiracy simply became one more
wretched victim of the &ldquo;red tape&rdquo; of the old French absolute
monarchy.</p>

<p>Unfortunately for this identification, it encounters at once a
formidable, if not fatal, objection. Martin, the Huguenot
conspirator Marsilly&rsquo;s valet, must surely have been himself a
Huguenot. Dauger, on the other hand, was certainly a Catholic;
indeed Louvois&rsquo;s second letter to Saint-Mars about him (Sept. 10,
1669) gives precise directions as to his being allowed to attend
mass at the same time as Fouquet. It may perhaps be argued
that Dauger (if Martin) simply did not make bad worse by proclaiming
his creed; but against this, Louvois must have <i>known</i>
that Martin was a Huguenot. Apart from that, it will be observed
that the substantial reason for connecting the two men is simply
that both were &ldquo;valets.&rdquo; The identification is inspired by the
apparent necessity of an explanation why Dauger, being a valet,
should be a political prisoner of importance. The assumption,
however, that Dauger was a valet when he was arrested is itself
as unnecessary as the fact is intrinsically improbable. Neither
Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, 1669, nor Dauger&rsquo;s employment as
valet to Fouquet in 1675 (six years later)&mdash;and these are the only
grounds on which the assumption rests&mdash;prove anything of the
sort.</p>

<p>Was Dauger a valet? If Dauger was the &ldquo;mask,&rdquo; it is just
as well to remove a misunderstanding which has misled too
many commentators.</p>

<p>1. If Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19 be read in connexion with
the preceding correspondence it will be seen that ever since
Fouquet&rsquo;s incarceration in 1665 Saint-Mars had had trouble
over his valets. They fall ill, and there is difficulty in replacing
them, or they play the traitor. At last, on the 12th of March
1669, Louvois writes to Saint-Mars to say (evidently in answer
to some suggestion from Saint-Mars in a letter which is not
preserved): &ldquo;It is annoying that both Fouquet&rsquo;s valets should
have fallen ill at the same time, but you have so far taken such
good measures for avoiding inconvenience that I leave it to you
to adopt whatever course is necessary.&rdquo; There are then no
letters in existence from Saint-Mars to Louvois up to Louvois&rsquo;s
letter of July 19, in which he first refers to Dauger; and for
three months (from April 22 to July 19) there is a gap in the
correspondence, so that the sequence is obscure. The portion,
however, of the letter of the 19th of July, cited above, in which
Louvois uses the words &ldquo;ce n&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;un valet,&rdquo; does not, in the
present writer&rsquo;s judgment, refer to Dauger at all, but to something
which had been mooted in the meanwhile with a view to obtaining
a valet for Fouquet. This is indeed the natural reading of the
letter as a whole. If Louvois had meant to write that Dauger
was &ldquo;only a valet&rdquo; he would have started by saying so. On
the contrary, he gives precise and apparently comprehensive
directions in the first part of the letter about how he is to be
treated: &ldquo;Je vous en donne advis par advance, afin que vous
puissiez faire accomoder un cachot où vous le mettrez surement,
observant de faire en sorte que les jours qu&rsquo;aura le lieu où il sera ne
donnent point sur les lieux qui puissent estre abordez de personne,
et qu&rsquo;il y ayt assez de portes fermées, les unes sur les autres, pour
que vos sentinelles ne puissent bien entendre,&rdquo; &amp;c. Having
finished his instructions about Dauger, he then proceeds in a fresh
paragraph to tell Saint-Mars that orders have been given to &ldquo;Sieur
Poupart&rdquo; to do &ldquo;whatever you shall desire.&rdquo; He is here dealing
with a different question; and it is unreasonable to suppose.
and indeed contrary to the style in which Louvois corresponds
with Saint-Mars, that he devotes the whole letter to the one
subject with which he started. The words &ldquo;et vous ferez préparer
les meubles qui sont nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l&rsquo;on vous
aménera&rdquo; are not at all those which Louvois would use with
regard to Dauger, after what he has just said about him. Why
&ldquo;celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera,&rdquo; instead of simply &ldquo;Dauger,&rdquo;
who was being brought, as he has said, by Vauroy? The clue
to the interpretation of this phrase may be found in another
letter from Louvois not six months later (Jan. 1, 1670), when he
writes: &ldquo;Le roy se remet à vous d&rsquo;en uzer comme vous le jugerez
à propos à l&rsquo;esgard des valets de Monsieur Foucquet; il faut
seulement observer que si vous luy donnez des valets que l&rsquo;on vous
aménera d&rsquo;icy, il pourra bien arriver qu&rsquo;ils seront gaignez par
avance, et qu&rsquo;ainsy ils feroient pis que ceux que vous en osteriez
présentement.&rdquo; Here we have the identical phrase used of valets
whom it is contemplated to bring in from outside for Fouquet;
though it does not follow that any such valet was in fact brought
in. The whole previous correspondence (as well as a good deal
afterwards) is full of the valet difficulty; and it is surely more
reasonable to suppose that when Louvois writes to Saint-Mars
on the 19th of July that he is sending Dauger, a new prisoner
of importance, as to whom &ldquo;il est de la dernière importance
qu&rsquo;il soit gardé avec une grande seureté,&rdquo; his second paragraph
as regards the instructions to &ldquo;Sieur Poupart&rdquo; refers to something
which Saint-Mars had suggested about getting a valet
from outside, and simply points out that in preparing furniture
for &ldquo;celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera&rdquo; he need not do much, &ldquo;comme
ce n&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;un valet.&rdquo;</p>

<p>2. But this is not all. If Dauger had been originally a valet,
he might as well have been used as such at once, when one was
particularly wanted. On the contrary, Louvois flatly refused
Saint-Mars&rsquo;s request in 1672 to be allowed to do so, and was
exceedingly chary of allowing it in 1675 (only &ldquo;en cas de nécessité,&rdquo;
and &ldquo;vous pouvez donner le dit prisonnier à M. Foucquet, si
son valet venoit à luy manquer et non autrement&rdquo;). The words
used by Saint-Mars in asking Louvois in 1672 if he might use
Dauger as Lauzun&rsquo;s valet are themselves significant to the point
of conclusiveness: &ldquo;Il ferait, ce me semble, un bon valet.&rdquo;
Saint-Mars could not have said this if Dauger had all along been
<i>known</i> to be a valet. The terms of his letter to Louvois (Feb 20,
1672) show that Saint-Mars wanted to use Dauger as a valet
simply because he was <i>not</i> a valet. That a person might be used
as a valet who was not really a valet is shown by Louvois having
told Saint-Mars in 1666 (June 4) that Fouquet&rsquo;s old doctor,
Pecquet, was not to be allowed to serve him &ldquo;soit dans sa
profession, soit dans le mestier d&rsquo;un simple valet.&rdquo; The fact
was that Saint-Mars was hard put to it in the prison for anybody
who could be trusted, and that he had convinced himself by this
time that Dauger (who had proved a quiet harmless fellow)
would give no trouble. Probably he wanted to give him some
easy employment, and save him from going mad in confinement.
It is worth noting that up to 1672 (when Saint-Mars suggested
utilizing Dauger as valet to Lauzun) none of the references
to Dauger in letters after that of July 19, 1669, suggests his
being a valet; and their contrary character makes it all the
more clear that the second part of the letter of July 19 does not
refer to Dauger.</p>

<p>In this connexion it may be remarked (and this is a point
on which Funck-Brentano entirely misinterprets the allusion)
that, even in his capacity as valet to Fouquet, Dauger was still
regarded an as exceptional sort of prisoner; for in 1679 when
Fouquet and Lauzun were afterwards allowed to walk freely
all over the citadel, Louvois impresses on Saint-Mars that &ldquo;<i>le
nommé Eustache</i>&rdquo; is never to be allowed to be in Fouquet&rsquo;s
room when Lauzun or any other stranger, or anybody but
Fouquet and the &ldquo;<i>ancien valet</i>,&rdquo; La Rivière, is there, and that
he is to stay in Fouquet&rsquo;s room when the latter goes out to walk
in the citadel, and is only to go out walking with Fouquet and
La Rivière when they promenade in the special part of the
fortress previously set apart for them (Louvois&rsquo;s letter to Saint-Mars,
Jan. 30, 1670).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span></p>

<p><i>Was Dauger James de la Cloche?</i> In <i>The Man of the Mask</i>
(1908) Monsignor Barnes, while briefly dismissing Mr Lang&rsquo;s
identification with Martin, and apparently not realizing the
possibility of reading Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, 1669, as indicated
above<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> deals in detail with the history of James de la
Cloche, the natural son of Charles II. (acknowledged privately
as such by the king) in whom he attempts to unmask the personality
of Dauger. Mr Lang, in <i>The Valet&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, had some
years earlier ironically wondered why nobody made this suggestion,
which, however, he regarded as untenable. The story of
James de la Cloche is indeed itself another historical mystery;
he abruptly vanishes as such at Rome at the end of 1668, and
thus provides a disappearance of convenient date; but the
question concerning him is complicated by the fact that a James
Henry de Bovere Roano Stuardo, who married at Naples early
in 1669 and undoubtedly died in the following August, claiming
to be a son of Charles II., makes just afterwards an equally
abrupt appearance; in many respects the two men seem to be
the same, but Monsignor Barnes, following Lord Acton, here
regards James Stuardo as an impostor who traded on a knowledge
of James de la Cloche&rsquo;s secret. If the latter then did <i>not</i> die in
1669, what became of him? According to Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s
theory, James de la Cloche, who had been brought up to be a
Jesuit and knew his royal father&rsquo;s secret profession of Roman
Catholicism, was being employed by Charles II. as an intermediary
with the Catholic Church and with the object of making
him his own private confessor; he returned from Rome at the
beginning of 1669, and is then identified by Monsignor Barnes
with a certain Abbé Pregnani, an &ldquo;astrologer&rdquo; sent by Louis
in February 1669 to influence Charles II. towards the French
alliance. Pregnani, however, made a bad start by &ldquo;tipping
winners&rdquo; at Newmarket with disastrous results, and was
quickly recalled to France, actually departing on July 5th
(French 15th). But he too now disappears, though a letter
from Lionne (the French foreign secretary) to Colbert of July 17
(two days before Louvois&rsquo;s letter to Saint-Mars about Dauger) says
that he is expected in Paris. Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s theory is that
Pregnani <i>alias</i> James de la Cloche, without the knowledge of
Charles II., was arrested by order of Louis and imprisoned as
Dauger on account of his knowing too much about the French
schemes in regard to Charles II. This identification of Pregnani
with James de la Cloche is, however, intrinsically incredible.
We are asked to read into the Pregnani story a deliberate intrigue
on Charles&rsquo;s part for an excuse for having James de la Cloche
in England. But this does not at all seem to square with the
facts given in the correspondence, and it is hard to understand
why Charles should have allowed Pregnani to depart, and should
not have taken any notice of his son&rsquo;s &ldquo;disappearance.&rdquo; There
would still remain, no doubt, the possibility that Pregnani,
though not James de la Cloche, was nevertheless the &ldquo;man in
the mask.&rdquo; But even then the dates will not suit; for Lionne
wrote to Colbert on July 27, saying, &ldquo;Pregnani has been so
slow on his voyage that he has only given me (<i>m&rsquo;a rendu</i>) your
despatch of July 4 several days after I had already received
those of the 8th and the 11th.&rdquo; Allowing for the French style
of dating this means that instead of arriving in Paris by July 18,
Pregnani only saw Lionne there at earliest on July 25. This
seems to dispose of his being sent to Pignerol on the 19th.
Apart altogether, however, from such considerations, it now
seems fairly certain, from Mr Lang&rsquo;s further research into the
problem of James de la Cloche (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">La Cloche</a></span>), that the latter
<i>was</i> identical with the &ldquo;Prince&rdquo; James Stuardo who died in
Naples in 1669, and that he hoaxed the general of the Jesuits
and forged a number of letters purporting to be from Charles II.
which were relied on in Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s book; so that the
theory breaks down at all points.</p>

<p>The identification of Dauger thus still remains the historical
problem behind the mystery of the &ldquo;man in the mask.&rdquo; He
was not the valet Martin; he was not a valet at all when he was
sent to Pignerol; he was not James de la Cloche. The fact
nevertheless that he was employed as a valet, even in special
circumstances, for Fouquet, makes it difficult to believe that
Dauger was a man of any particular social standing. We may
be forced to conclude that the interest of the whole affair, so far
as authentic history is concerned, is really nugatory, and that
the romantic imagination has created a mystery in a fact of no
importance.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The correspondence between Saint-Mars and
Louvois is printed by J. Delort in <i>Histoire de la détention des
philosophes</i> (1829). Apart from the modern studies by Lair, Funck-Brentano,
Lang and Barnes, referred to above, there is valuable
historical matter in the work of Roux-Fazaillac, <i>Recherches historiques
sur l&rsquo;homme au masque de fer</i> (1801); see also Marius Topin, <i>L&rsquo;Homme
au masque de fer</i> (Paris, 1870), and Loiseleur, <i>Trois Énigmes historiques</i>
(1882).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Barbezieux to Saint-Mars, May 10, 1694: &ldquo;J&rsquo;ai reçu la lettre que
vous avez pris la peine de m&rsquo;écrire le 29 du mois passé; vous pouvez,
suivant que vous le proposez, faire mettre dans la prison voûtée le
valet du prisonnier qui est mort.&rdquo; It may be noted that Barbezieux
had recently told Saint-Mars to designate his prisoners by circumlocutions
in his correspondence, and not by name.</p>

<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> He cites Bingham&rsquo;s <i>Bastille</i>, i. 27.</p>

<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It was the common practice to give pseudonyms to prisoners,
and this is clearly such a case. Mattioli&rsquo;s prison name was Lestang.</p>

<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Funck-Brentano argues that &ldquo;un ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait
à Pignerol&rdquo; (du Junca&rsquo;s words) cannot apply to Dauger, because
then du Junca would have added &ldquo;et à Exiles.&rdquo; But this is decidedly
far-fetched; du Junca would naturally refer specially to
Pignerol, the fortress with which Saint-Mars had been originally and
particularly associated. Funck-Brentano also insists that the
references to the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; in 1696 and 1697 must be to
Mattioli, giving <i>ancien</i> the meaning of &ldquo;late&rdquo; or &ldquo;former&rdquo; (as in the
phrase &ldquo;ancien ministre&rdquo;), and regarding it as an expression
pertinent to Mattioli, who had been at Pignerol with Saint-Mars but
not at Exiles, and not to Dauger, who had always been with Saint-Mars.
But when he attempts to force du Junca&rsquo;s phrase &ldquo;un
ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait à Pignerol&rdquo; into this sense, he is
straining language. The natural interpretation of the word <i>ancien</i>
is simply &ldquo;of old standing,&rdquo; and Barbezieux&rsquo;s use of it, coming after
Louvois&rsquo;s phrase in 1691, clearly points to Dauger being meant.</p>

<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This identification had been previously suggested by H. Montaudon
in <i>Revue de la société des études historiques</i> for 1888, p. 452, and
by A. le Grain in <i>L&rsquo;Intermédiaire des chercheurs</i> for 1891, col.
227-228.</p>

<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The view taken by Monsignor Barnes of the phrase &ldquo;<i>Ce n&rsquo;est
qu&rsquo;un valet</i>&rdquo; in Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, is that (reading this part
of the letter as a continuation of what precedes) the mere fact of
Louvois&rsquo;s saying that Dauger is only a valet means that that was
just what he was not! Monsignor Barnes is rather too apt to employ
the method of interpretation by contraries, on the ground that in
such letters the writer always concealed the real facts.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON MOUNTAIN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dickinson
county, Michigan, U.S.A., about 50 m. W. by N. of Escanaba,
in the S.W. part of the Upper Peninsula. Pop. (1900) 9242,
of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1904) 8585; (1910) 9216. It
is served by the Chicago &amp; North Western and the Chicago,
Milwaukee &amp; Saint Paul railways. The city is situated about
1160 ft. above sea-level in an iron-mining district, and the mining
of iron ore (especially at the Great Chapin Iron Mine) is its
principal industry. Iron Mountain was settled in 1879, and
was chartered in 1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRONSIDES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a nickname given to one of great bravery, strength
or endurance, particularly as exhibited in a soldier. In English
history Ironside or Ironsides first appears as the name of Edmund
II., king of the English. In the Great Rebellion it was first given
by Prince Rupert to Cromwell, after the battle of Marston Moor
in 1644 (see S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>,
1893, vol. ii. p. 1, and <i>Mercurius civicus</i>, September 19-26, 1644,
quoted there). From Cromwell it was transferred to the troopers
of his cavalry, those &ldquo;God-fearing men,&rdquo; raised and trained
by him in an iron discipline, who were the main instrument of
the parliamentary victories in the field. This (see S. R. Gardiner,
<i>op. cit.</i> iv. 179) was first given at the raising of the siege
of Pontefract 1648, but did not become general till later.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRONTON,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 142 m. E.S.E. of Cincinnati.
Pop. (1890) 10,939; (1900) 11,868, of whom 924 were negroes
and 714 foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,147. It is served by
the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton,
the Norfolk and Western, and the Detroit, Toledo and Ironton
railways, and by river steamboats. The city is built on a plain
at the base of hills rising from the river bottom and abounding
in iron ore and bituminous coal; fire and pottery clay also
occur in the vicinity. Besides mining, Ironton has important
lumber interests, considerable river traffic, and numerous
manufactures, among which are iron, wire, nails, machinery,
stoves, fire-brick, pressed brick, terra-cotta, cement, carriages
and wagons, and furniture. The total value of its factory
product in 1905 was $4,755,304; in 1900, $5,410,528. The
municipality owns and operates its water-works. Ironton was
first settled in 1848, and in 1851 was incorporated.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRONWOOD,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city of Gogebic county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Montreal river, in the N.W. part of the upper peninsula.
Pop. (1890) 7745; (1900) 9705, of whom 4615 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 12,821. It is served by the Chicago and Northwestern
and the Wisconsin Central railways. The city is
situated about 1500 ft. above sea-level in the Gogebic iron-district,
and is principally a mining town; some of the largest
iron mines in the United States are within the city limits.
Ironwood was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in
1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRON-WOOD,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the name applied to several kinds of timber,
the produce of trees from different parts of the tropics, and
belonging to very different natural families. Usually the
wood is extremely hard, dense and dark-coloured, and sinks
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
in water. Several species of <i>Sideroxylon</i> (<i>Sapotaceae</i>) yield
iron-wood, <i>Sideroxylon cinereum</i> or <i>Bojerianum</i> being the
<i>bois de fer blanc</i> of Africa and Mauritius, and the name is
also given to species of <i>Metrosideros</i> (<i>Myrtaceae</i>) and <i>Diospyros</i>
(<i>Ebenaceae</i>).</p>

<p>West Indian iron-wood is the produce of <i>Colubrina reclinata</i>
(and <i>C. ferruginosa</i> (<i>Rhamnaceae</i>), and of <i>Aegiphila martinicensis
Verbenacae</i>). <i>Ixora</i> (<i>Siderodendron</i>) <i>triflorum</i> (<i>Rubiaceae</i>) is
the <i>bois de fer</i> of Martinique, and Zanthoxylum <i>Pterota</i> (<i>Rutaceae</i>)
is the iron-wood of Jamaica, while <i>Robinia Ponacoco</i> (<i>Leguminosae</i>)
is described as the iron-wood of Guiana. The iron-wood
of India and Ceylon is the produce of <i>Mesua ferrea</i> (<i>Guttiferae</i>).
The iron-wood tree of Pegu and Arracan is <i>Xylia dolabriformis</i>
(<i>Leguminosae</i>), described as the most important timber-tree
of Burma after teak, and known as <i>pyingado</i>. The endemic
<i>bois de fer</i> of Mauritius, once frequent in the primeval woods,
but now becoming very scarce, is <i>Stadtmannia Sideroxylon</i>
(<i>Sapindaceae</i>), while <i>Cossignya pinnata</i> is known as the <i>bois
de fer de Judas</i>. In Australia species of <i>Acacia</i>, <i>Casuarina</i>,
<i>Eucalyptus</i>, <i>Melaleuca</i>, <i>Myrtus</i>, and other genera are known
more or less widely as iron-wood. Tasmanian iron-wood is the
produce of <i>Notelaea ligustrina</i> (<i>Oleaceae</i>), and is chiefly used for
making ships&rsquo; blocks. The iron-wood or lever-wood of North
America is the timber of the American hop hornbeam, <i>Ostrya
virginica</i> (<i>Cupuliferae</i>). In Brazil <i>Apuleia ferrea</i> and <i>Caesalpinia
ferrea</i> yield a kind of iron-wood, called, however, the <i>Pao ferro</i>
or false iron-wood.</p>

