diff options
Diffstat (limited to '39751-h/39751-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 39751-h/39751-h.htm | 11672 |
1 files changed, 11672 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/39751-h/39751-h.htm b/39751-h/39751-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cff33b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/39751-h/39751-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11672 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + Being Well-Born, by Michael F. Guyer—A Project Gutenberg eBook + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .summary {padding-left: 2em;} + .bt {border-top: solid 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .btr {border-top: solid 1px; border-right: solid 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .br {border-right: solid 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .bbr {border-bottom: solid 1px; border-right: solid 1px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .dent {padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} + .botbor {border-bottom: solid 1px;} + + .giant {font-size: 200%} + .large {font-size: 125%} + + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .poem {margin-left: 15%;} + .hang {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .index {margin-left: 20%;} + .title {text-align: center; font-size: 150%;} + .descrip {margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none} + + .spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Being Well-Born, by Michael F. Guyer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Being Well-Born + An Introduction to Eugenics + +Author: Michael F. Guyer + +Editor: M. V. O'Shea + +Release Date: May 21, 2012 [EBook #39751] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEING WELL-BORN *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<h1><small>BEING WELL-BORN</small></h1> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="giant">BEING WELL-BORN</span></p> +<p class="center">AN INTRODUCTION TO EUGENICS</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><i>By</i><br /> +<span class="large">MICHAEL F. GUYER, <span class="smcap">Ph. D.</span></span><br /> +Professor of Zoology, The University of Wisconsin</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center">Childhood and Youth Series<br /> +<i>Edited by</i> M. V. O’SHEA<br /> +Professor of Education, The University of Wisconsin</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center">INDIANAPOLIS<br /> +THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY<br /> +PUBLISHERS</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright 1916<br /> +The Bobbs-Merrill Company</span></p> + +<p class="center">PRESS OF<br /> +BRAUNWORTH & CO.<br /> +BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS<br /> +BROOKLYN, N. Y.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">TO MY WIFE<br /> +HELEN M. GUYER</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<h2>EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The writer recalls that when he was a young boy, he heard the grown-up +people in the community earnestly and incessantly debating the question: +Does heredity play a greater part in shaping one’s mind and body than does +his environment? From that day to this he has listened to men and women in +every walk of life discussing the relation of heredity to environment in +determining human traits. Teachers and parents are constantly asking: “Are +such and such characteristics in my children due to their inheritance or +to the way they have been trained?” Students of juvenile delinquency and +of mental defect and deficiency are searching everywhere for light on this +matter. It is not to be wondered at that practically all people are +peculiarly interested in this problem, since it concerns intimately one’s +personal traits, and it constantly confronts any one who is responsible +for the care and culture of the young.</p> + +<p>It is suggestive to note how people differ in their views regarding the +extent to which a child’s physical and mental qualities and capacities are +fixed definitely by his inheritance. The writer has often heard students +in university classes discuss the subject; and their handling of the +problem has shown how superficially and even superstitiously most persons +regard the mechanism and functions of heredity. It is significant also to +observe what extreme views many people hold regarding the possibility of +affecting a child’s traits and abilities by subjecting him to specific +influences during his prenatal life. In any group of one hundred persons +chosen at random, probably seventy-five will believe in specific prenatal +influence. Many of them will believe in birthmarks due to peculiar +experiences of the mother. A popular book recently published asserts among +other things that if a mother will look upon beautiful pictures and listen +to good music during the prenatal period of her child, the latter will +possess esthetic traits and interests in high degree. On the other hand, +people generally do not seem to think that degenerate parents beget only +degenerate children. Alcoholics, feeble-minded persons and the like are +permitted to bring children into the world.</p> + +<p>Very few people have any precise knowledge of the mechanism of heredity. +The whole thing is inscrutable to them, and is shrouded in mystery. +Superstition flourishes among even intelligent persons in respect to +heredity, and errors due to education, and tragedies resulting from +vicious social organization are all alike ascribed to its uncontrollable +forces. Most people are none the wiser because they do not know to what +extent the physical and mental defects and deviations of individuals are +due to inheritance or to the malign influences of the individual’s +environment and training.</p> + +<p>Professor Guyer, who has studied the whole problem in a thoroughgoing, +scientific way, has prepared this book with a view to illuminating some of +the mysteries that surround the subject of heredity, and to dispelling +the illusions that persist regarding it. He shows the method which nature +follows in the development of the individual. He presents the laws which +have become established respecting the extent to which and the manner in +which immediate and remote ancestors contribute to the child’s physical +and mental organism. He answers many questions which those who are engaged +in social work or in education in the home or the school are asking +to-day. He discusses subjects upon which every serious-minded person +wishes to be informed. He has thus made a book which is both of +theoretical and of practical interest.</p> + +<p>He has written in a style which should make his book attractive to the +parent and the teacher as well as to the student of the complicated +mechanism of inheritance. Only a few special terms are used, and these +should not give any reader trouble, because the treatment throughout is so +concrete that the meaning of the terms will be easily grasped. Further, +the book is illustrated, with many attractive and instructive +illustrations which will show at a glance the working of the principles of +inheritance which are developed in the text.</p> + +<p>This book may be heartily commended to all who are interested in questions +of human nature, education and social reform. It should enable the parent, +the teacher and the legislator to understand more clearly than most of +them now do in how far children’s traits and possibilities are or can be +fixed by inheritance as contrasted with environmental conditions and +nurture in home, school, church and institutional life.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">M. V. O’Shea.</span></span></p> + +<p>Madison, Wisconsin.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>One of the most significant processes at work in society to-day is the +awakening of the civilized world to the rights of the child; and it is +coming to be realized that its right of rights is that of being well-born. +Any series of publications, therefore, dealing primarily with the problems +of child nature may very fittingly be initiated by a discussion of the +factor of well-nigh supreme importance in determining this nature, +heredity.</p> + +<p>No principles have more direct bearing on the welfare of man than those of +heredity, and yet on scarcely any subject does as wide-spread ignorance +prevail. This is due in part to the complexity of the subject, but more to +the fact that in the past no clear-cut methods of attacking the manifold +problems involved had been devised. Happily this difficulty has at least +in part been overcome.</p> + +<p>It is no exaggeration to say that during the last fifteen years we have +made more progress in measuring the extent of inheritance and in +determining its elemental factors than in all previous time. Instead of +dealing wholly now with vague general impressions and speculations, +certain definite principles of genetic transmission have been disclosed. +And since it is becoming more and more apparent that these hold for man as +well as for plants and animals in general, we can no longer ignore the +social responsibilities which the new facts thrust upon us.</p> + +<p>Since what a child becomes is determined so largely by its inborn +capacities it is of the greatest importance that teachers and parents +realize something of the nature of such aptitudes before they begin to +awaken them. For education consists in large measure in applying the +stimuli necessary to set going these potentialities and of affording +opportunity for their expression. Of the good propensities, some will +require merely the start, others will need to be fostered and coaxed into +permanence through the stereotyping effects of proper habits; of the +dangerous or bad, some must be kept dormant by preventing improper +stimulation, others repressed by the cultivation of inhibitive tendencies, +and yet others smothered or excluded by filling their place with desirable +traits before they themselves come into expression.</p> + +<p>We must see clearly, furthermore, that even the best of pedagogy and +parental training has obvious limits. Once grasp the truth that a child’s +fate in life is frequently decided long before birth, and that no amount +of food or hospital service or culture or tears will ever wholly make good +the deficiencies of bad “blood,” or in the language of the biologist, a +faulty germ-plasm, and the conviction must surely be borne home to the +intelligent members of society that one thing of superlative importance in +life is the making of a wise choice of a marriage mate on the one hand, +and the prevention of parenthood to the obviously unfit on the other.</p> + +<p>In the present volume it is intended to examine into the natural +endowment of the child. And since full comprehension of it requires some +understanding of the nature of the physical mechanism by which hereditary +traits are handed on from generation to generation, a small amount of +space is given to this phase. Then, that the reader may appreciate to +their fullest extent the facts gathered concerning man, a review of the +more significant principles of genetics as revealed through experiments in +breeding plants and animals has been undertaken. The main applications of +these principles to man is pointed out in a general discussion of human +heredity. Finally, inasmuch as all available data indicate that the fate +of our very civilization hangs on the issue, the work concludes with an +account of the new science of eugenics which is striving for the +betterment of the race by determining and promulgating the laws of human +inheritance so that mankind may intelligently go about conserving good and +repressing bad human stocks.</p> + +<p>In order to eliminate as many errors as possible and to avoid oversights I +have submitted various chapters to certain of my colleagues and friends +who are authorities in the special field treated therein. While these +gentlemen are in no way responsible for the material of any chapter they +have added greatly to the value of the whole by their suggestions and +comments. Thus I am indebted to Professor Leon J. Cole for reading the +entire manuscript; to Professors A. S. Pearse and F. C. Sharp for reading +Chapter VII; to Professor C. R. Bardeen for reading special parts; to +Doctor J. S. Evans for reading Chapter VI and part of V; to Doctor W. F. +Lorenz, of the Mendota Hospital, for reading Chapter VIII; to Judge E. Ray +Stevens for reading Chapter IX, and to Helen M. Guyer for several readings +of the entire manuscript.</p> + +<p>Grateful acknowledgment is made to all of these readers, to various +publishers and periodicals for the use of certain of the illustrations, to +the authors of the numerous books and papers from which much of the +material in such a work as this must necessarily be selected, and to my +artist, Miss H. J. Wakeman, for her painstaking endeavors to make her work +conform to my ideas of what each diagram should show.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">M. F. G.</span></p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p class="title">CONTENTS</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td><small>CHAPTER</small></td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Heredity</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Blood heritage—Kind determined by origin—Ancestry a network—Ancestry in royalty—Offspring +derived from one parent only—Dual ancestry an aid in studying heredity—Reversion—Telegony—Prenatal influences apart from heredity—Parent +body and germ not identical—A hereditary character defined—Hereditary mingling a mosaic rather than a blend—Determiners +of characters, not characters themselves, transmitted—Our knowledge of heredity derived along three lines—The method of +experimental breeding—The statistical method—Galton’s law of regression—Correlations between +parents and offspring—The biometrical method, statistical, not physiological—Mental as well as physical qualities inheritable.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">The Bearers of the Heritage</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">The cell the unit of structure—Unicellular organisms—Importance of cell-theory—Heredity +in unicellular forms—Reproduction and heredity in colonial protozoa—Conjugation—Specialization +of sex-cells—The fertilized ovum—Advancement seen in the Volvox colony—Natural death—Specialization in higher organisms—Sexual +phenomena in higher forms—Cell-division—Chromosomes constant in number and appearance—Significance of the chromosomes—Cleavage +of the egg—Chief processes operative in building the body—The origin of the new germ-cells—Significance of the early setting +apart of the germ-cells—Individuality of chromosomes—Pairs of chromosomes—Reduction of the number of chromosomes by one-half—Maturation +of the sperm-cell—Maturation of the egg-cell—Parallel between the two processes—Fertilization—Significance of the behavior +of the chromosomes—A single set of chromosomes sufficient for the production of an organism—The duality of the body and the singleness +of the germ—The cytoplasm in inheritance—Chromosomes possibly responsible for the distinctiveness of given characters—Sex +and heredity—Many theories of sex determination—The sex-chromosome—Sex-linked characters in man—In lower forms.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Mendelism</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">New discoveries in the field of heredity—Mendel—Rediscovery of Mendelian principles—Independence +of inheritable characters—Illustration in the Andalusian fowl—The cause of the ratio—Verification of the hypothesis—Dominant +and recessive—Segregation in the next generation—Illustrated in guinea-pigs—Terminology—The theory of presence and absence—Additional +terminology—Dominance not always complete—Modifications of dominance—Mendel’s own work—Dihybrids—Getting new combinations +of characters—Segregations of the determiners—Four kinds of gametes in each sex—The 9:3:3:1 ratio—Phenotype and genotype—The +question of blended inheritance—Nilsson-Ehle’s discoveries—Such cases easily mistaken for true blends—Skin-color in man—Questionable +if real blends exist—The place of the Mendelian factors in the germ-cell—Parallel between the behavior of Mendelian +factors and chromosomes—A single chromosome not restricted to carrying a single determiner.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Mendelism in Man</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Probably applicable to many characters in man—Difficult to get correct data—A generalized +presence-absence formula—Indications of incomplete dominance—Why after the first generation only half the children may show the dominant +character—Eye-color in man—Hair-color—Hair-shape—Irregularities—Digital malformations—Eye defects—Other defects inherited +as dominants—Recessive conditions more difficult to deal with—Albinism—Other recessive conditions in man—Breeding out defects—Other +inheritable conditions in man.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Are Modifications Acquired Directly by the Body Inherited?</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Which new characters are inherited?—Examples of somatic modifications—Use and disuse—The problem +stated—Special conditions in mammals—Three fundamental questions—External influences may directly affect the germ-cells—Such effects +improbable in warm-blooded animals—Poisons may affect the germ-plasm—How can somatic modifications be registered in germ-cells?—Persistence of Mendelian +factors argues against such a mode of inheritance—Experiments on insects—On plants—On vertebrates—Epilepsy in guinea-pigs—Effects +of mutilations not inherited—Transplantation of gonads—Effects of body on germ, general not specific—Certain characters inexplicable +as inherited somatic acquirements—Neuter insects—Origin of new characters in germinal variation—Sexual reproduction in relation +to new characters—Many features of an organism characterized by utility—Germinal variation a simpler and more inclusive explanation—Analysis +of cases—Effects of training—Instincts—Disease—Reappearance not necessarily inheritance—Prenatal infection not inheritance—Inheritance +of a predisposition not inheritance of a disease—Tuberculosis—Two individuals of tubercular stock should not marry—Special +susceptibility less of a factor in many diseases—Deaf-mutism—Gout—Nervous and mental diseases—Other disorders which have +hereditary aspects—Induced immunity not inherited—Social, ethical and educational significance of non-inheritance of somatic modifications—No +cause for discouragement—Improved environment will help conserve superior strains when they do appear.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Prenatal Influences</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">All that a child possesses at birth not necessarily hereditary—The myth of maternal impressions—Injurious +prenatal influences—Lead poisoning—The expectant mother should have rest—Too short intervals between children—Expectant mothers +neglected—Alcoholism—Unreliability of most data—Alcohol a germinal and fetal poison—Various views of specialists on the effects of +alcoholism on progeny—The affinity of alcohol for germinal tissue—Innate degeneracy versus the effects of alcohol—Experimental alcoholism +in lower animals—Further remarks on the situation in man—Much inebriety in man due to defective nervous constitution—Factors to be reckoned with +in the study of alcoholism—Venereal diseases—The seriousness of the situation—Infantile blindness—Syphilis—Some of the effects—A blood +test—Many syphilitics married—Why permit existing conditions to continue?—Ante-nuptial medical inspection—The perils of venereal disease +must be prevented at any cost—Bad environment can wreck good germ-plasm.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Responsibility for Conduct</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">All mental process accompanied by neural process—Gradations in nervous response from lower organisms to man—Behavior of many +animals often an automatic adjustment to simple external agents—Tropisms—Certain apparently complex volitions probably only tropisms—Complicating +factors—Many tropic responses apparently purposeful—Tropisms grade into reflex actions and instincts—Adjustability of instincts +opens the way for intelligent behavior—Modification of habits possible in lower animals—Some lower vertebrates profit by +experience—Rational behavior—Conceptual thought probably an outgrowth of simpler psychic states—The capacity for alternative action +in higher animals—The elemental units of the nervous system are the same in lower and higher animals—Neuron theory—Establishment +of pathways through the nervous system—Characteristic arrangements of nerve cells subject to inheritance—Different parts of the cortex +yield different reactions—Skill acquired in one branch of learning probably not transferred to another branch—Preponderance of cortex in +highest animals—Special fiber tracts in the spinal cord of man and higher apes—Great complexity in associations and more neurons +in the brain of man—The nervous system in the main already staged at the time of birth—Many pathways of conduction not yet established—The +extent of the modifiable zone unknown—Various possibilities of reaction in the child—Probable origin of altruistic human conduct—Training +in motive necessary—Actual practise in carrying out projects important—Interest and difficulty both essential—The realization +of certain possibilities of the germ rather than others is subject to control—We must afford the opportunity and provide the proper +stimuli for the development of good traits—Moral responsibility.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Mental and Nervous Defects</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Prevalence of insanity—Imperfect adjustments of the brain mechanism inheritable—Many mental defectives +married—Disproportionate increase in number of mental defectives—Protests voiced by alienists—Examples of hereditary feeble-mindedness—Difficult +to secure accurate data—Feeble-mindedness and insanity not the same—Many types of insanity—Not all insanities of the same eugenical +significance—Difficulties of getting genealogies of specific forms of insanity—Certain forms of insanity seem to behave as Mendelian recessives—Grades +of feeble-mindedness—About two-thirds of feeble-mindedness inherited—Some results of non-restraint of the feeble-minded—Not all +cases of mental deficiency inherited—Epileptics—Feeble-mindedness probably a recessive—Many apparently normal people are carriers of +neuropathic defects—Tests for mental deficiency—The backward child in school—The exceptionally able child—Cost of caring for our +mentally disordered—Importance of rigid segregation of the feeble-minded—Importance of early diagnosis of insanity—Opinion of competent +psychiatrists essential—Some insanities not hereditary—Importance of heredity in insanity not appreciated.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Crime and Delinquency</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Heredity and environment in this field—Feeble-mindedness often a factor—Many delinquent girls mentally +deficient—Institutional figures misleading—Many prisoners mentally subnormal—Inhibitions necessary to social welfare—The high-grade moron +a difficult problem—Degenerate strains—Intensification of defects by inbreeding—Vicious surroundings not a sufficient explanation in degenerate +stocks—Not all delinquents defectives—No special inheritable crime-factor—What is a born criminal?—Epileptic criminal especially dangerous—The +mental disorders most frequently associated with crime—Bearing of immigration on crime and delinquency—Sexual vice—School instruction +in sex-hygiene—Mere knowledge not the crux of the sex problem—Early training in self-restraint an important preventive of crime +and delinquency—Multiplication of delinquent defectives must be prevented.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X</a></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Race Betterment Through Heredity</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="summary">Questionable charity—Past protests—An increasing flood of defectives—Natural elimination of defectives +done away with—Why not prevent our social maladies?—Eugenics defined—Improved environment alone will not cure racial degeneracy—Heredity +and environment—Inter-racial marriage—Human conservation—Kindness in the long run—The problem has two phases—Constructive eugenics must be +based on education—Inferior increasing more rapidly than superior stocks—An unselected population may contain much valuable material—The +lack of criteria for judging fitness—The college graduate—Native ability, independence and energy eugenically desirable—Four children +to each marriage required to maintain a stock—Factors contributing to low birth-rate in desirable strains—The educated public must +be made to realize the situation—Utilization of family pride as a basis for constructive eugenics—The tendency for like to marry like—Public +opinion as an incentive to action—Choosing a marriage mate means choosing a parent—The best eugenic marriage also a love +match—The elimination of the grossly unfit urgent—Suggested remedies—Inefficacy of laws which forbid marriage of mental defectives—Systems +of mating impracticable in the main—Corrective mating presupposes knowledge of eugenics—Segregation has many advocates—Sterilization +as a eugenic measure—To what conditions applicable—In insanity—In feeble-mindedness—In cases of epilepsy—Sterilization +laws—Social dangers in vasectomy—Our present knowledge insufficient—Sterilization laws on trial—An educated public sentiment the +most valuable eugenic agent—The question of personal liberty—Education of women in eugenics needed—Much yet to be done—A working +program—Which shall it be?</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td><span class="smcap">Glossary</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td><span class="smcap">References for Further Reading and Study</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><span class="giant">BEING WELL-BORN</span></p> +<p> </p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> +<p class="title">HEREDITY</p> + + +<p>It is a commonplace fact that offspring tend to resemble their parents. So +commonplace, indeed, that few stop to wonder at it. No one misunderstands +us when we say that such and such a young man is “a chip off the old +block,” for that is simply an emphatic way of stating that he resembles +one or the other of his parents. The same is true of such familiar +expressions as “what’s bred in the bone,” “blood will tell,” and kindred +catch phrases. All are but recognitions of the same common fact that +offspring exhibit various characteristics similar to those of their +progenitors.</p> + +<p><b>Blood Heritage.—</b>To this phenomenon of resemblance in successive +generations based on ancestry the term heredity is applied. In man, for +instance, there is a marked tendency toward the reappearance in offspring +of structures, habits, features, and even personal mannerisms, minute +physical defects, and intimate mental peculiarities like those possessed +by their parents or more remote forebears. These personal characteristics +based on descent from a common source are what we may call the blood +heritage of the child to discriminate it from a wholly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> different kind of +inheritance, namely, the passing on from one generation to the next of +such material things as personal property or real estate.</p> + +<p><b>Kind Determined by Origin.—</b>It is inheritance in the sense of community of +origin that determines whether a given living creature shall be man, +beast, bird, fish, or what not. A given individual is human because his +ancestors were human. In addition to this stock supply of human qualities +he has certain well-marked features which we recognize as characteristics +of race. That is, if he is of Anglo-Saxon or Italian or Mongolian +parentage, naturally his various qualities will be Anglo-Saxon, Italian, +or Mongolian. Still further, he has many distinctive features of mind and +body that we recognize as family traits and lastly, his personal +characteristics such as designate him to us as Tom, Harry, or James must +be added. The latter would include such minutiæ as size and shape of ears, +nose or hands; complexion; perhaps even certain defects; voice; color of +eyes; and a thousand other particulars. Although we designate these +manifold items as individual, they are in reality largely more or less +duplicates of similar features that occur in one or the other of his +progenitors, features which he would not have in their existing form but +for the hereditary relation between him and them.</p> + +<p class="poem">“O Damsel Dorothy! Dorothy Q.!<br /> +Strange is the gift that I owe to you;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><strong><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span></strong></span><br /> +What if a hundred years ago<br /> +Those close-shut lips had answered ‘No,’<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><strong><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span><span class="spacer">·</span></strong></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>Should I be I, or would it be<br /> +One-tenth another, to nine-tenths me?”<br /> +<br /> +“Soft is the breath of a maiden’s yes;<br /> +Not the light gossamer stirs with less;<br /> +But never a cable that holds so fast<br /> +Through all the battles of wave and blast,<br /> +And never an echo of speech or song<br /> +That lives in the babbling air so long!<br /> +There were tones in the voice that whispered then<br /> +You may hear to-day in a hundred men.”</p> + +<p>When life steps into the world of matter there comes with it a sort of +physical immortality, so to speak; not of the individual, it is true, but +of the race. But the important thing to note is that the race is made up, +not of a succession of wholly unrelated forms, but a continuation of the +same kind of living organisms, and this sameness is due to the actual +physical descent of each new individual from a predecessor. In other +words, any living organism is the kind of organism it is in virtue of its +hereditary relation to its ancestors.</p> + +<p>It is part of the biologist’s task to seek a material basis, a continuity +of actual substance, for this continuity of life and form between an +organism and its offspring. Moreover, inasmuch as the offspring is never +precisely similar to its progenitors he must determine also what qualities +are susceptible of transmission and in what measure.</p> + +<p><b>Ancestry a Network.—</b>From the fact that each child has all of the +ancestors of its mother as well as of its father, arises the great +complications which are met with in determining the lineage of an +individual.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> A person has two parents, four grandparents, eight great +grandparents, and thus following out pedigree it is plain to be seen that +through this process of doubling in each generation, in the course of a +few centuries one’s ancestry is apparently enormous. By actual +computation, according to Professor D. S. Jordan, if we count thirty +generations back to the Norman invasion of England in 1066, at this ratio +of duplication, the child of to-day would have had at that time an +ancestry of 8,598,094,592 persons. But we know that the total number of +inhabitants in England during the time of William the Conqueror was but a +small fraction of this enormous aggregate. This means that we shall have +to modify our inference that a child has twice as many ancestors as its +parents; a condition which at first sight seems evident, but which is not +literally true. The fact is that the parents of the child, in all +probability, have many ancestors in common—a state of affairs which is +brought about through the intermarriage of relatives, and this is +especially frequent among remoter descendants of common progenitors. Time +after time in genealogy strains of blood have crossed and recrossed until +it is not improbable that a man of to-day who is of English origin has the +blood in his veins from every inhabitant of England who lived during the +time of William the Conqueror and left fruitful descendants. Instead of +conceiving of ancestry as an ever branching and widening tree-like system +as it recedes into the past, it is more accurate, therefore, to regard it +in the light of an elaborate meshwork. The “family tree” in reality +becomes the family net.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span><b>Ancestry in Royalty.—</b>The pedigrees of royal families have proved to be of +much importance in the study of human inheritance, not that royal traits +are any more heritable than any other, but simply because the records have +been carefully kept so that they are the most comprehensive and easily +followed pedigrees available. The netlike weave of ancestry is +particularly well exemplified in some of these families because of much +close intermarriage. Their heritage typifies on an intensified scale the +heritage of the mass of mankind. For example, if we go six generations +back in the ancestry of Frederick the Great instead of the expected +sixty-four individual ancestors we find only forty; or in a still more +closely woven stock, in the Spanish royal line of Don Carlos we find in +six generations instead of sixty-four individual ancestors, only +twenty-eight. While the present German emperor might have had four +thousand ninety-six ancestors in the twelfth generation back, it is +estimated that owing to intermarriage he probably had only five hundred +thirty-three.</p> + +<p><b>Offspring Derived from One Parent Only.—</b>So far in our reckoning of +heredity we have counted elements from both father and mother, and the +complications which arise from such a double ancestry are manifestly very +perplexing ones. If we could do away with the elements of sex and find +offspring that are derived from one parent only, it would seemingly +simplify our problem very much for we should thus have a direct line of +descent, free from intermingling. This, in fact, occurs to a greater or +less extent among lower animals in a number of instances. There may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> be +only female forms for a number of generations and the eggs which they +produce develop directly into new individuals. Moreover, many of the +simpler organisms have the power of dividing their bodies into two and +thus giving rise to two new forms, each of which resembles the parent. +This shows plainly that we may have inheritance without the appearance of +any male ancestor at all, hence sex is not always a necessary factor in +reproduction or heredity. The development of eggs asexually, that is, +without uniting first with a male cognate, is termed <i>parthenogenesis</i>. +The ordinary plant louse or aphid which is frequently found upon geraniums +is a familiar example of an animal which reproduces largely in this way. +During the summer only the females exist and they are so astonishingly +fertile that one such aphid and her progeny, supposing none dies, will +produce one hundred million in the course of five generations. In the last +broods of the fall, males and females appear and fertile eggs are produced +which lie dormant through the winter to start the cycle of the next year. +Again, the eggs of some kinds of animals which normally have to unite with +a male germ before they develop, can be made to develop by merely treating +them with chemical solutions. The difference between an offspring derived +in such a manner, and one which has developed from an egg fertilized by +the male is that it is made up of characteristics from only one source, +the maternal.</p> + +<p><b>Dual Ancestry an Aid in Studying Heredity.—</b>Although we have the factors +of heredity in a more simplified form in the case of asexual +transmission,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> as a matter of fact most of our insight into the problems +of heredity has been attained from a study of sexually reproducing forms, +because the very existence of two sets of more or less parallel features +offers a kind of checking up system by which we can follow a given +characteristic.</p> + +<p><b>Reversion.—</b>Occasionally, however, plants and animals do not develop the +complete individuality we might expect, but stop short at or re-attain +some ancestral stage along the line of descent, and thus come to resemble +some progenitor perhaps many generations back of their own time. Thus it +is well known that as regards one or more characteristics a child may +resemble a grandparent or often some remote ancestor much more closely +than it does its immediate parent. The reappearance of such ancestral +traits the student of heredity designates as <i>Reversion</i> or <i>Atavism</i>.</p> + +<p>Reversion may occur apparently in any class of plants or animals. It is +especially pronounced among domesticated forms, which through man’s +selection have been produced under more or less artificial conditions. For +example, among fancy breeds of pigeons, there may be an occasional return +to the old slaty blue color of the ancestral rock-pigeon, with two dark +cross-bars on the wings, from which all modern breeds have been derived. +This is almost sure to happen if the fancy varieties are inter-crossed for +two or three generations. Another example of reversion frequently cited is +the occasional reappearance in domestic poultry of the reddish or brownish +color pattern of the ancestral jungle-fowl to which, among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> modern forms, +the Indian game seems most nearly related in color. Still another example +is the cross-bars or stripes occasionally to be seen on the forelegs of +colts, particularly mules, reminiscent of the extinct wild progenitors +which were supposedly striped.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1, <a href="#Page_9">p. 9</a>, is a picture of a hybrid between the common fowl and the +guinea-fowl. The chevron-like markings on certain feathers show a +reversion to a type of color pattern that is prevalent among both the +primitive pheasants (the domestic chicken is a pheasant) and the primitive +guinea-fowls. Although the common spotted guinea-fowl may be crossed with +a black chicken which shows no trace of barring, nevertheless the hybrid +offspring are likely to bear a chevron-like pattern such as that shown in +the picture.</p> + +<p>There has been much quibbling over the relative meanings of reversion and +atavism. The general idea, whichever term we use, is that there is a +“throwing back” in a noticeable degree through inheritance to some +ancestral condition beyond the immediate parents. A few recent authors +have taken the term atavism in a restricted sense and use it to signify +specifically those not uncommon cases in which a particular character of +an offspring resembles the corresponding character of a grandparent +instead of a parent. Such, for example, as the blue eye-color of a child +with brown-eyed parents, each of whom in turn has had a blue-eyed parent. +The tendency of other authors is to abandon the term entirely because of +the diversity of meaning that has been attached to it in the past.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img01.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span></p> +<p class="descrip">Hybrid between the guinea-fowl and the common fowl,showing in many +feathers reversion to a primitive chevron-like barring.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Certain classes of so-called reversions, such as the case of the eye-color +just cited, are readily explicable on Mendelian principles as we shall see +in a later chapter, but probably not all kinds of phenomena described as +reversion can be so explained. For example, some seem to be cases of +suppressed development. The word reversion, indeed, must be looked on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> as +a convenient descriptive term rather than as the name of a single specific +condition.</p> + +<p><b>Telegony.—</b>There is yet a wide-spread belief in the supposed influence of +an earlier sire on offspring born by the same mother to a later and +different sire. This alleged phenomenon is termed <i>telegony</i>. For example, +many dog-breeders assert that if a thoroughbred bitch has ever had pups by +a mongrel father, her later offspring, although sired by a thoroughbred, +will show taints of the former mongrel mating. In such cases the female is +believed to be ruined for breeding purposes. Other supposed instances of +such influences have been cited among horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, cats, +birds, pets of various kinds and even men. The historic case most +frequently quoted is that of Lord Morton’s mare which bore a hybrid colt +when bred to a quagga, a striped zebra-like animal now extinct. In later +years the same mare bore two colts, sired by a black Arabian horse. Both +colts showed stripes on the neck and other parts of the body, particularly +on the legs. It was inferred that this striping was a sort of after effect +of the earlier breeding with the quagga. In recent times, however, +Professor Ewart has repeated the experiment a number of times with +different mares using a Burchell zebra as the test sire. Although his +experiments have been devised so as to conduce in every way possible to +telegony his results have been negative. Moreover, it has been pointed out +that the stripes on the legs of the two foals alleged to show telegony +could not have been derived from the quagga sire for, unlike zebras, +quaggas did not have their legs striped. Furthermore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> it is known that the +occurrence of dark brown stripes on the neck, withers and legs of ordinary +colts is not uncommon, some cases of which have exhibited more zebra-like +markings than those of the colts from Lord Morton’s mare. It seems much +more probable, therefore, that the alleged instances are merely cases of +ordinary reversion to the striped ancestral color pattern which probably +characterized the wild progenitors of the domesticated horse.</p> + +<p>Various experiments on guinea-pigs, horses, mice and other forms, +especially devised to test out this alleged after-influence of an earlier +sire, have all proved negative and the general belief of the biologist +to-day is that telegony is a myth.</p> + +<p><b>Prenatal Influences Apart from Heredity.—</b>In discussing the problems of +heredity it is necessary to consider also the possibilities of external +influences apart from lineage which may affect offspring through either +parent. Although modifications derived directly by the parent, and +prenatal influences in general, are of extremely doubtful value as of +permanent inheritable significance, nevertheless they must be reckoned +with in any inventory of a child’s endowment at birth. Impaired vitality +on the part of the mother, bad nutrition and physical vicissitudes of +various kinds all enter as factors in the birthright of the child, who, +moreover, may bear in its veins slumbering poisons from some progenitor +who has handed on blood taints not properly attributable to heredity. Of +such importance is this kind of influence to the welfare of the immediate +child that it will be necessary to discuss it in considerable detail in a +later chapter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span><b>Parent Body and Germ Not Identical.—</b>Inasmuch as each new individual +appears to arise from material derived from its parent, taking the +evidence at its face value one might suppose that any peculiarity of +organization called forth in the living substance of the parent would +naturally be repeated in the offspring, but a closer study of the +developing organism from its first inception to maturity shows this to be +probably a wrong conclusion. The parent-body and the reproductive +substance contained in that body are by no means identical. It becomes an +important question to decide, in fact, how much effect, if any, either +permanent or temporary, the parent-body really has on the germ.</p> + +<p>A given fertile germ (Fig. 2, <a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>) gives rise by a succession of +divisions to a body which we call the individual, but such a germ also +gives rise to a series of new germ-cells which reside in that individual, +and it is these germ-cells, not something derived from the body, that pass +on the determiners of distinguishing features or qualities from generation +to generation. It is only by grasping the significance of this fact that +we can understand how in certain cases a totally different set of +characters may appear in an offspring than those manifested in either +parent.</p> + +<p><b>An Hereditary Character Defined.—</b>By a <i>character</i>, in discussions in +heredity, is meant simply a trait, feature or other characteristic of an +organism. Where we can pick out a single definable characteristic which +acts as a unit in heredity, for greater accuracy we term it a +<i>unit-character</i>. Many traits are known to be inherited on a unit basis or +are capable of being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> analyzed into factors which are so inherited. These +unit-characters are in large measure inherited independently of one +another apparently, although cases of characters inherited as a unit along +with other characters are known.</p> + +<p><b>Hereditary Mingling a Mosaic Rather Than a Blend.—</b>The independence of +unit-characters in inheritance leads us to the important conclusion that +the mingling of two lines of ancestry into a new individual is in no sense +bringing them into the “melting pot,” as it has been picturesquely +expressed, but it is rather to be regarded as the mingling of two mosaics, +each particle of which retains its own individuality, and which, even if +overshadowed in a given generation, may nevertheless manifest its +qualities undimmed in later generations when conditions favorable to its +expression transpire.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img02.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></p> +<p class="descrip">Diagram illustrating germinal continuity. Through a series of divisions a +germ-cell gives rise to a body or a soma and to new germ-cells. The +latter, not the body, give rise in turn to the next generation.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Determiners of Characters, Not Characters Themselves, Transmitted.—</b>The +fact should be thoroughly understood that the actual thing which is +transmitted by means of the germ in inheritance is not the character +itself, but something which will <i>determine</i> the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> character in the +offspring. It is important to remember this, for often these +<i>determiners</i>, as they are called, may lie unexpressed for one or more +generations and may become manifest only in later descendants. The truth +of the matter is, the child does not inherit its characters from +corresponding characters in the parent-body, but parent and child are +alike because they are both products of the same line of germ-plasm, both +are chips from the same old block.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">METHODS OF STUDYING HEREDITY</p> + +<p>Before entering into details it will be well to get some idea of the +methods which are commonly employed in arriving at conclusions in the +field of heredity. Some of these are extremely complex and all that we can +do in an elementary presentation is to get a glimpse of the procedures.</p> + +<p><b>Our Knowledge of Heredity Derived Along Three Lines.—</b>Our modern +conceptions of heredity have been derived mainly from three distinct lines +of investigation: First, from the study of embryology, in which the +biologist concerns himself with the genesis of the various parts of the +individual, and the mechanism of the germs which convey the actual +materials from which these parts spring; second, through experimental +breeding of plants and animals to compare particular traits or features in +successive generations; and third, through the statistical treatment of +observations or measurements of a large number of parents and their +offspring with reference to a given characteristic in order to determine +the average <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>extent of resemblance between parents and children in that +particular respect.</p> + +<p><b>The Method of Experimental Breeding.—</b>A tremendous impetus was given to +the method of experimental breeding when it was realized that we can +itemize many of the parts or traits of an organism into entities which are +inherited independently one of another. Such traits, or as we have already +termed them, unit-characters, may be not only independently heritable but +independently variable as well. The experimental method seeks to isolate +and trace through successive generations the separate factors which +determine the individual unit-characters of the organism. In this attempt +cross-breeding is resorted to. Forms which differ in one or more respects +are mated and the progeny studied. Next these offspring are mated with +others of their own kind or mated back with the respective parent types. +In this way the behavior of a particular character may often be followed +and the germinal constitutions of the individuals concerned can be +formulated with reference to it. Inasmuch as we shall give much +consideration to this method in the chapter on Mendelism we need not +consider it further here.</p> + +<p><b>The Statistical Method.—</b>The statistical method seeks to obtain large +bodies of facts and to deal with evidence as it appears through +mathematical analysis of these facts. The attempt of its followers is to +treat quantitatively all biological processes with which it is concerned. +Historically Sir Francis Galton was the first to make any considerable +application of statistical methods to the problems of heredity and +variation. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> his attempts to determine the extent of resemblance between +relatives of different degree as regards bodily, mental and temperamental +traits, he devised new methods of statistical analysis which constitute +the basis of modern statistical biology, or <i>biometry</i> as it is termed by +its votaries. Professor Karl Pearson in particular has extended and +perfected the mathematical methods of this field and stands to-day as +perhaps its most representative exponent. The system is in the main based +on the calculus of probability. The methods often are highly specialized, +requiring the use of higher mathematics, and are therefore only at the +command of specially trained workers.</p> + +<p>Just as insurance companies can tell us the probable length of human life +in a given social group, since although uncertain in any particular case, +it is reducible in mass to a predictable constant, so the biometrician +with even greater precision because of his improved methods can often, +when a large number of cases are concerned, give us the intensity of +ancestral influence with reference to particular characters.</p> + +<p>For example, it is clear that by measuring a large number of adult human +beings one can compute the average height or determine the height which +will fit the greatest number. There will be some individuals below and +some above it, but the greater the divergence from this standard height +the fewer will be the individuals concerned.</p> + +<p>Galton compared the heights of 204 normal English parents and their 928 +adult offspring. In order to equalize the measurements of men and women he +found he had to multiply each female height by 1.08.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> Then, to take both +parents into account when comparing height of parents to that of children +he added the height of the father to the proportionately augmented height +of the mother and divided by two, thus securing the height of what he +termed the “mid-parent.” He found that the mid-parental heights of his +subjects ranged from 64.5 to 72.5 inches, and that the general <i>mode</i> was +about 68.5 inches. It should be mentioned that the <i>mode</i>, in a given +population, represents the group containing the largest number of +individuals of one kind; it may or may not coincide with the average. The +children of all mid-parents having a given height were measured next and +tabulated with reference to these mid-parents. The results of Galton’s +measurements may be expressed simply as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td colspan="5" class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">MODE</td> + <td class="bt" colspan="4"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Height of mid-parent in inches</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">64.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">65.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">66.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">67.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">68.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">69.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">70.5</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">71.5</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">72.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Average height of offspring</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">65.8</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">66.7</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">67.2</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">67.6</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">68.3</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">68.9</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">69.5</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">69.9</td> + <td class="bb" align="center">72.2</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>The Law of Regression.—</b>It is plain from this table that the offspring of +short mid-parents tend to be under average or modal height though not so +far below as their parents. Likewise children of tall parents tend to be +tall but less tall than their parents. This fact illustrates what is known +as Galton’s <i>law of regression</i>; namely, that if parents in a given +population diverge a certain amount from the mode of the population as a +whole, their children, while tending to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> resemble them, will diverge less +from this mode. It is clear that the extent of regression is an inverse +measure of the intensity of inheritance from the immediate parents; if the +deviation of the offspring from the general mode were nearly as great as +that of their parents then the intensity of the inheritance must be high; +if but slight—that is, if the offspring regressed nearly to the +mode—then the intensity of the inheritance must be ranked as low. In the +example in question it must be ranked as relatively high. Computations +show that as regards stature the fraction two-thirds represents +approximately the amount of resemblance between the two generations where +both parents are considered.</p> + +<p><b>Correlations Between Parents and Offspring.—</b>In modern researches the +conception of mid-parent and mid-grandparent as utilized by Galton has +been largely abandoned. It has been found more convenient as well as more +accurate to keep the measurements of the two parents separate and to deal +with correlations between fathers and sons, fathers and daughters, mothers +and sons, mothers and daughters, brother and brother, etc. Professor +Pearson and his pupils have found for a number of characters that the +correlation between either parent and children, whether sons or daughters, +is relatively close. The correlation between brother and brother, sister +and sister, and brother and sister, usually ranges a little higher than +the corresponding relation between parents and children.</p> + +<p><b>The Biometrical Method, Statistical, Not Physiological.—</b>While biometry +may in certain cases go far toward showing us the average intensity of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> inheritance of certain characters it can not replace the method of +the experimental breeder which deals with particular characters in +individual pedigrees. It must be borne in mind that the biometrical method +is a statistical and not a physiological one and that it is applicable +only when large numbers of individuals are considered in mass. It is most +valuable in cases where we are unable sharply to define single characters, +due probably to the concurrent action of a number of independent causes, +or where experiment is impossible so that we have to depend solely on +numerical data gained by observation.</p> + +<p><b>Mental Qualities Inheritable.—</b>Galton showed by this method long ago, and +Pearson and his school have extended and more clearly established the +work, that exceptional mental qualities tend to be inherited. While on the +average the children of exceptional parents tend to be less exceptional +than their parents, still they are far more likely to be exceptional than +are the children of average parents. By this method Professor Pearson has +shown that such mental and temperamental attributes as ability, vivacity, +conscientiousness, temper, popularity, handwriting, etc., are as +essentially determined as are physical features through the hereditary +endowment.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> +<p class="title">THE BEARERS OF THE HERITAGE</p> + + +<p>Before we can make any detailed analysis of the inheritance of characters +we should have some general idea of the physical structure of animals and +particularly some familiarity with the development of an individual from +the egg, as well as some knowledge of the nature of the germ-cells.</p> + +<p><b>The Cell the Unit of Structure.—</b>If we examine one of the higher animals, +as, for example, the horse, the dog, or man, we find that it is made up of +a large number of constituents, such as bones, muscles, nervous elements, +blood and other tissues. Each kind of tissue is composed of a number of +living units, ordinarily microscopic in size, which are known as cells. A +careful examination of various cells reveals that although they may differ +greatly in size, shape and minor details, they all alike possess certain +well-marked characteristics. Each when reduced to its fundamental form is +seen to consist of a small mass of living matter termed protoplasm in +which may usually be distinguished two regions—the cell-body or +<i>cytoplasm</i>, and the <i>nucleus</i> (Fig. 3, <a href="#Page_21">p. 21</a>). Any cell, whether it be of +the brain, of the liver, or from any organ of an animal or plant, has this +same fundamental structure. In addition, a limiting membrane or wall of +some kind is generally present, although it is not a necessary constituent +of all cells.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img03.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></p> +<p class="center">Diagram of a cell showing various parts.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Unicellular Organisms.—</b>While such a structure as a tree or a horse is +composed of countless millions of cells, on the other hand numerous +organisms, both plant and animal, exist which consist of only one cell. +Yet this cell is just as characteristically a cell as are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the components +of a complex animal or plant. It has the necessary parts, the cell body +and the nucleus. Moreover it exhibits all of the fundamental activities of +life, though in a simplified form, that a complex higher organism does.</p> + +<p><b>Importance of Cell-Theory.—</b>This discovery that every living thing is a +single cell or an aggregation of cooperating cells and cell-products is +one of our most important biological generalizations because it has +brought such a wide range of phenomena under a common point of view. In +the first place, the structure of both plants and animals is reducible to +a common fundamental unit of organization. Moreover, both physiological +and pathological phenomena are more readily understood since we recognize +that the functions of the body in health or disease are in large measure +the result of the activities of the individual cells of the functioning +part. Then again, the problems of embryological development have become +much more sharply defined since it could be shown that the egg is a single +cell and that it is through a series of divisions of this cell and +subsequent changes in the new cells thus formed that the new organism is +built up. And lastly, the problem of hereditary transmission has been +rendered more definite and approachable by the discovery that the male +germ is likewise a single cell, that fertilization of the egg is therefore +the union of two cells, and that in consequence the mechanism of +inheritance must be stowed away somehow in these two cells.</p> + +<p><b>Heredity in Unicellular Forms.—</b>In unicellular animals one can readily see +how it is possible for an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> individual always to give rise to its own kind. +One of the simplest of the single-celled animals is the <i>Ameba</i> (Fig. 4, +<a href="#Page_24">p. 24</a>).</p> + +<p>The ameba eats and grows as do other animals. Sooner or later it reaches a +size beyond which it can not increase advantageously, yet it is +continuously taking in new food material which stimulates it to further +growth. Here then is a problem. The ameba solves this difficulty by +dividing to form two amebæ. Such a division is illustrated in Fig. 4, <a href="#Page_24">p.24</a>. +First the nucleus divides, then the cell-body. When the two new amebæ +separate completely each renews the occupation of eating and growing. But +what has become of the parent? Here, where once existed a large adult +ameba are two young amebæ. The parent individual as such has disappeared, +yet there has been no death, for we have simply two bits of living jelly +in place of one. They will in turn repeat the same process, so will their +offspring, and thus, barring accident, this growth and reproduction, or +overgrowth as we may regard it, may go on forever, as far as we know. Here +the problem of heredity, or the resemblance of offspring to parent, is not +a very complicated one. The substance of the cell-body and cell-nucleus +divides into two similar halves, so that each descendant has the substance +of the parent in its own body, only it has but half as much. It differs +from the parent, not in quality or kind, but in size.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img04.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></p> +<p class="descrip">Six successive stages in the division of <i>Ameba polypodia</i> (after +Schulze). The nucleus is seen as a dark spot in the interior.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Reproduction and Heredity in Colonial Protozoa.—</b>There are enormous +numbers of these single-celled animals existing in all parts of the world. +Some are simple like the ameba, others are very complex in structure. +Many, after division, move apart and pursue wholly independent courses of +existence. On the other hand we find a modification appearing in some +which is of the greatest importance. After division instead of moving +apart the two cells may remain side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> by side and divide further to form +two more, these in turn may divide and thus the process goes on until +there is formed what is known as a colony. Each cell of such a colony +resembles the original ancestral cell because each is a part of the actual +substance of that cell. As in the ameba, the first two cells are the +ancestral cell done up in two separate packets, and thus finally the full +quota of cells must be so many separate packets of the same kind of +material. Inasmuch as each is but a repetition of its original ancestor, +it can, and at times does, produce a colony of the same kind as that +ancestor produced.</p> + +<p><b>Conjugation.—</b>At longer or shorter intervals, however, we find that two +individuals, on the disruption of the old colony, instead of continuing +the routine of establishing new colonies through a series of cell +divisions, very radically alter their behavior. They unite and fuse into a +single larger individual. This process is called <i>conjugation</i>. We find it +occurring even in some species of ameba. The conjugating cells in some +colonies are alike in size and appearance, in others different.</p> + +<p><b>Specialization of Sex-Cells.—</b>A beautiful sphere-shaped colony known as +<i>Volvox</i> is to be found occasionally in roadside pools. Depending on the +species of <i>Volvox</i> to which it belongs, the colony may be made up of from +a few hundred to several thousand individuals arranged in a single layer +about the fluid-filled center of the sphere and bound together by a clear +jelly-like inter-cellular substance. Each individual cell also connects +with its neighbors by means of thin threads of living matter. One of the +largest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> species is <i>Volvox globator</i>, one edge of which is represented in +Fig. 5, <a href="#Page_27">p. 27</a>. Mutual pressure of the cells gives them a polygonal shape +when viewed from the surface. Each cell, with a few exceptions to be noted +immediately, bears two long flagella, whip-like structures which project +out into the water. The lashing of these flagella gives the ball a rotary +motion and thus it moves about. When the colony has reached its adult +condition and is ready to reproduce itself, certain cells without flagella +and somewhat larger than the ordinary cells become more rounded in outline +and increase considerably in size through the acquisition of food +materials. They are then known as egg cells or ova. Each ovum finally +enters on a series of cell-divisions forming a mass of smaller and smaller +cells which gradually assumes the form of a hollow sphere like the parent +colony. The young colonies thus formed drop into the interior of the +parent colony to escape later to the outside as independent swimming +organisms when the old colony dies and disintegrates.</p> + +<p><b>The Fertilized Ovum Termed a Zygote.—</b>After a number of generations of +such asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction occurs. The ova arise as +usual. Certain members of the colony, on the other hand, go to the other +extreme and divide up into bundles of from sixty-four to one hundred +twenty-eight minute slender cells, each provided with flagella for +locomotion. When mature these small flagellate cells, now known as +<i>spermatozoa</i>, escape into the interior of the parent colony and swim +about actively. Ultimately each ovum is penetrated by a spermatozoon, the +two cells fuse completely and thus form the single <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span><i>fertilized ovum</i> or +<i>zygote</i>. The body-cells of the mother colony finally disintegrate. After +a period of rest each zygote, through a series of cell-divisions, develops +into an adult Volvox. In some species of Volvox a still further advance is +seen, in that instead of both kinds of gametes being produced in the same +colony, the ova may be produced by one colony and the spermatozoa by +another. Here, then, we have the foreshadowings of two sexes as separate +individuals, a phenomenon of universal occurrence among the highest forms +of animal life.