<p>IRON-WORK, as an ornament in medieval architecture,
is chiefly confined to the hinges, &amp;c., of doors and of church
chests, &amp;c. Specimens of Norman iron-work are very rare.
Early English specimens are numerous and very elaborate.
In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass of scroll
work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar ornaments.
In both these periods the design evidently partakes of the feeling
exhibited in the stone or wood carving. In the Decorated period
the scroll work is more graceful, and, like the foliage of the time,
more natural. As styles progressed, there was a greater desire
that the framing of the doors should be richer, and the ledges
were chamfered or raised, then panelled, and at last the doors
became a mass of scroll panelling. This, of course, interfered
with the design of the hinges, the ornamentation of which
gradually became unusual. In almost all styles the smaller
and less important doors had merely plain strap-hinges, terminating
in a few bent scrolls, and latterly in <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>. Escutcheon
and ring handles, and the other furniture, partook more or less
of the character of the time. On the continent of Europe
the knockers are very elaborate. At all periods doors have been
ornamented with nails having projecting heads, sometimes
square, sometimes polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with
roses, &amp;c. The iron work of windows is generally plain, and the
ornament confined to simple <i>fleur-de-lis</i> heads to the stanchions.
For the iron-work of screens enclosing tombs and chapels see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grille</a></span>; and generally see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-Work</a></span>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRONY<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eirôneia">&#949;&#7984;&#961;&#969;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="eirôn">&#949;&#7988;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>, one who says less than he
means, <span class="grk" title="eirein">&#949;&#7988;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to speak), a form of speech in which the real
meaning is concealed or contradicted by the words used; it
is particularly employed for the purpose of ridicule, mockery
or contempt, frequently taking the form of sarcastic phrase.
The word is frequently used figuratively, especially in such
phrases as &ldquo;the irony of fate,&rdquo; of an issue or result that seems to
contradict the previous state or condition. The Greek word was
particularly used of an under-statement in the nature of dissimulation.
It is especially exemplified in the assumed ignorance
which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the &ldquo;Socratic
irony&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socrates</a></span>). In tragedy, what is called &ldquo;tragic
irony&rdquo; is a device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic
situation. Its use is particularly characteristic of the drama
of ancient Greece, owing to the familiarity of the spectators
with the legends on which so many of the plays were based.
In this form of irony the words and actions of the characters
belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. It
may take several forms; the character speaking may be conscious
of the irony of his words while the rest of the actors may
not, or he may be unconscious and the actors share the knowledge
with the spectators, or the spectators may alone realize irony.
The <i>Oedipus Tyrannus</i> of Sophocles is the classic example of
tragic irony at its fullest and finest.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IROQUOIS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Six Nations</span>, a celebrated confederation
of North American Indians. The name is that given them
by the French. It is suggested that it was formed of two ceremonial
words constantly used by the tribesmen, meaning &ldquo;real
adders,&rdquo; with the French addition of <i>ois</i>. The league was
originally composed of five tribes or nations, viz. Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas and Cayugas. The confederation
probably took place towards the close of the 16th century and
in 1722 the Tuscaroras were admitted, the league being then
called that of &ldquo;the Six Nations.&rdquo; At that time their total
number was estimated at 11,650, including 2150 warriors. They
were unquestionably the most powerful confederation of Indians
on the continent. Their home was the central and western
parts of New York state. In the American War of Independence
they fought on the English side, and in the repeated battles
their power was nearly destroyed. They are now to the number
of 17,000 or more scattered about on various reservations in
New York state, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Canada. The
<i>Iroquoian stock</i>, the larger group of kindred tribes, of which
the five nations were the most powerful, had their early home
in the St Lawrence region. Besides the five nations, the
Neutral nation, Huron, Erie, Conestoga, Nottoway, Meherrin,
Tuscarora and Cherokee were the most important tribes of
the stock. The hostility of the Algonquian tribes seems to
have been the cause of the southward migration of the Iroquoian
peoples. In 1535 Jacques Cartier found an Iroquoian tribe
in possession of the land upon which now stand Montreal and
Quebec; but seventy years later it was in the hands of Algonquians.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See L. H. Morgan, <i>League of the Hodeno Swanee or Iroquois</i>
(Rochester, N.Y., 1854); <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington,
1907). Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRRAWADDY,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Irawadi</span>, the principal river in the province
of Burma, traversing the centre of the country, and practically
running throughout its entire course in British territory. It
is formed by the confluence of the Mali and N&rsquo;mai rivers (usually
called Mali-kha and N&rsquo;mai-kha, the <i>kha</i> being the Kachin word
for river) in 25° 45&prime; N. The N&rsquo;mai is the eastern branch. The
definite position of its source is still uncertain, and it seems
to be made up of a number of considerable streams, all rising
within a short distance of each other in about 28° 30&prime; N. It
is shown on some maps as the Lu river of Tibet; but it is now
quite certain that the Tibetan Lu river is the Salween, and that
the N&rsquo;mai has its source or sources near the southern boundary
of Tibet, to the north-east or east of the source of the Mali.
At the confluence the N&rsquo;mai is larger than the Mali. The general
width of its channel seems to be 350 or 400 yds. during this
part of its course. In the rains this channel is filled up, but
in the cold weather the average breadth is from 150 to 200 yds.
The N&rsquo;mai is practically unnavigable. The Mali is the western
branch. Like the main river, it is called Nam Kiu by the Shans.
It rises in the hills to the north of the Hkamti country, probably
in about 28° 30&prime; N. Between Hkamti and the country comparatively
close to the confluence little or nothing is known of it,
but it seems to run in a narrow channel through continuous
hills. The highest point on the Mali reached from the south
by Major Hobday in 1891 was Ting Sa, a village a little off the
river, in 26° 15&prime; N. About 1 m. above the confluence it is 150
yds. wide in January and 17 ft. deep, with a current of 3¾ m.
an hour. Steam launches can only ascend from Myitkyina
to the confluence in the height of the rains. Native boats
ascend to Laikaw or Sawan 26° 2&prime; N., all the year around, but
can get no farther at any season. From the confluence the
river flows in a southerly direction as far as Bhamo, then turns
west as far as the confluence of the Kaukkwe stream, a little
above Katha, where it again turns in a southerly direction,
and maintains this in its general course through Upper and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
Lower Burma, though it is somewhat tortuous immediately
below Mandalay. Just below the confluence of the Mali and
N&rsquo;mai rivers the Irrawaddy is from 420 to 450 yds. wide and
about 30 ft. deep in January at its deepest point. Here it
flows between hills, and after passing the Manse and Mawkan
rapids, reaches plain country and expands to nearly 500 yds.
at Sakap. At Myitkyina it is split into two channels by Naungtalaw
island, the western channel being 600 yds. wide and the
eastern 200. The latter is quite dry in the hot season. At
Kat-kyo, 5 or 6 m. below Myitkyina, the width is 1000 yds.,
and below this it varies from 600 yds. to ¾ m. at different points.
Three miles below Sinbo the third defile is entered by a channel
not more than 50 yds. wide, and below this, throughout the
defile, it is never wider than 250 yds., and averages about 100.
At the &ldquo;Gates of the Irrawaddy&rdquo; at Poshaw two prism-shaped
rocks narrow the river to 50 yds., and the water banks up in
the middle with a whirlpool on each side of the raised pathway.
All navigation ceases here in the floods. The defile ends at
Hpatin, and below this the river widens out to a wet-season
channel of 2 m., and a breadth in the dry season of about 1 m.
At Sinkan, below Bhamo, the second defile begins. It is not
so narrow nor is the current so strong as in the third defile.
The narrowest place is more than 100 yds. wide. The hills
are higher, but the defile is much shorter. At Shwegu the river
leaves the hills and becomes a broad stream, flowing through
a wide plain. The first defile is tame compared with the others.
The river merely flows between low hills or high wooded banks.
The banks are covered at this point with dense vegetation,
and slope down to the water&rsquo;s edge. Here and there are places
which are almost perpendicular, but are covered with forest
growth. The course of the Irrawaddy after receiving the waters
of the Myit-nge at Sagaing, as far as 17° N. lat., is exceedingly
tortuous; the line of Lower Burma is crossed in 19° 29&prime; 3&Prime; N.
lat., 95° 15&prime; E. long., the breadth of the river here being ¾ m.;
about 11 m. lower down it is nearly 3 m. broad. At Akauk-taung,
where a spur of the Arakan hills end in a precipice 300
ft. high, the river enters the delta, the hills giving place to
low alluvial plains, now protected on the west by embankments.
From 17° N. lat. the Irrawaddy divides and subdivides,
converting the lower portion of its valley into a network of
intercommunicating tidal creeks. It reaches the sea in 15° 50&prime;
N. lat. and 95° 8&prime; E. long., by nine principal mouths. The only
ones used by sea-going ships are the Bassein and Rangoon
mouths. The area of the catchment basin of the Irrawaddy
is 158,000 sq. m.; its total length from its known source to the
sea is about 1300 m. As far down as Akauk-taung in Henzada
district its bed is rocky, but below this sandy and muddy. It
is full of islands and sandbanks; its waters are extremely
muddy, and the mud is carried far out to sea. The river commences
to rise in March; about June it rises rapidly, and attains
its maximum height about September. The total flood discharge
is between four and five hundred million metre tons of 37 cub. ft.
From Mandalay up to Bhamo the river is navigable a distance
of nearly 1000 m. for large steamers all the year round; but
small launches and steamers with weak engines are often unable
to get up the second defile in the months of July, August and
September, owing to the strong current. The Irrawaddy Flotilla
Company&rsquo;s steamers go up and down twice a week all through
the rains, and the mails are carried to Bhamo on intermediate
days by a ferry-boat from the railway terminus at Katha.
During the dry season the larger boats are always liable to run
on sandbanks, more especially in November and December,
when new channels are forming after the river has been in flood.
From Bhamo up to Sinbo no steamers can ply during the rains,
that is to say, usually from June to November. From November
to June small steamers can pass through the third defile
from Bhamo to Sinbo. Between Sinbo and Myitkyina small
launches can run all the year round. Above Myitkyina small
steamers can reach the confluence at the height of the flood
with some difficulty, but when the water is lower they cannot
pass the Mawkan rapid, just above Mawme, and the navigation
of the river above Myitkyina is always difficult. The journey
from Bhamo to Sinbo can be made during the rains in native
boats, but it is always difficult and sometimes dangerous. It
is never done in less than five days and often takes twelve or
more. As a natural source of irrigation the value of the
Irrawaddy is enormous, but the river supplies no artificial
systems of irrigation. It is nowhere bridged, though crossed
by two steam ferries to connect the railway system on either
bank.</p>
<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRREDENTISTS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> an Italian patriotic and political party,
which was of importance in the last quarter of the 19th century.
The name was formed from the words <i>Italia Irredenta</i>&mdash;Unredeemed
Italy&mdash;and the party had for its avowed object the
emancipation of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule.
The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian
nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which
were South Tirol (Trentino), Görz, Istria, Trieste, Tessino,
Nice, Corsica and Malta. The test was applied in the most
arbitrary manner, and in some cases was not applicable at all.
Italian is not universally spoken in South Tirol, Görz or Istria.
Malta has a dialect of its own though Italian is used for literary
and judicial purposes, while Dalmatia is thoroughly non-Italian
though it was once under the political dominion of the ancient
Republic of Venice. The party was of little note before 1878.
In that year it sprang into prominence because the Italians were
disappointed by the result of the conference at Berlin summoned
to make a European settlement after the Russo-Turkish War
of 1877. The Italians had hoped to share in the plunder of
Turkey, but they gained nothing, while Austria was endowed
with the protectorate of Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, the vitally
important hinterland of her possessions on the Adriatic. Under
the sting of this disappointment the cry of Italia Irredenta
became for a time loud and apparently popular. It was in
fact directed almost wholly against Austria, and was also used
as a stalking-horse by discontented parties in Italian domestic
politics&mdash;the Radicals, Republicans and Socialists. In addition
to the overworked argument from language, the Irredentists
made much of an unfounded claim that the Trentino had been
conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the war of 1866, and
they insisted that the district was an &ldquo;enclave&rdquo; in Italian
territory which would give Austria a dangerous advantage in
a war of aggression. It would be equally easy and no less accurate
to call the Trentino an exposed and weak spot of the frontier of
Austria. On the 21st of July 1878 a noisy public meeting was
held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the son of the famous
Giuseppe, in the chair, and a clamour was raised for the formation
of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Signor Cairoli,
then prime minister of Italy, treated the agitation with tolerance.
It was, however, mainly superficial, for the mass of the Italians
had no wish to launch on a dangerous policy of adventure against
Austria, and still less to attack France for the sake of Nice and
Corsica, or Great Britain for Malta. The only practical consequences
of the Irredentist agitation outside of Italy were such
things as the assassination plot organized against the emperor
Francis Joseph in Trieste in 1882 by Oberdank, which was
detected and punished. When the Irredentist movement
became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans
and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by
Signor Depretis. It sank into insignificance when the French
occupation of Tunis in 1881 offended the Italians deeply, and
their government entered into those relations with Austria
and Germany which took shape by the formation of the Triple
Alliance. In its final stages it provided a way in which Italians
who sympathized with French republicanism, and who disliked
the monarchical governments of Central Europe, could agitate
against their own government. It also manifested itself in
periodical war scares based on affected fears of Austrian aggression
in northern Italy. Within the dominions of Austria Irredentism
has been one form of the complicated language question
which has disturbed every portion of the Austro-Hungarian
empire.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Colonel von Haymerle, <i>Italicae res</i> (Vienna, 1879) for the
early history of the Irredentists.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRRIGATION<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Lat. <i>in</i>, and <i>rigare</i>, to water or wet), the
artificial application of water to land in order to promote vegetation;
it is therefore the converse of &ldquo;drainage&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), which
is the artificial withdrawal of water from lands that are
over-saturated.
In both cases the object is to promote vegetation.</p>

<p>I. <i>General.</i>&mdash;Where there is abundance of rainfall, and when
it falls at the required season, there is in general no need for
irrigation. But it often happens that, although there is sufficient
rainfall to raise an inferior crop, there is not enough to raise
a more valuable one.</p>

<p>Irrigation is an art that has been practised from very early
times. Year after year fresh discoveries are made that carry
back our knowledge of the early history of Egypt. It is certain
that, until the cultivator availed himself of the natural overflow
of the Nile to saturate the soil, Egypt must have been a desert,
and it is a very small step from that to baling up the water from
the river and pouring it over lands which the natural flood has
not touched. The sculptures and paintings of ancient Egypt
bear no trace of anything approaching scientific irrigation, but
they often show the peasant baling up the water at least as
early as 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By means of this simple plan of raising
water and pouring it over the fields thousands of acres are
watered every year in India, and the system has many advantages
in the eyes of the peasant. Though there is great waste of
labour, he can apply his labour when he likes; no permission
is required from a government official; no one has to be bribed.
The simplest and earliest form of water-raising machinery is
the pole with a bucket suspended from one end of a crossbeam
and a counterpoise at the other. In India this is known as the
<i>denkli</i> or <i>paecottah</i>; in Egypt it is called the <i>shadúf</i>. All along
the Nile banks from morning to night may be seen brown-skinned
peasants working these <i>shadúfs</i>, tier above tier, so as to raise
the water 15 or 16 ft. on to their lands. With a <i>shadúf</i> it is only
possible to keep about 4 acres watered, so that a great number of
hands are required to irrigate a large surface. Another method
largely used is the shallow basket or bucket suspended to strings
between two men, who thus bail up the water. A step higher
than these is the rude water-wheel, with earthen pots on an
endless chain running round it, worked by one or two bullocks.
This is used everywhere in Egypt, where it is known as the
<i>sakya</i>. In Northern India it is termed the <i>harat</i>, or Persian
wheel. With one such water-wheel a pair of oxen can raise
water any height up to 18 ft., and keep from 5 to 12 acres irrigated
throughout an Egyptian summer. A very familiar means in
India of raising water from wells in places where the spring
level is as much sometimes as 100 ft. below the surface of the
field is the <i>churras</i>, or large leather bag, suspended to a rope
passing over a pulley, and raised by a pair of bullocks which go
up and down a slope as long as the depth of the well. All these
primitive contrivances are still in full use throughout India.</p>

<p>It is not improbable that Assyria and Babylon, with their
splendid rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, may have taken the
idea from the Nile, and that Carthage and Phoenicia as well
as Greece and Italy may have followed the same example.
In spite of a certain amount of investigation, the early history of
irrigation in Persia and China remains imperfectly known. In
Spain irrigation may be traced directly to the Moorish occupation,
and almost everywhere throughout Asia and Africa where the
Moslem penetrated is to be found some knowledge of irrigation.</p>

<p>Reservoirs are familiar everywhere for the water-supply of
towns, but as the volume necessary, even for a large town, does
not go far in irrigating land, many sites which would
do admirably for the former would not contain water
<span class="sidenote">Spain.</span>
sufficient to be worth applying to the latter purpose. In the
Mediterranean provinces of Spain there are some very remarkable
irrigation dams. The great masonry dam of Alicante on
the river Monegre, which dates from 1579, is situated in a narrow
gorge, so that while 140 ft. high, it is only 190 ft. long at the
crest. The reservoir is said to contain 130 million cub. ft. of
water, and to serve for the irrigation of 9000 acres, but unless
it refills several times a year, it is hardly possible that so much
land can be watered in any one season. The Elche reservoir,
in the same province, has a similar dam 55 ft. high. In neither
case is there a waste-weir, the surplus water being allowed to
pour over the crest of the dam. South of Elche is the province
of Murcia, watered by the river Segura, on which there is a dam
25 ft. high, said to be 800 years old, and to serve for the irrigation
of 25,000 acres. The Lorca dam in the same neighbourhood
irrigates 27,000 acres. In the jungles of Ceylon are to be found
remains of gigantic irrigation dams, and on the neighbouring
<span class="sidenote">India.</span>
mainland of Southern India, throughout the provinces
of Madras and Mysore, the country is covered with
irrigation reservoirs, or, as they are locally termed, tanks. These
vary from village ponds to lakes 14 or 15 m. long. Most of them
are of old native construction, but they have been greatly
improved and enlarged within the last half century. The
casual traveller in southern India constantly remarks the
ruins of old dams, and the impression is conveyed that at one
time, before British rule prevailed, the irrigation of the country
was much more perfect than it is now. That idea, however,
is mistaken. An irrigation reservoir, like a human being, has
a certain life. Quicker or slower, the water that fills it will wash
in sand and mud, and year by year this process will go on till
ultimately the whole reservoir is filled up. The embankment
is raised, and raised again, but at last it is better to abandon
it and make a new tank elsewhere, for it would never pay to dig
out the silt by manual labour. It may safely be said that at
no time in history were there more tanks in operation than at
present. The ruins which are seen are the ruins of long centuries
of tanks that once flourished and became silted up. But they
did not all flourish at once.</p>

<p>In the countries now being considered, the test of an irrigation
work is how it serves in a season of drought and famine. It is
evident that if there is a long cessation of rain, there can be none
to fill the reservoirs. In September 1877 there were very few
in all southern India that were not dry. But even so, they
helped to shorten the famine period; they stored up the rain
after it had ceased to fall, and they caught up and husbanded
the first drops when it began again.</p>

<p>Irrigation effected by river-fed canals naturally depends
on the regimen of the rivers. Some rivers vary much in their
discharge at different seasons. In some cases this
variation is comparatively little. Sometimes the flood
<span class="sidenote">Irrigation canals.</span>
season recurs regularly at the same time of the year;
sometimes it is uncertain. In some rivers the water is generally
pure; in others it is highly charged with fertilizing alluvium,
or, it may be, with barren silt. In countries nearly rainless, such
as Egypt or Sind, there can be no cultivation without irrigation.
Elsewhere the rainfall may be sufficient for ordinary crops, but
not for the more valuable kinds. In ordinary years in southern
India the maize and the millet, which form so large a portion of
the peasants&rsquo; food, can be raised without irrigation, but it is
required for the more valuable rice or sugar-cane. Elsewhere in
India the rainfall is usually sufficient for all the cultivation of
the district, but about every eleven years comes a season of
drought, during which canal water is so precious as to make it
worth while to construct costly canals merely to serve as a
protection against famine. When a river partakes of the nature
of a torrent, dwindling to a paltry stream at one season and
swelling into an enormous flood at another, it is impossible to
construct a system of irrigation canals without very costly
engineering works, sluices, dams, waste-weirs, &amp;c., so as to give
the engineer entire control of the water. Such may be seen on the
canals of Cuttack, derived from the Mahanadi, a river of which
the discharge does not exceed 400 cub. ft. per second in the dry
season, and rises to 1,600,000 cub. ft. per second in the rainy
season.</p>

<p>Very differently situated are the great canals of Lombardy,
drawn from the Ticino and Adda rivers, flowing from the Maggiore
and Como lakes. The severest drought never exhausts these
reservoirs, and the heaviest rain can never convert these rivers
into the resistless floods which they would be but for the moderating
influence of the great lakes. The Ticino and Adda do not
rise in floods more than 6 or 7 ft. above their ordinary level
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
or fall in droughts more than 4 or 5 ft. below it, and their water
is at all seasons very free from silt or mud. Irrigation cannot
be practised in more favourable circumstances than these.
The great lakes of Central Africa, Victoria and Albert
Nyanza, and the vast swamp tract of the Sudan, do for the
Nile on a gigantic scale what Lakes Maggiore and Como do for
the rivers Ticino and Adda. But for these great reservoirs
the Nile would decrease in summer to quite an insignificant
stream. India possesses no great lakes from which to draw
rivers and canals, but through the plains of northern India flow
rivers which are fed from the glaciers of the Himalaya; and the
Ganges, the Indus, and their tributaries are thus prevented from
diminishing very much in volume. The greater the heat, the
more rapidly melts the ice, and the larger the quantity of water
available for irrigation. The canal system of northern India is
the most perfect the world has yet seen, and contains works of
hydraulic engineering which can be equalled in no other country.
In the deltas of southern India irrigation is only practised during
the monsoon season. The Godaveri, Kistna and Kaveri all
take their rise on the Western Ghats, a region where the rainfall
is never known to fail in the monsoon season. Across the apex
of the deltas are built great weirs (that of the Godaveri being
2½ m. long), at the ends and centre of which is a system of sluices
feeding a network of canals. For this monsoon irrigation there
is always abundance of water, and so long as the canals and
sluices are kept in repair, there is little trouble in distributing it
over the fields. Similar in character was the ancient irrigation
of Egypt practised merely during the Nile flood&mdash;a system which
still prevails in part of Upper Egypt. A detailed description of
it will be found below.</p>

<p>Where irrigation is carried on throughout the whole year,
even when the supply of the river is at its lowest, the distribution
of the water becomes a very delicate operation. It
is generally considered sufficient in such cases if during
<span class="sidenote">Distribution of the water.</span>
any one crop one-third of the area that can be commanded
is actually supplied with water. This
encourages a rotation of crops and enables the precious liquid
to be carried over a larger area than could be done otherwise.
It becomes then the duty of the engineer in charge to use every
effort to get its full value out of every cubic foot of water. Some
crops of course require water much oftener than others, and
much depends on the temperature at the time of irrigation.
During the winter months in northern India magnificent wheat
crops can be produced that have been watered only twice or
thrice. But to keep sugar-cane, or indigo, or cotton alive in
summer before the monsoon sets in in India or the Nile rises
in Egypt the field should be watered every ten days or fortnight,
while rice requires a constant supply of water passing over it.</p>

<p>Experience in these sub-tropical countries shows the absolute
necessity of having, for successful irrigation, also a system of
thorough drainage. It was some time before this was discovered
in India, and the result has been the deterioration of much good
land.</p>

<p>In Egypt, prior to the British occupation in 1883, no attempt
had been made to take the water off the land. The first impression
of a great alluvial plain is that it is absolutely flat, with no
drainage at all. Closer examination, however, shows that if
the prevailing slopes are not more than a few inches in the mile,
yet they do exist, and scientific irrigation requires that the canals
should be taken along the crests and drains along the hollows.
In the diagram (fig. 1) is shown to the right of the river a system
of canals branching out and afterwards rejoining one another
so as to allow of no means for the water that passes off the field to
escape into the sea. Hence it must either evaporate or sink into
the soil. Now nearly all rivers contain some small percentage
of salt, which forms a distinct ingredient in alluvial plains.
The result of this drainless irrigation is an efflorescence of salt
on the surface of the field. The spring level rises, so that water
can be reached by digging only a few feet, and the land, soured
and water-logged, relapses into barrenness. Of this description
was the irrigation of Lower Egypt previous to 1883. To the
left of the diagram is shown (by firm lines) a system of canals
laid out scientifically, and of drains (by dotted lines) flowing
between them. It is the effort of the British engineers in Egypt
to remodel the surface of the fields to this type.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Further information may be found in Sir C. C. Scott-Moncrieff,
<i>Irrigation in Southern Europe</i> (London, 1868); Moncrieff, &ldquo;Lectures
on Irrigation in Egypt,&rdquo; <i>Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal
Engineers</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1893); W. Willcocks, <i>Egyptian Irrigation</i>
(2nd ed., London, 1899).</p>
</div>