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img05.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></p> +<p class="descrip"><i>Volvox globator</i> (from Hegner after Oltmanns). Half of a sexually +reproducing colony: <i>o</i>, eggs; <i>s</i>, spermatozoa.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Advancement Seen in the Volvox Colony.—</b>In the Volvox colony there is a +distinct advance over the conditions met with in various lower protozoan +colonies in that only certain individuals of the colony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> take part in the +process of reproduction and these individuals are of two distinct types; +one is a larger, food-laden cell or egg and the other a small, active, +fertilizing cell. The motile forms are produced in much greater numbers +than the eggs, plainly because they have to seek the egg and many will +doubtless perish before this can be accomplished. This disparity in number +is only a means of insuring fertilization of the egg. The remaining cells +of the body carry on the ordinary activities of the colony such as +locomotion and nutrition and have ceased to take any part in the +production of new colonies.</p> + +<p><b>Natural Death Appears With the Establishment of a Body Distinct from the +Germ.—</b>Volvox is an organism of unusual interest because in it we see a +prophecy of what is to come. Although still regarded as a colony of +single-celled individuals, it represents in reality a transition between +the whole group of unicellular animals termed protozoa and the many celled +animals characterized by the possession of distinct tissues, known as +<i>Metazoa</i>. Moreover, it shows an interesting stage in the establishment of +a body or <i>soma</i> distinct from special reproductive cells which have taken +on the function of reproducing the colony. In such colonial forms natural +death is found appearing for the first time, the reproductive cells alone +continuing to perpetuate the species. Then again Volvox represents an +important step in the establishment of sex in the animal kingdom for in +its sexual reproduction the conjugating cells known as <i>gametes</i> are no +longer alike in appearance but have become differentiated into definite +ova and spermatozoa.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>In Volvox as in the other organisms which we have studied we find that all +of the cells including the germ-cells are produced by the repeated +division of a parent cell, and consequently each must contain the +characteristic living substance of that parent. Many other forms might be +cited to illustrate reproduction in single-celled animals, whether free or +in colonies, but all such cases would be practically but repetitions or +modifications of those we have already examined.</p> + +<p><b>Specialization in Higher Organisms.—</b>If we pass on to the higher animals +and plants which are not single cells or colonies of similar cells but +organisms made up of many different kinds of cells, we find a pronounced +extension of the phenomenon met with in Volvox. Instead of each cell +executing independently all of the life relations, certain ones are set +apart for the performance of certain functions to the exclusion of other +functions which are carried on by other members of the aggregation. Thus +the organism as a whole has all the life relations carried on, but, as it +were, by specialists.</p> + +<p><b>Sexual Phenomena in Higher Forms.—</b>In the reproduction of multicellular +organisms, one sees likewise but a continuation of the phenomena exhibited +in Volvox. Ordinarily, each new form is produced by the successive +divisions of a single germ-cell which in the vast majority of cases has +conjugated with another germ-cell. In the development of the egg, as the +divisions proceed, groups of cells become modified for their particular +work until the entire organism is completed. During development certain +cells are set apart for reproduction of the form just as they were in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +Volvox. These two kinds of reproductive cells in multicellular organisms +are derived ordinarily from two separate individuals known as male and +female, though there are some exceptions. The main difference between +these cells which will have to unite to form a single fertile germ-cell, +is that they have specialized in different directions; one is small and +active, the other large, food-laden and passive. But with two such +germ-cells coming as they do from two individuals, one the male, the other +the female, it is obvious that the actual living substance of which each +germ is composed will be distinctive of its own parental line and that +when the germs unite these distinctive factors commingle, hence the +complications of double ancestry arise.</p> + +<p><b>Structure of the Cell.—</b>Before we can understand certain necessary details +of the physical mechanism of inheritance we must inquire a little further +into the finer structure of the cell and into the nature of cell division. +A typical cell, as it would appear after treatment with various stains +which bring out the different parts more distinctly, is shown in Fig. 3, +<a href="#Page_21">p. 21</a>. Typical, not that any particular kind of living cell resembles it +very closely in appearance, but because it shows in a diagrammatic way the +essential parts of a cell. In the diagram, there are two well-marked +regions; a central <i>nucleus</i> and a peripheral cell-body or <i>cytoplasm</i>. +Other structures are pictured but only a few of them need command our +attention at present. At one side of the nucleus one observes a small dot +or granule surrounded by a denser area of cytoplasm. This body is called +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> <i>centrosome</i>. The nucleus in this instance is bounded by a +well-marked nuclear membrane and within it are several substances. What +appear to be threads of a faintly staining material, the <i>linin</i>, traverse +it in every direction and form an apparent network. The parts on which we +wish particularly to rivet our attention are the densely stained +substances scattered along or embedded in the strands of this network in +irregular granules and patches. This substance is called <i>chromatin</i>. It +takes its name from the fact that it shows great affinity for certain +stains and becomes intensely colored by them. This deeply colored portion +of the cell, the chromatin, is by most biologists regarded as of great +importance from the standpoint of heredity. One or more larger masses of +chromatin or chromatin-like material, known as <i>chromatin nucleoli</i>, are +often present, and not infrequently a small spheroidal body, differing in +its staining reactions from the chromatin-nucleolus and sometimes called +the <i>true nucleolus</i>, exists.</p> + +<p><b>Cell-Division.—</b>In the simplest type of cell-division the nucleus first +constricts in the middle, and finally the two halves separate. This +separation is followed by a similar constriction and final division of the +entire cell-body, which results in the production of two new cells. This +form of cell-division is known as <i>simple</i> or <i>direct division</i>. Such a +simple division, while found in higher animals, is less frequent and +apparently much less significant than another type of division which +involves profound changes and rearrangements of the nuclear contents. The +latter is termed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> <i>mitotic</i> or <i>indirect</i> cell-division. Fig. 6, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>, +illustrates some of the stages which are passed through in indirect +cell-division. The centrosome which lies passively at the side of the +nucleus in the typical cell (Fig. 6<i>a</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>) awakens to activity, +divides and the two components come to lie at the ends of a fibrous +spindle. In the meantime, the interior of the nucleus is undergoing a +transformation. The granules and patches of chromatin begin to flow +together along the nuclear network and become more and more crowded until +they take on the appearance of one or more long deeply-stained threads +wound back and forth in a loose skein in the nucleus (Fig. 6<i>b</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>). +If we examine this thread closely, in some forms it may be seen to consist +of a series of deeply-stained chromatin granules packed closely together +intermingled with the substance of the original nuclear network.</p> + +<p>As the preparations for division go on the coil in the nucleus breaks up +into a number of segments which are designated as <i>chromosomes</i> (Fig. +6<i>c</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>). The nuclear membrane disappears. The chromosomes and the +spindle-fibers ultimately become related in such a way that the +chromosomes come to lie at the equator of the spindle as shown in Fig +6<i>d</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>. Each chromosome splits lengthwise to form two daughter +chromosomes which then diverge to pass to the poles of the spindle (Figs. +6<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>). Thus each end of the spindle comes ultimately to be +occupied by a set of chromosomes. Moreover each set is a duplicate of the +other, because the substance of any individual chromosome in one group has +its counterpart in the other. In fact this whole complicated system of +indirect division <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>is regarded by most biologists as a mechanism for +bringing about the precise halving of the chromosomes.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img06.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram showing representative stages in mitotic or indirect +cell-division: <i>a</i>, resting cell with reticular nucleus and single +centrosome; <i>b</i>, the two new centrosomes formed by division of the old one +are separating and the nucleus is in the spireme stage; <i>c</i>, the nuclear +wall has disappeared, the spireme has broken up into six separate +chromosomes, and the spindle is forming between the two centrosomes; <i>d</i>, +equatorial plate stage in which the chromosomes occupy the equator of the +spindle; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, each chromosome splits lengthwise and the daughter +chromosomes thus formed approach their respective poles; <i>g</i>, +reconstruction of the new nuclei and division of the cell body; <i>h</i>, cell-division completed.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>The chromosomes of each group at the poles finally fuse and two new +nuclei, each similar to the original one, are constructed (Figs. 6<i>g</i> and +<i>h</i>, <a href="#Page_33">p. 33</a>). In the meantime a division of the cell-body is in progress +which, when completed, results in the formation of two complete new cells.</p> + +<p>As all living matter if given suitable food, can convert it into living +matter of its own kind, there is no difficulty in conceiving how the new +cell or the chromatin material finally attains to the same bulk that was +characteristic of the parent cell. In the case of the chromatin, indeed, +it seems that there is at times a precocious doubling of the ordinary +amount of material before the actual division occurs.</p> + +<p><b>Chromosomes Constant in Number and Appearance.—</b>With some minor +exceptions, to be noted later, which increase rather than detract from the +significance of the facts, the chromosomes are always the same in number +and appearance in all individuals of a given species of plants or animals. +That is, every species has a fixed number which regularly recurs in all of +its cell-divisions. Thus the ordinary cells of the rat, when preparing to +divide, each display sixteen chromosomes, the frog or the mouse, +twenty-four, the lily twenty-four, and the maw-worm of the horse only +four. The chromosomes of different kinds of animals or plants may differ +very much in appearance. In some they are spherical, in others rod-like, +filamentous or perhaps of other forms. In some organisms the chromosomes +of the same nucleus may differ from one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> another in size, shape and +proportions, but if such differences appear at one division they appear at +others, thus showing that in such cases the differences are constant from +one generation to the next.</p> + +<p><b>Significance of the Chromosomes.—</b>The question naturally arises as to what +is the significance of the chromosomes. Why is the accurate adjustment +which we have noted for their division necessary? The very existence of an +elaborate mechanism so admirably adapted to their precise halving, +predisposes one toward the belief that the chromosomes have an important +function which necessitates the retention of their individuality and their +equal division. Many biologists accept this along with other evidence as +indicating that in chromatin we have a substance which is not the same +throughout, that different regions of the same chromosome have different +physiological values.</p> + +<p>When the cell prepares for divisions, the granules, as we have seen, +arrange themselves serially into a definite number of strands which we +have termed chromosomes. Judging from all available evidence, the granules +are self-propagating units; that is, they can grow and reproduce +themselves. So that what really happens in mitosis in the splitting of the +chromosomes is a precise halving of the series of individual granules of +which each chromosome is constituted, or in other words each granule has +reproduced itself. Thus each of the two daughter cells presumably gets a +sample of every kind of chromosomal particle, hence, the two cells are +qualitatively alike. To use a homely illustration we may picture the +individual chromosomes to ourselves as so many separate trains of freight +cars,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> each car of which is loaded with different merchandise. Now, if +every one of the trains could split along its entire length and the +resulting halves each grow into a train similar to the original, so that +instead of one there would exist two identical trains, we should have a +phenomenon analogous to that of a dividing chromosome.</p> + +<p><b>Cleavage of the Egg.—</b>It is through a series of such divisions as these +that the zygote or fertilized egg-cell builds up the tissues and organs of +the new organism. The process is technically spoken of as <i>cleavage</i>. +Cleavage generally begins very shortly after fertilization. The fertile +egg-cell divides into two, the resulting cells divide again and thus the +process continues, with an ever-increasing number of cells.</p> + +<p><b>Chief Processes Operative in Building the Body.—</b>Although of much +interest, space will not permit of a discussion in detail of the building +up of the special organs and tissues of the body. It must suffice merely +to mention the four chief processes which are operative. These are, (1) +infoldings and outfoldings of the various cell complexes; (2) +multiplication of the component cells; (3) special changes (<i>histological +differentiation</i>) in groups of cells; and (4) occasionally resorption of +certain areas of parts.</p> + +<p><b>The Origin of the New Germ-Cells.—</b>On account of the unusual importance +from the standpoint of inheritance, which attaches to the germ-cells, a +final word must be said about their origin in the embryo. While the +evidence is conflicting in some cases, in others it has been well +established that the germ-cells are set apart very early from the cells +which are to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> differentiate into the ordinary body tissues. Fig. 7<i>A</i>, +<a href="#Page_38">p. 38</a>, shows a section through the eight-celled stage of <i>Miastor</i>, a fly, in +which a single large, primordial germ-cell (<i>p. g. c.</i>) has already been +set apart at one end of the developing embryo. The nuclei of the rest of +the embryo still lie in a continuous protoplasmic mass which has not yet +divided up into separate cells. The densely stained nuclei at the opposite +end of the section are the remnants of nurse-cells which originally +nourished the egg. Fig. 7<i>B</i>, <a href="#Page_38">p. 38</a>, is a longitudinal section through a +later stage in the development of <i>Miastor</i>; the primitive germ-cells +(oög) are plainly visible. Still other striking examples might be cited. +Even in vertebrates the germ-cells may often be detected at a very early +period.</p> + +<p><b>Significance of the Early Setting Apart of the Germ-Cells.—</b>It is of great +importance for the reader to grasp the significance of this early setting +apart of the germ-cells because so much in our future discussion hinges on +this fact. The truth of the statement made in a previous chapter that the +body of an individual and the reproductive substance in that body are not +identical now becomes obvious. For in such cases as those just cited one +sees the germinal substance which is to carry on the race set aside at an +early period in a given individual; it takes no part in the formation of +that individual’s body, but remains a slumbering mass of potentialities +which must bide its time to awaken into expression in a subsequent +generation. Thus an egg does not develop into a body which in turn makes +new germ-cells, but body and germ-cells are established at the same time, +the body<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> harboring and nourishing the germ-cells, but not generating them +(Fig. 2, <a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>). The same must be true also in many cases where the +earliest history of the germ-cells can not be visibly followed, because in +any event, in all higher animals, they appear long before the embryo is +mature and must therefore be descendants of the original egg-cell and not +of the functioning tissues of the mature individual. This need not +necessarily mean that the germ-cells have remained wholly unmodified or +that they continue uninfluenced by the conditions which prevail in the +body, especially in the nutritive blood and lymph stream, although as a +matter of fact most biologists are extremely skeptical as to the +probability that influences from the body beyond such general indefinite +effects as might result from under-nutrition or from poisons carried in +the blood, modify the intrinsic nature of the germinal substances to any +measurable extent.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img07.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">A—Germ-cell (<i>p. g. c.</i>) set apart in the eight-celled stage of cleavage +in <i>Miastor americana</i> (after Hegner). The walls of the remaining seven +somatic cells have not yet formed though the resting or the dividing (<i>M +p</i>) nuclei may be seen; <i>c R</i>, chromatin fragments cast off from the +somatic cells.</p> + +<p class="descrip">B—Section lengthwise of a later embryo of <i>Miastor</i>; the primordial +egg-cells (<i>oög</i><sub>3</sub>) are conspicuous (after Hegner).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span><b>Germinal Continuity.—</b>The germ-cells are collectively termed the <i>germinal +protoplasm</i> and it is obvious that as long as any race continues to exist, +although successive individuals die, some germinal protoplasm is handed on +from generation to generation without interruption. This is known as the +theory of <i>germinal continuity</i>. When the organism is ready to reproduce +its kind the germ-cells awaken to activity, usually undergoing a period of +multiplication to form more germ-cells before finally passing through a +process of what is known at <i>maturation</i>, which makes them ready for +fertilization. The maturation process proper, which consists typically of +two rapidly succeeding divisions, is preceded by a marked growth in size +of the individual cells.</p> + +<p><b>Individuality of Chromosomes.—</b>Before we can understand fully the +significance of the changes which go on during maturation we shall have to +know more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> about the conditions which prevail among the chromosomes of +cells. As already noted each kind of animal or plant has its own +characteristic number and types of chromosomes when these appear for +division by mitosis. In many organisms the chromosomes are so nearly of +one size as to make it difficult or impossible to be sure of the identity +of each individual chromosome, but on the other hand, there are some +organisms known in which the chromosomes of a single nucleus are not of +the same size and form (Fig. 8, <a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>). These latter cases enable us to +determine some very significant facts. Where such differences of shape and +proportion occur they are constant in each succeeding division so that +similar chromosomes may be identified each time. Moreover, in all ordinary +mitotic divisions where the conditions are accurately known, these +chromosomes of different types are found to be present as pairs of similar +elements; that is, there are two of each form or size.</p> + +<p><b>Pairs of Similar Chromosomes in the Nucleus Because One Chromosome Comes +from Each Parent.—</b>When we recall that the original fertilized egg from +which the individual develops is really formed by the union of two +gametes, ovum and spermatozoon, and that each gamete, being a true cell, +must carry its own set of chromosomes, the significance of the pairs of +similar chromosomes becomes evident; one of each kind has probably been +contributed by each gamete. This means that the zygote or fertile ovum +contains double the number of chromosomes possessed by either gamete, and +that, moreover, each tissue-cell of the new individual will contain this +dual number. For, as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> have seen, the number of chromosomes is, with +possibly a few exceptions, constant in the tissue-cells and early +germ-cells in successive generations of individuals. For this to be true +it is obvious that in some way the nuclei of the conjugating gametes have +come to contain only half the usual number. Technically the tissue-cells +are said to contain the <i>diploid</i> number of chromosomes, the gametes the +reduced or <i>haploid</i> number.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img08.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></p> + +<p class="center">A—Chromosomes of the mosquito (<i>Culex</i>) after Stevens.</p> + +<p class="center">B—Chromosomes of the fruit-fly (<i>Drosophila</i>) after Metz.</p> + +<p class="center">Both of these forms have an unusually small number of chromosomes.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>In Maturation the Number of Chromosomes Is Reduced by One-Half.—</b>This +halving, or as it is known, <i>reduction</i> in the number of chromosomes is +the essential feature of the process of maturation. It is accomplished by +a modification in the mitotic division in which instead of each chromosome +splitting lengthwise, as in ordinary mitosis, the chromosomes unite in +pairs (Fig. 9<i>b</i>, <a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>), a process known technically as <i>synapsis</i>, and +then apparently one member of each pair passes entire into one new +daughter cell,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> the other member going to the other daughter cell (Fig. +9<i>c</i>, <a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>). In the pairing preliminary to this <i>reduction division</i>, +leaving out of account certain special cases to be considered later, +according to the best evidence at our command the union always takes place +between two chromosomes which match each other in size and appearance. +Since one of these is believed to be of maternal and the other of +paternal origin, the ensuing division separates corresponding mates and +insures that each gamete gets one of each kind of chromosome although it +appears to be a matter of mere chance whether or not a given cell gets the +paternal or the maternal representative of that kind.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img09.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram to illustrate spermatogenesis: <i>a</i>, showing the diploid number of +chromosomes (six is arbitrarily chosen) as they occur in divisions of +ordinary cells and spermatogonia; <i>b</i>, the pairing (synapsis) of +corresponding mates in the primary spermatocyte preparatory to reduction; +<i>c</i>, each secondary spermatocyte receives three, the haploid number of +chromosomes; <i>d</i>, division of the secondary spermatocytes to form <i>e</i>, +spermatids, which transform into <i>f</i>, spermatozoa.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span><b>Maturation of the Sperm-Cell.—</b>In the maturation of the male gamete the +germ-cell, now known as a <i>spermatogonium</i>, increases greatly in size to +become a <i>primary spermatocyte</i>. In each primary spermatocyte the pairing +of the chromosomes already alluded to occurs as indicated in Fig. 9<i>b</i>, +<a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>, where six is taken arbitrarily to indicate the ordinary or <i>diploid</i> +number of chromosomes, and three the reduced or <i>haploid</i> number. The +division of the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two <i>secondary +spermatocytes</i> (<i>c</i>), the paired chromosomes separating in such a way that +a member of each pair goes to each secondary spermatocyte. Each secondary +spermatocyte (<i>d</i>) soon divides again into two <i>spermatids</i> (<i>e</i>), but in +this second division the chromosomes each split lengthwise as in an +ordinary division so that there is no further reduction. In some forms the +reduction division occurs in the secondary spermatocytes instead of the +primary. Each spermatid transforms into a mature spermatozoon (<i>f</i>). The +spermatozoa of most animals are of linear form, each with a head, a +middle-piece and a long vibratile tail which is used for locomotion. The +head consists for the most part of the transformed nucleus and is +consequently the part which bears the chromosomes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span><b>Maturation of the Egg-Cell.—</b>As regards the behavior of the chromosomes +the maturation of the ovum parallels that of the sperm-cell. There are not +so many primordial germ-cells formed and only one out of four of the +ultimate cells becomes a functional egg. As in maturation of the +sperm-cell there is a growth period in which <i>oögonia</i> enlarge to become +<i>primary oöcytes</i> (Fig. 10<i>b</i>, <a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>). In each primary oöcyte as in the +primary spermatocyte the chromosomes pair and two rapidly succeeding +divisions follow in one of which the typical numerical reduction in the +chromosomes occurs. A peculiarity in the maturation of the ovum is that +there is a very unequal division of the cytoplasm in cell division so that +three of the resulting cells usually termed <i>polar bodies</i> are very small +and appear like minute buds on the side of the fourth or egg-cell proper.</p> + +<p>The scheme of this formation of the polar bodies is indicated in Fig. 10, +<a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>. In Fig. 10<i>b</i> the chromosomes are seen paired and ready for the +first division; that is, for the formation of the first polar body. Figs. +10<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>, show the giving off of this body. Note that while only +a small proportion of the cytoplasm passes into this tiny cell, its +chromatin content is as great as that of the ovum. A second polar body +(Figs. 10<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>) is formed by the egg, but in this case each +chromosome splits lengthwise, as in ordinary mitosis, and there is no +further numerical reduction. In the meantime, typically, a third polar +body is formed by division of the first. (Stages <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>.)</p> + +<p><b>Parallel Between the Maturation of Sperm- and Egg-Cell.—</b>This rather +complex procedure of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> germ-cells will be rendered more intelligible +through a careful study of Figs. 9 and 10, <a href="#Page_42">pp. 42</a> and <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, +and Fig. 11, <a href="#Page_46">p. 46</a>, which indicates the parallel conditions in spermotogenesis and +oögenesis.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img10.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram to illustrate oögenesis: <i>a</i>, showing the diploid number of +chromosomes (six is arbitrarily chosen) as they occur in ordinary cells +and oögonia; <i>b</i>, the pairing of corresponding mates preparatory to +reduction; <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, reduction division, giving off of first polar body; +<i>e</i>, egg preparing to give off second polar body, first polar body ready +for division; <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, second polar body given off, division of first +polar body completed. The egg nucleus, now known as the female pronucleus, +and each body contain the reduced or haploid number of chromosomes.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The view now generally held regarding the polar bodies is that they are +really abortive eggs. They later disappear, taking no part in +embryo-formation. It can readily be seen how such an unequal division is +advantageous to the large cell, for it receives all of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> rich store of +food material that would be distributed among the four cells if all were +of equal size. This increased amount of food is a favorable provision for +the forthcoming offspring whose nourishment is thus more thoroughly +insured.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img11tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/img11.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram showing the parallel between maturation of the sperm-cell and maturation of the ovum.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>On the other hand, all of the sperm-cells develop into complete active +forms, which, as aforesaid, usually become very much elongated and develop +a motile organ of some kind. In such cells an accumulation of food to any +large extent would hinder rather than help them, because it would +seriously interfere with their activity.</p> + +<p><b>Fertilization.—</b>In fertilization (Fig. 12, <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a>) the spermatozoon +penetrates the wall of the ovum and after undergoing considerable +alteration its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the egg. In some forms +only the head (nucleus) and middle-piece enter, the tail being cut off by +a so-called fertilization membrane which forms at the surface of the egg +and effectually blocks the entrance of other spermatozoa. Thus normally +only one spermatozoon unites with an egg. In some forms while several may +enter the egg only one becomes functional. As soon as the nucleus of the +spermatozoon, now known as the male <i>pronucleus</i>, reaches the interior of +the egg, it enlarges and becomes similar in appearance to the female +<i>pronucleus</i>. It swings around in such a way (Fig. 12<i>b</i>, <a href="#Page_48">p. 48</a>) that the +middle piece, now transformed into a centrosome, lies between it and the +female pronucleus. The two pronuclei (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>), each containing the +reduced number of chromosomes, approach, the centrosome divides, the +nuclear walls disappear, the typical division spindle forms, and the +chromosomes of paternal and maternal origin respectively come to lie side +by side at the equator of the spindle ready for the first division or +cleavage (<i>f</i>, <i>g</i>). It will be noted that the individual chromosomes do +not intermingle their substance at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> time, but that each apparently +retains its own individuality. There is considerable evidence which +indicates that throughout life the chromosomes contributed by the male +parent remain distinct from those of the female parent. Inasmuch as each +germ-cell, after maturation, contains only half the characteristic number +of chromosomes, the original number is restored in fertilization.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img12.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram to illustrate fertilization; ♂, male pronucleus; ♀, +female pronucleus; observe that the chromosomes of maternal and paternal origin respectively do not fuse.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span><b>Significance of the Behavior of the Chromosomes.—</b>The question confronts +us as to what is the significance of this elaborate system which keeps the +chromosomes of constant size, shape and number; which partitions them so +accurately in ordinary cell-divisions; and which provides for a reduction +of their numbers by half in the germ-cell while yet securing that each +mature gamete gets one of each kind of chromosome. Most biologists look on +these facts as indicating that the chromosomes are specifically concerned +in inheritance.</p> + +<p>In the first place it is recognized that as regards the definable +characters which separate individuals of the same species, offspring may +inherit equally from either parent. And it is a very significant fact that +while the ovum and spermatozoon are very unequal in size themselves, the +chromosomes of the two germ-cells are of the same size and number. This +parity in chromosomal contribution points clearly to the means by which an +equal number of character-determiners might be conveyed from each parent. +Moreover it is mainly the nucleus of the sperm-cell in some organisms +which enters the egg, hence the determiners from the male line must exist +wholly or largely somewhere in the nucleus. And the bulk of the nucleus in +the spermatozoon consists of the chromosomes or their products.</p> + +<p><b>A Single Set of Chromosomes Derived from One Parent Only Is Sufficient for +the Production of a Complete Organism.—</b>That a single or haploid set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> of +chromosomes as seen in the gametes is sufficient contribution of chromatin +for the production of a complete organism is proved by the fact that the +unfertilized eggs of various animals (many echinoderms, worms, mollusks, +and even the frog) may be artificially stimulated to development without +uniting at all with a spermatozoon. The resulting individual is normal in +every respect except that instead of the usual diploid number it has only +the single or haploid number of chromosomes. Its inheritance of course is +wholly of maternal origin. The converse experiment in echinoderms in which +a nucleus of male origin (that is, a spermatozoon) has been introduced +into an egg from which the original nucleus has been removed shows that +the single set of chromosomes carried by the male gamete is also +sufficient to cooperate with the egg-cytoplasm in developing a complete +individual.</p> + +<p><b>The Duality of the Body and the Singleness of the Germ.—</b>Since every +maternal chromosome in the ordinary cell has an equivalent mate derived +from the male parent, it follows therefore, supposing the chromosomes do +have the significance in inheritance attributed to them, that as regards +the measurable inheritable differences between two individuals, the +ordinary organism produced through the union of the two germ-cells is, +potentially at least, dual in nature. On the other hand through the +process of reduction the gametes are provided with only a single set of +such representatives. This duality of the body and singleness of the +mature germ is one of the most striking facts that come to light in +embryology. How well the facts fit in with the behavior of certain +hereditary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> characters will be seen later in our discussions of Mendelism.</p> + +<p><b>The Cytoplasm Not Negligible in Inheritance.—</b>Just what part is played by +the cytoplasm in inheritance is not clear, but it is probably by no means +a negligible one. The cytoplasm of a given organism is just as distinctive +of the species or of the individual of which it forms a part as are the +chromosomes. It is well established that neither nucleus nor cytoplasm can +fully function or even exist long without the other, and neither can alone +produce the other. They undoubtedly must cooperate in building up the new +individual, and the cytoplasm of the new individual is predominantly of +maternal origin. It is obvious that all of the more fundamental characters +which make up an organism, such, for instance, as make it an animal of a +certain order or family, as a human being or a dog or a horse, are common +to both parents, and there is no way of measuring how much of this +fundamental constitution comes from either parent, since only closely +related forms will interbreed. In some forms, moreover, the broader +fundamental features of embryogeny are already established before the +entrance of the spermatozoon. It is probable therefore that instead of +asserting that the entire quota of characters which go to make up a +complete individual are inherited from each parent equally, we are +justified only in maintaining that this equality is restricted to those +measurable differences which veneer or top off, as it were, the +individual. We may infer that in the development of the new being the +chromosomes of the egg together with those derived from the male work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +jointly on or with the other germinal contents which are mostly +cytoplasmic materials of maternal origin.</p> + +<p><b>The Chromosomes Possibly Responsible for the Distinctiveness of Given +Characters.—</b>It seems probable that in the establishment of certain basic +features of the organism the cooperation of the cytoplasm with chromatin +of either maternal or paternal origin might accomplish the same end, but +that certain distinctive touches are added or come cumulatively into +expression through influences carried, predominantly at least, in the +chromatin from one as against the other parent. These last distinctive +characters of the plant or animal constitute the individual differences of +such organisms. In this connection it is a significant fact that in young +hybrids between two distinct species the early stages of development, +especially as regards symmetry and regional specifications, are +exclusively or predominantly maternal in character, but the male influence +becomes more and more apparent as development progresses until the final +degree of intermediacy is attained.</p> + +<p>From the evidence at hand this much seems sure, that the paternal and +maternal chromosomes respectively carry substances, be they ferments, +nutritive materials or what not, that are instrumental in giving the final +parity of personal characters which we observe to be equally heritable +from either line of ancestry. It is clear that most of the characters of +an adult organism can not be merely the outcome of any unitary substance +of the germ. Each is the product of many cooperating factors and for the +final outcome any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> cooperant is probably just as important in its way +as any other. The individual characters which we juggle to and fro in our +breeding experiments seem apexed, as it were, on more fundamental features +of organic chemical constitution, polarity, regional differentiation, and +physiological balance, but since such individual characters parallel so +closely the visible segregations and associations which go on among the +chromosomes of the germ-cells it would seem that they, at least, are +represented in the chromosomes by distinctive cooperants which give the +final touch of specificity to those hereditary characters which can be +shifted about as units of inheritance.</p> + +<p><b>Sex and Heredity.—</b>Whatever the origin of fertilization may have been in +the world of life, or whatever its earliest significance, the important +fact remains that to-day it is unquestionably of very great significance +in relation to the phenomena of heredity. For in all higher animals, at +least, offspring may possess some of the characteristics originally +present in either of two lines of ancestry, and this commingling of such +possessions is possible only through sexual reproduction. As has already +been seen, in the pairing of chromosomes previous to reduction, the +corresponding members of a pair always come together so that in the final +segregation each gamete is sure to have one of each kind although whether +a given chromosome of the haploid set is of maternal or paternal origin +seems to be merely a matter of chance. Thus, for instance, if we +arbitrarily represent the chromosomes of a given individual by <i>ABC</i> +<i>abc</i>, and regard <i>A</i>, <i>B</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +and <i>C</i> as of paternal and <i>a</i>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> as +of maternal origin, then in synapsis only <i>A</i> and <i>a</i> can pair together, +<i>B</i> and <i>b</i> and <i>C</i> and <i>c</i>, but each pair operates independently of the +other so that in the ensuing reduction division either member of a pair +may get into a cell with either member of the other pairs. That is, the +line up for division at a given reduction might be any one of the +following, <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>ABC</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">abc</span> +<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>ABc</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">abC</span> +<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>Abc</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">aBC</span> +<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>AbC</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">aBc</span>. This would yield the following +eight kinds of gametes, <i>ABC</i>, <i>abc</i>, <i>ABc</i>, <i>abC</i>, <i>Abc</i>, <i>aBC</i>, <i>AbC</i>, +<i>aBc</i>, each bearing one of each kind of chromosome required to cover the +entire field of characters necessary to a complete organism. And since +each sex would be equally likely to have these eight types of gametes and +any one of the eight in one individual might meet any one of the eight of +the other, the possible number of combinations in the production of a new +individual from such germ-cells would be 8x8, or 64. With the larger +numbers of chromosomes which exist in most animals it is readily seen that +the number of possible combinations becomes very great. Thus any +individual of a species with twenty chromosomes—and many animals, +including man, have more—would have ten pairs at the reduction period and +could therefore form (2)<sup>10</sup>, or 1,024 different gametes in each sex. And +since any one of these in one sex would have an equal chance of meeting +with any one in the opposite sex, the total number of possible different +zygotes that might be produced would be (1,024)<sup>2</sup>, or 1,048,576. Sex +therefore, through recombinations of ancestral materials, undoubtedly +means, among other things, the production of great diversity in +offspring.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">DETERMINATION OF SEX</p> + +<p><b>Many Theories.—</b>From earliest times the problem of sex determination has +been one of keen interest, and needless to say hundreds of theories have +been propounded to explain it. Geddes and Thomson say that Drelincourt +recorded two hundred sixty-two so-called theories of sex production and +remark that since his time the number has at least been doubled. The +desirability of controlling sex has naturally appealed strongly to +breeders of domesticated animals.</p> + +<p>A study of animals born in litters, or of twins, is enough in itself to +make us skeptical of theories of sex-determination based on nutritional or +external factors. In a litter of puppies, for example, there are usually +both males and females, although in their prenatal existence they have all +been subject to the same nutritional and environmental conditions. +Likewise in ordinary human twins one may be a boy, the other a girl, +whereas if the nutritional condition of the mother were the fact +determining sex, both should be boys or both girls. However, there are +twins known as <i>identical twins</i> who are remarkably alike and who are +always of the same sex. But there is reason to suppose that identical +twins in reality come from the same zygote. Presumably in early +embryogeny, probably at the two-celled stage of cleavage, the two +blastomeres become separated and each gives rise to a complete individual +instead of only the half of one it would have produced had the two +blastomeres remained together. Such twins are monochorial; that is, they +grow inside the same fetal membrane, whereas each ordinary twin has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> its +own fetal membrane and has obviously originated from a separate ovum. It +has been established experimentally in several kinds of animals that early +cleavage blastomeres when isolated can each develop into a complete +individual. In man, ordinary twins are no more alike than ordinary +brothers and sisters, but identical twins are strikingly similar in +structure, appearance, habits, tastes, and even susceptibility to various +maladies. The fact that they are invariably of the same sex is a strong +reason for believing that sex was already developed in the fertile ovum +and consequently in the resulting blastomeres from that ovum.</p> + +<p>The young of the nine-banded armadillo in a given litter are invariably of +the same sex and are closely similar in all features. Newman and Patterson +have shown that all the members of a litter come from the same egg. +Patterson has established the fact that cleavage of the egg takes place in +the usual manner, but later separate centers of development appear in the +early embryonic mass and give rise to the separate young individuals.</p> + +<p>Again in certain insects where one egg indirectly gives rise to a chain of +embryos, or to a number of separate larvæ, possibly as many as a thousand, +all of the latter are of the same sex. Even in some plants researches have +shown that sex is already determined at the beginning of development. +Then, too, much evidence has come to light recently showing that +sex-characters in certain cases behave as heritable characters and are +independent of external conditions. Lastly there is visible and convincing +evidence obtainable through microscopical observations that sex is +determined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> by a mechanism in the germ-cells themselves. It is chiefly to +these latter facts that I wish to direct attention for the present.</p> + +<p><b>The Sex Chromosome.—</b>The evidence centers about a special chromosome or +chromosome-group commonly designated as the <i>sex-chromosome</i> or +<i>X-element</i>, which has been found in various species of animals, including +man. In the males of such animals this chromosome is present in addition +to the regular number of pairs, thus giving rise to an <i>uneven</i> instead of +the conventional even number of chromosomes. This element remains +undivided in one of the maturation divisions of the spermatocytes, in some +forms in the first in others in the second, and passes entire to one pole +of the spindle (Fig. 13, <a href="#Page_58">p. 58</a>). This results in the production of two +classes of cells, one containing the <i>X</i>-element and one not. The outcome +is that two corresponding classes of spermatozoa are produced. The +phenomena involved are diagrammatically represented in Fig. 13. It has +been clearly demonstrated in several cases that eggs fertilized by +spermatozoa which possess this <i>X</i>-element, always become females, those +fertilized by spermatozoa which do not possess it always develop into +males.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img13.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram illustrating the behavior of the <i>x</i>-element or sex-chromosome in +the maturation of the sperm-cell. In one of the two maturation divisions +(represented here as in the first) it passes undivided to one pole +(<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>), in the other it divides. Since the cell without the +<i>x</i>-element also divides the result is that ultimately from the original +primary spermatocyte (<i>a</i>) four cells are formed (<i>f</i>), two with the +<i>x</i>-element and two without it. Half of the spermatozoa therefore will +bear an <i>x</i>-element, half will be without it. In <i>a</i> the ordinary +chromosomes, arbitrarily indicated as 10, are supposed to have already +paired for reduction so that the original diploid number in spermatogonia +and body-cells of the male would be 20 plus the <i>x</i>-chromosome.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>It has been found, furthermore, that in species in which the males possess +this extra element the females have two of them. That is, if the original +number in the somatic cells of the male were twenty-three, twenty-two +ordinary and one <i>X</i>-element, the number in the somatic cells of the +female would be twenty-four, or twenty-two ordinary and two <i>X</i>-elements. +It has been found that when the chromosomes of the female pair for the +reduction division, each chromosome uniting with its corresponding fellow, +the two <i>X</i>-elements in the female pair in the usual way so that every +egg-cell possesses an <i>X</i>-element. Thus every <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>mature egg has an +<i>X</i>-element, while only half of the spermatozoa have one. That is, if we +assume twenty-three as the diploid number present originally in the +somatic cells of the male and twenty-four as the number in the female, +then one-half the spermatozoa of the male would contain the haploid number +eleven, and the other half, the number twelve, whereas every mature ovum +would contain twelve. Since there are equal numbers of the spermatozoa +with the <i>X</i>-element and without it, and inasmuch as presumably under +ordinary conditions one kind is as likely to fertilize the egg as the +other, then there are equal chances at fertilization of producing a zygote +with two <i>X</i>-elements or with but one.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Thus,</td><td>Spermatozoon + <i>X</i> by Ovum + <i>X</i> = Zygote + <i>XX</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Spermatozoon (no <i>X</i>) by Ovum + <i>X</i> = Zygote + <i>X</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We have already seen that the former is always female, the latter male. It +thus becomes possible to distinguish the sex of an embryo by counting the +chromosomes of its cells. This has been accomplished in several cases.</p> + +<p>In some instances<a name='fna_1' id='fna_1' href='#f_1'><small>[1]</small></a> the conditions may be much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> more complex than the +ones indicated—too complex in fact to warrant detailed discussion in an +elementary exposition—but the principle remains the same throughout, the +very complexity when thoroughly understood, strengthening rather than +weakening the evidence. In a few forms an interesting reversal of +conditions has been found in that the eggs instead of the spermatozoa show +the characteristic dimorphism.</p> + +<p>Just what the exact relationship between sex-differentiation and the +<i>X</i>-element is has never been clearly established. It is possible that +this element is an actual sex-determinant, in the ordinary cases one +<i>X</i>-element determining the male condition and two <i>X</i>-elements producing +the female condition. On the other hand it might be argued that it is not +the determining factor but the expression of other cell activities which +do determine sex; that is, a sex accompaniment. Or again, it may be one of +several essential factors which must cooperate to determine sex.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SEX-LINKED CHARACTERS</p> + +<p>The discovery of the remarkable behavior of certain characters in heredity +which can only be plausibly explained by supposing that they are linked +with a sex-determining factor still further strengthens our belief in the +existence of such a definite factor. Such characters are commonly termed +sex-linked characters.</p> + +<p><b>Sex-Linked Characters in Man.—</b>Since there are a number of them in man we +may choose one of these, such as color-blindness, for illustration. The +common form of color-blindness known as Daltonism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> in which the subject +can not distinguish reds from greens, a condition which seems to be due to +the absence of something which is present in individuals of normal color +vision, is far commoner in men than in women. Its type of inheritance, +sometimes termed “crisscross” heredity, has been likened to the knight +moves in a game of chess. The condition is transmitted from a color-blind +man through his daughter to half of her sons. Or, to go more into detail, +a color-blind father and normal mother have only normal children whether +sons or daughters. The sons continue to have normal children but the +daughters, although of normal vision themselves, transmit color-blindness +to one-half of their own sons. If such a woman marries a color-blind man, +as might easily happen in a marriage between cousins, then as a rule +one-half her daughters as well as one-half her sons will be color-blind.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img14.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram illustrating the inheritance of a sex-limited character such as +color-blindness in man on the assumption that the factor in question is +located in the sex-chromosome (from Loeb after Wilson). The normal +sex-chromosome is indicated by a black <b>X</b>, the one lacking the factor for +color perception, by a light X. It is assumed that a normal female is +mated with a color-blind male.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>In such cases what appears to be a mysterious procedure becomes very +simple if we assume that the defective character is associated with the +sex-determining factor, or to make it concrete let us say with the +<i>X</i>-element. The chart shown in Fig. 14, <a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>, indicates what the +germinal condition would be under the circumstances. The column to the +right represents the maternal, the one to the left the paternal line. +Since two <i>X</i> means female and one <i>X</i> male, and inasmuch as we have +assumed that the physical basis of the defect to which color-blindness is +due is conveyed by the <i>X</i>-element, we may represent the defective single +<i>X</i> of the male in outline only (see first row). It is obvious that after +the reduction divisions (second row) the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>mature sex-cells of the female +will each contain a single normal <i>X</i>, the corresponding sex cells of the +male will contain either no <i>X</i> or a defective <i>X</i>. Since if any member of +the class of spermatozoa containing no <i>X</i>, fertilizes an egg the +resulting zygote (row three) will have but one <i>X</i> and that a normal one, +the individual which develops from the zygote will be normal as regards +color vision and moreover will be male because the condition one <i>X</i> +always means maleness. On the other hand, if any member of the class of +spermatozoa containing the defective <i>X</i> fertilizes an egg two +<i>X</i>-elements are brought together and this of itself means femaleness. In +this case one of the <i>X</i>-elements is defective but the single normal <i>X</i> +is sufficient in itself to produce normal color vision. But when it comes +to the maturation of the sex-cells of this female, the pair of +<i>X</i>-elements are separated in the usual way with the result that half of +the mature ova contain a normal <i>X</i> and half a defective <i>X</i> (row four). +Since in a normal male, however, the mature reproductive cells will +contain either a normal <i>X</i> or no <i>X</i> (fourth row), any one of four +different kinds of matings may result. A sex-cell carrying normal <i>X</i> of +the male may combine with an ovum containing normal X producing a normal +female (row five). Or such a cell may combine with an ovum carrying the +defective <i>X</i>, also producing a female but one who although of normal +color vision herself, like her mother, is a carrier of the defect. On the +other hand, any one of the spermatozoa without an <i>X</i> may combine with an +ovum containing the normal <i>X</i>, in which case a normal male is produced +and, moreover, one who, like his mother’s brothers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> is incapable of +transmitting the defect. However, the sperm-cell devoid of an <i>X</i> is just +as likely to fertilize an ovum carrying the defective <i>X</i>, in which event +the resulting individual, a male, must be color-blind because he contains +the defective <i>X</i> alone. In other words, the chances are that one-half the +sons of a woman whose father was color-blind will be color-blind, the +other half perfectly normal; and that all of the daughters will be of +normal color vision although one-half of them will probably transmit the +defect to one-half of their sons. From a glance at the diagram it is +readily seen also that a color-blind female could result from the union of +a color-blind man (see first row) and the daughter of a color-blind man +(see third row). For half of the gametes of such a female would bear the +defect as would also that half of the gametes of the male which carry <i>X</i>, +hence the expectation would be that half of the daughters of such a union +would be color-blind and half would be carriers of color-blindness; and +that half of the sons would be color-blind and half normal. All the sons +of a color-blind woman would be color-blind because she has only defective +<i>X</i>-elements to pass on.</p> + +<p>The inheritance of various other conditions in man follows more or less +accurately the same course as color-blindness. Among these may be +mentioned: <i>hemophilia</i>, a serious condition in which the blood will not +clot properly, thus rendering the affected individual constantly liable to +severe or fatal hemorrhage; near-sightedness (<i>myopia</i>) in some cases; a +degenerative disease of the spinal cord known as <i>multiple sclerosis</i>; +progressive atrophy of the optic nerve <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>(<i>neuritis optica</i>); Gower’s +<i>muscular atrophy</i>; some forms of <i>night-blindness</i>; in some cases +<i>ichthyosis</i>, a peculiar scaly condition of the skin. In one of my own +tabulations of a case of inheritance of “webbed” digits or <i>syndactyly</i>, a +condition in which two or more fingers or toes are more or less united, a +sex-linked inheritance is clearly indicated (Fig. 15), although from the +pedigrees recorded by other investigators this condition usually appears +in some of both the sons and daughters of an affected individual.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img15.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Chart showing the inheritance of a case of syndactyly after the manner of +a sex-linked character. The affected individuals are represented in black; +squares indicate males, circles females. The condition is seen to be +inherited by males through unaffected females.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>The Occurrence of Sex-Linkage in Lower Forms Renders Experiments +Possible.—</b>The course followed by such characters in man can be inferred +only from the pedigrees we can obtain from family <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>histories. Fortunately, +however, such sex-linkage also occurs in lower animals and we are able +therefore to verify and extend our observations by direct experiments in +breeding. Several sex-linked characters have been found to exist in a +small fruit-fly known as <i>Drosophila</i>. Extensive breeding experiments with +this fly by Professor T. H. Morgan and his pupils have borne out +remarkably the interpretation that the characters in question are really +linked with a sex-determining factor.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> +<p class="title">MENDELISM</p> + + +<p><b>New Discoveries in the Field of Heredity.—</b>Writing in 1899, one of +America’s well-known zoologists asserts that, “It is easier to weigh an +invisible planet than to measure the force of heredity in a single grain +of corn.” And yet only two or three years later we find another prominent +naturalist saying regarding heredity that, “The experiments which led to +this advance in knowledge are worthy to rank with those that laid the +foundation of the atomic laws of chemistry.” Again, “The breeding pen is +to us what the test-tube is to the chemist—an instrument whereby we +examine the nature of our organisms and determine empirically their +genetic properties.” Here is a decided contrast of statement and yet both +were justifiable at the time of utterance. For even at the writing of the +first statement the investigations were in progress which, together with +the rediscovery of certain older work, were to transfer our knowledge of +heredity from the realm of speculation to that of experiment and disclose +certain definite principles of genetic transmission.</p> + +<p>Through a knowledge of these principles in fact, the shifting of certain +characters is reducible to a series of definitely predictable proportions +and the skilled breeder may proceed to the building up of new and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +permanent combinations of desirable characters according to mathematical +ratios and, what is of equal importance, he can secure the elimination of +undesirable qualities. While there are many limitations in the application +of these principles and while new facts and modifications are constantly +being discovered concerning them, nevertheless they represent the first +approximations to definite laws of hereditary transmission that we have +ever been able to make, and the practical fact confronts us that whatever +our theoretical interpretations may be, the principles are so definite +that through their application important improvements of crops and +domesticated animals have already actually been secured and one may +confidently expect still others to follow.</p> + +<p><b>Mendel.—</b>The principles involved are called the Mendelian principles after +their discoverer, Gregor Johann Mendel, abbot of a monastery at Brünn, +Austria. After eight years of patient experimenting in his cloister garden +with plants, chiefly edible peas, he published his results and conclusions +in 1866, in the <i>Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brünn</i>. +While known to a few botanists of that day, the full importance of the +contribution was not recognized, and in the excitement of the +post-Darwinian controversy, the facts were lost sight of and ultimately +forgotten.</p> + +<p><b>Rediscovery of Mendelian Principles.—</b>In 1900 three men, Correns, De Vries +and Tschermak, working independently—in different countries, in +fact—rediscovered the principles and called attention anew to the +long-forgotten work of Mendel which they had come upon in looking over the +older literature on plant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> breeding. These investigators added other +examples from their own experiments. Since their rediscovery the +principles have been confirmed in essential features and extended by +numerous experimentalists with regard to a wide range of hereditary +characters in both animals and plants.</p> + +<p><b>Independence of Inheritable Characters.—</b>It has been found that many truly +heritable characteristics or traits of an individual, whether plant or +animal, are comparatively independent of one another and may be inherited +independently. Where there are contrasted characters in father and mother, +such as white plumage and black plumage in fowls, smooth coat and wrinkled +coat in seed, horns and hornlessness in cattle, long fur and short fur in +rabbits, beard and beardlessness in wheat, albino condition and normal +condition, etc., there is obviously a bringing together of the determiners +of the two traits in the resulting offspring. In the third generation, +however, in the progeny of these offspring, the two distinct characters +may be set apart again, thus showing that in the second generation while +perhaps one only was visible, the factors which determine both were +nevertheless present, and moreover, they were present in a separable +condition.</p> + +<p><b>Illustration of Mendelism in the Andalusian Fowl.—</b>Let us take as a simple +example the case of the Andalusian fowl. Although it is not a case +established by Mendel it illustrates certain of the essential conditions +underlying Mendelism in a more obvious way than the cases worked out by +Mendel himself. The so-called blue Andalusian fowl results from a cross of +a color variety of the fowl which is black with one which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> is white with +black-splashed feathers. The result is the same irrespective of which +parent is black. When bred with their like, whether from the same parents +or different parents, these blue fowls produce three kinds of progeny, +approximately one-fourth of which are black like the one grandparent, +one-fourth white like the other grandparent, and the remaining half, blue +like the parents (Fig. 16). Moreover, the black fowls obtained in this way +will, when interbred, produce only black offspring and the same is true of +the white fowls. To all appearances as far as color is concerned they are +of as pure type as the original grandparents. With the blue fowls, +however, the case is different, for when bred together they will produce +the same three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> kinds of progeny that their parents produced and in the +same proportions. Again the white and the black are true to type but the +blue will always yield the three classes of offspring and this through +generation after generation.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img16.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span></p> + +<p class="center">Diagram showing the scheme of inheritance in the blue Andalusian fowl.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>These facts may be illustrated graphically as follows where the word +“black” indicates the original black parent, “white” the original white +(black splashed) parent and “blue” the hybrid offspring.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/page71.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>The Cause of the Mendelian Ratio.