<p>II. <i>Water Meadows.</i>&mdash;Nowhere in England can it be said that
irrigation is necessary to ordinary agriculture, but it is occasionally
employed in stimulating the growth of grass and meadow
herbage in what are known as water-meadows. These are in
some instances of very early origin. On the Avon in Wiltshire
and the Churn in Gloucestershire they may be traced back to
Roman times. This irrigation is not practised in the drought
of summer, but in the coldest and wettest months of the year,
the water employed being warmer than the natural moisture of
the soil and proving a valuable protection against frost.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:631px" src="images/img842.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing irrigation properly combined with
drainage (<i>to left</i>), and laid out regardless of drainage required later
(<i>to right</i>).</td></tr></table>

<p>Before the systematic conversion of a tract into water-meadows
can be safely determined on, care must be taken to have good
drainage, natural or artificial, a sufficient supply of water, and
water of good quality. It might indeed have been thought
that thorough drainage would be unnecessary, but it must be
noted that porous subsoils or efficient drains do not act merely
by carrying away stagnant water which would otherwise cool
the earth, incrust the surface, and retard plant growth. They
cause the soil to perform the office of a filter. Thus the earth
and the roots of grasses absorb the useful matters not only from
the water that passes over it, but from that which passes through
it. These fertilizing materials are found stored up in the soil
ready for the use of the roots of the plants. Stagnation of water
is inimical to the action of the roots, and does away with the
advantageous processes of flowing and percolating currents.
Some of the best water-meadows in England have but a thin
soil resting on gravel and flints, this constituting a most effectual
system of natural drainage. The fall of the water supply must
suffice for a fairly rapid current, say 10 in. or 1 ft. in from 100 to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
200 yds. If possible the water should be taken so far above the
meadows as to have sufficient fall without damming up the river.
If a dam be absolutely necessary, care must be taken so to build
it as to secure the fields on both sides from possible inundation;
and it should be constructed substantially, for the cost of repairing
accidents to a weak dam is very serious.</p>

<p>Even were the objects of irrigation always identical, the conditions
under which it is carried on are so variable as to preclude
calculations of quantity. Mere making up of necessary
water in droughty seasons is one thing, protection
<span class="sidenote">Quantity of water.</span>
against frost is another, while the addition of soil
material is a third. Amongst causes of variation in the quantity
of water needed will be its quality and temperature and rate
of flow, the climate, the season, the soil, the subsoil, the artificial
drainage, the slope, the aspect and the crop. In actual practice
the amount of water varies from 300 gallons per acre in the hour
to no less than 28,000 gallons. Where water is used, as in dry
and hot countries, simply as water, less is generally needed than
in cold, damp and northerly climates, where the higher temperature
and the action of the water as manure are of more consequence.
But it is necessary to be thoroughly assured of a good
supply of water before laying out a water-meadow. Except in
a few places where unusual dryness of soil and climate indicate
the employment of water, even in small quantity, merely to
avoid the consequences of drought, irrigation works are not to
be commenced upon a large area, if only a part can ever be
efficiently watered. The engineer must not decide upon the plan
till he has gauged at different seasons the stream which has to
supply the water, and has ascertained the rain-collecting area
available, and the rainfall of the district, as well as the proportion
of storable to percolating and evaporating water. Reservoirs
for storage, or for equalizing the flow, are rarely resorted to in
England; but they are of absolute necessity in those countries
in which it is just when there is least water that it is most wanted.
It is by no means an injudicious plan before laying out a system
of water-meadows, which is intended to be at all extensive,
to prepare a small trial plot, to aid in determining a number of
questions relating to the nature and quantity of the water,
the porosity of the soil, &amp;c.</p>

<p>The quality of the water employed for any of the purposes
of irrigation is of much importance. Its dissolved and its suspended
matters must both be taken into account. Clear
water is usually preferable for grass land, thick for
<span class="sidenote">Quality of water.</span>
arable land. If it is to be used for warping, or in any way
for adding to the solid material of the irrigated land, then the
nature and amount of the suspended material are necessarily of
more importance than the character of the dissolved substances,
provided the latter are not positively injurious. For use on
ordinary water-meadows, however, not only is very clear water
often found to be perfectly efficient, but water having no more
than a few grains of dissolved matter per gallon answers the
purposes in view satisfactorily. Water from moors and peat-bogs
or from gravel or ferruginous sandstone is generally of
small utility so far as plant food is concerned. River water,
especially that which has received town sewage, or the drainage
of highly manured land, would naturally be considered most
suitable for irrigation, but excellent results are obtained also
with waters which are uncontaminated with manurial matters,
and which contain but 8 or 10 grains per gallon of the usual
dissolved constituents of spring water. Experienced English
irrigators generally commend as suitable for water-meadows
those streams in which fish and waterweeds abound. But the
particular plants present in or near the water-supply afford
further indications of quality. Water-cress, sweet flag, flowering
rush, several potamogetons, water milfoil, water ranunculus,
and the reedy sweet watergrass (<i>Glyceria aquatica</i>) rank amongst
the criteria of excellence. Less favourable signs are furnished
by such plants as <i>Arundo Donax</i> (in Germany), <i>Cicuta virosa</i> and
<i>Typha latifolia</i>, which are found in stagnant and torpid waters.
Water when it has been used for irrigation generally becomes
of less value for the same purpose. This occurs with clear water
as well as with turbid, and obviously arises mainly from the
loss of plant food which occurs when water filters through or
trickles over poor soil. By passing over or through rich soil
the water may, however, actually be enriched, just as clear
water passed through a charcoal filter which has been long
used becomes impure. It has been contended that irrigation
water suffers no change in composition by use, since by evaporation
of a part of the pure water the dissolved matters in the
remainder would be so increased as to make up for any matters
removed. But it is forgotten that both the plant and the soil
enjoy special powers of selective absorption, which remove
and fix the better constituents of the water and leave the less
valuable.</p>

<p>Of the few leguminous plants which are in any degree suitable
for water-meadows, <i>Lotus corniculatus major</i>, <i>Trifolium hybridum</i>,
and <i>T. pratense</i> are those which generally flourish
best; <i>T. repens</i> is less successful. Amongst grasses
<span class="sidenote">Seeds for water-meadows.</span>
the highest place must be assigned to ryegrass, especially
to the Italian variety, commonly called <i>Lolium
italicum</i>. The mixture of seeds for sowing a water-meadow
demands much consideration, and must be modified according
to local circumstances of soil, aspect, climate and drainage.
From the peculiar use which is made of the produce of an
irrigated meadow, and from the conditions to which it is subjected,
it is necessary to include in our mixture of seeds some that
produce an early crop, some that give an abundant growth,
and some that impart sweetness and good flavour, while all the
kinds sown must be capable of flourishing on irrigated soil.</p>

<p>The following mixtures of seeds (stated in pounds per acre)
have been recommended for sowing on water-meadows, Messrs
Sutton of Reading, after considerable experience, regarding
No. I. as the more suitable:</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">II.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc">II.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium perenne</i></td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Festuca pratensis</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium italicum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Festuca loliacea</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa trivialis</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Anthoxanthum odoratum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Glyceria fluitans</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phleum pratense</i></td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Glyceria aquatica</i></td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phalaris arundinacea</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Agrostis alba</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Lotus corniculatus major</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Agrostis stolonifera</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium hybridum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Alopecurus pratensis</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium pratense</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca elatior</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
</table>

<p>In irrigated meadows, though in a less degree than on sewaged
land, the reduction of the amount or even the actual suppression
of certain species of plants is occasionally well marked.
Sometimes this action is exerted upon the finer grasses,
<span class="sidenote">Changes in irrigated herbage.</span>
but happily also upon some of the less profitable
constituents of the miscellaneous herbage. Thus
<i>Ranunculus bulbosus</i> has been observed to become quite rare
after a few years&rsquo; watering of a meadow in which it had been
most abundant, <i>R. acris</i> rather increasing by the same treatment;
<i>Plantago media</i> was extinguished and <i>P. lanceolata</i> reduced
70%. Amongst the grasses which may be spared, <i>Aira caespitosa</i>,
<i>Briza media</i> and <i>Cynosurus cristatus</i> are generally much
reduced by irrigation. Useful grasses which are increased are
<i>Lolium perenne</i> and <i>Alopecurus pratensis</i>, and among those of
less value <i>Avena favescens</i>, <i>Dactylis glomerata</i> and <i>Poa pratensis</i>.</p>

<p>Four ways of irrigating land with water are practised in
England: (1) bedwork irrigation, which is the most efficient
although it is also the most costly method by which
currents of water can be applied to level land; (2)
<span class="sidenote">Methods.</span>
catchwork irrigation, in which the same water is caught and
used repeatedly; (3) subterraneous or rather upward irrigation,
in which the water in the drains is sent upwards through the
soil towards the surface; and (4) warping, in which the water
is allowed to stand over a level field until it has deposited the
mud suspended in it.</p>

<p>There are two things to be attended to most carefully in the
construction of a water-meadow on the first or second of these
plans. First, no portion of them whatever should be on a dead
level, but every part should belong to one or other of a series of
true inclined planes. The second point of primary importance
is the size and slope of the main conductor, which brings the
water from the river to the meadow. The size of this depends
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
upon the quantity of water required, but whatever its size
its bottom at its origin should be as low as the bed of the river,
in order that it may carry down as much as possible of the river
mud. Its course should be as straight and as near a true inclined
plane as possible. The stuff taken out of the conductor should
be employed in making up its banks or correcting inequalities
in the meadow.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In bedwork irrigation, which is eminently applicable to level
ground, the ground is thrown into beds or ridges. Here the conductor
should be led along the highest end or side of the
meadow in an inclined plane; should it terminate in the
<span class="sidenote">Bedwork.</span>
meadow, its end should be made to taper when there are no feeders,
or to terminate in a feeder. The main drain to carry off the water
from the meadow should next be formed. It should be cut in the
lowest part of the ground at the lower end or side of the meadow.
Its dimensions should be capable of carrying off the whole water
used so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation, and discharge it
into the river. The next process is the forming of the ground intended
for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That portion of the
ground which is to be watered by one conductor should be made into
beds to suit the circumstances of that conductor; that is, instead
of the beds over the meadow being all reduced to one common level,
they should be formed to suit the different swells in the ground, and,
should any of these swells be considerable, it will be necessary
to give each side of them its respective conductor. The beds should
run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the conductor. The
breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of the soil and the
supply of water. Tenacious soils and subsoils, with a small supply
of water, require beds as narrow as 30 ft. Porous soils and a large
supply of water may have beds of 40 ft. The length of the beds is
regulated by the supply of water and the fall from the conductor to
the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction longitudinally,
their crowns should be made in the middle; but, should they fall
laterally as well as longitudinally, as is usually the case, then the
crowns should be made towards the upper sides, more or less according
to the lateral slope of the ground. The crowns should rise
1 ft. above the adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope
in an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that the
water may flow equably over them.</p>

<p>The beds are watered by &ldquo;feeders,&rdquo; that is, channels gradually
tapering to the lower extremities, and their crowns cut down, wherever
these are placed. The depth of the feeders depends on their
width, and the width on their length. A bed 200 yds. in length
requires a feeder of 20 in. in width at its junction with the conductor,
and it should taper gradually to the extremity, which should be 1 ft.
in width. The taper retards the motion of the water, which constantly
decreases by overflow as it proceeds, whilst it continues to
fill the feeder to the brim. The water overflowing from the feeders
down the sides of the beds is received into small drains formed in the
furrows between the beds. These small drains discharge themselves
into the main drain, and are in every respect the reverse of the
feeders. The depth of the small drain at the junction is made about
as great as that of the main drain, and it gradually lessens towards
the taper to 6 in. in tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth
of the feeders is the same in relation to the conductor. For the more
equal distribution of the water over the surface of the beds from the
conductor and feeders, small masses, such as stones or solid portions
of earth or turf fastened with pins, are placed in them, in order to
retard the momentum which the water may have acquired. These
&ldquo;stops,&rdquo; as they are termed, are generally placed at regular intervals,
or rather they should be left where any inequality of the current is
observed. Heaps of stones answer very well for stops in the conductor,
particularly immediately below the points of junction with
the feeders. The small or main drains require no stops. The descent
of the water in the feeders will no doubt necessarily increase in
rapidity, but the inclination of the beds and the tapering of the
feeders should be so adjusted as to counteract the increasing rapidity.
The distribution of the water over the whole meadow is regulated by
the sluices, which should be placed at the origin of every conductor.
By means of these sluices any portion of the meadow that is desired
can be watered, whilst the rest remains dry; and alternate watering
must be adopted when there is a scarcity of water. All the sluices
should be substantially built at first with stones and mortar, to
prevent the leakage of water; for, should water from a leak be
permitted to find its way into the meadow, that portion of it will
stagnate and produce coarse grasses. In a well-formed water-meadow
it is as necessary to keep it perfectly dry at one time as it is
to place it under water at another. A small sluice placed in the side
of the conductor opposite to the meadow, and at the upper end of it,
will drain away the leakage that may have escaped from the head
sluice.</p>

<p>To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground will often require
to be broken up and remodelled. This will no doubt be attended
with cost; but it should be considered that the first cost is the
least, and remodelling the only way of having a complete water-meadow
which will continue for years to give satisfaction. To effect
a remodelling when the ground is in stubble, let it be ploughed up,
harrowed, and cleaned as in a summer fallow, the levelling-box
employed when required, the stuff from the conductors and main
drains spread abroad, and the beds ploughed into shape&mdash;all
operations that can be performed at little expense. The meadow
should be ready by August for sowing with one of the mixtures of
grass-seeds already given. But though this plan is ultimately
better, it is attended with the one great disadvantage that the soft
ground cannot be irrigated for two or three years after it is sown
with grass-seeds. This can only be avoided where the ground is
covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On ground in
that state a water-meadow may be most perfectly formed. Let the
turf be taken off with the spade, and laid carefully aside for relaying.
Let the stript ground then be neatly formed with the spade and
barrow, into beds varying in breadth and shape according to the
nature of the soil and the dip of the ground&mdash;the feeders from the
conductor and the small drains to the main drain being formed at
the same time. Then let the turf be laid down again and beaten
firm, when the meadow will be complete at once, and ready for
irrigation. This is the most beautiful and most expeditious method
of making a complete water-meadow where the ground is not naturally
sufficiently level to begin with.</p>

<p>The water should be let on, and trial made of the work, whenever
it is finished, and the motion of the water regulated by the introduction
of a stop in the conductors and feeders where a change in
the motion of the current is observed, beginning at the upper end
of the meadow. Should the work be finished as directed by August,
a good crop of hay may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There
are few pieces of land where the natural descent of the ground will
not admit of the water being collected a second time, and applied to
the irrigation of a second and lower meadow. In such a case the
main drain of a watered meadow may form the conductor of the one
to be watered, or a new conductor may be formed by a prolongation
of the main drain; but either expedient is only advisable where
water is scarce. Where it is plentiful, it is better to supply the second
meadow directly from the river, or by a continuation of the first
main conductor.</p>

<p>In the ordinary catch work water-meadow, the water is used over
and over again. On the steep sides of valleys the plan is easily and
cheaply carried out, and where the whole course of the
water is not long the peculiar properties which give it
<span class="sidenote">Catchwork.</span>
value, though lessened, are not exhausted when it reaches
that part of the meadow which it irrigates last. The design of any
piece of catchwork will vary with local conditions, but generally it
may be stated that it consists in putting each conduit save the first to
the double use of a feeder or distributor and of a drain or collector.</p>

<p>In upward or subterranean irrigation the water used rises upward
through the soil, and is that which under ordinary circumstances
would be carried off by the drains. The system has
received considerable development in Germany, where the
<span class="sidenote">Upward or subterranean.</span>
elaborate method invented by Petersen is recommended
by many agricultural authorities. In this system the
well-fitting earthenware drain-pipes are furnished at intervals with
vertical shafts terminating at the surface of the ground in movable
caps. Beneath each cap, and near the upper end of the shaft, are a
number of vertical slits through which the drainage water which
rises passes out into the conduit or trench from which the irrigating
streams originate. In the vertical shaft there is first of all a grating
which intercepts solid matters, and then, lower down, a central
valve which can be opened and closed at pleasure from the top of
the shaft. In the ordinary English system of upward or drainage
irrigation, ditches are dug all round the field. They act the part
of conductors when the land is to be flooded, and of main drains
when it is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as
conductors into built conduits formed at right angles to them in
parallel lines through the fields; it rises upwards in them as high
as the surface of the ground, and again subsides through the soil
and the conduits into the ditches as main drains, and thence it
passes at a lower level either into a stream or other suitable outfall.
The ditches may be filled in one or other of several different ways.
The water may be drainage-water from lands at a higher level; or
it may be water from a neighbouring river; or it may be drainage-water
accumulated from a farm and pumped up to the necessary
level. But it may also be the drainage-water of the field itself.
In this case the mouths of the underground main pipe-drains are
stopped up, and the water in them and the secondary drains thus
caused to stand back until it has risen sufficiently near the surface.
Of course it is necessary to build the mouths of such main drains
of very solid masonry, and to construct efficient sluices for the retention
of the water in the drains. Irrigation of the kind now
under discussion may be practised wherever a command of water
can be secured, but the ground must be level. It has been successfully
employed in recently drained morasses, which are apt to
become too dry in summer. It is suitable for stiffish soils where
the subsoil is fairly open, but is less successful in sand. The water
used may be turbid or clear, and it acts, not only for moistening the
soil, but as manure. For if, as is commonly the case, the water employed
be drainage-water from cultivated lands, it is sure to contain
a considerable quantity of nitrates, which, not being subject to
retention by the soil, would otherwise escape. These coming into
contact with the roots of plants during their season of active growth,
are utilized as direct nourishment for the vegetation. It is necessary
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
in upward or subterranean irrigation to send the water on and
to take it off very gently, in order to avoid the displacement and
loss of the finer particles of the soil which a forcible current would
cause.</p>

<p>In warping the suspended solid matters are of importance, not
merely for any value they may have as manure, but also as a material
addition to the ground to be irrigated. The warping which
is practised in England is almost exclusively confined to
<span class="sidenote">Warping.</span>
the overflowing of level ground within tide mark, and is conducted
mostly within the districts commanded by estuaries or tidal rivers.
The best notion of the process of warping may be gained by sailing
up the Trent from the Humber to Gainsborough. Here the banks of
the river were constructed centuries ago to protect the land within
them from the encroachments of the tide. A great tract of country
was thus laid comparatively dry. But while the wisdom of one age
thus succeeded in restricting within bounds the tidal water of the
river, it was left to the greater wisdom of a succeeding age to improve
upon this arrangement by admitting these muddy waters to lay a
fresh coat of rich silt on the exhausted soils. The process began more
than a century ago, but has become a system in recent times. Large
sluices of stone, with strong doors, to be shut when it is wished to
exclude the tide, may be seen on both banks of the river, and from
these great conduits are carried miles inward through the flat country
to the point previously prepared by embankment over which the
muddy waters are allowed to spread. These main conduits, being
very costly, are constructed for the warping of large adjoining
districts, and openings are made at such points as are then undergoing
the operation. The mud is deposited and the waters return
with the falling tide to the bed of the river. Spring-tides are preferred,
and so great is the quantity of mud in these rivers that from
10 to 15 acres have been known to be covered with silt from 1 to 3 ft.
in thickness during one spring of ten or twelve tides. Peat-moss of
the most sterile character has been by this process covered with soil
of the greatest fertility, and swamps which used to be resorted to for
leeches are now, by the effects of warping, converted into firm and
fertile fields. The art is now so well understood that, by careful
attention to the currents, the expert warp farmer can temper his soil
as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted the heavier particles,
which are pure sand, are first deposited; the second deposit is a
mixture of sand and fine mud, which, from its friable texture, forms
the most valuable soil; while lastly the pure mud subsides, containing
the finest particles of all, and forms a rich but very tenacious soil.
The great effort, therefore, of the warp farmer is to get the second or
mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as he can and to
prevent the deposit of the last. This he does by keeping the water in
constant motion, as the last deposit can only take place when the
water is suffered to be still. Three years may be said to be spent in
the process, one year warping, one year drying and consolidating,
and one year growing the first crop, which is generally seed-hoed
in by hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse
labour.</p>

<p>The immediate effect, which is highly beneficial, is the deposition
of silt from the tide. To ensure this deposition, it is necessary to
surround the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order
to retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted by
valved sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field and shut
by the pressure of the confined water when the tide recedes. These
sluices are placed on as low a level as possible to permit the most
turbid water at the bottom of the tide to pass through a channel in
the base of the embankment. The silt deposited after warping is
exceedingly rich and capable of carrying any species of crop. It
may be admitted in so small a quantity as only to act as a manure
to arable soil, or in such a large quantity as to form a new soil.
This latter acquisition is the principal object of warping, and it
excites astonishment to witness how soon a new soil may be formed.
From June to September a soil of 3 ft. in depth may be formed under
the favourable circumstances of a very dry season and long drought.
In winter and in floods warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary
circumstances on the Trent and Humber a soil from 6 to 16 in. in
depth may be obtained and inequalities of 3 ft. filled up. But every
tide generally leaves only 1/8 in. of silt, and the field which has only
one sluice can only be warped every other tide. The silt, as deposited
in each tide, does not mix into a uniform mass, but remains in distinct
layers. The water should be made to run completely off and the
ditches should become dry before the influx of the next tide, otherwise
the silt will not incrust and the tide not have the same effect.
Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of forming canals,
embankments and sluices for warping land is from £10 to £20 an acre.
A sluice of 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. wide will warp from 60 to 80 acres,
according to the distance of the field from the river. The embankments
may be from 3 to 7 ft. in height, as the field may stand in
regard to the level of the highest tides. After the new land has been
left for a year or two in seeds and clover, it produces great crops of
wheat and potatoes.</p>

<p>Warping is practised only in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, on the
estuary of the Humber, and in the neighbourhood of the rivers
which flow into it&mdash;the Trent, the Ouse and the Don. The silt
and mud brought down by these rivers is rich in clay and organic
matter, and sometimes when dry contains as much as 1% of
nitrogen.</p>
</div>