—</b>Concerning the cause of this peculiar +ratio of inheritance in crossed forms Mendel suggested a simple +explanation. Animals or plants that can be cross-bred, obviously must be +forms that produce a new individual from the union of two germ-cells, one +of which is provided by each parent. Mendel’s idea was that there must be +some process of segregation going on in the developing germ-cells of each +hybrid whereby the factors for the two qualities are set apart in +different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> cells with the result that half of the germ-cells of a given +individual will contain the determiner of one character and half, the +determiner of the other. That is, a given germ-cell carries a factor for +one or the other of the two alternate characters but not the factors for +both. In a plant, for example, in the male line, half of the pollen grains +would bear germ-cells carrying the determiner of one character and half, +that of the other. Similarly, in the female line, half of the ovules would +contain the determiner of the one character and half, that of the other. +Likewise in animals as regards such pairs of characters there would be two +classes of germ-cells in the male and two in the female. In the case of +the blue Andalusian fowls under discussion this would mean that half of +the mature germ-cells of the male carry the black-producing factor, and +half carry the white-producing factor, and the same is true of the +germ-cells of the female. Thus when two such crossed forms are mated, +there are, by the laws of chance, four possible combinations, namely: (1) +white-determining sperm-cells and white-determining ovum; (2) +white-determining sperm-cells and black-determining ovum; (3) +black-determining sperm-cells and white-determining ovum; and (4) +black-determining sperm-cells and black-determining ovum. Manifestly, the +first combination can only give white offspring; the second, white and +black, gives blue (by such a cross the original blues were established); +likewise, the third, black and white, gives blue; and the fourth +combination can only give black offspring. This matter may be graphically +represented by the following formulæ in which B indicates the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> determiner +of Black in the germ-cell and W the determiner of White: ♂ signifies +male; ♀ female.</p> + +<p class="center">IN THE ORIGINAL PARENTS</p> + +<p class="center">W × B = WB = Blue</p> + +<p class="center">IN THE HYBRIDS</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center">♂ germ-<br />cells</td> + <td align="center">♀ germ-<br />cells</td> + <td> </td><td> </td><td> </td> + <td align="center">♂</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="center">♀</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="4" align="center"><img src="images/page73.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td> </td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td>W</td> + <td align="center">×</td> + <td>W</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>WW</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>White</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td rowspan="2" align="center">or</td> + <td> </td> + <td>W</td> + <td align="center">×</td> + <td>B</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>WB</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>Blue</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>B</td> + <td align="center">×</td> + <td>W</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>BW</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>Blue</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td> + <td>B</td> + <td align="center">×</td> + <td>B</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>BB</td> + <td>==</td> + <td>Black</td></tr></table> + +<p>Thus of the four possible combinations one only can produce white fowls, +two (WB or BW) can produce blue fowls, and one black fowls. That is, the +ratio is 1:2:1 or the 25, 50 and 25 per cent., respectively, of our +diagram. The black fowls or the white fowls will breed true in subsequent +generations when mated with those of their own color because the +determiner of the alternative character has been permanently eliminated +from their germ-plasm; but the blue fowls will always yield three types of +offspring because they still possess the two classes of germ-cells.</p> + +<p><b>Verification of the Hypothesis.—</b>The hypothesis that germ-cells of crossed +forms are of two classes with respect to a given pair of Mendelian +characters is further substantiated by the following facts. If in the case +of the fowls under discussion one of the blue fowls is mated with an +individual of the white variety,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> half of the progeny will be blue and +half white. For the hybrid has two kinds of germ-cells, black producing, +which we have designated by the letter B, and white producing (or W) in +equal number while the white parent has only one kind, white producing. It +is obvious that if half the germ-cells of the hybrid form are of the type +B then half the progeny will be of the BW type, which is blue, and the +other half will be of the WW type, which is white. In the same way if we +mate a hybrid and a black fowl, half of the progeny will be black and half +will be blue, that is, there could only be WB and BB types.</p> + +<p>The fact must not be lost sight of that since the pairings are wholly +determined by the laws of chance the proportions are likely to be only +approximate. It is obvious that the greater the number of individuals, the +nearer the results will approach the expected ratio.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE</p> + +<p><b>One Character May Mask the Other.—</b>In a large number of cases, however, +the actual condition of affairs is not so evident as in the Andalusian +fowl, for instead of being intermediate or different in appearance, the +generation produced by crossing resembles one parent to the exclusion of +the other. Such an overshadowing is spoken of as <i>dominance</i>, and the two +characters are termed <i>dominant</i> and <i>recessive</i>. Thus when brown +ring-doves and white ring-doves are mated the progeny are all brown, or if +wild gray mice are mated to white mice the progeny are all gray. So black +is dominant to white in rose-comb bantams; brown eyes to blue eyes in man; +beardlessness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> to beard in wheat, and likewise rough chaff to smooth, and +thick stem to thin; tallness to dwarfness in various plants; normal +condition to the peculiar waltzing condition in the Japanese waltzing +mouse. Numerous other cases might be cited but these are sufficient to +illustrate the condition.</p> + +<p><b>Segregation in the Next Generation.—</b>But now the question arises, what do +such crosses as show dominance transmit to the next generation? +Experiments show regarding any given pair of these alternate characters +that they are set apart again in the succeeding generation, returning in a +definite percentage to the respective grandparental types.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img17.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram showing the scheme of inheritance in guinea-pigs when black and albino forms are crossed.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Dominance Illustrated in Guinea-Pigs.—</b>In guinea-pigs for example (Fig. +17), when an individual (either male or female) of a black variety, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>crossed with one of a white variety, the F<sub>1</sub> generation are all black +like the black parent. When these are interbred or bred with other blacks +which have had one black and one white parent, only two visible types of +progeny appear, viz., black and white, and these approximately in the +ratio of three to one.</p> + +<p>Analysis by further breeding shows, however, that there are in reality +three types, but since dominance is complete the pure extracted dominant +and the mixed dominant-and-recessive type are indistinguishable to our +eye. That is, while the blacks are three times as numerous as the whites, +two out of every three of these blacks are really hybrid and correspond to +the blue fowls of our former example.</p> + +<p>The condition is readily comprehended when expressed diagrammatically +thus:</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/page76.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p> + +<p>In other words, the germ-cells of the one original parent (Gen. P) would +contain only determiners for black and that of the other parent would +contain only determiners for white. The condition of the individuals +produced by the cross would be represented by the formula B(W). But these +determiners segregate in the germ-cells of the crossed form, whether it be +male or female, into B and W. Hence half the spermatozoa of the male +hybrid (generation F<sub>1</sub>) would carry the B determiners and half the W +determiners.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> The same is true of the mature ova of the female hybrid. +Consequently, in mating there are always four equally possible +combinations, viz., BB, B(W), (W)B, and WW. Since B is always dominant +three out of the four matings would yield black individuals, or in other +words the ratio would be 3:1.</p> + +<p>The pure blacks when mated together will breed true in subsequent +generations, likewise the whites, but the blacks carrying white as a +recessive will yield when interbred the same ratio of whites and black as +did their hybrid parents (Fig. 17, <a href="#Page_75">p. 75</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Terminology.—</b>As work in the study of Mendelian inheritance has progressed +and expanded the need of a more precise terminology has become evident and +such is gradually being established. Thus Professor Bateson has coined the +term “allelomorph” (Gk. <i>one another</i>, and <i>form</i>) to express more exactly +what we have thus far been calling a pair of alternate or opposite +characters. In the blue Andalusian fowls discussed, the white condition in +the one parent is the allelomorph of the black condition in the other. The +term generally means one of the pair of Mendelian characters themselves as +expressed in the individual plants or animals but when the germinal basis +of such phenomena is under discussion, it is sometimes used to refer to +the determiners of such characters. And by determiner is meant simply the +condition which is necessary in the germ to bring about the occurrence of +a definite character. For example, when we are studying a cross between a +red flower and a white flower with reference to the color factors, the +difference between the two plants may lie in the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> one produces a +red coloring matter and the other does not. That is, the determiner for +red is absent from the white variety. What the exact relation of color +production is to the parts of the germ-cell we do not know. It could be +the function of a single definite body or the resultant of several +cooperating bodies. The latter is far more likely to be the case. We may +suppose that a group of cooperating substances function to produce red in +the red flower but that in the white flowers one of these bodies is absent +or fails to perform its red-producing function.</p> + +<p>It is customary where practicable to refer to the determiner of a +character by the initial letter of the name of the character. The letter +when written as a capital indicates the determiner but when written as a +small letter the absence of the determiner. Thus R may be taken to +represent the determiner for red coloring matter and r its absence. It is +convenient also to have a brief symbol to denote a given generation and +for this purpose Bateson has introduced the symbol F<sub>1</sub> for the hybrid +progeny of the first cross, the initial letter of the word “filial.” F<sub>2</sub> +would indicate the next generation, F<sub>3</sub> the third and so on. Likewise P +denotes the original parent generation.</p> + +<p><b>The Theory of Presence and Absence.—</b>Many, if not all, allelomorphs +consist of the presence and absence respectively of a given determiner. In +such cases the character represented by the presence of the determiner is +dominant over the character represented by the absence of a determiner. +Thus in the crosses from the wild gray mice and albino mice the progeny +are all gray mice since one parent had the determiner or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> group of +determiners for grayness and the hybrid offspring must also possess it. +Likewise the presence of black in black guinea-pigs is dominant to its +absence in albino guinea-pigs and the resulting progeny are all black.</p> + +<p>However, it has already been mentioned that beardlessness in wheat is +dominant to beard and that the absence of horns in cattle is dominant to +their presence, that is, the progeny of hornless by horned cattle are +without horns except for occasional traces of imperfect horns. Facts like +these would seem at first sight to contradict the assertion just made that +presence is dominant to absence, but it is fairly well established that in +such cases one is not dealing with true absences but with suppressions. +The polled breeds of cattle, for example, are hornless not because of the +absence of determiners for horns but because of the presence of an +additional inhibiting factor which prevents these determiners from +functioning. The horned breeds are without this inhibitor. When horned and +hornless individuals are crossed the presence of the inhibitor from one +line of ancestry is sufficient to suppress the development of horns in the +progeny. A similar explanation would, of course, apply to beardlessness in +wheat.</p> + +<p>In writing double-lettered formulæ to denote the determiners of characters +in hybrids the condition is represented merely by the capital and small +letter. Thus Rr indicates that red is dominant to its absence.</p> + +<p><b>Additional Terminology.—</b>In pure breeds where the determiners are alike as +BB in black or bb in albino guinea-pigs, the individual is said to be a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span><i>homozygote</i> (like things united) with reference to that character, while +in those in which the determiners are unlike, as Bb, the individual is +termed a <i>heterozygote</i> (unlike things united) with reference to the +character. Or to use the adjective forms, a pure black guinea-pig is +homozygous for black pigment, an albino guinea-pig is homozygous for +absence of pigment, while a cross between the two is heterozygous for +pigment. Also, where the determiner of a given character is present in +double quantity, that is, from both lines of ancestry, the individual is +said to be <i>duplex</i>, where represented in only the single form as in +heterozygous individuals, <i>simplex</i>, and where the determiner is absent +entirely, <i>nulliplex</i>, with reference to the character in question. Thus +black guinea-pigs of formula BB are duplex with regard to the determiner +for black color, individuals of formula Bb are simplex with reference to +this determiner, and those of formula bb are nulliplex.</p> + +<p>A heterozygote in which dominance prevails can be identified with +certainty by breeding to a known recessive and noting the kind of +offspring produced. If the individual was really a heterozygote, +approximately fifty per cent. of the offspring should be of the recessive +type.</p> + +<p><b>Dominance Not Always Complete.—</b>As a matter of fact close inspection shows +that in numerous instances dominance is not absolute since traces of the +recessive character may be detectable. For example, in the cross between +smooth and bearded wheat while smoothness is regarded as the dominant +character and beardlessness as the recessive, nevertheless in the hybrid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +offspring a slight tendency toward bearding is not infrequently seen. Or +again when horned breeds of cattle are crossed with hornless ones, a small +proportion of such progeny will show traces of imperfect horns.</p> + +<p>In some cases instead of either character dominating the other a form +intermediate between the two parents may result, as we have seen already +in the case of the Andalusian fowl. Thus, certain white-flowered plants +and certain red-flowered plants when crossed produce pink hybrids, and +longheaded and shortheaded wheats when crossed give offspring with heads +of intermediate length. Or again, crosses between white and red cattle may +yield red roans, and between black and white cattle, blue roans.</p> + +<p>Thus, while for such pairs of alternative characters as have been studied, +dominance to some considerable degrees at least, seems to be the rule, +still we have gradations down to the intermediate condition, and in some +instances the hybrid with respect to a given character may be unlike +either parent. The things of chief importance in the Mendelian discovery +are the independent, unitary nature of the characters and their +segregation in the offspring of cross-bred forms.</p> + +<p><b>Modifications of Dominance.—</b>It should be noted also that there is such a +condition as <i>delayed dominance</i>. Davenport found, for example, that +chicks produced by crossing pure white with pure black Leghorn fowls are +speckled black and white, but later in the adult form white becomes +dominant. Likewise conditions of delayed dominance are known in man in +eye-color and notably in color of hair. Some few cases have been recorded +where a character is dominant at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> one time, recessive at another. +According to Davenport extra toe in fowls may behave in this way.</p> + +<p><b>Mendel’s Own Work.—</b>Mendel<a name='fna_2' id='fna_2' href='#f_2'><small>[2]</small></a> himself worked out his principles on seven +pairs of characters which he found in common culinary peas. Placing the +dominant characters first, these may be enumerated as follows: (1) Tall by +dwarf; (2) green pod (unripe) by yellow; (3) pod inflated by pod +constricted between the individual peas; (4) flowers arranged along the +axis of the plant by flowers bunched together at the top; (5) seed skin +colored by seed skin white; (6) cotyledons yellow by cotyledons green; (7) +seed rounded by seed wrinkled.</p> + +<p>He found that each pair of characters followed the same law as any other +pair when more than one pair of the characters occurred in the same +plants, but that each pair behaved independently of the other. The meaning +of this is that we may get various combinations of characters not +associated in the original pure stocks, the number of such combinations +depending on the number of pairs of allelomorphs there are.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">DIHYBRIDS</p> + +<p><b>Getting New Combinations of Characters.—</b>Since this principle is well +illustrated in peas, let us take two pairs of their characters, viz., +greenness and yellowness (of the cotyledons) and roundness and angularity +to see exactly what happens when two pairs of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>allelomorphs are involved. +When a specific kind of yellow pea is crossed with a particular kind of +green pea the offspring are always yellow (Fig. 18, opposite <a href="#Page_85">p. 84</a>). When +these hybrids (generation F<sub>1</sub>) are self-fertilized there is the usual +Mendelian segregation; one-fourth the resulting offspring will be green, +one-fourth pure yellow, and one-half, although yellow in appearance, will +be of the mixed type. The exact numbers found by Mendel were 6,022 yellow +seeds to 2,001 green seeds. Now of the original peas (generation P) the +yellow ones are round and the green ones angular (really wrinkled). +Choosing this roundness and angularity respectively as a pair of +characters they are found to follow the same law that the colors follow +(Mendel obtained in the F<sub>2</sub> generation 5,474 round and 1,850 wrinkled +seed), but independently of the latter. For while in the progeny of the +hybrids (Gen. F<sub>1</sub>), twenty-five per cent. will be round and of pure type +as regards roundness, twenty-five per cent. angular, and fifty per cent. +round but containing hidden factors of angularity (i. e., roundness is +dominant), the roundness and the yellowness, or the angularity and the +greenness will not always go together as they did in the original +grandparental strains, but there will be in addition some new types of +round green peas and some of angular yellow ones. That is, the factors of +color and of shape have been inherited independently of one another, so +that instead of the two original kinds of peas, four have been produced, +viz., (1) round-yellow (one of the original types); (2) round-green (new +type); (3) angular-yellow (new type); and (4) <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>angular-green (one of the +original types). Furthermore, these will be found to stand in the ratio of +9:3:3:1 respectively.</p> + +<p><b>Segregations of the Determiners.—</b>How these combinations come about in +this definite proportion is easily understood if the matter is expressed +in terms of determiners and the possible matings tabulated (Fig. 18). If +we represent the yellow determiner by Y and the green determiner by y, and +likewise the determiners of roundness and angularity by R and r +respectively, then the formulæ for the determiners of these two pairs of +characters in the body cells (that is, in the unreduced condition) of the +pure forms and of the F<sub>1</sub> generation hybrids respectively are as +follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td>In pure round yellow peas</td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="right">RR</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">YY</td></tr> +<tr><td>In pure angular green peas</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">rr</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">yy</td></tr> +<tr><td>In the hybrid</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">Rr</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right">Yy</td></tr></table> + +<p>But now in the segregation of these determiners in the germ-cells of the +hybrids (generation F<sub>1</sub>) the pair of determiners Rr and the pair Yy +operate entirely independently of one another. Their only compulsion is +that each pair be separated into the single determiners, R and r in the +one case and Y and y in the other. So in the separating division which +brings about this divorcement R separates from r irrespective of whether +it is accompanying Y or y into the resulting daughter cell. Thus in some +cases R and Y would pass into one germ-cell, in others R and y, in others +r <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>and Y, and in still others r and y, depending entirely upon the +chance relations of the respective pairs to the plane of division. That +is, the segregation is equally likely to be RY/ry giving gametes RY and +ry, or Ry/rY giving gametes Ry and rY.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img18.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="right"><small>♀</small></td> + <td align="center">RY</td> + <td align="center">Ry</td> + <td align="center">rY</td> + <td align="center">ry</td></tr> +<tr><td><small>♂</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">RY</td> + <td class="btr">RRYY</td> + <td class="btr">RRYy</td> + <td class="btr">RRYY</td> + <td class="btr">RrYy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Ry</td> + <td class="btr">RRYy</td> + <td class="btr">RRyy</td> + <td class="btr">RrYy</td> + <td class="btr">Rryy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">rY</td> + <td class="btr">RrYY</td> + <td class="btr">RrYy</td> + <td class="btr">rrYY</td> + <td class="btr">rrYy</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">ry</td> + <td class="btr">RrYy</td> + <td class="btr">Rryy</td> + <td class="btr">rrYy</td> + <td class="btr">rryy</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td>(1) 1 RRYY</td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td>(4) 2 RrYY</td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td>(7) 1 rrYY</td></tr> +<tr><td>(2) 2 RRYy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(5) 4 RrYy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(8) 2 rrYy</td></tr> +<tr><td>(3) 1 RRyy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(6) 2 Rryy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(9) 1 rrYy</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td> + <td align="center">9:3:3:1</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram showing the possible combinations arising in the second filial +generation (F<sub>2</sub>) following a cross between yellow, round (YYRR) and +green, angular or wrinkled (yyrr) peas. Y, presence of factor for yellow; +y, absence of such a factor; R, presence of factor for smoothness or +roundness; r, absence of such a factor; ♂ male; ♀ female.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Four Kinds of Gametes in Each Sex Means Sixteen Possible +Combinations.—</b>There are, therefore, with reference to the two pairs of +characters under consideration, four kinds of gametes (or mature +germ-cells) produced in equal numbers in each hybrid, viz., RY, Ry, rY, +and ry. That is, in the first type roundness and yellowness are +associated, in the second roundness and greenness, in the third angularity +(lack of roundness) and yellowness, and in the fourth angularity and +greenness.</p> + +<p>But since both males and females have these four kinds of gametes, when +they are mated there will be sixteen possible combinations. These may be +tabulated as in Fig. 18, opposite <a href="#Page_85">p. 84</a>.</p> + +<p><b>The 9:3:3:1 Ratio.—</b>While there are sixteen possible and equally probable +combinations, these will give only nine distinct kinds because some of the +matings are alike. The numbers of the various kinds of matings are as +follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td>(1) 1 RRYY</td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td>(4) 2 RrYY</td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td>(7) 1 rrYY</td></tr> +<tr><td>(2) 2 RRYy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(5) 4 RrYy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(8) 2 rrYy</td></tr> +<tr><td>(3) 1 RRyy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(6) 2 Rryy</td> + <td> </td> + <td>(9) 1 rrYy</td></tr></table> + +<p>Since roundness (R) and yellowness (Y) are dominant to angularity (r) and +greenness (y) in all <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>combinations containing R or Y, the alternative +determiners r or y would be obscured, with the result that individuals +having certain of the combinations would look alike to our eye. For +example, the individuals represented by numbers 1, 2, 4 and 5, since they +contain dominant R and Y, would all appear round and yellow, although in +reality No. 1 would be the only one of pure type (both elements +homozygous) and hence the only one that would breed true in subsequent +generations. The two individuals represented in No. 2 would breed true as +regards shape (RR) but not color (Yy). Just the reverse is true of No. 4 +since shape is heterozygous (Rr) and color homozygous (YY). The four +individuals represented in No. 5 are heterozygous with regard to both +elements. Thus nine individuals (1 plus 2 plus 2 plus 4 = 9) represented +in Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 5 would be round and yellow, three individuals (Nos. 3 +and 6) would be round and green, three (Nos. 7 and 8) would be angular and +yellow, and only one (No. 9) would be angular and green. That is to say, +the four classes discernible to the eye in generation F<sub>2</sub> would be +present in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.</p> + +<p><b>Phenotype and Genotype.—</b>Forms such as those represented in Nos. 1, 2, 4 +and 5 which to the eye appear to be alike, regardless of their germinal +constitution, are said to be of the same <i>phenotype</i>. Those of the same +hereditary constitution, as the two individuals represented in No. 8, or +the four individuals in No. 5, are said to be of the same <i>genotype</i>, that +is, they are of identical gametic constitution.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>As we have seen, it is from the genotypical not the phenotypical +constitution that an offspring is derived and what a given form will bring +forth depends then on its genotype.</p> + +<p><b>Crosses With More Than Two Pairs of Characters.—</b>In crosses in which more +than two pairs of contrasted characters are involved the underlying +principles are in no way different, only with each pair of additional +characters there is, of course, a greater number of possible combinations. +Thus with three pairs of characters there will be eight different classes +of gametes in each sex and consequently sixty-four possible combinations +in mating, giving eight different phenotypes in the proportion of +27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1. The largest class manifests the three dominant +characters; the smallest class, the three recessives; the three classes in +the proportion of 9 each exhibit two dominant and one recessive +characters; and those in the proportion of 3 each display two recessive +and one dominant characters.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE QUESTION OF BLENDED INHERITANCE</p> + +<p>We come now to certain types of inheritance in which there seems to be a +true fusion or blend of the contributions from the two parents, the +intermediate condition apparently persisting in subsequent generations +without segregation. Numerous cases of blended inheritance have been cited +in earlier literature of heredity, but as our knowledge of genetics has +progressed many experimental breeders have come to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> believe that the +blends in such cases are apparent rather than real and that the phenomena +can be best explained on a non-blending unit-character basis, just as we +would explain ordinary Mendelian phenomena.</p> + +<p><b>Nilsson-Ehle’s Discoveries.—</b>To get their point of view we may review +certain experiments on wheat made by Nilsson-Ehle, together with their +Mendelian interpretation. Nilsson-Ehle found that a certain brown-chaffed +wheat when crossed with a white-chaffed strain yielded a brown-chaffed +hybrid, apparently in accordance with the simple principle of Mendelian +dominance. But these heterozygous brown-chaffed individuals did not in +turn give the expected ratio of 3:1 in the F<sub>2</sub> generation but a ratio of +15 brown to 1 white, and furthermore the browns were not all of the same +degree of brownness. To be exact, from fifteen different crosses of the +strains he obtained 1,410 brown-chaffed and 94 white-chaffed plants.</p> + +<p>This apparent anomaly in segregation was easily explained, however, when +it was finally figured out that there were really two independent +determiners for brown color, either of which alone could produce a brown +individual, but when combined produced individuals of correspondingly +deeper shades of brown. In such a case then Nilsson-Ehle discovered that +he was dealing merely with a Mendelian dihybrid where two different +determiners B and B′ and their respective absences b and b′ are involved. +The original brown wheat had both B and B′ and the original white b and +b′. The formula for the F<sub>1</sub> heterozygote was therefore BbB′b′. The four +possible types of gametes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> for male and female are BB′, Bb′, bB′, bb′, and +the tabulation would be as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="br"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BB′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Bb′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">bB′</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">bb′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">BB′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BBB′B′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BBB′b′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BbB′B′</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">BbB′b′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Bb′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BBB′b′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Bb′Bb′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BbB′b′</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Bbb′b′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">bB′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BbB′B′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BbB′b′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">bbB′B′</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">bbB′b′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">bb′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">BbB′b′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Bbb′b′</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">bbB′b′</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">bbb′b′</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td></tr></table> + +<p>It will be observed that there are more brown determiners in some +combinations than others. For instance one of the sixteen contains four +such determiners, viz., B, B′, B, B′, four contain three determiners, six +contain two, four contain only one, and one contains none. Thus all but +one of the sixteen contain at least one determiner and will therefore be +brown in color but the depth of color will depend on the number of brown +determiners in a given individual. This is more graphically represented in +Fig. 19, <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>. The largest number of similar individuals, six in all, +contain two determiners each and represent an intermediate “blend” between +the original brown-chaffed and white-chaffed strains. The deeper and the +lighter browns due to more or fewer determinants in an individual would if +one did not know the units in this case look like the fluctuations around +this average which we might expect in a blend.