<p>Constant care is required if a water-meadow is to yield quite
satisfactory results. The earliness of the feed, its quantity
and its quality will all depend in very great measure
upon the proper management of the irrigation. The
<span class="sidenote">Management and advantages.</span>
points which require constant attention are&mdash;the
perfect freedom of all carriers, feeders and drains
from every kind of obstruction, however minute; the state
and amount of water in the river or stream, whether it be
sufficient to irrigate the whole area properly or only a part of
it; the length of time the water should be allowed to remain
on the meadow at different periods of the season; the regulation
of the depth of the water, its quantity and its rate of flow,
in accordance with the temperature and the condition of the
herbage; the proper times for the commencing and ending of
pasturing and of shutting up for hay; the mechanical condition
of the surface of the ground; the cutting out of any very large
and coarse plants, as docks; and the improvement of the physical
and chemical conditions of the soil by additions to it of sand,
silt, loam, chalk, &amp;c.</p>

<p>Whatever may be the command of water, it is unwise to attempt
to irrigate too large a surface at once. Even with a river supply
fairly constant in level and always abundant, no attempt
should be made to force on a larger volume of water than the
feeders can properly distribute and the drains adequately remove,
or one part of the meadow will be deluged and another
stinted. When this inequality of irrigation once occurs, it is
likely to increase from the consequent derangement of the
feeders and drains. And one result on the herbage will be an
irregularity of composition and growth, seriously detrimental
to its food-value. The adjustment of the water by means
of the sluices is a delicate operation when there is little water
and also when there is much; in the latter case the fine earth
may be washed away from some parts of the meadow; in
the former case, by attempting too much with a limited water
current, one may permit the languid streams to deposit their
valuable suspended matters instead of carrying them forward
to enrich the soil. The water is not to be allowed to remain
too long on the ground at a time. The soil must get dry at
stated intervals in order that the atmospheric air may come
in contact with it and penetrate it. In this way as the water
sinks down through the porous subsoil or into the subterranean
drains oxygen enters and supplies an element which is needed,
not only for the oxidation of organic matters in the earth,
but also for the direct and indirect nutrition of the roots. Without
this occasional drying of the soil the finer grasses and the
leguminous plants will infallibly be lost; while a scum of
confervae and other algae will collect upon the surface and
choke the higher forms of vegetation. The water should be
run off thoroughly, for a little stagnant water lying in places
upon the surface does much injury. The practice of irrigating
differs in different places with differences in the quality of
the water, the soil, the drainage, &amp;c. As a general rule, when
the irrigating season begins in November the water may flow
for a fortnight continuously, but subsequent waterings, especially
after December, should be shortened gradually in duration
till the first week in April, when irrigation should cease. It
is necessary to be very careful in irrigating during frosty weather.
For, though grass will grow even under ice, yet if ice be formed
under and around the roots of the grasses the plants may be
thrown out by the expansion of the water at the moment of its
conversion into ice. The water should be let off on the morning
of a dry day, and thus the land will be dry enough at night
not to suffer from the frost; or the water may be taken off in
the morning and let on again at night. In spring the newly
grown and tender grass will be easily destroyed by frost if
it be not protected by water, or if the ground be not made
thoroughly dry.</p>

<p>Although in many cases it is easy to explain the reasons why
water artificially applied to land brings crops or increases their
yield, the theory of our ordinary water-meadow
irrigation is rather obscure. For we are not dealing
<span class="sidenote">Theory.</span>
in these grass lands with a semi-aquatic plant like rice, nor are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
we supplying any lack of water in the soil, nor are we restoring
the moisture which the earth cannot retain under a burning
sun. We irrigate chiefly in the colder and wetter half of the
year, and we &ldquo;saturate&rdquo; with water the soil in which are growing
such plants as are perfectly content with earth not containing
more than one-fifth of its weight of moisture. We must look
in fact to a number of small advantages and not to any one
striking beneficial process in explaining the aggregate utility
of water-meadow irrigation. We attribute the usefulness of
water-meadow irrigation, then, to the following causes: (1)
the temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr.
above freezing, the severity of frosts in winter is thus obviated,
and the growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged;
(2) nourishment or plant food is actually brought on to the
soil, by which it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate
and for the future use of the vegetation, which also itself obtains
some nutrient material directly; (3) solution and redistribution
of the plant food already present in the soil occur mainly through
the solvent action of the carbonic acid gas present in a dissolved
state in the irrigation-water; (4) oxidation of any excess
of organic matter in the soil, with consequent production of
useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds, takes place
through the dissolved oxygen in the water sent on and through
the soil where the drainage is good; and (5) improvement of
the grasses, and especially of the miscellaneous herbage, of the
meadow is promoted through the encouragement of some at
least of the better species and the extinction or reduction of
mosses and of the innutritious weeds.</p>

<p>To the united agency of the above-named causes may safely
be attributed the benefits arising from the special form of
water-irrigation which is practised in England. Should it
be thought that the traces of the more valuable sorts of plant
food (such as compounds of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash
salts) existing in ordinary brook or river water can never bring
an appreciable amount of manurial matter to the soil, or exert
an appreciable effect upon the vegetation, yet the quantity
of water used during the season must be taken into account.
If but 3000 gallons hourly trickle over and through an acre,
and if we assume each gallon to contain no more than one-tenth
of a grain of plant food of the three sorts just named
taken together, still the total, during a season including ninety
days of actual irrigation, will not be less than 9 &#8468; per acre. It
appears, however, that a very large share of the benefits of
water-irrigation is attributable to the mere contact of abundance
of moving water, of an even temperature, with the roots
of the grass. The growth is less checked by early frosts; and
whatever advantages to the vegetation may accrue by occasional
excessive warmth in the atmosphere in the early months of the
year are experienced more by the irrigated than by the ordinary
meadow grasses by reason of the abundant development of roots
which the water has encouraged.</p>

<p>III. <i>Italian Irrigation.</i>&mdash;The most highly developed irrigation
in the world is probably that practised in the plains of Piedmont
and Lombardy, where every variety of condition is to be found.
The engineering works are of a very high class, and from long
generations of experience the farmer knows how best to use
his water. The principal river of northern Italy is the Po,
which rises to the west of Piedmont and is fed not from glaciers
like the Swiss torrents, but by rain and snow, so that the water
has a somewhat higher temperature, a point to which much
importance is attached for the valuable meadow irrigation
known as <i>marcite</i>. This is only practised in winter when there
is abundance of water available, and it much resembles the
water-meadow irrigation of England. The great Cavour canal
is drawn from the left bank of the Po a few miles below Turin,
and it is carried right across the drainage of the country. Its
full discharge is 3800 cub. ft. per second, but it is only from
October to May, when the water is least required, that it carries
anything like this amount. For the summer irrigation Italy
depends on the glaciers of the Alps; and the great torrents
of the Dora Baltea and Sesia can be counted on for a volume
exceeding 6000 cub. ft. per second. Lombardy is quite as well
off as Piedmont for the means of irrigation and, as already
said, its canals have the advantage that being drawn from
the lakes Maggiore and Como they exercise a moderating
influence on the Ticino and Adda rivers, which is much wanted
in the Dora Baltea. The Naviglio Grande of Lombardy is a
very fine work drawn from the left bank of the Ticino and
useful for navigation as well as irrigation. It discharges between
3000 and 4000 cub. ft. per second, and probably nowhere is irrigation
carried on with less expense. Another canal, the Villoresi,
drawn from the same bank of the Ticino farther upstream, is
capable of carrying 6700 cub. ft. per second. Like the Cavour
canal, the Villoresi is taken across the drainage of the country,
entailing a number of very bold and costly works.</p>

<p>Interesting as these Italian works are, the administration and
distribution of the water is hardly less so. The system is due
to the ability of the great Count Cavour; what he originated
in Piedmont has been also carried out in Lombardy. The Piedmontese
company takes over from the government the control of
all the irrigation within a triangle between the left bank of the
Po and the right bank of the Sesia. It purchases from government
about 1250 cub. ft. per second, and has also obtained
the control of all private canals. Altogether it distributes about
2275 cub. ft. of water and irrigates about 141,000 acres, on
which rice is the most important crop. The association has
14,000 members and controls nearly 10,000 m. of distributary
channels. In each parish is a council composed of all landowners
who irrigate. Each council sends two deputies to what
may be called a water parliament. This assembly elects three
small committees, and with them rests the whole management
of the irrigation. An appeal may be made to the civil courts
from the decision of these committees, but so popular are they
that such appeals are never made. The irrigated area is
divided into districts, in each of which is an overseer and a
staff of watchmen to see to the opening and shutting of the
<i>modules</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydraulics</a></span>, §§ 54 to 56) which deliver the water
into the minor channels. In the November of each year it is
decided how much water is to be given to each parish in the year
following, and this depends largely on the number of acres of
each crop proposed to be watered. In Lombardy the irrigation
is conducted on similar principles. Throughout, the Italian
farmer sets a very high example in the loyal way he submits
to regulations which there must be sometimes a strong temptation
to break. A sluice surreptitiously opened during a dark
night and allowed to run for six hours may quite possibly
double the value of his crop, but apparently the law is not often
broken.</p>

<p>IV. <i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;The very life of Egypt depends on its irrigation,
and, ancient as this irrigation is, it was never practised on a
really scientific system till after the British occupation.
As every one knows, the valley of the Nile outside of
<span class="sidenote">Characteristics of the Nile Valley and flood.</span>
the tropics is practically devoid of rainfall. Yet it was
the produce of this valley that formed the chief granary
of the Roman Empire. Probably nowhere in the world
is there so large a population per square mile depending solely
on the produce of the soil. Probably nowhere is there an
agricultural population so prosperous, and so free from the
risks attending seasons of drought or of flood. This wealth
and prosperity are due to two very remarkable properties of
the Nile. First, the regimen of the river is nearly constant.
The season of its rise and its fall, and the height attained by its
waters during the highest flood and at lowest Nile vary to a
comparatively small extent. Year after year the Nile rises at
the same period, it attains its maximum in September and begins
to diminish first rapidly till about the end of December, and then
more slowly and more steadily until the following June. A late
rise is not more than about three weeks behind an early rise.
From the lowest to the highest gauge of water-surface the rise
is on an average 25.5 ft. at the First Cataract. The highest flood
is 3.5 ft. above this average, and this means peril, if not disaster,
in Lower Egypt. The lowest flood on record has risen only to
5.5 ft. below the average, or to 20 ft. above the mean water-surface
of low Nile. Such a feeble Nile flood has occurred only
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
four times in modern history: in 1877, when it caused widespread
famine and death throughout Upper Egypt, 947,000 acres
remained barren, and the land revenue lost £1,112,000; in 1899
and again in 1902 and 1907, when by the thorough remodelling
of the whole system of canals since 1883 all famine and disaster
were avoided and the loss of revenue was comparatively slight.
In 1907, for instance, when the flood was nearly as low as in 1877,
the area left unwatered was little more than 10% of the area
affected in 1877.</p>

<p>This regularity of flow is the first exceptional excellence of
the river Nile. The second is hardly less valuable, and consists
in the remarkable richness of the alluvium brought down the
river year after year during the flood. The object of the engineer
is so to utilize this flood-water that as little as possible of the
alluvium may escape into the sea, and as much as possible may
be deposited on the fields. It is the possession of these two
properties that imparts to the Nile a value quite unique among
rivers, and gives to the farmers of the Nile Valley advantages
over those of any rain-watered land in the world.</p>

<p>Until the 19th century irrigation in Egypt on a large scale
was practised merely during the Nile flood. Along each edge
of the river and following its course has been erected
an earthen embankment high enough not to be
<span class="sidenote">Irrigation during high Nile.</span>
topped by the highest floods. In Upper Egypt,
the valley of which rarely exceeds 6 m. in width,
a series of cross embankments have been constructed, abutting
at the inner ends on those along the Nile, and at the
outer ends on the ascending sides of the valley. The whole
country has thus been divided into a series of oblongs,
surrounded by embankments on three sides and by the
desert slopes on the fourth. These oblong areas vary from
60,000 to 1500 or 2000 acres in extent. Throughout all
Egypt the Nile is deltaic in character; that is, the slope
of the country in the valley is away from the river and not
towards it. It is easy, then, when the Nile is low, to cut
short, deep canals in the river banks, which fill as the flood
rises, and carry the precious mud-charged water into these
great flats. There the water remains for a month or more,
some 3 ft. deep, depositing its mud, and thence at the
end of the flood the almost clear water may either be run
off directly into the receding river, or cuts may be made
in the cross embankments, and it may be allowed to
flow from one flat to another and ultimately into the river.
In November the waters have passed off; and whenever
a man can walk over the mud with a pair of bullocks,
it is roughly turned over with a wooden plough, or merely the
branch of a tree, and the wheat or barley crop is immediately
sown. So soaked is the soil after the flood, that the grain
germinates, sprouts, and ripens in April, without a shower of
rain or any other watering.</p>

<p>In Lower Egypt this system was somewhat modified, but it
was the same in principle. No other was known in the Nile
Valley until the country fell, early in the 19th century, under the
vigorous rule of Mehemet Ali Pasha. He soon recognized that
with such a climate and soil, with a teeming population, and
with the markets of Europe so near they might produce in
Egypt something more profitable than wheat and maize. Cotton
and sugar-cane would fetch far higher prices, but they could only
be grown while the Nile was low, and they required water at
all seasons.</p>

<p>It has already been said that the rise of the Nile is about
25½ ft., so that a canal constructed to draw water out of the
river while at its lowest must be 25½ ft. deeper than
if it is intended to draw off only during the highest
<span class="sidenote">Irrigation during low Nile.</span>
floods. Mehemet Ali began by deepening the canals
of Lower Egypt by this amount, a gigantic and futile
task; for as they had been laid out on no scientific principles,
the deep channels became filled with mud during the first flood,
and all the excavation had to be done over again, year after
year. With a serf population even this was not impossible;
but as the beds of the canals were graded to no even slope, it
did not follow that if water entered the head it would flow
evenly on. As the river daily fell, of course the water in the
canals fell too, and since they were never dug deep enough to
draw water from the very bottom of the river, they occasionally
ran dry altogether in the month of June, when the river was at
its lowest, and when, being the month of greatest heat, water
was more than ever necessary for the cotton crop. Thus large
tracts which had been sown, irrigated, weeded and nurtured for
perhaps three months perished in the fourth, while all the time
the precious Nile water was flowing useless to the sea. The
obvious remedy was to throw a weir across each branch of the
river to control the water and force it into canals taken from
above it. The task of constructing this great work was committed
to Mougel Bey, a French engineer of ability, who designed and
<span class="sidenote">The Nile Barrage.</span>
constructed the great barrage across the two branches
of the Nile at the apex of the delta, about 12 m. north
of Cairo (fig. 2). It was built to consist of two bridges&mdash;one
over the eastern or Damietta branch of the river having
71 arches, the other, over the Rosetta branch, having 61 arches,
each arch being of 5 metres or 16.4 ft. span. The building was
all of stone, the floors of the arches were inverts. The height of
pier from edge of flooring to spring of arch was 28.7 ft., the
spring of the arch being about the surface-level of maximum flood.
The arches were designed to be fitted with
self-acting drop gates; but they were not
a success, and were only put into place on
the Rosetta branch. The gates were intended
to hold up the water 4.5 metres,
or 14.76 ft., and to divert it into three main
canals&mdash;the Behera on the west, the Menufia
in the centre and the Tewfikia on the east.
The river was thus to be emptied, and to
flow through a whole network of canals,
watering all Lower Egypt. Each barrage was provided with
locks to pass Nile boats 160 by 28 ft. in area.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:583px; height:436px" src="images/img847.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Map showing the Damietta and
Rosetta dams on the Nile.</td></tr></table>

<p>Mougel&rsquo;s barrage, as it may now be seen, is a very imposing
and stately work. Considering his want of experience of such
rivers as the Nile, and the great difficulties he had to contend
with under a succession of ignorant Turkish rulers, it would
be unfair to blame him because, until it fell into the hands
of British engineers in 1884, the work was condemned as a
hopeless failure. It took long years to complete, at a cost
which can never be estimated, since much of it was done by
serf labour. In 1861 it was at length said to be finished; but
it was not until 1863 that the gates of the Rosetta branch
were closed, and they were reopened again immediately, as
a settlement of the masonry took place. The experiment
was repeated year after year till 1867, when the barrage cracked
right across from foundation to top. A massive coffer-dam
was then erected, covering the eleven arches nearest the crack;
but the work was never trusted again, nor the water-surface
raised more than about 3 ft.</p>

<p>An essential part of the barrage project was the three canals,
taking their water from just above it, as shown in fig. 2. The
heads of the existing old canals, taken out of the river at intervals
throughout the delta, were to be closed, and the canals themselves
all put into connexion with the three high-level trunk lines
taken from above the barrage. The central canal, or Menufia,
was more or less finished, and, although full of defects, has
done good service. The eastern canal was never dug at all until
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
the British occupation. The western, or Behera, canal was dug,
but within its first 50 m. it passes through desert, and sand drifted
into it. <i>Corvées</i> of 20,000 men used to be forced to clear it out
year after year, but at last it was abandoned. Thus the whole
system broke down, the barrage was pronounced a failure,
and attention was turned to watering Lower Egypt by a system
of gigantic pumps, to raise the water from the river and discharge
it into a system of shallow surface-canals, at an annual
cost of about £250,000, while the cost of the pumps was estimated
at £700,000. Negotiations were on foot for carrying out this
system when the British engineers arrived in Egypt. They
soon resolved that it would be very much better if the original
scheme of using the barrage could be carried out, and after
a careful examination of the work they were satisfied that this
could be done. The barrage rests entirely on the alluvial bed
of the Nile. Nothing more solid than strata of sand and mud
is to be found for more than 200 ft. below the river. It was
out of the question, therefore, to think of founding on solid
material, and yet it was desired to have a head of water of
13 or 14 ft. upon the work. Of course, with such a pressure
as this, there was likely to be percolation under the foundations
and a washing-out of the soil. It had to be considered
whether this percolation could best be checked by laying a
solid wall across the river, going down to 50 or 60 ft. below its
bed, or by spreading out the foundations above and below the
bridge, so as to form one broad water-tight flooring&mdash;a system
practised with eminent success by Sir Arthur Cotton in Southern
India. It was decided to adopt the latter system. As originally
designed, the flooring of the barrage from up-stream to downstream
face was 111.50 ft. wide, the distance which had to
be travelled by water percolating under the foundations. This
width of flooring was doubled to 223 ft., and along the upstream
face a line of sheet piling was driven 16 ft. deep. Over
the old flooring was superposed 15 in. of the best rubble masonry,
an ashlar floor of blocks of close-grained trachyte being laid
directly under the bridge, where the action was severest. The
working season lasted only from the end of November to the
end of June, while the Nile was low; and the difficulty of getting
in the foundations was increased, as, in the interests of irrigation
and to supply the Menufia canal, water was held up every
season while the work was in progress to as much as 10 ft. The
work was begun in 1886, and completed in June 1890. Moreover,
in the meantime the eastern, or Tewfikia, canal was
dug and supplied with the necessary masonry works for a
distance of 23 m., to where it fed the network of old canals.
The western, or Behera, canal was thoroughly cleared out and
remodelled; and thus the whole delta irrigation was supplied
from above the barrage.</p>

<p>The outlay on the barrage between 1883 and 1891 amounted
to about £460,000. The average cotton crop for the 5 years
preceding 1884 amounted to 123,000 tons, for the 5 years ending
1898 it amounted to 251,200 tons. At the low rate of £40 per
ton, this means an annual increase to the wealth of Lower
Egypt of £5,128,000. Since 1890 the barrage has done its
duty without accident, but a work of such vast importance
to Lower Egypt required to be placed beyond all risk. It
having been found that considerable hollow spaces existed
below the foundations of some of the piers, five bore-holes from
the top of the roadway were pierced vertically through each
pier of both barrages, and similar holes were drilled at intervals
along all the lock walls. Down these holes cement grout was
injected under high pressure on the system of Mr Kinipple.
The work was successfully carried out during the seasons 1896
to 1898. During the summer of 1898 the Rosetta barrage was
worked under a pressure of 14 ft. But this was looked on as too
near the limit of safety to be relied on, and in 1899 subsidiary weirs
were started across both branches of the river a short distance
below the two barrages. These were estimated to cost £530,000
altogether, and were to stand 10.8 ft. above the river&rsquo;s bed,
allowing the water-surface up-stream of the barrage to be raised
7.2 ft., while the pressure on that work itself would not exceed
10 ft. These weirs were satisfactorily completed in 1901.</p>

<p>The barrage is the greatest, but by no means the only important
masonry work in Lower Egypt. Numerous regulating
bridges and locks have been built to give absolute control
of the water and facilities for navigation; and since 1901 a
second weir has been constructed opposite Zifta, across the
Damietta branch of the Nile, to improve the irrigation of the
Dakhilia province.</p>

<p>In the earlier section of this article it is explained how necessary
it is that irrigation should always be accompanied by drainage.
This had been totally neglected in Egypt; but very large sums
have been spent on it, and the country is now covered with
a network of drains nearly as complete as that of the canals.</p>

<p>The ancient system of basin irrigation is still pursued in
Upper Egypt, though by the end of 1907 over 320,000 feddans
of land formerly under basin irrigation had been
given, at a cost of over £E3,000,000, perennial irrigation.
<span class="sidenote">Basin irrigation of Upper Egypt.</span>
This conversion work was carried out in the
provinces situated between Cairo and Assiut, a region
sometimes designated Middle Egypt. The ancient system
seems simple enough; but in order really to flood the whole
Nile Valley during seasons of defective as well as favourable
floods, a system of regulating sluices, culverts and syphons
is necessary; and for want of such a system it was found, in
the feeble flood of 1888, that there was an area of 260,000 acres
over which the water never flowed. This cost a loss of land
revenue of about £300,000, while the loss of the whole season&rsquo;s
crop to the farmer was of course much greater. The attention
of the British engineers was then called to this serious calamity;
and fortunately for Egypt there was serving in the country
Col. J. C. Ross, R.E., an officer who had devoted many years
of hard work to the irrigation of the North-West Provinces
of India, and who possessed quite a special knowledge as well
as a glowing enthusiasm for the subject. Fortunately, too,
it was possible to supply him with the necessary funds to complete
and remodel the canal system. When the surface-water
of a river is higher than the fields right and left, there is nothing
easier than to breach the embankments and flood the fields&mdash;in
fact, it may be more difficult to prevent their being flooded
than to flood them&mdash;but in ordinary floods the Nile is never
higher than all the bordering lands, and in years of feeble flood
it is higher than none of them. To water the valley, therefore,
it is necessary to construct canals having bed-slopes less
than that of the river, along which the water flows until its
surface is higher than that of the fields. If, for instance, the
slope of the river be 4 in. per mile, and that of the canal 2 in.
it is evident that at the end of a mile the water in the canal
will be 2 in. higher than in the river; and if the surface of
the land is 3 ft. higher than that of the river, the canal, gaining
on it at 2 in. per mile, will reach the surface in 18 m., and from
thence onwards will be above the adjoining fields. But to
irrigate this upper 18 m., water must either be raised artificially,
or supplied from another canal taking its source 18 m. farther
up. This would, however, involve the country in great lengths
of canal between the river and the field, and circumstances
are not so unfavourable as this. Owing to the deltaic nature
of the Nile Valley, the fields on the banks are 3 ft. above the
flood, at 2 m. away from the banks they may not be more
than 1 ft. above that level, so that the canal, gaining 2 in. per
mile and receding from the river, will command the country
in 6 m. The slope of the river, moreover, is taken in its winding
course; and if it is 4 in. per mile, the slope of the axis of the
valley parallel to which the canals may be made to flow is at
least 6 in. per mile, so that a canal with a slope of 2 in. gains
4 in. per mile.</p>

<p>The system of having one canal overlapping another has one
difficulty to contend with. Occasionally the desert cliffs and
slopes come right down to the river, and it is difficult, if not
impossible, to carry the higher-level canals past these obstructions.
It should also be noticed that on the higher strip bordering the
river it is the custom to take advantage of its nearness to raise
water by pumps, or other machinery, and thereby to grow
valuable crops of sugar-cane, maize or vegetables. When the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
river rises, these crops, which often form a very important
part of the year&rsquo;s produce and are termed <i>Nabári</i>, are still in
the ground, and they require water in moderate and regulated
quantities, in contradistinction to the wholesale flooding of the
flats beyond. Fig. 3 will serve to explain this system of irrigation,
the firm lines representing canals, the dotted lines embankments.
It will be seen, beginning on the east or right bank of
the river, that a high-level canal from an upper system is carried
past a steep slope, where perhaps it is cut entirely out of rock,
and it divides into two. The right branch waters all the desert
slopes within its reach and level. The left branch passes, by
a syphon aqueduct, under what is the main canal of the system,
taken from the river close at hand (and therefore at a lower
level). This left branch irrigates the <i>Nabári</i> on the high lands
bordering the river. In years of very favourable flood this
high-level canal would not be wanted at all; the irrigation could
be done from the main canal, and with this great advantage,
that the main canal water would carry with it much more
fertilizing matter than would be got from the tail of the high-level
canal, which left the river perhaps 25 m. up. The main
canal flows freely over the flats C and D, and, if the flood is good,
over B and part of A. It is carried round the next desert point,
and to the north becomes the high-level canal. The masonry
works required for this system are a syphon to pass the high
level under the main canal near its head, bridges fitted with
sluices where each canal passes under an embankment, and an
escape weir at the tail of the system, just south of the desert
point, to return surplus water to the river. Turning to the left
bank, there is the same high-level canal from the upper system
irrigating the basins K, P and L, as well as the large basin E
in such years as it cannot be irrigated from the main canal.
Here there are two main canals&mdash;one following the river, irrigating
a series of smaller basins, and throwing out a branch to its
left, the other passing under the desert slopes and supplying
the basins F, G, H and S. For this system two syphons will be
required near the head, regulating bridges under all the embankments,
and an escape weir back into the river.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:394px" src="images/img849.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Map of the Basin System of Irrigation.</td></tr></table>

<p>In the years following 1888 about 100 new masonry works of
this kind were built in Upper Egypt, nearly 400 m. of new canal
were dug, and nearly 300 m. of old canal were enlarged and
deepened. The result has been, as already stated, that with a
complete failure of the Nile flood the loss to the country has been
trifling compared with that of 1877.</p>

<p>The first exception in Upper Egypt to the basin system of
irrigation was due to the Khedive Ismail. The khedive, having
acquired vast estates in the provinces of Assiut, Miniah, Beni-Suef
and the Fayúm, resolved to grow sugar-cane on a very large
scale, and with this object constructed a very important perennial
canal, named the Ibrahimia, taking out of the left bank of the
Nile at the town of Assiut, and flowing parallel to the river for
about 200 m., with an important branch which irrigates the
Fayúm. This canal was badly constructed, and by entirely
blocking the drainage of the valley did a great deal of harm
to the lands. Most of its defects had been remedied, but one
remained. There being at its head no weir across the Nile,
the water in the Ibrahimia canal used to rise and fall with that
of the river, and so the supply was apt to run short during the
hottest months, as was the case with the canals of Lower Egypt
before the barrage was built. To supply the Ibrahimia canal
at all during low Nile, it had been necessary to carry on dredging
operations at an annual cost of about £12,000. This has now
been rectified, in the same way as in Lower Egypt, by the
<span class="sidenote">Assiut Weir and Esna Barrage.</span>
construction of a weir across the Nile, intended to
give complete control over the river and to raise the
water-surface 8.2 ft. The Assiut weir is constructed
on a design very similar to that of the barrage in
Lower Egypt. It consists of a bridge of 111 arches, each 5
metres span, with piers of 2 metres thickness. In each arch are
fitted two gates. There is a lock 80 metres long and 16 metres
wide at the left or western end of the weir, and adjoining it
are the regulating sluices of the Ibrahimia canal. The Assiut
weir across the Nile is just about half a mile long. The work
was begun at the end of 1898 and finished early in 1902&mdash;in
time to avert over a large area the disastrous effects which
would otherwise have resulted from the low Nile of that year.
The money value of the crops saved by the closing of the weir
was not less than £E690,000. The conversion of the lands north
of Assiut from basin to perennial irrigation began
immediately after the completion of the Assiut weir
and was finished by the end of 1908. To render the
basin lands of the Kena province independent of the
flood being bad or good, another barrage was built
across the Nile at Esna at a cost of £1,000,000. This
work was begun in 1906 and completed in 1909.</p>

<p>These works, as well as that in Lower Egypt, are
intended to raise the water-surface above it, and to
control the distribution of its supply, but in
no way to store that supply. The idea of
ponding up the superfluous flood discharge of the river
is not a new one, and if Herodotus is to be believed,
<span class="sidenote">Storage.</span>
it was a system actually pursued at a very early
period of Egyptian history, when Lake Moeris in the
Fayúm was filled at each Nile flood, and drawn upon
as the river ran down. When British engineers first
undertook the management of Egyptian irrigation
many representations were made to them of the advantage
of storing the Nile water; but they consistently
maintained that before entering on that subject it was their
duty to utilize every drop of the water at their disposal. This
seemed all the more evident, as at that time financial reasons
made the construction of a costly Nile dam out of the question.
Every year, however, between 1890 and 1902 the supply of the
Nile during May and June was actually exhausted, no water
at all flowing then out into the sea. In these years, too, owing
to the extension of drainage works, the irrigable area of Egypt
was greatly enlarged, so that if perennial cultivation was at all
to be increased, it was necessary to increase the volume of the
river, and this could only be done by storing up the flood supply.
The first difficulty that presented itself in carrying this out,
was that during the months of highest flood the Nile is so charged
with alluvial matter that to pond it up then would inevitably
lead to a deposit of silt in the reservoir, which would in no great
number of years fill it up. It was found, however, that the
flood water was comparatively free from deposit by the middle
of November, while the river was still so high that, without
injuring the irrigation, water might go on being stored up until
March. Accordingly, when it was determined to construct
a dam, it was decided that it should be supplied with sluices
large enough to discharge unchecked the whole volume of the
river as it comes down until the middle of November, and then
to begin the storage.</p>

<p>The site selected for the great Nile dam was at the head
of the First Cataract above Assuan. A dyke of syenite granite
here crosses the valley, so hard that the river had nowhere
scoured a deep channel through it, and so it was found possible
<span class="sidenote">The Assuan Dam.</span>
to construct the dam entirely in the open air, without the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
necessity of laying under-water foundations. The length of the
dam is about 6400 ft.&mdash;nearly 1¼ m. The greatest head of water
in it is 65 ft. It is pierced by 140 under-sluices of
150 sq. ft. each, and by 40 upper-sluices, each of 75 sq.
ft. These, when fully open, are capable of discharging
the ordinary maximum Nile flood of 350,000 cub. ft.
per second, with a velocity of 15.6 ft. per second and a head
of 6.6 ft. The top width of the dam is 23 ft., the bottom width
at the deepest part about 82 ft. On the left flank of the dam
there is a canal, provided with four locks, each 262 by 31 ft.
in area, so that navigation is possible at all seasons. The
storage capacity of the reservoir is about 3,750,000 millions
of cub. ft., which creates a lake extending up the Nile Valley
for about 200 m. The reservoir is filled yearly by March; after
that the volume reaching the reservoir from the south is passed
on through the sluices. In May, or earlier when the river is
late in rising, when the demand for water increases, first the upper
and then the under sluices are gradually opened, so as to increase
the river supply, until July, when all the gates are open, to allow
of the free passage of the flood. On the 10th of December
1902 this magnificent work was completed. The engineer
who designed it was Sir W. Willcocks. The contractors were
Messrs John Aird &amp; Co., the contract price being £2,000,000.
The financial treaties in which the Egyptian government were
bound up prevented their ever paying so large a sum as this
within five years; but a company was formed in London to
advance periodically the sum due to the contractors, on receipt
from the government of Egypt of promissory notes to pay sixty
half-yearly instalments of £78,613, beginning on the 1st of July
1903. Protective works downstream of the dam were completed
in 1906 at a cost of about £E304,000. It had been at
first intended to raise the dam to a height which would have
involved the submergence, for some months of every year,
of the Philae temples, situated on an island just upstream
of the dam. Had the natives of Egypt been asked to choose
between the preservation of Ptolemy&rsquo;s famed temple and the
benefit to be derived from a considerable additional depth of
water storage, there can be no question that they would have
preferred the latter; but they were not consulted, and the
classical sentiment and artistic beauty of the place, skilfully
pleaded by archaeologists and artists, prevailed. In 1907,
however, it was decided to carry out the plan as originally
proposed and raise the dam 26 ft. higher. This would increase
the storage capacity 2½ times, or to about 9,375,000 millions
of cubic feet.</p>

<p>There is no middle course of farming in Egypt between
irrigation and desert. No assessment can be levied on lands
which have not been watered, and the law of Egypt requires
that in order to render land liable to taxation the water during
the Nile flood must have flowed naturally over it. It is not
enough that it should be pumped on to the land at the expense
of the landowner. The tax usually levied is from £1 to £2
per acre.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Sir W. Willcocks, <i>Egyptian Irrigation</i> (2nd ed., 1899); Sir
C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, <i>Lectures on Irrigation in Egypt. Professional
Papers on the Corps of Royal Engineers</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1893);
Sir W. Garstin, <i>Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile</i>. Egypt No. 2
(1904).</p>
</div>

<p>V. <i>India</i>.&mdash;Allusion has already been made to the irrigation
of India. The year 1878, which saw the end of a most disastrous
famine, may be considered as the commencement of a new era
as regards irrigation. It had at last been recognized that such
famines must be expected to occur at no very long intervals
of time, and that the cost of relief operations must not be met
by increasing the permanent debt on the country, but by the
creation of a famine relief and a famine insurance fund. For
this purpose it was fixed that there should be an annual provision
of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,500,000, to be spent on: (1) relief, (2) protective works,
(3) reduction of debt. Among protective works the first place
was given to works of irrigation. These works were divided
into three classes: (i.) productive works; (ii.) protective
works; (iii.) minor works.</p>

<p>Productive works, as their name implies, are such as may
reasonably be expected to be remunerative, and they include
all the larger irrigation systems. Their capital cost is provided
from loan funds, and not from the relief funds mentioned above.
In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897 the capital expenditure
on such works was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 10,954,948, including a sum of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,742,246
paid to the Madras Irrigation Company as the price of the
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, a work which can never be financially
productive, but which nevertheless did good service in the
famine of 1896-1897 by irrigating 87,226 acres. In the famine
year 1877-1878 the area irrigated by productive canals was
5,171,497 acres. In the famine year 1896-1897 the area was
9,571,779 acres, including an area of 123,087 acres irrigated on
the Swat river canal in the Punjab. The revenue of the year
1879-1880 was nearly 6% on the capital outlay. In 1897-1898
it was 7½%. In the same seventeen years <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,099,253 were
spent on the construction of protective irrigation works, not
expected to be directly remunerative, but of great value during
famine years. On four works of this class were spent <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,649,823,
which in 1896-1897 irrigated 200,733 acres, a valuable return
then, although in an ordinary year their gross revenue does
not cover their working expenses. Minor works may be divided
into those for which capital accounts have been kept and those
where they have not. In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897,
<span class="lt">R</span>x. 827,214 were spent on the former, and during that year
they yielded a return of 9.13%. In the same year the irrigation
effected by minor works of all sorts showed the large area
of 7,442,990 acres. Such are the general statistics of outlay,
revenue and irrigated area up to the end of 1896-1897. The
government might well be congratulated on having through
artificial means ensured in that year of widespread drought
and famine the cultivation of 27,326 sq. m., a large tract even
in so large a country as India. And progress has been steadily
made in subsequent years.</p>

<p>Some description will now be given of the chief of these
irrigation works. Beginning with the Punjab, the province
in which most progress has been made, the great Sutlej canal,
which irrigates the country to the left of that river, was opened
in 1882, and the Western Jumna canal (perhaps the oldest in
India) was extended into the dry Hissar and Sirsa districts,
and generally improved so as to increase by nearly 50% its
area of irrigation between 1878 and 1897. Perhaps this is as
much as can well be done with the water at command for the
country between the Sutlej and the Jumna, and it is enough
to secure it for ever from famine. The Bari Doab canal, which
irrigates the Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Lahore districts, has been
enlarged and extended so as to double its irrigation since it was
projected in 1877-1878. The Chenab canal, the largest in India
and the most profitable, was only begun in 1889. It was designed
to command an area of about 2½ million acres, and to irrigate
annually rather less than half that area. This canal flows
through land that in 1889 was practically desert. From the
first arrangements were made for bringing colonists in from
the more congested parts of India. The colonization began in
1892. Nine years later this canal watered 1,830,525 acres.
The population of the immigrant colony was 792,666, consisting
mainly of thriving and prosperous peasants with occupancy
rights in holdings of about 28 acres each. The direct revenue
of this canal in 1906 was 26% on the capital outlay. The
Jhelum canal was opened on the 30th of October, 1901. It is
a smaller work than the Chenab, but it is calculated to command
1,130,000 acres, of which at least half will be watered annually.
A much smaller work, but one of great interest, is the Swat
river canal in the Peshawar valley. It was never expected that
this would be a remunerative work, but it was thought for
political reasons expedient to construct it in order to induce
turbulent frontier tribes to settle down into peaceful agriculture.
This has had a great measure of success, and the canal itself
has proved remunerative, irrigating 123,000 acres in 1896-1897.
A much greater scheme than any of the above is that of the
Sind Sagar canal, projected from the left bank of the Indus
opposite Kalabagh, to irrigate 1,750,000 acres at a cost of
<span class="lt">R</span>x. 6,000,000. Another great canal scheme for the Punjab
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
proposed to take off from the right bank of the Sutlej, and to
irrigate about 600,000 acres in the Montgomery and Multan
districts, at a cost of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,500,000. These three last projects
would add 2,774,000 acres to the irrigated area of the province,
and as they would flow through tracts almost unpeopled, they
would afford a most valuable outlet for the congested districts
of northern India. In addition to these great perennial canals,
much has been done since 1878 in enlarging and extending
what are known as the &ldquo;inundation canals&rdquo; of the Punjab,
which utilize the flood waters in the rivers during the monsoon
season and are dry at other times. By these canals large portions
of country throughout most of the Punjab are brought under
cultivation, and the area thus watered has increased from
about 180,000 to 500,000 acres since 1878.</p>

<p>It is on inundation canals such as these that the whole cultivation
of Sind depends. In 1878 the area was about 1,500,000
acres; in 1896-1897 it had increased to 2,484,000 acres. This
increase was not due to famine in Sind, for that rainless province
depends always on the Indus, as Egypt does on the Nile, and
where there is no rainfall there can be no drought. But the famine
prices obtained for agricultural produce doubtless gave an impetus
to cultivation. In Sind, too, there is room for much increase
of irrigation. It has been proposed to construct two
new canals, the Jamrao and the Shikárpur, and to improve and
extend three existing canals&mdash;Nasrat, Naulakhi and Dad.
The total cost of these five projects, some of which are now
in progress, was estimated at <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,596,682, and the extension
of irrigation at 660,563 acres.</p>

<p>Turning from the basin of the
Indus to that of the Ganges,
the commissioners appointed to
report on the famine of 1896-1897
found that in the country between
the Ganges and the Jumna
little was left to be done beyond
the completion of some distributary
channels. The East India
Company&rsquo;s great work, the Ganges
canal, constructed between 1840
and 1854 before there was a mile
of railway open in India, still
holds its place unsurpassed
among later irrigation work for
boldness of design and completeness
of execution, a lasting monument
to the genius of Sir Proby
Cautley, an officer of the Bengal
Artillery, but a born engineer.
Ever since 1870 consideration has
been given to projects for irrigating
the fertile province of Oudh by
means of a great canal to be drawn
from the river Sarda. The water is there in abundance, the land is
well adapted for irrigation, but as there is a considerable rainfall,
it is doubtful whether the scheme would prove remunerative,
and a large section of the landowners have hitherto opposed it, as
likely to waterlog the country. Among the four protective works
of irrigation which were said above to have irrigated 200,733
acres in 1896-1897, one of the most important is the Betwa canal,
in the parched district of Bundelkhand. This canal has cost
<span class="lt">R</span>x. 428,086, and causes an annual loss to the state in interest
and working expenses of about <span class="lt">R</span>x. 20,000. It irrigated, however,
in 1896-1897 an area of 87,306 acres, raising crops valued
at <span class="lt">R</span>x. 231,081, or half the cost of the canal, so it may be said
to have justified its construction. A similar canal from the
river Ken in the same district has been constructed. Proceeding
farther east, we find very satisfactory progress in the
irrigation of southern Behar, effected by the costly system of
canals drawn from the river Sone. In 1877-1878 these canals
irrigated 241,790 acres. Rapid progress was not expected
here, and 792,000 acres was calculated as being the maximum
area that could be covered with the water supply available.
In the five years preceding 1901-1902 the average irrigated area
was 463,181 acres, and during that year the area was 555,156
acres, the maximum ever attained.</p>

<p>The canal system of Orissa was never expected to be remunerative,
since in five years out of six the local rainfall is
sufficient for the rice crop. In 1878-1879 the area irrigated was
111,250 acres, and the outlay up to date was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,750,000. In
1900-1901 the area was 203,540 acres, the highest ever attained,
and the capital outlay amounted to <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,623,703. It should
be mentioned in favour of these canals that although the irrigation
is not of yearly value, they supply very important water
communication through a province which, from its natural
configuration, is not likely to be soon intersected by railways.
If, moreover, such a famine were again to occur in Orissa as that
of 1866-1867, there would be no doubt of the value of these fine
canals.</p>

<p>In the Madras presidency and in Mysore irrigation has long
assumed a great importance, and the engineering works of
the three great deltas of the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery,
the outcome of the genius and indefatigable enthusiasm of
Sir Arthur Cotton, have always been quoted as showing what
a boon irrigation is to a country. In 1878 the total area of
irrigation in the Madras presidency amounted to about 5,000,000
acres. The irrigation of the eight productive systems was
1,680,178 acres, and the revenue <span class="lt">R</span>x. 739,778. In 1898 there
were ten of these systems, with an irrigation area, as shown
by the accompanying table, of 2,685,915 acres, and a revenue
of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,163,268:</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tccm allb">Irrigation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area<br />Watered.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />and<br />Indirect<br />Charges.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Net<br />Revenue<br />to Capital.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>Major Works.</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">Acres.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. Godavari Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">779,435</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,443</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,376</td> <td class="tcr rb">260,067</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,297,807</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. Kistna Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">520,373</td> <td class="tcr rb">254,579</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,142</td> <td class="tcr rb">180,437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,319,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.18</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3. Pennar Weir System</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,937</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,123</td> <td class="tcr rb">189,919</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.59</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4. Sangam System</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,277</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,627</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,037</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">385,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.68</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5. Kurnool Canal</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,622</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,171,740</td> <td class="tcr rb">.15</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">6. Barur Tank System</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 4,421</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,162</td> <td class="tcr rb">385</td> <td class="tcr rb">777</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.39</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">7. Cauvery Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">989,808</td> <td class="tcr rb">434,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">390,882</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,458</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.87</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">8. Srivaikuntam System</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,349</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,680</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,669</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,192</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.45</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">9. Periyar Project</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,526</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,751</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,775</td> <td class="tcr rb">852,914</td> <td class="tcr rb">.27</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">10. Rushikulya Canal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">67,318</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,454</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,678</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,776</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">464,423</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.54</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,685,915</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,163,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">229,954</td> <td class="tcr rb">933,314</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,032,470</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.88</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>Minor Works.</i></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">23 Works for which Capital and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;Revenue Accounts are kept</td> <td class="tcr rb">535,813</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,558</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,655</td> <td class="tcr rb">165,903</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,693,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.44</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minor Works for which such</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;Accounts are not kept</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,131,009</td> <td class="tcr rb">830,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">193,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">636,880</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Grand Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">6,352,737</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,194,001</td> <td class="tcr allb">457,904</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,736,097</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td></tr>
</table>

<p>In the three great deltas, and the small southern one that
depends on the Srivaikuntam weir over the river Tumbraparni,
extension and improvement works have been carried on. The
Sangam and Pennar systems depend on two weirs on the river
Pennar in the Nellore district, the former about 18 m. above
and the latter just below the town of Nellore. The former
irrigates on the left, the latter on the right bank of the river.
This district suffered severely in the famine of 1877-1878, and
the irrigation works were started in consequence. The Barur
tank system in the Salem district was also constructed after
the famine of 1877-1878. As yet it has not fulfilled expectations.
The Periyar scheme has for its object both the addition of
new irrigation and the safeguarding of that which exists in
the district of Madura, a plain watered by means of a great
number of shallow tanks drawing their supply from a very
uncertain river, the Vaigai. This river takes its rise on the
eastern slopes of the Ghat range of mountains, and just opposite
to it, on the western face of the range, is the source of the river
Periyar. The rainfall on the west very much exceeds that on
the east, and the Periyar used to find its way by a short torrent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
course to the sea, rendering no service to mankind. Its upper
waters are now stemmed by a masonry dam 178 ft. high, forming
a large lake, at the eastern end of which is a tunnel 5700 ft.
long, piercing the watershed and discharging 1600 cub. ft.
per second down the eastern side of the mountains into the
river Vaigai. No bolder or more original work of irrigation
has been carried out in India, and the credit of it is due to
Colonel J. Pennycuick, C.S.I. The dam and tunnel were works
of unusual difficulty. The country was roadless and uninhabited
save by wild beasts, and fever and cholera made sad havoc
of the working parties; but it was successfully accomplished.
The last of those given in the table above was not expected to
be remunerative, but it should prove a valuable protective
against famine. The system consists of weirs over the rivers
Gulleri, Mahanadi and Rushikulya in the backward province
of Ganjam, south of Orissa. From these weirs flow canals
altogether about 127 m. long, which, in connexion with two
large reservoirs, are capable of irrigating 120,000 acres. In 1901
the works, though incomplete, already irrigated 67,318 acres.</p>