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img19.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram illustrating the proportionate distribution of determiners where +either of two different determiners produces the same character, the +degree of expression of the character depending on the number of the +determiners present. The numerals indicate the number of brown determiners present in an individual.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Nilsson-Ehle found another significant case in wheat where one particular +red-grained strain of Swedish wheat when crossed with white-grained +strains produced red-grained offspring, but when these were interbred the +F<sub>2</sub> generation gave approximately sixty-three red to one white-grained +individual. Here it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> found that in the original red wheat there are +three separate determiners which act independently of one another in +heredity, any one of which would make red color; and that they together +with their absences simply follow the Mendelian laws for a trihybrid.</p> + +<p><b>Such Cases Easily Mistaken for True Blends.—</b>If we should tabulate the +possible combinations as we did the dihybrid we should see that we would +get individuals having varying numbers of red determiners. Only one of the +sixty-four possible combinations would be without a factor for red. Of the +sixty-four, one would have six determiners for red, six would have five, +fifteen would have four, twenty would have three, fifteen would have two, +six would have one, and one would have none. Since here every additional +red factor means deeper redness in the individual there would be varying +degrees of redness in the F<sub>2</sub> generation with those having three +determiners, the largest group, standing apparently intermediate. Not +knowing the factors involved we might easily mistake such a case for a +true blend with fluctuations about an average intermediate form. +Nilsson-Ehle finally proved his interpretation by rearing an F<sub>3</sub> +generation from isolated and self-fertilized plants of this F<sub>2</sub> +generation.</p> + +<p>This same principle of cumulative determiners has also been established in +America by East with field corn.</p> + +<p>As the number of duplicate determiners increases it can be readily seen +that the number of apparent blends of different degrees of intermediacy +between the two extremes would rapidly increase.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span><b>Skin-Color in Man.—</b>In man, the skin-color of the hybrids between negroes +and whites is often cited as a case of blended inheritance in +contradistinction to Mendelian inheritance. The skin-color of the mulatto +of the F<sub>1</sub> generation is intermediate between that of the white and +black parent. This same degree of intermediacy is commonly supposed to +persist in subsequent generations, but as a matter of fact, careful +investigation has shown that while mulattoes rarely produce pure white or +pure black children, there is considerably greater range in the shades of +color in the F<sub>2</sub> generation and subsequent generations than in the F<sub>1</sub> +generation. This is exactly what one would expect of a Mendelian character +in which several cooperating factors were involved. Indeed, Davenport who +has made extensive studies<a name='fna_3' id='fna_3' href='#f_3'><small>[3]</small></a> on the inheritance of skin-color in man has +come to the conclusion that the case is really one of Mendelian +inheritance in which several factors for skin-color are concerned. Even +the skin of a white man is pigmented in some degree under normal +conditions. Davenport has shown in the skin of both whites and blacks that +there is a mixture of black, yellow and red pigments. He concludes that +“there are two double factors (AABB) for black pigmentation in the +full-blooded negro of the west coast of Africa and these are separably +inheritable.” Since these factors are lacking in white persons the +intermediate color of an F<sub>1</sub> mulatto would therefore be heterozygous for +pigmentation, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>subsequent generations, following the laws for +segregation where a number of factors are concerned, would show different +degrees of color because of the varying combinations of factors.</p> + +<p><b>Some Investigators Would Question the Existence of Real Blends.—</b>Still +other reputed blends such as ear length in rabbits and the like have been +shown to be analyzable into Mendelian behavior if one will but postulate +numerous or multiple factors. Just how far we are justified in so +accounting for blends has not yet been established. Some of our most +careful experimentalists in heredity still believe that real blends exist, +particularly where the character is quantitatively expressed—that is, as +more or less of a given size or amount—while others would maintain that +all alleged blends will probably be found to be resolvable into factors +which follow Mendelian rule. It must be left for future investigations to +demonstrate which school is correct.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE PLACE OF THE MENDELIAN FACTORS IN THE GERM-CELLS</p> + +<p><b>Parallel Between the Behavior of Mendelian Factors and Chromosomes.—</b>The +question arises as to whether there is any evidence from the study of +germ-cells themselves to bear out the Mendelian conception of separation +of contrasted characters in the gametes of the F<sub>1</sub> generation. In the +discussion of the maturation of germ-cells (<a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chap. II</a>) it has already been +seen that the chromosomes of the germ-cells are in all probability +arranged in homologous pairs, one member being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> of maternal and the other +of paternal origin, and that furthermore they are closely associated with +the phenomena of heredity. And since in maturation there is an actual +segregation of the chromosomes into two sets, half going to one cell and +half to its mate, a physical basis adequate to the necessities of the case +is really at hand. It will be recalled that the individuals of a pair +separate in such a way at the reduction division that the paternal member +goes to one cell and the maternal member to the other, although each pair +seemingly acts independently of the others with the result that any mature +germ-cell may contain chromosomes from each of the original parents but +never the two chromosomes which earlier made up a pair. The close parallel +between the behavior of chromosomes and the behavior of Mendelian factors, +although the two sets of phenomena were discovered wholly independently of +each other, is obvious. If we suppose that each chromosome bears the +determiner of a Mendelian character and that chromosomes bearing +allelomorphic characters make up the various pairs which are seen in the +early germ-cells of an individual before reduction occurs, then the +segregation of the individuals of an allelomorphic pair into different +gametes must result in consequence of the passing of the corresponding +chromosomes into separate gametes. Fig. 20, <a href="#Page_95">p. 95</a>, from Professor Wilson +represents equally well the segregations of pairs of chromosomes or pairs +of Mendelian characters.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img20.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20</span></p> + +<p>Diagram showing union of factors from the two separate parents in +fertilization and their segregation in the formation of germ-cells (after +Wilson). With four pairs of factors (<i>Aa</i>, <i>Bb</i>, <i>Cc</i>, <i>Dd</i>), sixteen +types of gametes are possible, as shown in the series of small circles at +the right. The same diagram equally well represents the pairings and segregations of chromosomes.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>A Single Chromosome not Restricted to Carrying a Single Determiner.—</b>It +has been objected that there may be more pairs of independently heritable +allelomorphic characters than there are pairs of chromosomes. It is true +that there are more pairs of characters than pairs of chromosomes but +there is no reason for supposing that a given chromosome is restricted to +carrying a single unit-determiner. On the contrary it probably carries +several or many. Some workers have pointed out that certain units might be +interchanged during the pairing of chromosomes <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>before the reduction +division, others that inasmuch as the chromosomes become diffuse and +granulated during the intervals between divisions it is not improbable +that the individual units may become separated from their original system +during such times and that it is a matter of chance into which of the +homologous chromosomes, A or a, they enter with the re-establishment of +the chromosomes. On the other hand, cases are known where two or more +separate characters are permanently associated in inheritance, that is, if +they enter a crossed form together they come out together in the +grandchildren as if they were carried in the same unit-body in the +germ-cell. The only observable unit-bodies that fulfil the necessities of +such cases are the chromosomes. This tendency of characters to exist in +groups which are inherited independently of one another is coming more and +more into evidence as we penetrate farther into the intricacies of +inheritance, and it is exactly what we would expect on the supposition +that each chromosome carries the determiners of a number of characters +instead of a single one.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<p class="title">MENDELISM IN MAN</p> + + +<p><b>The Mendelian Principles Probably Applicable to Many Characters of +Man.—</b>We are really just beginning to make the proper observations and +collect the necessary data with reference to the application of Mendelian +principles to the traits of man. Yet brief as has been our study we have +disclosed much significant evidence which makes it seem highly probable +that many of his characters, good and bad, of mind and body are as +subservient to these laws as are the traits and features of lower forms. +Davenport and Plate record over sixty human characters or defects which +are seemingly inherited in Mendelian fashion. Although about fifty of +these are pathological or abnormal conditions, this does not mean that +such conditions are more prone to follow Mendelian inheritance but merely +that being relatively conspicuous or isolated they are easier to follow +and tabulate.</p> + +<p><b>Difficult to get Correct Data.—</b>While it must be said that in many cases +no simple form of Mendelian tabulation has been unequivocally established, +yet the general behavior of the various inheritable traits in question is +so obviously related to the conventional Mendelian course that there seems +little reason for doubting that they are at bottom the same. Failure to +obtain exact proportions may be attributable in part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> to the probability +that what we loosely regard as a character should in reality be analyzed +into more elemental components, and above all to the fact that from the +very nature of the conditions under which human records must be obtained, +there is considerable chance of inaccuracy or error in such accounts. How +many human traits follow Mendelian rules remains largely for future +investigators to establish.</p> + +<p>We are handicapped at the outset in man by the many difficulties of +getting correct data from the genealogies on which we must depend, or in +fact of getting any genealogy at all, for in this country at least, most +families keep imperfect records of births and deaths and many of the +institutions for the various kinds of defectives have little in their +records that will help us in following out hereditary conditions. Then in +matters of disease we meet with the fact that many former diagnoses were +erroneous. In yet other cases, and this is particularly true among mental +and moral defectives, we are often not sure of the paternity of a given +child. Furthermore, one is likely to be misled by the proportions which +may occur in the very limited number of children of any given couple.</p> + +<p>Still other difficulties exist. Among these is the fact, for example, that +in many cases of defect or susceptibility to disease, a given individual +in the stock may have the trait in an expressible and transmissible form, +yet it never comes to expression because that individual has been +fortunate enough to escape the environmental stimulus which would call it +forth. Thus one highly susceptible to tuberculosis might escape infection, +or persons hovering on the verge of insanity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> might never receive the +precipitating stimulus which would topple them into actual insanity; yet +each would be wrongfully recorded in a genealogy looking to such traits as +perfectly normal. Or again if it be a question of intellectual brilliancy +as shown by accomplishment in the realm of scholarship, or of worldly +affairs, the ones who although possessing them have had no chance to +display unusual talents would be tabulated as average whereas in fact they +should be recorded as of high rank. That this is particularly likely to +happen in the case of women is evident.</p> + +<p><b>A Generalized Presence-Absence Formula for Man.—</b>In man as in lower forms +some characters or traits are due presumably to the presence of +determiners or to their absence. Likewise, dominance and recessiveness are +as much in evidence, for in tracing back pedigrees of various traits we +find the same forms of tabulation that obtain for these conditions in +plants and lower animals hold good. For typical cases in man let us use a +generalized presence-absence formula and the arbitrary symbol A for the +presence of the determiner of the character (double in the individual, +single in the germ) and a for its absence. Thus AA represents a condition +in which similar determiners have been derived from both parents and the +individual is <i>duplex</i> as regards the character in question; each mature +germ-cell will have the determiner. Aa represents a condition in which the +individual has received the determiner from only one parent and is +therefore <i>simplex</i> with regard to the character; half of the gametes of +such an individual will have the determiner and half will lack it. Lastly, +aa represents total <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>absence of the determiner. Such an individual is +<i>nulliplex</i>. He or she will not have the determiner represented in any of +the gametes, and can not, of course, transmit a trait represented by the +determiner.</p> + +<p>It is evident that six kinds of gametic matings are possible among +individuals representing these various formulæ. These matings are as +follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td valign="bottom" align="center">Matings</td> + <td valign="bottom" align="center">Possible<br />couplings<br />gametes</td> + <td> </td> + <td valign="bottom" align="center">Product</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">1. Nulliplex x Nulliplex (aa x aa) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100a.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> all nulliplex</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">2. Nulliplex x Simplex (aa x Aa) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100b.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> 50 per cent.<br />with character<br />nulliplex and<br />50 per cent.<br />with it simplex.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">3. Nulliplex x Duplex (aa x AA) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100c.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> all with<br />characters<br />simplex</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">4. Simplex x Simplex (Aa x Aa) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100d.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> 25 per cent.<br />with characters<br />duplex, 50 per<br />cent. with it<br />simplex and 25<br />per cent. with<br />it nulliplex.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">5. Simplex x Duplex (Aa x AA) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100e.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> 50 per cent.<br />with character<br />duplex and 50<br />per cent. with<br />it simplex.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">6. Duplex x Duplex (AA x AA) == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page100f.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> ==</td> + <td valign="top"> all duplex.</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Indications of Incomplete Dominance.—</b>While in cases of strict Mendelian +dominance it is not possible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> to distinguish directly the simplex from the +duplex condition, as a matter of fact the individual of simplex +constitution sometimes has the character represented in the single +determiner less perfectly developed than in the corresponding character of + +duplex origin. In studying defects in man due to the absence of a +determiner, where theoretically presence of the determiner (normality) is +dominant over its absence in individuals of simplex constitution, one +finds it recorded with increasing frequency that such individuals are more +or less “intermediate” or are “tainted” with the defect; thus showing that +the defect though obscured is not wholly in abeyance. Thus individuals +carrying epilepsy or feeble-mindedness which are regarded as recessive +traits, while not showing specific feeble-mindedness or epilepsy, may +nevertheless apparently show a neuropathic taint in the form of migraine, +alcoholism or other lapse from normality. The condition is seemingly more +akin in some cases to that found in the offspring of certain red flowers +crossbred with white flowers, which though red do not show the same +intensity of color as the original red parent. Just as here the single +determiner or single “dose” of redness is insufficient to produce the +intensity of color that appears when the offspring receive two determiners +for red, one from each parent, so in man a single determiner for normality +of a specific character is inadequate in some cases to make the individual +wholly normal. Or possibly some cases are more of the type of those in +which the character in question, for instance the red color of some wheats +and corn, may be produced by any one of two or three determiners, the +intensity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> the characters (red color, e. g.) depending on whether one, +two or three determiners are present.</p> + +<p><b>Why After the First Generation Only Half the Children May Show the +Dominant Character.—</b>If the trait is a simple dominant one it is clear +that it will appear in each generation and always spring from an affected +individual. By referring back to our tabulation of possible matings on +page 100 where the dominant character is represented by the letter A, this +can be seen at a glance. If the trait is present in the duplex condition +in one parent and absent from the other, then formula 3 applies; all +children will show the trait, but in the simplex form (Aa). If the trait +is present in the simplex form in one parent and absent in the other, +formula 2 applies. Fifty per cent. of the children will have the character +in the simplex form (Aa) which means also an even chance of transmitting +it to their offspring; fifty per cent. will not inherit it and will be +incapable, furthermore, of transmitting it, since they have become +nulliplex (aa). In human genealogies if an individual having an unusual +trait which is inherited as a dominant marries a normal person and half of +the offspring show the trait (and this is common), this means that the +parent manifesting the trait had it represented only in the simplex +condition, otherwise all of the children would have shown it. Even though +the original ancestor who first developed the condition or structure may +have had it in a duplex form, it would after the first mating, if this +were with an individual lacking the trait, be represented only in the +simplex form (see formula 5) and could never become duplex again unless +two <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>individuals both having the character married, and then only in +twenty-five per cent. of the offspring (see formula 3). If the trait is a +defect all the children showing it, even though marrying normal +(nulliplex) individuals, will pass it on again to half their children, but +those who do not show it may ordinarily marry with impunity since its +non-expression in their make-up means, as far as we know at present, that +their germ-plasm has been purged of the defect and that they are therefore +nulliplex with reference to it.</p> + +<p><b>Eye-Color in Man.—</b>Of normal characters in man which follow the Mendelian +formula perhaps eye-color is the best established. Brown or black +eye-color is due to a <i>melanin</i> pigment absent from the blue or gray eye. +That is, a brown eye is practically a blue eye plus an additional layer of +pigment on the outer surface of the iris. The different shades of brown +and the black are due to the relative abundance of this pigment. Gray +color and the shades of blue seem to be a modification of an original dark +blue, due to structural differences in the fibrous tissues of the iris.</p> + +<p>In inheritance brown or black is dominant to blue or gray, or in other +words the <i>presence</i> and <i>absence</i> of a pigment P constitutes a pair of +allelomorphs. Hence two brown-eyed parents, if P is duplex in both (or +duplex in one and simplex in the other) can have only brown-eyed children. +Thus,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. PP × PP = PP, or all duplex brown.</p> + +<p>2. PP × Pp = PP and Pp, half duplex brown and half simplex brown.</p></div> + +<p>If each parent has brown eyes but in simplex <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>condition, then one-fourth +of children will have blue or gray eyes; for example,</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center" valign="top">Mating</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="center">Gametic<br />couplings</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="center" valign="top">Product</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">Pp × Pp</td> + <td valign="top"> == </td> + <td align="center" valign="top"><img src="images/page104.jpg" alt="" /></td> + <td valign="top"> == </td> + <td valign="top">PP, Pp, pP, and pp, or one-fourth<br />duplex brown, one-half simplex<br />brown, and one-fourth blue or gray.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If both parents have blue or gray eyes they can not have children with +black or brown eyes, since the recessive condition in each parent means +total absence of brown pigment in both.</p> + +<p>If one pair is duplex brown and the other blue, then all children will +have brown eyes but of simplex type.</p> + +<p>If one parent has simplex brown eyes (type Pp) and one blue (pp) then +one-half of the children will have brown eyes of simplex type and one-half +will have blue eyes.</p> + +<p>Occasional objections have been raised against the Mendelian +interpretation of inheritance in eye-color, but the cases cited in +evidence against the theory usually narrow down to those in which the +color is so diluted as to render classification uncertain. For example, +hazel eyes are sometimes called gray; they belong however to the melanic +pigmented type although the brown pigment may be much diluted and occur +mainly around the pupil. So-called green eyes are due to yellow pigment on +a blue background. In the rare cases where in the same individual one eye +is brown and the other blue, the individual should probably be rated as +brown-eyed on the supposition that in the one eye the development of brown +pigment has in some way been suppressed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span><b>Hair-Color.—</b>The inheritance of hair-color has also been the subject of +considerable study and while the conditions are not so simple as in the +case of eye-color, there is little doubt that it belongs in the Mendelian +category. In human hair, color has as its foundation apparently two +pigments, black and red. Absence of one or both or various combinations or +dilutions of these seemingly account for the prevailing colors in human +hair. In general dark hair is dominant to light, although because of the +delay sometimes in the darkening of the hair in children this fact is +often obscured. Black is dominant to red. People with glossy black hair, +according to Davenport, are probably simplex for black, the glossiness +being due usually to recessive red. The expectation would be for some of +the children of such a pair to have red hair.</p> + +<p>In man occasionally a congenital white lock contrasting strikingly with +the remaining normally pigmented hair occurs. It behaves as a simple +dominant in heredity.</p> + +<p><b>Hair-Shape.—</b>Again, straight and curly hair seem to be distinct +inheritable characters. Curly is incompletely dominant to straight, the +simplex condition yielding wavy hair.</p> + +<p>Not to enter into details of the matings, statistics gathered by Mr. and +Mrs. Davenport show that, two flaxen-haired parents have flaxen-haired +children; two golden-haired parents have only golden-haired children; two +parents with light brown hair have children with hair of that color or +lighter, but never darker; two parents each with dark brown or black hair +may have children with all the varieties of hair-color. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>Summing together +a series of recessives Davenport points out that two blue-eyed, flaxen or +golden and straight-haired parents will have only children like +themselves.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img21.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Diagram showing descent of brachydactyly through five generations; black +symbols indicate affected individuals; ♂, male; ♀, female (after Farabee).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Irregularities.—</b>If a dominant trait or defect depends on more than a +single factor, as is sometimes the case, or if it is modified by sex or +other conditions, as is true of certain characters, some of which, such as +color-blindness, have already been examined, then we shall find some +apparently non-affected individuals having affected offspring. Certain +diseases, for example, are generally transmitted by affected members of +the family to their children in the expected Mendelian ratio for a +dominant, yet an occasional skip of a generation may appear in which an +apparently perfectly normal individual transmits to his children what, +except for the omission in his own case, appears to be an ordinary +dominant character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> This occasional lapse in the appearance of a +character when theoretically it should appear is doubtless due in some +instances to the fact that what is really inherited is a <i>tendency</i>, and +although this is present in the apparently normal individual, for some +reason the condition itself has not appeared. This might especially be +true in the case of a disease which does not manifest itself until late in +life. In other cases there are undoubtedly complicating accessory +conditions which modify the behavior of the trait somewhat.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">OTHER CASES OF DOMINANCE IN MAN</p> + +<p>Among other normal characters in man, as far as available evidence goes, +dark skin is dominant to light skin; normally pigmented condition to +albino; and nervous temperament to phlegmatic.</p> + +<p><b>Digital Malformations.—</b>An interesting and easily followed defect is a +condition known as <i>brachydactylism</i>, in which the digits are shortened +because of the absence or rudimentary condition of one segment. The +fingers, therefore, appear to be only two-jointed like the thumb. Several +families showing this defect have been charted and it appears to behave as +a typical dominant. In looking over such a chart (Fig. 21, <a href="#Page_106">p. 106</a>) one is +struck by the fact that only half of the children from most of the matings +show the defect, but when we recall that the affected parent, after the +first generation, probably carried the condition in only the simplex form +and married a normal individual, such a result is just what would be +expected (see formula 2).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span><i>Polydactylism</i> (Figs. 22, 23, <a href="#Page_109">pp. 109</a>, +<a href="#Page_110">110</a>) is a condition in which there are extra digits on hands or feet. The character, with apparently slight +exceptions in a few records, behaves as a typical dominant. Among other +digital defects which are inherited as a dominant is a condition known as +<i>syndactylism</i> (Fig. 24, <a href="#Page_111">p. 111</a>), in which two or more digits are fused +side by side. For an example of syndactyly which seems to be in the class +of sex-linked characters, see Fig. 15, <a href="#Page_65">p. 65</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Eye Defects.—</b><i>Congenital cataract</i> is another not uncommon defect in man +which is transmitted as a dominant (Fig. 25, <a href="#Page_112">p. 112</a>) with occasional +irregularities. It is a condition of opacity of the lens of the eye which +produces partial or total blindness. In a paper on <i>Hereditary Blindness +and Its Prevention</i>, Clarence Loeb (1909) mentions 304 families of which +pedigrees have been published. Of the 1,012 children in these families +589, or 58 per cent., were affected. It is obvious that this is near the +expected percentage in the case of a dominant trait where matings of +affected with normal individuals prevailed. An unfortunate circumstance +about this malady from the eugenic standpoint is the fact that it is +frequently of the presenile form which comes on late in life so that it is +usually impossible to predict whether an individual of marriageable age is +immune or will later become affected.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img22.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Radiograph (Courtesy of Dr. W. B. Helm) showing polydactyly in a child’s +hand. For genealogy of this see Fig. 23, <a href="#Page_110">p. 110</a>.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img23.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Chart showing a history of polydactylism through five generations in the +B—— family. The individual whose hand is pictured in Fig. 22, <a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>, is +of the fifth generation. Squares represent males, circles females.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Another defect of the eye following the course of a dominant in heredity +is a pigmentary degeneration of the retina known as <i>retinitis +pigmentosa</i>. Atrophy of the optic nerve is also involved and the final +result is blindness. Still another example frequently cited is that of +hereditary night blindness (<i>hemeralopia</i>), a disease in which the +affected person can not see by any but the brightest light. In most +affected families the final outcome is usually total blindness. One of the +most remarkable pedigrees of defects in man ever collected is one of this +disease published by Nettleship. He succeeded in tracing the defect +through nine generations, back to the seventeenth century. The genealogy +includes 2,116 persons. The character behaves as a single dominant in +males, but frequently, though <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>not always, females may be carriers of the +defect in transmissible form though not exhibiting it themselves. That is, +males in which the condition is simplex (Aa) develop the defect but +females of similar simplex constitution (Aa) frequently do not. It +follows, therefore, that normal males of such strains will have normal +offspring but normal females may have affected children.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img24.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Radiograph (Courtesy of Dr. W. B. Helm) showing a partial syndactyly in +each hand of an individual. Some degree of webbing between the more distal +portions of the affected parts is usual.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img25.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Pedigree of a family with presenile cataract (black symbols); numbers in +circles indicate unaffected individuals (after Davenport).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Other Defects Inherited as Dominants.