<p>In addition to all these great engineering systems, southern
India is covered with minor works of irrigation, some drawn
from springs in the sandy beds of rivers, some from the rainfall
of ½ sq. m. ponded up in a valley. In other cases tanks are
fed from neighbouring streams, and the greatest ingenuity
is displayed in preventing the precious water from going to
waste.</p>

<p>Allusion has been already made to the canals of Sind. Elsewhere
in the Bombay presidency, in the Deccan and Gujarat,
there are fewer facilities for irrigation than in other parts of
India. The rivers are generally of uncertain volume. The
cost of storage works is very great. The population is backward,
and the black soil is of a nature that in ordinary years
can raise fair crops of cotton, millet and maize without artificial
watering. Up to the end of 1896-1897 the capital spent on the
irrigation works of the Deccan and Gujarat was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,616,959.
The area irrigated that year was 262,830 acres. The most
important works are the Mutha and Nira canals in the Poona
district.</p>

<p>In Upper Burma three productive irrigation works were
planned at the opening of the century&mdash;the Mandalay, the
Shwebo, and the Mon canals, of which the first was estimated
to cost <span class="lt">R</span>x. 323,280, and to irrigate 72,000 acres. The area
estimated from the whole three projects is 262,000 acres, situated
in the only part of Burma that is considered liable to famine.</p>

<p>In 1901, after years of disastrous drought and famine, the
government of India appointed a commission to examine
throughout all India what could be done by irrigation to alleviate
the horrors of famine. Up to that time it had been the principle
of the government not to borrow money for the execution of
irrigation works unless there was a reasonable expectation that
within a few years they would give a return of 4 or 5% on the
capital outlay. In 1901 the government took larger views.
It was found that although some irrigation works (especially
in the Bombay Deccan) would never yield a direct return of
4 or 5%, still in a famine year they might be the means of
producing a crop which would go far to do away with the
necessity for spending enormous sums on famine relief. In the
Sholapur district of Bombay, for instance, about three years&rsquo;
revenue was spent on relief during the famine of 1901. An
expenditure of ten years&rsquo; revenue on irrigation works might
have done away for all future time with the necessity for the
greater part of this outlay. The Irrigation Commission of 1901-1903
published a very exhaustive report after a careful study
of every part of India. While emphatically asserting that
irrigation alone could never prevent famine, they recommended
an outlay of £45,000,000 spread over a period of 25 years.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also <i>Annual Reports Irrigation Department Local Governments of
India</i>; <i>Reports of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1878, 1898 and
1901</i>; Sir Hanbury Brown, <i>Irrigation, its Principles and Practice</i>
(London, 1907).</p>
</div>

<p>VI. <i>United States.</i>&mdash;At the opening of the 20th century,
during Mr Roosevelt&rsquo;s presidency, the new &ldquo;Conservation&rdquo;
policy (<i>i.e.</i> conservation of natural resources by federal initiative
and control), to which he gave so much impetus and encouragement,
brought the extension of irrigation works in the United
States to the front in American statecraft (see Vrooman, <i>Mr
Roosevelt, Dynamic Geographer</i>, 1909). Though the carrying
out of this policy on a large scale was hampered by many
difficulties, the subject was made definitely one of national
importance.</p>

<p>On account of the aridity of the climate throughout the greater
part of the western third of the United States, the practice of
agriculture is dependent upon an artificial supply of water.
On most of the country west of the 97th meridian and extending
to the Pacific Ocean less than 20 in. of rain falls each year.
The most notable exceptions are in the case of a narrow strip
west of the Cascade Range and of some of the higher mountain
masses. In ordinary years the climate is too dry for successful
cultivation of the field crops, although under favourable conditions
of soil and cultivation there are certain areas where cereals
are grown by what is known as &ldquo;dry farming.&rdquo; The progress
in irrigation up to the end of the 19th century was spasmodic
but on the whole steady. The eleventh census of the United
States, 1890, showed that 3,564,416 acres were irrigated in 1889.
This included only the lands from which crops were produced.
Besides this, there were probably 10 million acres under irrigation
systems constructed in whole or in part. In 1899 the
irrigated area in the arid states and territories was more than
twice as great as in 1889, the acreage being as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">Arizona</td> <td class="tcr">185,936</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">California</td> <td class="tcr">1,445,872</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Colorado</td> <td class="tcr">1,611,271</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Idaho</td> <td class="tcr">602,568</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Montana</td> <td class="tcr">951,154</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Nevada</td> <td class="tcr">504,168</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">New Mexico</td> <td class="tcr">203,893</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Oregon</td> <td class="tcr">388,310</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Utah</td> <td class="tcr">629,293</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Washington</td> <td class="tcr">135,470</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Wyoming</td> <td class="tcr">605,878</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">7,263,813</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">In addition to the area above given, in 1899, 273,117 acres
were under irrigation in the semi-arid region, east of the states
above mentioned and including portions of the states of North
and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma.
The greater part of these lands was irrigated by canals or ditches
built by individuals acting singly or in co-operation with their
neighbours, or by corporations. The national and state governments
had not built any works of reclamation excepting where
the federal government, through the Indian department, had
constructed irrigation ditches for Indian tribes, notably the
Crow Indians of Montana. A few of the state governments,
such, for example, as Colorado, had built small reservoirs
or portions of canals from internal improvement funds.</p>

<p>The construction of irrigation canals and ditches was for the
most part brought about by farmers joining to plough out or
dig ditches from the rivers, descending on a gentle grade. Some
of the corporations constructing works for the sale of water built
structures of notable size, such, for example, as the Sweet-water
and Hemet dams of southern California, the Bear river canal
of Utah, and the Arizona canal, taking water from Salt river,
Arizona. The cost of bringing water to the land averaged
about $8 per acre where the ordinary ditches were built. The
owners of extensive works were charged from $12 to $20 per
acre and upwards for so-called &ldquo;water rights,&rdquo; or the privilege
to take water from the canal, this covering cost of construction.
Besides the first cost of construction, the irrigator was usually
called upon to pay annually a certain amount for maintenance,
which might often be worked out by labour on the canal. The cost
ranged from 50 cents to $1 per acre; or, with incorporated companies,
from $1.50 to $2.50 per acre and upwards. The largest
expense for water rights and for annual maintenance was incurred
in southern California, where the character of the crops,
such as citrus fruits, and the scarcity of the water make possible
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
expensive construction and heavy charges. The legal expense
for the maintenance of water rights was often large because
of the interminable suits brought during the times of water
scarcity. The laws regarding water in most of the arid states
were indefinite or contradictory, being based partly on the
common law regarding riparian rights, and partly upon the
Spanish law allowing diversion of water from natural streams.
Few fundamental principles were established, except in the
case of the state of Wyoming, where an official was charged with
the duty of ascertaining the amount of water in the streams and
apportioning this to the claimants in the order of their priority
of appropriation for beneficial use.</p>

<p>It may be said that, up to the year 1900, irrigation progressed
to such an extent that there remained few ordinary localities
where water could not be easily or cheaply diverted from creeks
and rivers for the cultivation of farms. The claims for the available
supply from small streams, however, exceeded the water
to be had in the latter part of the irrigating season. There
remained large rivers and opportunities for water storage
which could be brought under irrigation at considerable expense.
The large canals and reservoirs built by corporations had rarely
been successful from a financial standpoint, and irrigation construction
during the latter part of the decade 1890-1899 was
relatively small. Owing to the difficulty and expense of securing
water from running streams by gravity systems, a great
variety of methods were developed of pumping water by windmills,
gasoline or hot-air engines, and steam. Ordinary reciprocating
pumps were commonly employed, and also air lifts and
similar devices for raising great quantities of water to a height
of from 20 to 50 ft. For greater depths the cost was usually
prohibitive. Throughout the Great Plains region, east of the
Rocky Mountains, and in the broad valleys to the west, windmills
were extensively used, each pumping water for from 1 to
5 acres of cultivated ground. In a few localities, notably in
South Dakota, the Yakima valley of Washington, San Joaquin,
and San Bernardino valleys of California, San Luis valley of
Colorado, and Utah valley of Utah, water from artesian wells
was also used for the irrigation of from 1 to 160 acres. The total
acreage supplied by such means was probably less than 1% of
that watered by gravity systems.</p>

<p>The development of irrigation was in part retarded by the
improper or wasteful use of water. On permeable soils, especially
those of the terrace lands along the valleys, the soluble salts
commonly known as alkali were gradually leached out and
carried by the percolating waters towards the lower lands,
where, reaching the surface, the alkali was left as a glistening
crust or as pools of inky blackness. Farms adjacent to the rivers
were for a time increased in richness by the alkaline salts,
which in diffuse form might be valuable plant foods, and then
suddenly become valueless when the concentration of alkali
had reached a degree beyond that which the ordinary plants
would endure.</p>

<p>The situation as regards the further progress of irrigation
on a large scale was however dominated in the early years of
the 20th century by the new Conservation policy. Mr Roosevelt
brought the whole subject before Congress in his message of
the 3rd of December 1901, and thereby started what seemed
likely to be a new sphere of Federal initiative and control.
After referring to the effects of forests (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests and
Forestry</a></span>) on water-supply, he went on as follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;The forests alone cannot fully regulate and conserve the waters of
the arid regions. Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
flow of the streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction
has been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private
effort. Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual states
acting alone.</p>

<p>&ldquo;Far-reaching interstate problems are involved, and the resources
of single states would often be inadequate. It is properly
a national function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for
the National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid
regions useful by engineering works for water storage, as to make
useful the rivers and harbours of the humid regions by engineering
works of another kind. The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the
headquarters of our rivers is but an enlargement of our present policy
of river control, under which levees are built on the lower reaches of
the same streams.</p>

<p>&ldquo;The government should construct and maintain these reservoirs
as it does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the
flow of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels
in the dry season, to take the same course under the same laws as the
natural flow.</p>

<p>&ldquo;The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a
different problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of
streams. The object of the government is to dispose of the land to
settlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish the object
water must be brought within their reach.</p>

<p>&ldquo;The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich
every portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The
increased demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial
production, while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will
consume the larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western
competition with Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of
irrigation will be consumed chiefly in upbuilding local centres of
mining and other industries, which would otherwise not come into
existence at all. Our people as a whole will profit, for successful
home-making is but another name for the upbuilding of the nation.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>In 1902, by Act of Congress, a &ldquo;reclamation fund&rdquo; was
created from moneys received from the sale of public lands;
it was to be used under a &ldquo;Reclamation Service&rdquo; (part of the
Department of the Interior) for the reclamation of arid lands.
The &ldquo;Truckee-Carson project&rdquo; for irrigation in Nevada was
immediately begun. About thirty other government projects
were taken in hand under the new Reclamation Service,
in some cases involving highly interesting engineering
problems, as in the Uncompahgre Project in Colorado. Here
the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers flowed parallel, about
10 m. apart, with a mountain range 2000 ft. high between them.
The Uncompahgre, with only a small amount of water, flowed
through a broad and fertile valley containing several hundred
thousand acres of cultivable soil. The Gunnison, with far more
water, flowed through a canyon with very little land. The
problem was to get the water from the Gunnison over the
mountain range into the Uncompahgre valley; and a tunnel,
6 m. long, was cut through, resulting in 1909 in 148,000 acres
of land being irrigated and thrown open to settlers. Similarly,
near Yuma in Arizona, a project was undertaken for carrying
the waters of the main canal on the California side under the
Colorado river by a siphon. In the report for 1907 of the
Reclamation Service it was stated that it had dug 1881 m. of
canals, some carrying whole rivers, like the Truckee river in
Nevada and the North Platte in Wyoming, and had erected
281 large structures, including the great dams in Nevada and
the Minidoka dam (80 ft. high and 650 ft. long) in Idaho. As
the result of the operations eight new towns had been established,
100 m. of branch railroads constructed, and 14,000 people
settled in what had been the desert.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A White House conference of governors of states was held at
Washington in May 1909, which drew up a &ldquo;declaration of
principles&rdquo; for the conservation of natural resources, recommending
the appointment of a commission by each state to co-operate with
one another and with the Federal government; and by the end of
the year thirty-six states had appointed Conservation committees.
Thus, in the first decade of the 20th century a great advance had
been made in the way in which the whole problem was being viewed
in America, though the very immensity of the problem of bringing
the Federal power to bear on operations on so vast a scale, involving
the limitation of private land speculation in important areas, still
presented political difficulties of considerable magnitude.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRULAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (&ldquo;Benighted ones,&rdquo; from Tamil, <i>iral</i>, &ldquo;darkness&rdquo;),
a semi-Hinduized forest-tribe of southern India, who are found
mainly in North Arcot, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly,
and the Malabar Wynaad. The typical Irulas of the Nilgiris
live a wild life on the lower slopes of those hills. At the 1901
census this branch of the Irulas numbered 1915, while the total
of so-called Irulas was returned at 86,087.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. W. Breeks, <i>Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris</i> (1873); <i>Nilgiri
Manual</i>, i. 214-217; <i>North Arcot Manual</i>, i. 248-249.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRUN,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a frontier town of northern Spain, in the province of
Guipúzcoa, on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, opposite the
French village of Hendaye. Pop. (1900) 9912. Irun is the
northern terminus of the Spanish Northern railway, and a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
thriving industrial town, with ironworks, tan-yards, potteries
and paper mills. Its principal buildings are the fine Renaissance
parish church and the fortress-like 17th-century town hall. It
derives its prosperity from the fact that it is the most important
custom-house in Spain for the overland trade with the rest of
Europe. Irun is also on the chief highway for travellers and
mails. It is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge
mining railways and steam tramways, which place it in communication
with the mining districts of Guipúzcoa and Navarre, and
with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests of both provinces.
There are hot mineral springs in the town.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRVINE,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport
of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 9607. It is situated on the
north bank of the estuary of the Irvine, 29½ m. S.W. of Glasgow
by the Caledonian railway, with a station also on the Glasgow
&amp; South Western railway. It is connected with the suburb
of Fullarton on the south side of the river by a stone bridge,
which was built in 1746 and widened in 1827. Alexander II.
granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Robert Bruce.
Towards the end of the 17th century it was reckoned the third
shipping port in Scotland (Port Glasgow and Leith being the
leaders), and though its importance in this respect declined
owing to the partial silting-up of the harbour, its water-borne
trade revived after 1875, the sandy bar having been removed
and the wharfage extended and improved. The public buildings
include the town hall, academy (1814) and fever hospital. The
principal historical remains are the square tower of Stanecastle
and the ancient Seagate Castle, which contains some good specimens
of Norman architecture. The industries include engine-making,
shipbuilding, iron- and brass-founding, the manufacture
of chemicals, brewing and soap-making. Irvine unites with
Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Oban in sending one member
to parliament. The exports consist principally of coal, iron
and chemical products, and the imports of grain, timber, limestone,
ores and general produce. At <span class="sc">Dreghorn</span>, 2 m. to the S.E.
(pop. 1155) coal and iron are worked.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRVING, EDWARD<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1792-1834), Scottish church divine,
generally regarded as the founder of the &ldquo;Catholic Apostolic
Church&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Annan, Dumfriesshire, on the 4th
of August 1792. By his father&rsquo;s side, who followed the occupation
of a tanner, he was descended from a family long known
in the district, and the purity of whose Scottish lineage had been
tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it
was from his mother&rsquo;s race, the Lowthers, farmers or small proprietors
in Annandale, that he seems to have derived the most
distinctive features of his personality. The first stage of his
education was passed at a school kept by &ldquo;Peggy Paine,&rdquo; a
relation of the well-known author of the <i>Age of Reason</i>, after
which he entered the Annan academy, taught by Mr Adam
Hope, of whom there is a graphic sketch in the <i>Reminiscences</i>
of Thomas Carlyle. At the age of thirteen he entered the
university of Edinburgh. In 1809 he graduated M.A.; and in
1810, on the recommendation of Sir John Leslie, he was chosen
master of an academy newly established at Haddington, where
he became the tutor of Jane Welsh, afterwards famous as Mrs
Carlyle. He became engaged in 1812 to Isabella Martin, whom
in 1823 he married; but it may be at once stated here that
meanwhile he gradually fell in love with Jane Welsh, and she
with him. He tried to get out of his engagement with Miss
Martin, but was prevented by her family. If he had married
Miss Welsh, his life, as well as hers, would have been very different.
It was Irving who in 1821 introduced Carlyle to her.</p>

<p>His appointment at Haddington he exchanged for a similar
one at Kirkcaldy in 1812. Completing his divinity studies by a
series of partial sessions, he was &ldquo;licensed&rdquo; to preach in June
1815, but continued to discharge his scholastic duties for three
years. He devoted his leisure, not only to mathematical and
physical science, but to a course of reading in English literature,
his bias towards the antique in sentiment and style being
strengthened by a perusal of the older classics, among whom
Richard Hooker was his favourite author. At the same time
his love of the marvellous found gratification in the wonders
of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, and it is further characteristically related
of him that he used to carry continually in his waistcoat pocket
a miniature copy of <i>Ossian</i>, passages from which he frequently
recited with &ldquo;sonorous elocution and vehement gesticulation.&rdquo;</p>

<p>In the summer of 1818 he resigned his mastership, and, in
order to increase the probability of obtaining a permanent
appointment in the church, took up his residence in Edinburgh.
Although his exceptional method of address seems to have gained
him the qualified approval of certain dignitaries of the church,
the prospect of his obtaining a settled charge seemed as remote
as ever, and he was meditating a missionary tour in Persia when
his departure was arrested by steps taken by Dr Chalmers,
which, after considerable delay, resulted, in October 1819, in
Irving being appointed his assistant and missionary in St John&rsquo;s
parish, Glasgow. Except in the case of a select few, Irving&rsquo;s
preaching awakened little interest among the congregation of
Chalmers, Chalmers himself, with no partiality for its bravuras
and flourishes, comparing it to &ldquo;Italian music, appreciated only
by connoisseurs&rdquo;; but as a missionary among the poorer
classes he wielded an influence that was altogether unique. The
benediction &ldquo;Peace be to this house,&rdquo; with which, in accordance
with apostolic usage, he greeted every dwelling he entered, was
not inappropriate to his figure and aspect, and it is said &ldquo;took
the people&rsquo;s attention wonderfully,&rdquo; the more especially after
the magic of his personality found opportunity to reveal itself
in close and homely intercourse. This half-success in a subordinate
sphere was, however, so far from coinciding with his
aspirations that he had again, in the winter of 1821, begun to
turn his attention towards missionary labour in the East, when
the possibility of fulfilling the dream of his life was suddenly
revealed to him by an invitation from the Caledonian church,
Hatton Garden, London, to &ldquo;make trial and proof&rdquo; of his
gifts before the &ldquo;remnant of the congregation which held
together.&rdquo; Over that charge he was ordained in July 1822.
Some years previously he had expressed his conviction that
&ldquo;one of the chief needs of the age was to make inroad after the
alien, to bring in the votaries of fashion, of literature, of sentiment,
of policy and of rank, who are content in their several
idolatries to do without piety to God and love to Him whom He
hath sent&rdquo;; and, with an abruptness which must have produced
on him at first an effect almost astounding, he now had the
satisfaction of beholding these various votaries thronging to
hear from his lips the words of wisdom which would deliver them
from their several idolatries and remodel their lives according
to the fashion of apostolic times.</p>

<p>This sudden leap into popularity seems to have been occasioned
in connexion with a veiled allusion to Irving&rsquo;s striking eloquence
made in the House of Commons by Canning, who had been
induced to attend his church from admiration of an expression
in one of his prayers, quoted to him by Sir James Mackintosh.
His commanding stature, the symmetry of his form, the dark
and melancholy beauty of his countenance, rather rendered
piquant than impaired by an obliquity of vision, produced an
imposing impression even before his deep and powerful voice
had given utterance to its melodious thunders; and harsh and
superficial half-truths enunciated with surpassing ease and
grace of gesture, and not only with an air of absolute conviction
but with the authority of a prophetic messenger, in tones whose
magical fascination was inspired by an earnestness beyond
all imitation of art, acquired a plausibility and importance
which, at least while the orator spoke, made his audience entirely
forgetful of their preconceived objections against them. The
subject-matter of his orations, and his peculiar treatment of
his themes, no doubt also, at least at first, constituted a considerable
part of his attractive influence. He had specially
prepared himself, as he thought, for &ldquo;teaching imaginative
men, and political men, and legal men, and scientific men who
bear the world in hand&rdquo;; and he did not attempt to win their
attention to abstract and worn-out theological arguments,
but discussed the opinions, the poetry, the politics, the manners
and customs of the time, and this not with philosophical comprehensiveness,
not in terms of warm eulogy or measured blame,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span>
but of severe satire varied by fierce denunciation, and with
a specific minuteness which was concerned primarily with
individuals. A fire of criticism from pamphlets, newspapers and
reviews opened on his volume of <i>Orations</i>, published in 1823;
but the excitement produced was merely superficial and essentially
evanescent. Though cherishing a strong antipathy to the
received ecclesiastical formulas, Irving&rsquo;s great aim was to revive
the antique style of thought and sentiment which had hardened
into these formulas, and by this means to supplant the new
influences, the accidental and temporary moral shortcomings
of which he detected with instinctive certainty, but whose profound
and real tendencies were utterly beyond the reach of his
conjecture. Being thus radically at variance with the main
current of the thought of his time, the failure of the commission
he had undertaken was sooner or later inevitable; and shortly
after the opening of his new church in Regent Square in 1827,
he found that &ldquo;fashion had taken its departure,&rdquo; and the
church, &ldquo;though always well filled,&rdquo; was &ldquo;no longer crowded.&rdquo;
By this desertion his self-esteem, one of his strongest passions,
though curiously united with singular sincerity and humility,
was doubtless hurt to the quick; but the wound inflicted was
of a deeper and deadlier kind, for it confirmed him finally in
his despair of the world&rsquo;s gradual amelioration, and established
his tendency towards supernaturalism.</p>

<p>For years the subject of prophecy had occupied much of
his thoughts, and his belief in the near approach of the second
advent had received such wonderful corroboration by the
perusal of the work of a Jesuit priest, writing under the assumed
Jewish name of Juan Josafat Ben-Ezra, that in 1827 he published
a translation of it, accompanied with an eloquent preface.
Probably the religious opinions of Irving, originally in some
respects more catholic and truer to human nature than generally
prevailed in ecclesiastical circles, had gained breadth and
comprehensiveness from his intercourse with Coleridge, but
gradually his chief interest in Coleridge&rsquo;s philosophy centred
round that which was mystical and obscure, and to it in all
likelihood may be traced his initiation into the doctrine of
millenarianism. The first stage of his later development,
which resulted in the establishment of the &ldquo;Irvingite&rdquo; or
&ldquo;Holy Catholic Apostolic Church,&rdquo; in 1832, was associated
with conferences at his friend Henry Drummond&rsquo;s seat at
Albury concerning unfulfilled prophecy, followed by an almost
exclusive study of the prophetical books and especially of the
Apocalypse, and by several series of sermons on prophecy both
in London and the provinces, his apocalyptic lectures in 1828
more than crowding the largest churches of Edinburgh in the
early summer mornings. In 1830, however, there was opened
up to his ardent imagination a new vista into spiritual things,
a new hope for the age in which he lived, by the seeming actual
revival in a remote corner of Scotland of those apostolic gifts
of prophecy and healing which he had already in 1828 persuaded
himself had only been kept in abeyance by the absence of faith.
At once he welcomed the new &ldquo;power&rdquo; with an unquestioning
evidence which could be shaken by neither the remonstrances
or desertion of his dearest friends, the recantation of some of
the principal agents of the &ldquo;gifts,&rdquo; his own declension into a
comparatively subordinate position, the meagre and barren
results of the manifestations, nor their general rejection both
by the church and the world. His excommunication by the
presbytery of London, in 1830, for publishing his doctrines
regarding the humanity of Jesus Christ, and the condemnation
of these opinions by the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland in the following year, were secondary episodes which
only affected the main issue of his career in so far as they tended
still further to isolate him from the sympathy of the church;
but the &ldquo;irregularities&rdquo; connected with the manifestation of
the &ldquo;gifts&rdquo; gradually estranged the majority of his own congregation,
and on the complaint of the trustees to the presbytery
of London, whose authority they had formerly rejected, he was
declared unfit to remain the minister of the National Scotch
Church of Regent Square. After he and those who adhered
to him (describing themselves as of the Holy Catholic Apostolic
Church) had in 1832 removed to a new building in Newman
Street, he was in March 1833 deposed from the ministry of the
Church of Scotland by the presbytery of Annan on the original
charge of heresy. With the sanction of the &ldquo;power&rdquo; he was
now after some delay reordained &ldquo;chief pastor of the church
assembled in Newman Street,&rdquo; but unremitting labours and
ceaseless spiritual excitement soon completely exhausted the
springs of his vital energy. He died, worn out and wasted
with labour and absorbing care, while still in the prime of life,
on the 7th of December 1834.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The writings of Edward Irving published during his lifetime were
<i>For the Oracles of God, Four Orations</i> (1823); <i>For Judgment to come</i>
(1823); <i>Babylon and Infidelity foredoomed</i> (1826); <i>Sermons</i>, &amp;c.
(3 vols., 1828); <i>Exposition of the Book of Revelation</i> (1831); an introduction
to a translation of Ben-Ezra; and an introduction to
Horne&rsquo;s <i>Commentary on the Psalms</i>. His collected works were published
in 5 volumes, edited by Gavin Carlyle. See also the article
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catholic Apostolic Church</a></span>.</p>

<p>The <i>Life of Edward Irving</i>, by Mrs Oliphant, appeared in 1862 in
2 vols. Among a large number of biographies published previously,
that by Washington Wilks (1854) has some merit. See also Hazlitt&rsquo;s
<i>Spirit of the Age</i>; Coleridge&rsquo;s <i>Notes on English Divines</i>; Carlyle&rsquo;s
<i>Miscellanies</i>, and Carlyle&rsquo;s <i>Reminiscences</i>, vol. i. (1881).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRVING, SIR HENRY<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1838-1905), English actor, whose
original name was John Brodribb, was born at Keinton-Mandeville,
Somerset, on the 6th of February 1838. After a few years&rsquo;
schooling he became a clerk to a firm of East India merchants
in London, but he soon gave up a commercial career and
started as an actor. On the 29th of September 1856 he made his
first appearance at Sunderland as Gaston, duke of Orleans,
in Bulwer Lytton&rsquo;s <i>Richelieu</i>, billed as Henry Irving. This
name he eventually assumed by royal licence. For ten years
he went through an arduous training in various provincial
stock companies, acting in more than five hundred parts. By
degrees his ability gained recognition, and in 1866 he obtained
an engagement at the St James&rsquo;s Theatre, London, to play
Doricourt in <i>The Belle&rsquo;s Stratagem</i>. A year later he joined the
company of the newly-opened Queen&rsquo;s Theatre, where he acted
with Charles Wyndham, J. L. Toole, Lionel Brough, John
Clayton, Mr and Mrs Alfred Wigan, Ellen Terry and Nelly
Farren. This was followed by short engagements at the Haymarket,
Drury Lane and Gaiety. At last he made his first conspicuous
success as Digby Grant in James Albery&rsquo;s <i>The Two
Roses</i>, which was produced at the Vaudeville on the 4th of
June 1870 and ran for 300 nights. In 1871 he began his
association with the Lyceum Theatre by an engagement under
Bateman&rsquo;s management. The fortunes of the house were at a
low ebb when the tide was turned by Irving&rsquo;s immediate success
as Mathias in <i>The Bells</i>, a version of Erckmann-Chatrian&rsquo;s <i>Le
Juif Polonais</i> by Leopold Lewis. The play ran for 150 nights.
With Miss Bateman, Irving was seen in W. G. Wills&rsquo;s <i>Charles I.</i>
and <i>Eugene Aram</i>, in <i>Richelieu</i>, and in 1874 in <i>Hamlet</i>. The
unconventionality of this last performance, during a run of
200 nights, aroused keen discussion, and singled him out as the
most interesting English actor of his day. In 1875, still with
Miss Bateman, he was seen as Macbeth; in 1876 as Othello,
and as Philip in Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>Queen Mary</i>; in 1877 in <i>Richard III.</i>
and <i>The Lyons Mail</i>.</p>

<p>In 1878 Irving opened the Lyceum under his own management.
With Ellen Terry as Ophelia and Portia, he revived <i>Hamlet</i> and
produced <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> (1879). His Shylock was as
much discussed as his Hamlet had been, the dignity with which
he invested the Jew marking a departure from the traditional
interpretation of the rôle, and pleasing some as much as it
offended others. After the production of Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>The Cup</i>,
a revival of <i>Othello</i> (in which Irving played Iago to the Othello
of Edwin Booth) and of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, there began a period
at the Lyceum which had a potent effect on the English stage.
The Lyceum stage management, and the brilliancy of its productions
in scenery, dressing and accessories, were revelations in
the art of <i>mise-en-scène</i>. <i>Much Ado about Nothing</i> (1882) was
followed by <i>Twelfth Night</i> (1884), <i>Olivia</i>&mdash;an adaptation of
Goldsmith&rsquo;s <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> by W. G. Wills (1885); <i>Faust</i>
(1886); <i>Macbeth</i> (1888): <i>The Dead Heart</i>, by Watts Phillips
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span>
(1889); and <i>Ravenswood</i>&mdash;Herman Merivale&rsquo;s dramatic version
of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Bride of Lammermoor</i> (1890). Fine assumptions in 1892
of the characters of Wolsey in <i>Henry VIII.</i> and of King Lear
were followed in 1893 by a striking and dignified performance
of Becket in Tennyson&rsquo;s play of that name. During these years
too, Irving, with the whole Lyceum company, paid several visits to
America, which met with conspicuous success, and were repeated
in succeeding years. The chief remaining novelties at the Lyceum
during Irving&rsquo;s sole managership (the theatre passed, at the
beginning of 1899, into the hands of a limited liability company)
were Comyns Carr&rsquo;s <i>King Arthur</i> in 1895; <i>Cymbeline</i>, in which
Irving played Iachimo, in 1896; Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Madame Sans-Gêne</i>
in 1897; <i>Peter the Great</i>, a play by Laurence Irving, the actor&rsquo;s
second son, in 1898; and Conan Doyle&rsquo;s <i>Waterloo</i> (1894). The
new <i>régime</i> at the Lyceum was signalized by the production of
Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Robespierre</i> in 1899, in which Irving reappeared after
a serious illness, and in 1901 by an elaborate revival of <i>Coriolanus</i>.
Irving&rsquo;s only subsequent production in London was Sardou&rsquo;s
<i>Dante</i> (1903), a vast spectacular drama, staged at Drury Lane.
He died &ldquo;on tour&rdquo; at Bradford on the 13th of October 1905,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>

<p>Both on and off the stage Irving always maintained a high
ideal of his profession, and in 1895 he received the honour of
knighthood, the first ever accorded an actor. He was also the
recipient of honorary degrees from the universities of Dublin,
Cambridge and Glasgow. His acting, apart from his genius
as a presenter of plays, divided criticism, opinions differing as
to the extent to which his mannerisms of voice and deportment
interfered with or assisted the expression of his ideas. So strongly
marked a personality as his could not help giving its own colouring
to whatever part he might assume, but the richness and
originality of this colouring at its best cannot be denied, any
more than the spirit and intellect which characterized his renderings.
At the least, extraordinary versatility must be conceded
to an actor who could satisfy exacting audiences in rôles so
widely different as Digby Grant and Louis XI., Richard III. and
Becket, Benedick and Shylock, Mathias and Dr Primrose.</p>

<p>Sir Henry Irving had two sons, Harry Brodribb (b. 1870)
and Laurence (b. 1872). They were educated for other walks
of life, the former for the bar, and the latter for the diplomatic
service; but both turned to the stage, and the elder, who had
already established himself as the most prominent of the younger
English actors at the time of his father&rsquo;s death, went into
management on his own account.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRVING, WASHINGTON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1783-1859), American man of letters,
was born at New York on the 3rd of April 1783. Both his
parents were immigrants from Great Britain, his father, originally
an officer in the merchant service, but at the time of Irving&rsquo;s
birth a considerable merchant, having come from the Orkneys,
and his mother from Falmouth. Irving was intended for the
legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by an illness
necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he proceeded
as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington
Allston. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made
little effort to practise, preferring to amuse himself with literary
ventures. The first of these of any importance, a satirical
miscellany entitled <i>Salmagundi, or the Whim-Whams and
Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff and others</i>, written in conjunction
with his brother William and J. K. Paulding, gave ample proof
of his talents as a humorist. These were still more conspicuously
displayed in his next attempt, <i>A History of New York from the
Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty</i>, by
&ldquo;Diedrich Knickerbocker&rdquo; (2 vols., New York, 1809). The
satire of <i>Salmagundi</i> had been principally local, and the original
design of &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rsquo;s&rdquo; <i>History</i> was only to burlesque a
pretentious disquisition on the history of the city in a guidebook
by Dr Samuel Mitchell. The idea expanded as Irving
proceeded, and he ended by not merely satirizing the pedantry
of local antiquaries, but by creating a distinct literary type
out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had long been an
object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far from
the most finished of Irving&rsquo;s productions, &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rdquo;
manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely
national in its quaintness and drollery. The very tardiness and
prolixity of the story are skilfully made to heighten the humorous
effect.</p>

<p>Upon the death of his father, Irving had become a sleeping
partner in his brother&rsquo;s commercial house, a branch of which
was established at Liverpool. This, combined with the restoration
of peace, induced him to visit England in 1815, when he found
the stability of the firm seriously compromised. After some
years of ineffectual struggle it became bankrupt. This misfortune
compelled Irving to resume his pen as a means of subsistence.
His reputation had preceded him to England, and the
curiosity naturally excited by the then unwonted apparition
of a successful American author procured him admission into
the highest literary circles, where his popularity was ensured
by his amiable temper and polished manners. As an American,
moreover, he stood aloof from the political and literary disputes
which then divided England. Campbell, Jeffrey, Moore, Scott,
were counted among his friends, and the last-named zealously
recommended him to the publisher Murray, who, after at first
refusing, consented (1820) to bring out <i>The Sketch Book of
Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.</i> (7 pts., New York, 1819-1820). The
most interesting part of this work is the description of an English
Christmas, which displays a delicate humour not unworthy
of the writer&rsquo;s evident model Addison. Some stories and
sketches on American themes contribute to give it variety;
of these Rip van Winkle is the most remarkable. It speedily
obtained the greatest success on both sides of the Atlantic.
<i>Bracebridge Hall, or the Humourists</i> (2 vols., New York), a work
purely English in subject, followed in 1822, and showed to what
account the American observer had turned his experience of
English country life. The humour is, nevertheless, much more
English than American. <i>Tales of a Traveller</i> (4 pts.) appeared
in 1824 at Philadelphia, and Irving, now in comfortable circumstances,
determined to enlarge his sphere of observation by a
journey on the continent. After a long course of travel he
settled down at Madrid in the house of the American consul
Rich. His intention at the time was to translate the <i>Coleccion
de los Viajes y Descubrimientos</i> (Madrid, 1825-1837) of Martin
Fernandez de Navarrete; finding, however, that this was
rather a collection of valuable materials than a systematic
biography, he determined to compose a biography of his own
by its assistance, supplemented by independent researches in
the Spanish archives. His <i>History of the Life and Voyages of
Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 4 vols.) appeared in 1828, and
obtained a merited success. <i>The Voyages and Discoveries of
the Companions of Columbus</i> (Philadelphia, 1831) followed;
and a prolonged residence in the south of Spain gave Irving
materials for two highly picturesque books, <i>A Chronicle of the
Conquest of Granada from the MSS. of</i> [an imaginary] <i>Fray
Antonio Agapida</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1829), and <i>The Alhambra:
a series of tales and sketches of the Moors and Spaniards</i> (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1832). Previous to their appearance he had been
appointed secretary to the embassy at London, an office as
purely complimentary to his literary ability as the legal degree
which he about the same time received from the university of
Oxford.</p>

<p>Returning to the United States in 1832, after seventeen
years&rsquo; absence, he found his name a household word, and himself
universally honoured as the first American who had won for his
country recognition on equal terms in the literary republic.
After the rush of fêtes and public compliments had subsided,
he undertook a tour in the western prairies, and returning to the
neighbourhood of New York built for himself a delightful retreat
on the Hudson, to which he gave the name of &ldquo;Sunnyside.&rdquo;
His acquaintance with the New York millionaire John Jacob
Astor prompted his next important work&mdash;<i>Astoria</i> (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1836), a history of the fur-trading settlement
founded by Astor in Oregon, deduced with singular literary
ability from dry commercial records, and, without laboured
attempts at word-painting, evincing a remarkable faculty for
bringing scenes and incidents vividly before the eye. <i>The</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span>
<i>Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i> (London and Philadelphia,
1837), based upon the unpublished memoirs of a veteran explorer,
was another work of the same class. In 1842 Irving was appointed
ambassador to Spain. He spent four years in the country,
without this time turning his residence to literary account;
and it was not until two years after his return that Forster&rsquo;s
life of Goldsmith, by reminding him of a slight essay of his own
which he now thought too imperfect by comparison to be
included among his collected writings, stimulated him to the
production of his <i>Life of Oliver Goldsmith, with Selections from
his Writings</i> (2 vols., New York, 1849). Without pretensions
to original research, the book displays an admirable talent for
employing existing material to the best effect. The same may
be said of <i>The Lives of Mahomet and his Successors</i> (New York,
2 vols., 1849-1850). Here as elsewhere Irving correctly discriminated
the biographer&rsquo;s province from the historian&rsquo;s, and
leaving the philosophical investigation of cause and effect to
writers of Gibbon&rsquo;s calibre, applied himself to represent the
picturesque features of the age as embodied in the actions and
utterances of its most characteristic representatives. His last
days were devoted to his <i>Life of George Washington</i> (5 vols.,
1855-1859, New York and London), undertaken in an enthusiastic
spirit, but which the author found exhausting and his
readers tame. His genius required a more poetical theme,
and indeed the biographer of Washington must be at least a
potential soldier and statesman. Irving just lived to complete
this work, dying of heart disease at Sunnyside, on the 28th
of November 1859.</p>

<p>Although one of the chief ornaments of American literature,
Irving is not characteristically American. But he is one of the
few authors of his period who really manifest traces of a vein
of national peculiarity which might under other circumstances
have been productive. &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rsquo;s&rdquo; <i>History of New
York</i>, although the air of mock solemnity which constitutes the
staple of its humour is peculiar to no literature, manifests nevertheless
a power of reproducing a distinct national type. Had
circumstances taken Irving to the West, and placed him amid a
society teeming with quaint and genial eccentricity, he might
possibly have been the first Western humorist, and his humour
might have gained in depth and richness. In England, on the
other hand, everything encouraged his natural fastidiousness;
he became a refined writer, but by no means a robust one.
His biographies bear the stamp of genuine artistic intelligence,
equally remote from compilation and disquisition. In execution
they are almost faultless; the narrative is easy, the style
pellucid, and the writer&rsquo;s judgment nearly always in accordance
with the general verdict of history. Without ostentation or
affectation, he was exquisite in all things, a mirror of loyalty,
courtesy and good taste in all his literary connexions, and
exemplary in all the relations of domestic life. He never married,
remaining true to the memory of an early attachment blighted
by death.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The principal edition of Irving&rsquo;s works is the &ldquo;Geoffrey Crayon,&rdquo;
published at New York in 1880 in 26 vols. His <i>Life and Letters</i> was
published by his nephew Pierre M. Irving (London, 1862-1864,
4 vols.; German abridgment by Adolf Laun, Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.)
There is a good deal of miscellaneous information in a compilation
entitled <i>Irvingiana</i> (New York, 1860); and W. C. Bryant&rsquo;s memorial
oration, though somewhat too uniformly laudatory, may be consulted
with advantage. It was republished in <i>Studies of Irving</i> (1880)
along with C. Dudley Warner&rsquo;s introduction to the &ldquo;Geoffrey
Crayon&rdquo; edition, and Mr G. P. Putnam&rsquo;s personal reminiscences of
Irving, which originally appeared in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. See also
<i>Washington Irving</i> (1881), by C. D. Warner, in the &ldquo;American Men
of Letters&rdquo; series; H. R. Haweis, <i>American Humourists</i> (London,
1883).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. G.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">IRVINGTON<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span>, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
bordering on the S.W. side of Newark. Pop. (1900) 5255, of
whom 993 were foreign-born; (1905) 7180; (1910) 11,877.
Irvington is served by the Lehigh Valley railroad and by electric
railway to Newark. It is principally a residential suburb of
Newark, but it has a small smelter (for gold and silver), and
various manufactures, including textile working machinery,
measuring rules and artisans&rsquo; tools. There are large strawberry
farms here. Irvington was settled near the close of the 17th
century, and was called Camptown until 1852, when the present
name was adopted in honour of Washington Irving. It was
incorporated as a village in 1874, and as a town in 1898.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISAAC<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Hebrew for &ldquo;he laughs,&rdquo; on explanatory references to
the name, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abraham</a></span>), the only child of Abraham and Sarah,
was born when his parents were respectively a hundred and
ninety years of age (Gen. xvii. 17). Like his father, Isaac lived a
nomadic pastoral life, but within much narrower local limits, south
of Beersheba (Gen. xxvi., on the incidents here recorded, see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abimelech</a></span>). After the death of his mother, when he was forty
years old, he married Rebekah the Aramaean, by whom after
twenty years of married life he became the father of Esau and
Jacob. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> &ldquo;Isaac&rdquo;
is used as a synonym for &ldquo;Israel&rdquo; by Amos (vii. 9, 16), who
also bears witness to the importance of Beersheba as a sanctuary.
It was in this district, at the well Beer-Lahai-roi, that Isaac
dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 62, xxv. 11), and the place was famous for an
incident in the life of Hagar (xvi. 14). This was perhaps the
original scene of the striking episode &ldquo;in the land of Moriah,&rdquo;
when at the last moment he was by angelic interposition released
from the altar on which he was about to be sacrificed by his
father in obedience to a divine command (Gen. xxii).<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The
narrative (which must be judged with due regard to the conditions
of the age) shows that the sacrifice of the first-born, though
not inconsistent with Yahweh&rsquo;s claims (Ex. xxii. 29), was neither
required nor tolerated (cp. Micah vi. 6-8). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moloch</a></span>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Isaac is by general consent of the Christian church taken as a
representative of the unobtrusive, restful, piously contemplative
type of human character. By later Judaism, which fixed its attention
chiefly on the altar scene, he was regarded as the pattern and
prototype of all martyrs. The Mahommedan legends regarding him
are curious, but trifling.</p>

<p>The resemblance between incidents in the lives of Isaac and
Abraham is noteworthy; in each case Isaac appears to be the more
original. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ishmael</a></span>, and note that the pair Isaac and
Ishmael correspond to Abraham and Lot, Jacob and Esau. On
general questions, see E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i> (<i>Index</i>, s.v.). For
attempts to find a mythological interpretation of Isaac&rsquo;s life, see
Goldziher, <i>Mythology of the Hebrews</i>; Winckler, <i>Gesch. Israels</i> (vol. ii.).</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The stories, including the delightful history of the courting of
Rebekah by proxy, are due to the oldest narrators. The jarring
chronological notices belong to the post-exilic framework of the
book (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>).</p>