—</b>Not to go into details other +defects which behave as dominants or modified dominants in human +inheritance may be mentioned. The following list is not complete and it +must be understood that in some cases the statistics are insufficient to +justify us in making anything but a tentative decision. We may thus +enumerate as dominant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> over normality: <i>Achondroplasy</i> (abnormally short +limbs with normal head and body); <i>Keratosis</i> (thickening of epidermis); +<i>Epidermolysis</i> (excessive formation of blisters); <i>Hypotrichosis</i> +(hairless, toothless condition); <i>Diabetes insipidus</i>; <i>Diabetes +mellitus</i>; ordinary (not Gower’s) <i>muscular atrophy</i>; <i>Glaucoma</i> (internal +swelling and pressure of eye-ball); displaced lens; <i>Coloboma</i> (open +suture in iris); spottedness of hair-coat; and corneal opacity.</p> + +<p>As a final illustration of a serious malady in man which acts as a +dominant in inheritance, let us take <i>Huntington’s chorea</i>. Ordinary +<i>chorea</i>, or St. Vitus’ dance, a disorder characterized by involuntary +muscular movements, is commonly though not always confined to children and +usually ends in recovery, but <i>Huntington’s chorea</i> appears typically in +middle life and is a much more dangerous malady. Fig. 26, <a href="#Page_114">p. 114</a>, +represents the family history of one of five cases which have been studied +by Doctor Lorenz in the Mendota Hospital for the Insane. All charts which +have been platted of this malady show it to be inherited as a dominant. +This means that half of the children of an individual who carried the +malady in the simplex condition, and all the children of one who carries +it in the duplex condition, are probably marked for this terrible end. And +the true horror of it can only be appreciated by one who has seen the last +stages of the malady. The victim once in its grasp gradually becomes +wrecked in mind and body; the muscular twitchings and disorders of +movement continually increase and dementia progresses until at last death +ensues. Fig.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> 27, <a href="#Page_116">p. 115</a>, is another chart showing inheritance of +<i>Huntington’s chorea</i>. In still a third case at the Mendota Hospital, the +gravity of the situation can be appreciated when one realizes that the +patient is the father of ten children, ranging in age from one to +seventeen and one-half years. The calamitous fact that this disease does +not manifest itself usually until middle life makes it likely that these +children will all reach maturity, marry and in turn probably produce +offspring before the doomed members of the family realize their fate.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img26.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Chart showing descent of <i>Huntington’s chorea</i> in the P—— family +(courtesy of Dr. W. F. Lorenz). Squares represent male, circles female; +shaded figures are choreic members of the family; partially shaded +figures, slightly affected or very “nervous” members. The members of the +last generation are for the most part still too young to show their +condition. The cross indicates the individual in the asylum from whom the record was traced back.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">CASES OF RECESSIVENESS IN MAN</p> + +<p><b>Recessive Conditions More Difficult to Deal With Because They Are +Frequently Masked.—</b>Coming now to the question of recessive conditions in +man, we find that defects are more likely to be of recessive than of +dominant type. Apparently normality usually means the presence of normal +determiners and abnormality, the absence of some essential determiner. In +the latter case, a unit-factor has seemingly been lost out in some way in +the germ-plasm, and the product of such germ-plasm is therefore +incomplete. As long as the loss is counterbalanced by the presence of a +single determiner from the other line of ancestry, that is, as long as the +simplex (Aa) condition prevails, the loss may not be in evidence, except +in cases of incomplete dominance (taints, etc.), but any mating which +permits of the production of the nulliplex condition will bring the defect +to expression again.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img27.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Chart showing inheritance of <i>Huntington’s chorea</i> in the R—— family +(courtesy of Dr. W. F. Lorenz); 1, 2 have been patients at Mendota +Hospital for the Insane; 3, died of “paralysis”; the fourth or last +generation indicated by the cross, ranging in age from 6 to 14, are too +young yet to show their condition as regards this malady.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The obscure nature of recessives makes such conditions more difficult to +deal with than dominant defects. For as regards the latter we have seen +that marriage of unaffected members of the family as far as that +particular trait is concerned, is perfectly safe, even to a cousin, for +once the germ-plasm is purged of such a positive factor, it, in so far as +we know, remains pure. But in the case of a recessive character due to the +absence of some necessary determiner a normal offspring of simplex +constitution (Aa) will probably transmit to half of his children the +capacity for handing on the defect, or if mated to another normal +individual of simplex constitution (Aa) is likely to have the actual +defect revealed again in one-fourth of his children and latent in +two-thirds of the remainder.</p> + +<p><b>Albinism a Recessive.—</b>As an easily understood illustration of this type +of case we may take human albinism, a condition which is due to the +absence of a pigment-developing determiner. According to Davenport the +albinic condition is recessive to normal condition. If albino (aa) is +mated with albino (aa) nothing but albino children may be expected. An +albino (aa) mated with a normal individual will have normal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> offspring +(Aa), but they will have the capacity for transmitting albinism to their +descendants. Thus the normal offspring (Aa) of an albino (aa) and a normal +parent (AA) if mated to another normal individual (Aa) who has also had an +albino parent will probably transmit actual albinism to one-fourth of his +children and the same capacity that he himself has of producing albinos, +to one-half of his children, although the latter will appear to the eye to +be normal.</p> + +<p><b>Other Recessive Conditions in Man.—</b>If for albinism we substitute certain +forms of insanity, hereditary feeble-mindedness (Fig. 28, <a href="#Page_118">p. 118</a>), or +hereditary epilepsy, all of which apparently follow the same law, we can +readily understand how unfit such matings are where both strains are +affected. Marriage with similarly defective stock will result in the +affection appearing in one-fourth of the progeny, and one-half of them, +though apparently normal themselves, will have the capacity for +transmitting the imperfection. It is in the existence of such hidden +factors that the chief danger in the marriage of cousins, or in fact any +consanguineous marriage lies.</p> + +<p>A few of the various defects which seem to be inherited as recessives when +mated with normality are: susceptibility to cancer; <i>chorea</i> (St. Vitus’ +dance); true dwarfism (all parts proportionately reduced); <i>Alkaptonuria</i> +(urine darkens after passage); alcoholism and criminality, where based on +mental deficiency; hereditary <i>hysteria</i>; <i>multiple sclerosis</i> (diffuse +degeneration of nervous tissue); <i>Friedreich’s disease</i> (degeneration of +upper part of the spinal cord); <i>Merriere’s disease</i> (dizziness and +roaring in ears); <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span><i>Thomsen’s disease</i> (lack of muscular tone); hereditary +<i>ataxia</i>; possibly the tendency to become hard of hearing with increased +age; and possibly, non-resistance to tuberculosis.</p> + +<p>Of non-pathological conditions in man which are inherited as recessives, +apparently either very great or very small intellectual ability are +examples.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img28.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Chart showing descent of feeble-mindedness as a typical recessive (after +Goddard). Squares represent males, circles females; DD, homozygous +dominant; DR, heterozygous dominant (i. e. normal although a carrier); RR, +pure recessive; N, normal; F, feeble-minded; A, alcoholic.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Breeding Out Defects.—</b>Even though recessive defects occur in a stock, +there is the possibility of diluting out the imperfection in successive +generations if care is taken always to marry into a stock wholly free from +it. For example, a normal individual carrying a recessive defect will bear +the abnormality in half of his or her germ-cells. This means that when +such an individual marries a normal, non-carrier, half of their children +will be wholly normal (AA) and half will be carriers; normal but of +simplex constitution (Aa). If now this generation, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>carriers and +non-carriers, marry only into normal strains of duplex constitution, then +their combined issue will be likewise normal with only one-fourth of them +carriers of the imperfections. This means that even if all of this last +generation were married to persons having the defect only one out of four +would have children showing it although the remaining children would be +carriers. On the other hand if mated to normals only one-eight of the next +generation would be carriers. Thus by continually marrying into strong +strains liability to manifest any recessive defect can be diminished in a +few generations until the descendants are no more likely to have defective +children than are members of our ordinary population.</p> + +<p>The proportion in which the recessive defect would appear in successive +generations if all persons in a given generation married only normal +individuals who were non-carriers is indicated in the following table +where AA indicates a normal individual, Aa one who is normal but a +carrier, and aa an individual with the imperfection expressed; to indicate +proportions simply after the first generation, four is arbitrarily chosen +as the number of children which results from each marriage:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td> </td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center">Matings</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="center">Children</td></tr> +<tr><td>Generation 1</td> + <td> </td> + <td>aa × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td> Aa</td></tr> +<tr><td>Generation 2</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Aa × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td>2AA + 2Aa</td></tr> +<tr><td>Generation 3</td> + <td> </td> + <td>AA × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td>4AA</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td> + <td>AA × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td>4AA</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td> + <td>Aa × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td>2AA + 2Aa</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td> + <td>Aa × AA</td> + <td> == </td> + <td class="botbor">2AA + 2Aa</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> </td> + <td>12AA + 4Aa</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span><b>Other Inheritable Conditions in Man.—</b>While many pedigrees show beyond +dispute that such qualities as musical ability, literary ability, memory, +calculating ability, mechanical skill, longevity, peculiarities of +handwriting, obesity and muscular strength, for example, are inherited, +their modes of inheritance have not yet been sufficiently analyzed to +express them exactly.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> +<p class="title">ARE MODIFICATIONS ACQUIRED DIRECTLY BY THE BODY INHERITED?</p> + + +<p><b>Which New Characters Are Inherited?—</b>Any new feature which appears in a +given organism may have had its origin in some change which has come about +in the germ from which it sprang, or it may be merely the product of some +unusual stimulus operating on the body. While the outcome, as far as the +present individual is concerned, is in each case a definite modification, +the matter of inheritance is a very different question. On the first +alternative where the new character is the outcome of germinal change, it +is obvious that the altered germ-plasm will find expression in a similar +way in succeeding generations as long as the new germinal combinations +persist. On the other hand, if the new character has resulted merely from +some influence operating on the body of the individual, then to be +inherited it would also have in some way to be transferred to and +incorporated in the germ-plasm. Inasmuch as the body or soma of any +individual is highly plastic and since various of its ultimate features +may be mere somatic modifications, it is important to decide if possible +whether or not somatic variations which are not of germinal origin can be +inherited.</p> + +<p><b>Examples of Somatic Modifications.—</b>For example, the small foot of the +Chinese woman of certain caste is the result of inherent germinal factor +for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> production of a foot plus the effects of binding which are in no +wise germinal. The hand of the skilled pianist is a normal hand of +germinal origin and normal environment plus the effects of special +training. Again, the head of the Flathead Indian is a normal head of +germinal origin and environment plus the effects of flattening. Similarly, +almost any malformation of extrinsic origin may be cited, ranging from +mutilations and amputations, scars and the like to monstrosities such as +one-eyed fish which may be produced by subjecting a developing embryo to +adverse conditions of development.</p> + +<p><b>Use and Disuse.—</b>Even reactions set up through the organism’s own +activities must produce changes. For example, a muscle has a certain +average of normal development in the average man; it comes to this through +the innate nature of its component cells plus a certain average amount of +exercise. It may, however, be developed far beyond this average by +excessive exercise. On the other hand, it is a well-known fact that an +unused organ weakens or may remain but partially developed. Thus either +use or disuse may play an important part in the molding of a given +individual. But whether or not in doing this it similarly affects the germ +is a very different matter.</p> + +<p><b>The Problem Stated.—</b>The question is can such enhanced or suppressed +development, or can new or modified characters, produced in an individual +by external agencies be so reflected on the germ-cell of the individual +that they tend to reappear <i>as such</i> in its offspring without requiring +the same external factors for their production?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span><b>Special Conditions Prevail in Mammals.—</b>Before proceeding further we must +recognize clearly the very special conditions which exist in most mammals. +With them environment is in part an intra-maternal environment and in part +independent of parental influences. Thus the formula for most non-mammalia +would be—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Individual == egg + non-parental environment; but</p></div> + +<p>for most mammals, including man—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Individual == egg + intra-maternal environment + non-parental +environment.</p></div> + +<p>This condition in mammals introduces a complicating factor which is likely +to obscure the whole issue unless we bear it constantly in mind. In other +words, we must discriminate sharply, in the discussion of inheritance in +man, for instance, between two classes of influences which may exist in +the infant at birth, that is, which are <i>congenital</i>; namely, those which +were truly inherent—were in the germ-cells—at the very inception of the +young individual, and (2) those which might later have been derived from +either parent by the yet unborn offspring. The latter are not regarded as +truly hereditary. Since certain diseases or their effects belong here we +occasionally find a physician using the term inheritance for such prenatal +influences, but the more careful ones now employ the term <i>transmission</i> +to discriminate between such conditions and true inheritance. In its +biological usage inheritance always refers to germinal constitution and +never to any condition that may be thrust on a developing organism before +birth. It is clear, then, that congenital conditions are not all +necessarily cases of inheritance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span><b>Three Fundamental Questions.—</b>To get at the question of the inheritance of +body modifications with the least confusion, let us examine it in the form +of three fundamental questions, as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Can external influences directly affect the germ-cells?</p> + +<p>2. Can external influences, operating through the intermediation of the +parental body, affect the germ-cells? If so, is the effect a specific and +a permanent one which persists in succeeding generations independently of +external influences similar to those which originally produced it? Only +such a condition as this would rank as the inheritance of a somatic +modification.</p> + +<p>3. Can the appearance of new characters be explained on any other ground, +or on any more inclusive basis, than through the transmission of somatic +acquirements, or do organisms possess heritable characters which are +inexplicable as inheritance of such modifications?</p> + +<p>Obviously the only way the question can be settled is through careful +experimentation in which all possible sources of error have been foreseen +and guarded against. Much experimental work has been undertaken for the +solution of this problem as the goal and we may therefore select typical +ones of these experiments and apply the results toward answering our three +questions.</p> + +<p><b>External Influences May Directly Affect the Germ-Cells.—</b>There is evidence +that under special conditions external influences may in certain organisms +affect the germ-cells, but that this occurs <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>commonly is extremely +doubtful. For example, Professor MacDougal, by treating the germ-cells of +the evening primrose with various solutions, such as sugar, zinc sulphate +and calcium nitrate, has apparently succeeded in producing definite +germinal mutations. He injected the solution into the ovary of the flower +the forenoon of the day at the close of which pollination would occur. He +reports that in this way changes were produced in the germ which found +expression in new and permanent characters.</p> + +<p>Professor Tower has experimented for a number of years with various +species of <i>Leptinotarsa</i>, the potato beetle. By varying the conditions of +temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure when females were laying +their eggs, he reports having produced variations in the young which came +from these eggs although the mothers themselves were not changed. +According to Professor Tower slight increase or decrease in these +environmental factors stimulated the activity of the color producing +ferments, giving rise to melanic or darker individuals. Greater increase +or decrease, inhibited them and produced albinos. He found also that at +times the same stimulus might show different results in different eggs. +The effect, therefore, is a general and not a specific one. Ordinarily the +eggs of these beetles are laid in batches. When one of these batches was +laid and left under normal conditions, the usual form of young hatched +from it, but other batches from the same female under abnormal conditions +resulted in the production of atypical forms. For example, a normal +two-brooded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> form became five-brooded. The commonest modification was the +production of various color types. These once established, according to +Professor Tower, behave as independent, inheritable units.</p> + +<p>The experiments of Doctor Bardeen with X-rays and of others with X-rays, +radium and other agents on the sperm and ova of amphibia show that these +are very susceptible to injurious influence at or near the time of +fertilization.</p> + +<p><b>Such Effects Improbable in Warm-Blooded Animals.—</b>However possible it may +be to bring about germinal changes in invertebrata or lower vertebrata by +such external agents as temperature and the like it is obvious that the +probability of such extrinsic influences affecting the germ-cells of +warm-blooded animals is very remote indeed. In the latter the germ-cells +are more or less distant from the exterior and are at practically a +constant temperature. Such experiments, therefore, beyond showing the +possibility of producing changes in germ-cells, do not have very direct +bearing on the problem of how inheritable variations are produced in man. +In his case about the only avenue of approach through which germ-cells +might be influenced is the blood or lymph.</p> + +<p><b>Poisons in the Blood May Affect the Germ-Cells.—</b>Any poisonous material in +the latter might injuriously affect the gametes. We know, in fact, that +such poisons as alcohol, lead and various drugs, and also the toxins of +various diseases, do so affect germ-cells. It seems plausible to suppose +that changing conditions of nutrition may affect the constitution of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>germ-cells and thus induce changes in the organism which arise from these +cells, but such nutritional effect is not yet a matter of established +fact.</p> + +<p><b>Difficulty of Explaining How Somatic Modifications Could be Registered in +Germ-Cells.—</b>As to our second query concerning the possibility of +affecting the germ-cells through the intermediation of parental tissues, +it is evident at a glance that since the germ-cells are built up along +with the body and are not a product of it (Fig. 2, <a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>), if such effects +are possible they must take place through the agency of some transporting +medium. The germ-cells, being lineal descendants of the original fertile +germ or zygote, already have the same possibilities of developing into an +adult that the zygote had, and so the problem becomes one of modifying a +complete germ already organized rather than of establishing a new germ by +getting together samples of every part of the body. This is all the more +evident when one realizes that usually the germ-cells are set apart long +before the body becomes adult, that is, before the body has developed most +of its characteristics. Moreover, among lower animals many instances are +known where the immature young or even larvæ will produce offspring which +nevertheless ultimately manifest all the structures of the adult +condition.</p> + +<p>But supposing specific modifications of the germinal mechanism were +possible, it is difficult to comprehend how an influence at a distant +point of the body could reach the germ-cell, to say nothing of the even +greater difficulty of understanding how it could become registered in the +germ in a specific way as affecting a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>particular part. For it must be +remembered that the organs of the adult do not exist as such in the germ +but are present there only as potentialities. How, for example, can a +change in the biceps muscle of one’s arm be registered in a germ-cell in +which there is no biceps muscle, but merely the possibilities of +developing one? Or how can increased mental ability which is contingent on +the elaboration of certain brain-cells be impressed on a germ which has no +brain-cells but only the capacity under certain conditions of producing +such cells? For the brain of a child is not descended from the brain of +his parent, but from a germ-cell carried by that parent.</p> + +<p><b>Persistence of Mendelian Factors Argues Against Such a Mode of +Inheritance.—</b>On the face of things, the apparent inviolability of +Mendelian factors which may remain unexpressed in the germ for one or many +generations—indeed the whole matter of genotypical differences in the +gametes of the same individual—shows the improbability of somatic +interference with the germ-plasm. But notwithstanding this, because of the +great importance of the issue, it is well to review in some considerable +detail the various phases and possibilities of the question.</p> + +<p><b>Experiments on Insects.—</b>Some of the attempts to secure evidence of the +transmission of personally acquired parental modifications in insects are +very interesting. Many insects in the larval stages, particularly just +after pupation seem to be especially susceptible to external influences. +They have been much used, therefore, for purposes of experiment. It has +long been known that differences in size, in color and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> even in the shape +of wings can be produced by various agents if applied at this period of +development. From the standpoint of heredity, however, the important +consideration is to determine if these experimentally induced changes have +been reflected on to the germ-cells so that they reappear in the offspring +of the modified individuals.</p> + +<p>It has been found that in some cases where male and female are of +different color, the color of the female can be changed to that of the +male by altering the conditions of temperature. In certain cases types can +be changed by cold so that they resemble varieties of the same species +found farther north, and by heat, varieties found farther south. But not +all individuals of a given lot are affected, and often different +individuals of the same kind show different effects. Moreover, in some +cases the same aberrations were produced by heat as by cold. This +indicates that it is not so much a question of specific effects as a +general physiological change, apparently mainly a matter of direct +influence of temperature on the chemical composition of the pigments. The +Countess von Linden in fact has shown that the extracted pigments can be +made to undergo the same changes of color in a test-tube by heat and cold +as in the pupæ. But there is no evidence that the germ-cells of the living +insect were affected in a specific way. In a small fraction of the +offspring of such modified individuals abnormalities appeared, but these +were not always of the same kind as those which had been produced in the +parent. That is, there was no evidence of a trait or character having been +acquired by the body and handed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> on to the germ-cell. Where an effect was +produced on the germ-cell it was probably produced directly as in the +first cases discussed.</p> + +<p>Size, colors and markings of butterflies have also been altered by +subjecting the caterpillars or the pupæ to such influences as strong +light, electricity, various chemical substances, centrifuging, diminished +oxygen supply, etc., but the results were in the main confined to the +immediate generations. In the few cases where permanent inheritable +changes were seemingly produced they were more reasonably interpreted as +the effects of direct action on the germ-cells than as examples of +inherited somatic modifications.</p> + +<p>Starvation experiments which resulted in the dwarfing of adult individuals +have been performed on various insects, and while the dwarf condition may +persist through one or two generations due to a diminished food supply in +the eggs of the dwarf, the stock in question when returned to normal food +conditions soon resumes its original characteristic size.</p> + +<p><b>Experiments on Plants.—</b>Many experiments have been performed with plants, +inasmuch as they are particularly prone to become modified by changes of +food supply, or climate. For example, plants which grow luxuriantly in a +warm moist climate or a rich soil may become stunted and markedly changed +if transplanted to a cold climate or a poor soil. Naturally, their progeny +will exhibit the same behavior as long as they are kept under the new +conditions. Experiments carried on through numerous generations, however, +practically all show that the germinal constitution of the plants remains +unchanged, for when their seeds are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> planted under the original favorable +conditions of soil or climate, the plants resume their former habits of +growth. Naegeli, for instance, who made a study of many varieties of +Alpine plants, and who carried on experiments with many of them for years +in the Garden of Munich, concluded that no permanent effects had been +produced by the Alpine climate and conditions in plants from other regions +which had come under its influence. A few botanists have claimed to have +found that the changes produced by the Alpine climate have persisted for a +generation or two and have then worn off. More recent experiments on +various of our field grains which have been stunted and cut down in +productivity by growing for a number of generations under adverse +conditions show that they have not been permanently modified by such +treatment, for they resume normal productivity and size when grown again +under favorable conditions.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Lederbaur found that a common weed, <i>Capsella</i>, when +transplanted from an Alpine habitat to the lowlands did not return to the +lowland type of the weed, but retained certain of its Alpine +characteristics. It is not clear, however, that this particular species +during its long sojourn of many generations in Alpine conditions may not +have undergone a series of germinal variations and have developed into a +new variety or species quite independently of changes wrought in the germ +by reflected somatic effects. Indeed, in face of the preponderance of +other cases to the contrary, this interpretation would seem to be the more +plausible one.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span><b>Experiments on Vertebrates.—</b>In the vertebrates we may also find examples +of various somatic modifications experimentally produced, but evidence of +their inheritance is as difficult to establish as in the invertebrates. +Let us examine a few of the more significant of these which are alleged by +some to bear evidence of such inheritance.</p> + +<p>By decreasing the amount of water in an aquarium Marie von Chauvin was +able to transform the aquatic, gill-breathing salamander <i>Axolotl</i> into +the gill-less land form <i>Ambystoma</i>, heretofore regarded by systematists +as a different species. Either of these forms when sexually mature +produces its like. The salamanders in question have both lungs and gills, +but after a time the ones which are to be land forms lose their gills and +become exclusively lung-breathers. What seems to have been accomplished +then is the accelerating or forcing of normal natural tendencies already +inherent in the organism instead of introducing something new into the +inheritance by way of the soma. <i>Axolotl</i> is in all probability merely a +larval form of <i>Ambystoma</i> which with high temperature and an abundance of +water reproduces without advancing to the final possible stage of its life +cycle.</p> + +<p><b>Epilepsy in Guinea-Pigs.—</b>Perhaps the most frequently cited case and the +one in which the defenders of the idea of somatic inheritance usually take +final refuge is that of Doctor Brown-Sequard’s guinea-pigs, +notwithstanding the fact that no one has had convincing success in +repeating the experiments and that the original results are apparently +open to more than one interpretation. This experimenter rendered +guinea-pigs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> epileptic by certain injuries to the nervous system. Epilepsy +appeared in some of the offspring of these operated animals. He regarded +this as an example of the inheritance of an artificially induced epilepsy. +An indirect loss of toes occurred in some of the parents as a result of +the operations on the nervous system. Some of their young also had missing +toes. However, as has been pointed out by various critics, guinea-pigs are +strongly predisposed toward epileptic-like seizures, and the epilepsy in +the young may have been merely a coincidence. Voison and Peron believe +they have shown that in epilepsy a toxin is produced that may affect the +unborn fetus. That is, the result might have been due to a poison derived +directly from the mother. The experiments in fact show that it was mainly +in the offspring of affected mothers that the condition appeared. Others +maintain that we do not know the exact nature of epilepsy, that in some +cases it may be the result of infection by disease-germs, and that +Brown-Sequard’s cases may, therefore, have been merely the communication +of a disease from parent to child. As to the disappearance of toes it is a +well-known fact that rodents in particular are likely to gnaw off the toes +of their young very soon after birth, and little credence can be put in a +lack of toes in such young as cases of inheritance except under conditions +of much more careful observation than existed in Brown-Sequard’s +experiments. A fuller account of these experiments will be found in +Romanes’ <i>Darwin and After Darwin</i>, Vol. II, Chap. 6.</p> + +<p><b>Effects of Mutilations Not Inherited.