<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The name is hopelessly obscure, and the identification with
the mountain of the temple in Jerusalem rests upon a late view
(2 Chron. iii. 1). It is otherwise called &ldquo;Yahweh-yir&rsquo;eh&rdquo; (&ldquo;Y.
sees&rdquo;) which is analogous to &ldquo;El-ro&rsquo;i&rdquo; (&ldquo;a God of Seeing&rdquo;) in
xvi. 13. See further the commentaries.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISAAC I.<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Comnenus</span>), emperor of the East (1057-1059), was
the son of an officer of Basil II. named Manuel Comnenus, who
on his deathbed commended his two sons Isaac and John to the
emperor&rsquo;s care. Basil had them carefully educated at the
monastery of Studion, and afterwards advanced them to high
official positions. During the disturbed reigns of Basil&rsquo;s seven
immediate successors, Isaac by his prudent conduct won the
confidence of the army; in 1057 he joined with the nobles of the
capital in a conspiracy against Michael VI., and after the latter&rsquo;s
deposition was invested with the crown, thus founding the new
dynasty of the Comneni. The first care of the new emperor was
to reward his noble partisans with appointments that removed
them from Constantinople, and his next was to repair the
beggared finances of the empire. He revoked numerous pensions
and grants conferred by his predecessors upon idle courtiers,
and, meeting the reproach of sacrilege made by the patriarch of
Constantinople by a decree of exile, resumed a proportion of the
revenues of the wealthy monasteries. Isaac&rsquo;s only military
expedition was against the Hungarians and Petchenegs, who
began to ravage the northern frontiers in 1059. Shortly after
this successful campaign he was seized with an illness, and
believing it mortal appointed as his successor Constantine Ducas,
to the exclusion of his own brother John. Although he recovered
Isaac did not resume the purple, but retired to the monastery of
Studion and spent the remaining two years of his life as a monk,
alternating menial offices with literary studies. His <i>Scholia</i> to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span>
the <i>Iliad</i> and other works on the Homeric poems are still
extant in MS. He died in the year 1061. Isaac&rsquo;s great aim was
to restore the former strict organization of the government, and
his reforms, though unpopular with the aristocracy and the
clergy, and not understood by the people, certainly contributed
to stave off for a while the final ruin of the Byzantine
empire.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (ed.
J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. v.); G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i>
(ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii.).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISAAC II.<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Angelus</span>), emperor of the East 1185-1195, and
again 1203-1204, was the successor of Andronicus I. He
inaugurated his reign by a decisive victory over the Normans in
Sicily, but elsewhere his policy was less successful. He failed in
an attempt to recover Cyprus from a rebellious noble, and by the
oppressiveness of his taxes drove the Bulgarians and Vlachs to
revolt (1186). In 1187 Alexis Branas, the general sent against
the rebels, treacherously turned his arms against his master, and
attempted to seize Constantinople, but was defeated and slain.
The emperor&rsquo;s attention was next demanded in the east, where
several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In
1189 Frederick Barbarossa of Germany sought and obtained leave
to lead his troops on the third crusade through the Byzantine
territory; but he had no sooner crossed the border than Isaac,
who had meanwhile sought an alliance with Saladin, threw every
impediment in his way, and was only compelled by force of arms
to fulfil his engagements. The next five years were disturbed by
fresh rebellions of the Vlachs, against whom Isaac led several
expeditions in person. During one of these, in 1195, Alexius, the
emperor&rsquo;s brother, taking advantage of the latter&rsquo;s absence from
camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor, and
was readily recognised by the soldiers. Isaac was blinded and
imprisoned in Constantinople. After eight years he was raised
for six months from his dungeon to his throne once more (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>). But both mind and body had been enfeebled by
captivity, and his son Alexius IV. was the actual monarch. Isaac
died in 1204, shortly after the usurpation of his general, Mourzouphles.
He was one of the weakest and most vicious princes
that occupied the Byzantine throne. Surrounded by a crowd of
slaves, mistresses and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be
administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the
money wrung from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive
gifts to the churches of his metropolis.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i> (ed. J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. vi.);
G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. iii. and iv.).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISAAC OF ANTIOCH<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>, &ldquo;one of the stars of Syriac literature,&rdquo;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
the reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies,<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
many of which are distinguished by an originality and acumen
rare among Syriac writers. As to the identity and history of the
author considerable difficulty has arisen. The statements of
ancient writers, Eastern and Western, were collected by Assemani
(<i>B.O.</i> i. 207-214). According to these accounts Isaac flourished
under Theodosius II. (408-450),<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and was a native either of Amid
(Diarbekr) or of Edessa. Several writers identify him with Isaac,
the disciple of S. Ephraim, who is mentioned in the anonymous
<i>Life</i> of that father; but according to the patriarch Bar Sh&#363;shan
(d. 1073), who made a collection of his homilies, his master was
Ephraim&rsquo;s disciple Zenobius. He is supposed to have migrated
to Antioch, and to have become abbot of one of the convents in
its neighbourhood. According to Zacharias Rhetor he visited
Rome and other cities, and the chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of
Tell-Mahr&#275; informs us that he composed poems on the secular
games of 404, and wrote on the destruction of Rome by Alaric in
410. He also commemorated the destruction of Antioch by an
earthquake in 459, so that he must have lived till about 460.
Unfortunately these poems have perished. He is of course to be
distinguished from Isaac of Nineveh, a Nestorian writer on the
ascetic life who belongs to the second half of the 7th century.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>When we examine the collection of homilies attributed to Isaac,
a difficulty arises on two grounds. (1) The author of some of the
poems is fervently orthodox or Catholic (see especially Nos. 1-3 in
Bickell&rsquo;s edition = 62-64 in Bedjan), in other and more important
homilies (such as Bickell 6, 8 = Bedjan 59, 61, and especially
Bedjan 60) the doctrine is monophysite, even though Eutyches and
Nestorius are equally condemned. (2) One of the monophysite
homilies, the famous poem of 2136 lines on the parrot which uttered
the Trisagion in the streets of Antioch (Bickell, 8 = Bedjan 61),
appears to have been written at Antioch after Peter the Fuller
(patriarch 471-488) raised the dispute about the addition to the
doxology of the words <i>qui crucifixus es pro nobis</i>. It is therefore
scarcely possible that the author of this homily should be the same
who composed the lost poems on the secular games in 404 and on the
sack of Rome.</p>

<p>Moreover, Lamy (<i>S. Ephraemi hymni et sermones</i>, iv. 361-364) and
Bedjan (<i>Homiliae S. Isaaci</i>, i. pp. iv-ix) have recently called attention
to statements made by Jacob of Edessa (708) in a letter to John
the Stylite. He says there were three Isaacs who wrote in Syriac:&mdash;two
orthodox (<i>i.e.</i> monophysite), and one a Chalcedonian heretic
(<i>i.e.</i> orthodox or Catholic). (<i>a</i>) The first, he says, a native of Amid,
and pupil of S. Ephraim, visited Rome in the time of Arcadius
(395-408), on his return journey suffered imprisonment at Byzantium,
and afterwards became a priest in the church of Amid. (<i>b</i>) The
second was a priest of Edessa, and flourished in the reign of Zeno
(474-491). He went up to Antioch in the time of Peter the Fuller.
Jacob then tells the story of the parrot (see above). (<i>c</i>) The third
was also an Edessene. At first in the days of Bishop Paul (510-522)
he was orthodox (monophysite): but afterwards in the time of the
Chalcedonian (Catholic) bishop Asclepius he became Nestorian
(Catholic) and wrote poems setting forth Nestorian doctrine.</p>

<p>With such conflicting evidence it is impossible to arrive at a
certain result. But Jacob is an early witness: and on the whole it
seems safe to conclude with Bedjan (p. ix) that works by at least two
authors have been included in the collection attributed to Isaac of
Antioch. Still the majority of the poems are the work of one hand&mdash;the
5th-century monophysite who wrote the poem on the parrot.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
A full list<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> of the 191 poems existing in European MSS. is given by
Bickell, who copied out 181 with a view to publishing them all:
the other 10 had been previously copied by Zingerle. But the two
volumes published by Bickell in his lifetime (Giessen, 1873 and 1877)
contain only 37 homilies. Bedjan&rsquo;s edition, of which the first volume
has alone appeared (Paris, 1903) contains 67 poems, viz. 24 previously
published (18 by Bickell), and 43 that are new, though their titles are
all included in Bickell&rsquo;s list.</p>
</div>

<p>The writer&rsquo;s main interest lies in the application of religion
to the practical duties of life, whether in the church or in the
world. He has a great command of forcible language and considerable
skill in apt illustration. The zeal with which he
denounces the abuses prevalent in the church of his day, and
particularly in the monastic orders, is not unlike that of the
Protestant reformers. He shows acquaintance with many
phases of life. He describes the corruption of judges, the prevalence
of usury and avarice, the unchastity which especially
characterized the upper classes, and the general hypocrisy of
so-called Christians. His doctrinal discussions are apt to be
diffuse; but he seldom loses sight of the bearing of doctrine on
practical life. He judges with extreme severity those who argue
about religion while neglecting its practice, and those who though
stupid and ignorant dare to pry into mysteries which are sealed
to the angels. &ldquo;Not newly have we found Him, that we should
search and pry into God. As He was He is: He changeth not with
the times.... Confess that He formed thee of dust: search
not the mode of His being: Worship Him that He redeemed thee
by His only Son: inquire not the manner of His birth.&rdquo;<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Some of Isaac&rsquo;s works have an interest for the historian of the 5th
century. In two poems (Bickell 11, 12 = Bedjan 48, 49), written
probably at Edessa, he commemorates the capture of B&#275;th-H&#363;r (a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span>
city near Nisibis) by the Arabs. Although the historical allusions
are far from clear, we gather that B&#275;th-&#7716;&#363;r, which in zealous
paganism had been a successor to &#7716;aran, had been in earlier days
devastated by the Persians:<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> but for the last 34 years the Persians
had themselves suffered subjection.<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> And now had come a flood of
Arab invaders, &ldquo;sons of Hagar,&rdquo; who had swept away the city and
carried all its inhabitants captive. From these two poems, and from
the 2nd homily on Fasting (Bickell 14 = Bedjan 17) we gain a vivid
picture of the miseries borne by the inhabitants of that frontier region
during the wars between Persia and the Romano-Greek empire.
There are also instructive references to the heathen practices and
the worship of pagan deities (such as Baalti, Uzzi, Gedlath and the
planet Venus) prevalent in Mesopotamia. Two other poems (Bickell
35, 36 = Bedjan 66, 67), written probably at Antioch,<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a> describe the
prevalence of sorcery and the extraordinary influence possessed by
&ldquo;Chaldeans&rdquo; and enchanters over women who were nominally
Christians.</p>

<p>The metre of all the published homilies is heptasyllabic.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(N. M.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> W. Wright, <i>Short Hist. of Syr. Lit.</i> p. 51.</p>

<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The fullest list, by G. Bickell, contains 191 which are extant in
MSS.</p>

<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The trustworthy <i>Chronicle of Edessa</i> gives his date as 451-452
(Hallier, No. lxvii.); and the recently published <i>Chronicle</i> of Michael
the Syrian makes him contemporary with Nonus, who became the
31st bishop of Edessa in 449.</p>

<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The date of Isaac of Nineveh is now known from the <i>Liber
fundatorum</i> of &#298;sh&#333;&rsquo;-d&#283;nah, an 8th-century writer; see Bedjan&rsquo;s
edition, and Chabót, <i>Livre de la chasteté</i>, p. 63. Assemani (<i>B.O.</i> i.
445) had placed him late in the 6th century, and Chabót (<i>De S.
Isaaci Ninivitae vita</i>, &amp;c.) in the second half of the 5th.</p>

<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Lamy (<i>op. cit.</i> iv. 364-366) has pointed out that several of the
poems are in certain MSS. attributed to Ephraim. Possibly the
author of the orthodox poems was not named Isaac at all.</p>

<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Assemani&rsquo;s list of 104 poems (<i>B.O.</i> i. 214-234) is completely
covered by Bickell&rsquo;s.</p>

<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> From a really noble poem (Bedjan 60) on the problem whether
<i>God</i> suffered and died on the cross.</p>

<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Possibly in the war at the beginning of the reign of Bahr&#257;m V.:
but on the uncertainty see Nöldeke, <i>Gesch. d. Perser und Araber</i>, 117.</p>

<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Probably at the hands of the Hephthalites or White Huns of
K&#363;shan: cf. Isaac&rsquo;s mention of the Huns in 1. 420 of the 1st poem.</p>

<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The author refers to the weeping for Tammuz (1. 125 of the 1st
poem), and speaks of his city as illustrious throughout the world
(<i>ib.</i> 1. 132).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1451-1504), surnamed <i>la Catolica</i>, &ldquo;the Catholic,&rdquo;
queen of Castile, was the second child and only daughter
of John II. of Castile by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter
of John I. of Portugal (thus being through both parents a
descendant of John of Gaunt), and was born at Madrigal on
the 22nd of April 1451. On the death of her father, who was
succeeded by her brother Henry IV. (1454), she was withdrawn
by her mother to Arevalo, where her early education was conducted
in the deepest seclusion; in 1462, however, along with
her uterine brother Alphonso, she was removed by Henry to the
court, where she showed a remarkable example of staidness
and sobriety. Already more than one suitor had made application
for her hand, Ferdinand of Aragon, who ultimately became her
husband, being among the number; for some little time she
was engaged to his elder brother Charles, who died in 1461.
In her thirteenth year her brother promised her in marriage
to Alphonso of Portugal, but she firmly refused to consent;
her resistance seemed less likely to be effectual in the case
of Pedro Giron, grand master of the order of Calatrava and
brother of the marquis of Villena, to whom she was next affianced,
when she was delivered from her fears by the sudden death of the
bridegroom while on his way to the nuptials in 1466. After an
offer of the crown of Castile, made by the revolutionary leaders
in the civil war, had been declined by her, she was in 1468
formally recognized by her brother as lawful heir, after himself,
to the united crowns of Castile and Leon. New candidates for
her hand now appeared in the persons of a brother of Edward IV.
of England (probably Richard, duke of Gloucester), and the
duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI., and heir presumptive
of the French monarchy. Finally however, in face of very
great difficulties, she was married to Ferdinand of Aragon at
Valladolid on the 19th of October 1469. Thence forward the
fortunes of Ferdinand and Isabella were inseparably blended.
For some time they held a humble court at Dueñas, and afterwards
they resided at Segovia, where, on the death of Henry, she
was proclaimed queen of Castile and Leon (December 13, 1474).
Spain undoubtedly owed to Isabella&rsquo;s clear intellect, resolute
energy and unselfish patriotism much of that greatness which
for the first time it acquired under &ldquo;the Catholic sovereigns.&rdquo;
The moral influence of the queen&rsquo;s personal character over the
Castilian court was incalculably great; from the debasement
and degradation of the preceding reign she raised it to being
&ldquo;the nursery of virtue and of generous ambition.&rdquo; She did
much for letters in Spain by founding the palace school and by
her protection of Peter Martyr d&rsquo;Anghiera. The very sincerity
of her piety and strength of her religious convictions led her
more than once, however, into great errors of state policy, and into
more than one act which offends the moral sense of a more
refined age: her efforts for the introduction of the Inquisition into
Castile, and for the proscription of the Jews, are outstanding
evidences of what can only be called her bigotry. But not even
the briefest sketch of her life can omit to notice that happy instinct
or intuition which led her, when all others had heard with incredulity
the scheme of Columbus, to recall the wanderer to her
presence with the words, &ldquo;I will assume the undertaking for my
own crown of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray
the expenses of it, if the funds in the treasury should be found
inadequate.&rdquo; She died at Medina del Campo on the 24th of
November 1504, and was succeeded by her daughter Joanna
&ldquo;la loca&rdquo; (the &ldquo;Crazy&rdquo;) and her husband, Philip of Habsburg.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See W. H. Prescott, <i>History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella</i>
(1837), where the original authorities are exhaustively enumerated;
and for later researches, Baron de Nervo, <i>Isabella the Catholic</i>,
translated by Lieut.-Col. Temple-West (1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA II.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1830-1904), queen of Spain, was born in
Madrid on the 10th of October 1830. She was the eldest daughter
of Ferdinand VII., king of Spain, and of his fourth wife, Maria
Christina, a Neapolitan Bourbon, who became queen-regent
on 29th September 1833, when her daughter, at the age of three
years, was proclaimed on the death of the king. Queen Isabella
succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII. induced the
Cortes to assist him in setting aside the Salic law, which the
Bourbons had introduced since the beginning of the 18th century,
and to re-establish the older succession law of Spain. The
brother of Ferdinand, Don Carlos, the first pretender, fought
seven years, during the minority of Isabella, to dispute her
title, and her rights were only maintained through the gallant
support of the army, the Cortes and the Liberals and Progressists,
who at the same time established constitutional and parliamentary
government, dissolved the religious orders, confiscated the
property of the orders and of the Jesuits, disestablished the
Church property, and attempted to restore order in finances.
After the Carlist war the queen-regent, Christina, resigned to
make way for Espartero, the most successful and most popular
general of the Isabelline armies, who only remained regent two
years. He was turned out in 1843 by a military and political
<i>pronunciamiento</i>, led by Generals O&rsquo;Donnell and Narvaez, who
formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquin Maria Lopez, and
this government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age
at thirteen. Three years later the Moderado party or Castilian
Conservatives made their queen marry, at sixteen, her cousin,
Prince Francisco de Assisi de Bourbon (1822-1902), on the same
day (10th October 1846) on which her younger sister married
the duke of Montpensier. These marriages suited the views of
France and Louis Philippe, who nearly quarrelled in consequence
with Great Britain; but both matches were anything but happy.
Queen Isabella reigned from 1843 to 1868, and that period was
one long succession of palace intrigues, back-stairs and ante-chamber
influences, barrack conspiracies, military <i>pronunciamientos</i>
to further the ends of the political parties&mdash;Moderados,
who ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressists from 1854 to 1856,
Union Liberal from 1856 to 1863; Moderados and Union Liberal
quickly succeeding each other and keeping out the Progressists
so steadily that the seeds were sown which budded into the
revolution of 1868. Queen Isabella II. often interfered in
politics in a wayward, unscrupulous manner that made her
very unpopular. She showed most favour to her reactionary
generals and statesmen, to the Church and religious orders, and
was constantly the tool of corrupt and profligate courtiers and
favourites who gave her court a deservedly bad name. She
went into exile at the end of September 1868, after her Moderado
generals had made a slight show of resistance that was crushed at
the battle of Alcolea by Marshals Serrano and Prim. The only
redeeming traits of Queen Isabella&rsquo;s reign were a war against
Morocco, which ended in an advantageous treaty and some cession
of territory; some progress in public works, especially railways;
a slight improvement in commerce and finance. Isabella was
induced to abdicate in Paris on 25th June 1870 in favour of her
son, Alphonso XII., and the cause of the restoration was thus
much furthered. She had separated from her husband in the
previous March. She continued to live in France after the
restoration in 1874. On the occasion of one of her visits to Madrid
during Alphonso XII.&rsquo;s reign she began to intrigue with the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span>
politicians of the capital, and was peremptorily requested to go
abroad again. She died on the 10th of April 1904.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Isabeau</span>, or <span class="sc">Elizabeth of Bavaria</span> (1370-1435),
wife of Charles VI. of France, was the daughter of Stephen II.,
duke of Bavaria. She was born in 1370, was married to Charles
VI. on the 17th of July 1385, and crowned at Paris on the 22nd
of August 1389. After some years of happy married life she fell
under the influence of the dissolute court in which she lived,
and the king having become insane (August 1392) she consorted
chiefly with Louis of Orleans. Frivolous, selfish, avaricious and
fond of luxury, she used her influence, during the different
periods when she was invested with the regency, not for the
public welfare, but mainly in her own personal interest. After
the assassination of the duke of Orleans (November 23, 1407)
she attached herself sometimes to the Armagnacs, sometimes
to the Burgundians, and led a scandalous life. Louis de Bosredon,
the captain of her guards, was executed for complicity in her
excesses; and Isabella herself was imprisoned at Blois and afterwards
at Tours (1417). Having been set free towards the end of
that year by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, whom she had
called to her assistance, she went to Troyes and established her
government there, returning afterwards to Paris when that city
had capitulated to the Burgundians in July 1418. Once more
in power, she now took up arms against her son, the dauphin
Charles; and after the murder of John the Fearless she went over
to the side of the English, into whose hands she surrendered
France by the treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420), at the same time
giving her daughter Catherine in marriage to the king of England,
Henry V. After her triumphal entry into Paris with the latter
she soon became an object of loathing to the whole French
nation. She survived her husband, her son-in-law, and eight
out of her twelve children, and she passed the last miserable
years of her life in poverty, solitude and ill-health. She died at
the end of September 1435, and was interred without funeral
honours in the abbey of St Denis, by the side of her husband,
Charles VI.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Vallet de Viriville, <i>Isabeau de Bavière</i> (1859); Marcel Thibault,
<i>Isabeau de Bavière, Reine de France, La Jeunesse</i>, 1370-1405 (1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. V.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA OF HAINAUT<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1170-1190), queen of France,
was the daughter of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut, and Margaret,
sister of Philip of Alsace, and was born in 1170 at Lille. She
was married to Philip Augustus, and brought to him as her
dowry the province of Artois. She was crowned at St Denis
on the 29th of May 1180. As Baldwin V. claimed to be a
descendant of Charlemagne, the chroniclers of the time saw in
this marriage a union of the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties.
Though she received extravagant praise from certain annalists,
she failed to win the affections of Philip, who, in 1184, waging
war against Flanders, was angered at seeing Baldwin support his
enemies, and called a council at Sens for the purpose of repudiating
her. Robert, the king&rsquo;s uncle, successfully interposed.
She died in childbirth in 1190, and was buried in the church of
Notre Dame in Paris. Her son became Louis VIII. of France.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Cartellieri, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Avènement de Phil. Aug.&rdquo; in <i>Rev. hist.</i> liii.
262 et seq.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1767-1855), French painter, was
born at Nancy on the 11th of April 1767. At nineteen, after
some lessons from Dumont, miniature painter to Marie Antoinette,
he became a pupil of David. Employed at Versailles on portraits
of the dukes of Angoulême and Berry, he was given a commission
by the queen, which opens the long list of those which he received,
up to the date of his death in 1855, from the successive rulers of
France. Patronized by Josephine and Napoleon, he arranged
the ceremonies of their coronation and prepared drawings for
the publication intended as its official commemoration, a work
for which he was paid by Louis XVIII., whose portrait (engraved,
Debucourt) he executed in 1814. Although Isabey did
homage to Napoleon on his return from Elba, he continued to
enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took part in arrangements
for the coronation of Charles X. The monarchy of July
conferred on him an important post in connexion with the royal
collections, and Napoleon III. granted him a pension, and the
cross of commander of the Legion of Honour. &ldquo;Review of
Troops by the First Consul&rdquo; was one of his most important compositions,
and &ldquo;Isabey&rsquo;s Boat,&rdquo;&mdash;a charming drawing of himself
and family&mdash;produced at a time when he was much occupied
with lithography&mdash;had an immense success at the Salon of 1820
(engraved, Landon, <i>Annales</i>, i. 125). His portrait of &ldquo;Napoleon
at Malmaison&rdquo; is held to be the best ever executed, and even
his tiny head of the king of Rome, painted for a breast-pin, is
distinguished by a decision and breadth which evidence the hand
of a master.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A biography of Isabey was published by M. E. Taigny in 1859,
and M. C. Lenormant&rsquo;s article, written for Michaud&rsquo;s <i>Biog. univ.</i>,
is founded on facts furnished by Isabey&rsquo;s family.</p>
</div>

<hr class="art" />









<pre>





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