—</b>Many experiments have been +performed by investigators to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>determine whether or not the results of +mutilation are transferred to succeeding generations, but so far only with +negative results. Many such experiments have been unwittingly carried on +for many generations, in fact, by breeders and fanciers, in the docking of +horses, dogs and sheep, the dehorning of cattle and the like, yet no +satisfactory evidence of the transmission of such conditions in any degree +has ever been forthcoming. The mutilations or distortions of the human +body through various rites or social customs also fails to yield any +convincing examples. Foot-binding, head-binding, or waist-binding must be +repeated in each successive generation to produce the particular type of +“beauty” that results from such deformities. And lucky it is for man that +injuries do not persist in subsequent generations, otherwise the modern +human being would be but a maimed relic of past misfortunes.</p> + +<p><b>Transplantation of Gonads.—</b>An interesting experimental test regarding the +effect of the body on the germ was made recently by Castle and Phillips +with guinea-pigs. It will be recalled from the discussion on Mendelism +that when a black guinea-pig is mated with a white one the offspring are +always black. These experimenters transplanted the ovaries from a young +black guinea-pig to a young white female whose own ovaries had been +previously removed. This white female was later mated to a white male. +Although she produced three different litters of young, six individuals in +all, the latter were all black. That is, not a trace of coat-color of the +white father or of the white foster-mother was impressed on the +transplanted germ-cells or the developing young. Later<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> experiments of the +same kind by Castle and Phillips, with other varieties of guinea-pigs, +have yielded the same results. The body of the mother, indeed, seems to +serve merely as a protective envelope and a source of nutrition.</p> + +<p><b>Effects of Body on Germ-Cells General, Not Specific.—</b>As far as the +evidence regarding the modification of the germ-plasm by the body is +concerned, we must conclude then that while under special circumstances +the germ-cells may be affected, the effect is general rather than specific +and the result as seen in the offspring has no discoverable correlation +with any particular part or structure of the parental soma. The effect is +presumably of much the same nature as where the germ is directly affected +by external agents. Where a new character or a modification of one already +existing is produced by a given condition of environment, in our +experience so far to have the same repeated in the offspring, a similar +evocative condition must prevail in the environment of the latter. Or in +other words the new character is not a permanent one which persists in +succeeding generations independently of external influences similar to +those which originally produced it.</p> + +<p><b>Certain Characters Inexplicable as Inherited Somatic Acquirements.—</b>It +would require remarkable credulity, in fact, to believe that some of the +most striking features about certain plants or animals could have been +developed by means of the inheritance of somatic modifications. For +example, many animals such as the quail, the rabbit, or the leaf-butterfly +are protectively colored. That is, they harmonize in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>color-pattern with +their surroundings so closely that they are overlooked by their enemies. +But how can this oversight on the part of an enemy so affect the bodies +and through them the germ-cells of such individuals as to develop so high +a degree of protective coloration? Or how, indeed, could any of numerous +adaptive structures which one can think of, such as the color or scent of +flowers to lure insects for cross-pollenation, the various grappling +devices on many seeds to secure wide distribution by animals, or the like, +have been directly produced by use or disuse or by any variation produced +in them by the agents to which they are adapted?</p> + +<p><b>The Case of Neuter Insects.—</b>A very instructive example of the +improbability that great skill, highly specialized structures, or certain +instincts are first developed in the parental body as the result of use +and then passed on to the offspring, is seen in the case of neuter +insects. In bees, for example, there are three classes of individuals: the +drones or males; the queens or functional females; and the workers, which +are neuter, that is, take no part in reproduction. The latter are really +sexually undeveloped females. The queen can lay either fertilized or +unfertilized eggs. The latter always give rise to males. The workers +gather the food, attend the queen, wait on the young, construct the comb, +and in short perform all the ordinary functions of the colony except the +reproductive. They have many highly specialized structures on various +parts of their bodies for carrying on their many activities, as well as +the very highly specialized instincts necessary to the maintenance of the +colony.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> But now, complex and highly developed as these workers are, since +they do not give rise to offspring, no matter how much experience or +structural modifications they may acquire during their lifetime, it can +not be handed on to another generation. Nor can they have come to their +present highly organized state through such a form of transmission since +they are not the descendants of workers but of a queen. Any new +modifications that appear in the workers of a colony must therefore have +their origin in changes which have taken place in the germ-cells of the +queen, and not in the soma of some other worker. It has been argued that +the worker has not always been infertile; that at a more primitive stage +of the evolution of the bee colony every female was both worker and +mother, and that individual somatic acquirements might therefore have been +transmitted, but this argument can not hold for many of the instincts or +features of the modern bee because these have to do only with the +conditions of life which exist in the colony in its present form. It is +obviously absurd to maintain, for instance, that all the highly +specialized instincts incident to queen production, queen attendance and +the like were functionally produced through usage before there was any +queen to produce or attend, while on the other hand, the very necessity of +queen production and maintenance is the outcome of the infertility of the +workers. Some workers have been known to lay eggs, but as these are few in +number and are never fertilized, which means if they develop they can only +produce males, they can play no considerable part in inheritance.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">ORIGIN OF NEW CHARACTERS</p> + +<p><b>Origin of New Characters in Germinal Variation.—</b>This brings us to our +last query as to whether the appearance of new characters can be explained +on any other or any more inclusive ground than that which infers that +changes undergone by the parent-body are in some way registered in the +germ-cells so as to be repeated in a certain measure in the body of the +offspring. The answer to the question of how inheritable variations do +come to appear in offspring if not through changes produced in the body of +the parent, is uncertain; nevertheless most biologists believe that they +do not have such a somatic origin but arise directly as germinal +variations. Some would attribute them to the fluctuating nature of living +substance in general. The instability of protoplasm is one of its striking +characteristics. It is constantly being broken down and built up, or, in +other words, undergoing waste and repair. Like all other protoplasm, that +of the germ-cells must also undergo these metabolic changes and it is +possible though not proved that in this give and take of substances small +changes occur in their constitution which find expression in the offspring +as variations. As already seen, substances in the blood other than food +may also affect the constitution of the germ-cells.</p> + +<p><b>Sexual Reproduction in Relation to New Characters.—</b>Some biologists +attribute great importance to sexual reproduction as a basis of variation +and the origin of new characters. They argue that the mingling of +determiners from two different lines must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> produce many new combinations +and expressions of germinal potentialities. Plausible as the argument +seems at first sight no one has succeeded as yet in securing proof that +absolutely new characters can be originated in this way. What seems to +occur under such circumstances is merely a reshuffling or sorting of old +unit-characters. Although innumerable permutations and combinations of +these may be made which find new expression outwardly, this is obviously +not creating determiners of new unit-characters in the germ-plasm. While +many biologists would not deny the possibility or even the probability +that the determiners of unit-characters may sometimes combine or influence +one another so as to form actual permanent new characters, the proof of +such performance is wholly lacking. On the other hand, there are not a few +biologists who argue that sexual reproduction accomplishes just the +reverse of increasing the extent of variation or creating new characters; +according to them it tends to annul exceptional peculiarities of either +parent by throwing the offspring back to the average racial type. It is +thus looked on by these advocates as a stabilizer which reduces the +amplitude of variations instead of increasing them. As a matter of fact +the two ideas are not mutually exclusive; sexual reproduction may +accomplish both of these ends. A limited number of observations and +experiments have been made to test out the correlation between sexual +reproduction and variation, but they have so far been too few or too +inconclusive to enable us to come to a satisfactory conclusion.</p> + +<p>While we are uncertain about the method of origin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> of new characters the +fact remains that they do arise in abundance as abrupt mutations or +otherwise and become a part of the permanent heritage of a stock. It is +clear that sexual reproduction may be one important means by which a given +new character which has arisen in one or a few individuals may become +incorporated in the species at large. Through Mendelian combinations and +segregations it would by cross-breeding be spread and gradually introduced +into more and more strains of the general population.</p> + +<p><b>Why So Many Features of an Organism Are Characterized by +Utility.—</b>Germinal variations are seemingly at first more or less hit or +miss affairs as far as utility to the organism is concerned. Useless +variations, so long as they are not actually harmful, may persist and +apparently be indefinitely inherited. However, a special premium is put on +variations which happen to be useful for they help the organism to succeed +in its struggle for life and since success in the world of life means not +only mere individual survival but also the production of progeny, through +this very means insured transmission to subsequent generations. It is +probable that the very many useful features of any organism, that is, its +<i>adaptations</i>, have thus been established. It is possible also that many +variations which at their inception are indifferent may wax in strength in +successive generations until they reach a point where they must become +either useful or harmful. In the former case they would mean increased +insurance of survival for their possessors, in the latter, elimination. +With such an automatic process as this operative in nature it is not +astonishing that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> the main features of any organism are characterized by +their utility to it.</p> + +<p><b>Germinal Variation a Simpler and More Inclusive Explanation.—</b>The gist of +the whole matter regarding the source of new characters in offspring seems +to be that the explanation based on the idea of germinal variation is in +last analysis the simpler and more inclusive, and there is no alleged case +of inheritance of parental modification, which can not be equally well +explained as the result of a germinal variation. There are numerous cases +which can not be explained as transmissions of somatic acquirements even +if this transmission could be established in certain cases. So, many +biologists argue, why have two explanations when one is sufficient, +especially when the other has never been conclusively established as true +in any case and is obviously untrue in certain test cases? The attitude of +most investigators is that of the open mind. While feeling that the weight +of probability is very decidedly against the theory of the inheritance of +somatic modifications, they still stand ready and willing to accept any +evidence in its favor which when weighed in the balance is not found +wanting.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">ANALYSIS OF CASES</p> + +<p>While space will not permit extended discussion, in order further to fix +the nature of the problem in mind as well as to exemplify the conditions +that must be satisfied to form convincing evidence of inherited somatic +acquirements, it will be well perhaps to analyze a few typical cases as +they are frequently cited.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span><b>Are the Effects of Training Inherited?—</b>Breeders and trainers very +commonly believe that the offspring of trained animals inherit in some +measure the effects of the training. Thus the increased speed of the +American trotting horse is often pointed to as strong evidence of such +transmission. According to W. H. Brewer, the earliest authentic record of +a mile in three minutes was made in 1818. The improvement, approximately +by decades, from that time was as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>During</td> + <td>1st</td> + <td>decade</td> + <td>after</td> + <td>1818,</td> + <td>improved</td> + <td>to</td> + <td>2:34</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>2nd</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:31½</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>3rd</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:29½</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>4th</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:24½</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>5th</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:17½</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>6th</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:13½</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>7th</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2:08½</td></tr></table> + +<p>By 1892, the date of Professor Brewer’s publications (See <i>Agricultural +Science</i>, Vol. 4, 1892) the record had reached 2:08½. Since then it has +been lowered still further.</p> + +<p>On the face of it this looks like a good case of inheritance of training, +and Brewer himself believed it such. If so this would mean that colts of a +highly trained trotter would be faster than they would have been if their +parent had remained untrained. It is impossible to get positive proof in +the case of any trained horse since there is no way of establishing just +how speedy the progeny would have been had the parent remained untrained. +If it could be shown that colts sired by a trotter late in life were on +the whole faster than those sired by the same father when younger and as +yet not highly exercised in trotting,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> then the facts might give some +evidence of value, but unfortunately no such records are available.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, even ignoring the fact that improvement in track and +sulky are probably the biggest items in the shortening of records in +recent times, <i>selection</i> instead of inheritance of the effects of +training will equally well account for any innate progress in trotting. +And since, as pointed out by Professor Ritter, there are even more +striking cases of similar improvements in other fields, such as college +athletics, where the factor of use-inheritance is entirely precluded, it +is wholly unnecessary to postulate it in the case of the trotter.</p> + +<p>For example an inspection of the records of college athletics for the last +thirty-five years in running, hurdling, pole-vaulting, jumping, putting +the shot, etc., shows on the whole a steady advance year by year. +Moreover, the greatest improvement has occurred in those events in which +skill and practise count for most together with selection of the +inherently ablest candidate for the events. But in the case of athletics +the improvements shown in thirty-five years have all come within a single +generation and hence the inheritance of the effects of training is ruled +out as a factor. Selection and improved training are the only factors +operative.</p> + +<p>In the case of the trotter inheritance undoubtedly has also been a factor, +but inheritance based on selection of what the race-track has shown to be +the speediest individual, not inheritance of the effects of training. In +other words, horses which have shown the capacity for being trained to the +highest degree of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> speed have naturally been selected as sires and dams +and so through selection generation after generation a speedier strain has +gradually been established.</p> + +<p><b>Instincts.—</b>When we turn to the realm of mental traits, particularly of +instincts, we meet with a whole host of activities which are frequently +pointed to by transmissionists as examples of inherited acquirements. Thus +according to them, habits at first acquired through special effort +ultimately become instinctive, or according to some, instinct is “lapsed +intelligence.” Instances often cited are the pointing of the bird-dog, the +extraordinary crop-inflation of the pouter-pigeon, or the tumbling of the +tumbler pigeon. We can not stop to discuss these cases beyond pointing out +as many others have done that practically all dogs have more or less of an +impulse to halt suddenly, crouch slightly and lift up one fore-foot when +they scent danger or prey, that all pigeons pout more or less, and that +practically all show more or less instincts of tumbling when pursued by a +hawk. Thus in all of these cases the fundamental germinal tendency is +already at hand for the fancier to base his choice on and thus through +selection build up the type desired. Just as in the fan-tailed pigeon, by +repeatedly selecting for breeding purposes individuals which showed an +unusual number of tail-feathers he has built up a type with an upright, +fan-like tail having many more feathers than the twelve found in the tail +of the ordinary pigeon, so by similar procedure in the case of other forms +he has markedly enhanced certain features. The idea of instincts being +“lapsed intelligence” is so clearly and concisely criticized in an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +article by the late Professor Whitman<a name='fna_4' id='fna_4' href='#f_4'><small>[4]</small></a> that I can not do better than +quote an excerpt. His views to the contrary are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The view here taken places the primary roots of instinct in the +constitutional activities of protoplasm and regards instinct in every +stage of its evolution as action depending essentially upon +organization. It places instinct before intelligence in order of +development, and is thus in accord with the broad facts of the present +distribution and relations of instinct and intelligence, instinct +becoming more general as we descend the scale, while intelligence +emerges to view more and more as we ascend to the higher orders of +animal life. It relieves us of the great inconsistencies involved in +the theory of instinct as “lapsed intelligence.” Instincts are +universal among animals, and that can not be said of intelligence. It +ill accords with any theory of evolution, or with known facts, to make +instinct depend upon intelligence for its origin; for if that were so, +we should expect to find the lowest animals free from instinct and +possessed of pure intelligence. In the higher forms we should expect +to see intelligence lapsing more and more into pure instinct. As a +matter of fact, we see nothing of the kind. The lowest forms act by +instinct so exclusively that we fail to get decided evidence of +intelligence. In higher forms not a single case of intelligence +lapsing into instinct is known. In forms that give indubitable +evidence of intelligence we do not see conscious reflection +crystallizing into instinct, but we do find instinct coming more and +more under the sway of intelligence. In the human race instinctive +actions characterize the life of the savage, while they fall more and +more into the background in the more intellectual races.”</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>For further discussion of this field the reader is referred to an +excellent chapter on “Are Acquired Habits Inherited?” in C. Lloyd Morgan’s +book, <i>Habit and Instinct</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Disease.—</b>Perhaps in the realm of disease more than in any other has an +interest in the inheritance of somatic acquirements been manifested. The +problem arising here is not essentially different from other questions of +inheritance but since it is a matter of such practical importance to man, +we may well give it special attention. We have to deal simply with the old +questions of what is constitutionally in the germ, what is acquired by the +body, and lastly, whether the somatically acquired is inherited. While we +all know in a general way what is meant by disease, especially if some +specific disorder such as scarlet fever, malaria or tuberculosis is +mentioned, an attempt to give an accurate definition is much like trying +to define a weed, inasmuch as what is functionally all right at one time +or place may be all wrong at another, or what is normal in one animal may +be abnormal in another. In general we may say that disease is derangement +or failure of physiological function.</p> + +<p><b>Reappearance of a Disorder in Successive Generations Not Necessarily +Inheritance.—</b>In attempting to study the inheritance of diseases we must +recognize clearly at the outset that reappearance of a disease in +successive generations by no means necessarily signifies inheritance. +Before it can be pronounced such we must make sure that it is not a case +of reimpressing similar modifications on the individuals of successive +generations. For example, in England there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> is a well-recognized condition +known as collier’s lung which results from constant working in coal mines. +And while both father and son may exhibit it, because of their similar + +occupations, there is nothing hereditary about the malady. Likewise there +is what is known as emery grinder’s lung, and practically every large +manufacturing city with soot-laden atmosphere leaves its impress on the +lungs of the inhabitants. This will occur, of course, generation after +generation, as long as such pollutions of the atmosphere continue to +exist. It is clear that any unhealthy occupation is likely to cause the +reappearance of an associated typical disease generation after generation +as long as the children follow the calling of their parents. The common +misconception that deformities or postures associated with a trade, such +as a shoemaker’s or tailor’s, is genetically stamped on offspring by the +end of the third or fourth generation results from failure to discriminate +between real inheritance and mere reappearances under similar conditions +of environment.</p> + +<p><b>Prenatal Infection Not Inheritance.—</b>Again, we must recognize that +prenatal infection is not inheritance. We have already seen that the young +mammal undergoes a certain period of intra-maternal development, but +influences operating on it during this period of gestation must be +reckoned with as environmental, not germinal. For example, it is said that +an unborn child may take smallpox from its mother but this and all similar +occurrences are cases of contagion. We find the great pathologist, +Virchow, who with many others of his time was a believer in the +inheritance of acquired characters, saying nevertheless <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>regarding such +instances that, “What operates on the germ after the fusion of the +sex-nuclei, modifying the embryo, or even inducing an actual deviation in +the development, can not be spoken of as inherited. It belongs to the +category of early acquired deviations which are therefore frequently +congenital.”</p> + +<p><b>Inheritance of a Predisposition Not Inheritance of a Disease.—</b>We must +discriminate sharply also between the inheritance of a predisposition and +the inheritance of a disease itself.</p> + +<p>We often hear the statement made that tuberculosis is inherited and have +cited in evidence certain consumptive families or strains. But +tuberculosis is a bacterial disease and children of tuberculous parents +are never born with the disease except in the rarest of instances.</p> + +<p><b>Tuberculosis.—</b>What is really inherited is a constitutional susceptibility +to this particular germ. While almost any individual may contract +tuberculosis when in a state of depressed vitality, or under stress of +adverse surroundings, there is no doubt that certain families are more +easily infected than others and much less resistant to the ravages of the +disease when once it gains a foothold. However, a predisposition is a +vastly different thing from the inheritance of the actual disease. For +just as we are born with a nose well adapted to eye-glasses but not with +eye-glasses on our nose, so many of us are born tuberculizable though not +tuberculous, and every sanitary advance we make toward lessening the +chances of infection is just so much more insurance for the susceptible.</p> + +<p>The whole problem of tuberculosis is an extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> complex one. We do not +know just the measure of the inheritance of the predisposition. Some +writers in the past have maintained that tuberculosis is mainly a question +of infection and not of inherent susceptibility, but steadily increasing +evidence all points the other way.</p> + +<p>Where the predisposition exists the chances of infection are still, even +under the conditions of present-day sanitation, very great. The close +association between a consumptive and other members of the family through +a prolonged period of time, of course, renders the latter likely to +infection unless unusual care is exercised. Very often where a parent is +consumptive a child contracts the malady shortly after birth and is + +particularly likely to do so if the mother, who nurses it and cares for it +most intimately, is the tubercular member of the family. Where the mother +is tubercular, indeed, the probabilities are that the child has already +before birth had its vitality lowered through the toxins circulating in +her blood or through defective nutrition, and in consequence does not +resist well any diseases.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly a large proportion of our infant mortality is of tubercular +origin. It is now a well-established fact that much tuberculosis in +children is attributable to drinking milk from tuberculous cows, yet we +find individuals so uninformed and dairymen so mercenary that they fight +all attempts of the commonwealth to test out cattle for tuberculosis so as +to condemn the infected individuals and thus save our babies. Recent +investigations made in some of our large pork-packing establishments also +indicate that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> hogs, especially such as have been around tubercular +cattle, are often shot through and through with tuberculosis and that such +flesh when used as food, if not thoroughly cooked, may become a serious +menace to our health.</p> + +<p>With the wide prevalence of bovine and human tuberculosis it is little +wonder that nearly every human being becomes more or less infected at some +period of life. Autopsies on large numbers of individuals in some of our +great hospitals have shown that as many as ninety-nine per cent. of the +subjects show tubercular lesions of some kind. While it is true that the +class of people who would come to autopsy in such public hospitals would +perhaps be more likely to be tubercular than the average of the community, +still it can not be denied that a very large degree of infection exists. +Pearson, from statistics gathered in Europe, has shown that about eighty +to ninety per cent. of the population have tubercular lesions before the +age of eighteen. Hamburger found that in Vienna ninety-five per cent. of +the children of the poor, between twelve and thirteen years of age, were +infected with tubercular bacilli and he estimates that all would be before +maturity. According to Doctor Mott, pathologist to the London County +Asylums, the insane between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five are about +fifteen times as likely to acquire tuberculosis as the sane are.</p> + +<p>Yet the mortality from tuberculosis, great though it be, is obviously not +in proportion to the enormous degree of infection. The crux of the +situation is mainly the matter of resistance. From the standpoint of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +heredity, therefore, the question largely resolves itself into one of the +inheritance or non-inheritance of constitutional resistance. Some are +predisposed to be non-resistant and hence succumb.</p> + +<p>The work of Karl Pearson<a name='fna_5' id='fna_5' href='#f_5'><small>[5]</small></a> and other recent researches forcibly indicate +that hereditary constitutional predisposition is one of the chief factors +concerned in subjects who develop well defined attacks of the disease. Yet +we must not forget that there are degrees of susceptibility and that +therefore a constitutional predisposition which might be of little +significance under good average conditions of nutrition and sanitation +might be insufficient under unfavorable conditions.</p> + +<p>Before we can make any relatively accurate estimate of the exact degree to +which the malady is based on inheritance we must have more data. Many +difficulties beset the path of the investigator. In the first place, when +one gets back a generation or two he finds that diagnosis was crude and +uncertain; a given malady may or may not have been tuberculosis. The main +error however was probably on the side of not recognizing it in mild or +obscure cases. Then again the questions of virulence of the infection, of +size and frequency of the dose, etc., are also complicating factors. +Moreover, in very many cases the infection is a mixed one and hence we are +dealing with other factors than straight tuberculosis.</p> + +<p><b>Two Individuals of Tubercular Stocks Should Not Marry.—</b>However, +sufficient is now known of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> inheritance of susceptibility to the +disease that we can have little conscience toward the welfare of the race +if we in any way countenance the marriage of two individuals who come each +of tubercular strains, and marriage of even a normal person into a badly +tainted strain, where the one married is tubercular, is extremely +hazardous looked at from the standpoint of the children likely to be born +of such a union. The Supreme Court of New York recently held that the +fraudulent concealment of tuberculosis by a person entering into a +marriage relation is ground for the annulment of the marriage.</p> + +<p><b>Special Susceptibility Less of a Factor in Many Diseases.—</b>With some +diseases such as leprosy, typhoid fever, smallpox and cholera there seems +to be less a question of special susceptibility since nearly all persons +are vulnerable. Yet in cases of typhoid, at least, there are some +indications that certain families are more likely to take the disease than +others under similar exposure. We know of no inherited effects of such +diseases, however. For instance, children of lepers do not inherit leprosy +and if kept out of leper districts remain normal.</p> + +<p><b>Deaf-Mutism.—</b>In certain abnormal states there is danger of confusing +similar conditions which may have two entirely different sources of +origin. Deafness, for example, may be strictly inborn as the outcome of a +germinal variation or it may result from extraneous influences such as +accidents, infective diseases, neglected tonsils and the like. The former +is inheritable, the latter not. Bell in 1906 in a special census report to +the United States government showed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> that deaf-mutism is markedly +hereditary, particularly where deaf-mutes intermarry as they are prone to +do. Fay’s extensive studies on <i>Marriage of the Deaf in America</i> also +demonstrate the hereditary nature of the congenital forms of deafness. Cut +off as such individuals are from communication with normal people, the +association of the two sexes in special schools and institutions is of +course highly conducive to such marriages. The defect seems to behave in +the manner of a Mendelian recessive. Two deaf-mutes should not have +children and yet such marriages are occurring every day. Even if two +persons marry from families which tend to become hard of hearing the +evidence indicates that their children are likely also to develop this +partial deafness as they grow older, although it seems safe for a person +of such tendency to marry into a family without it.</p> + +<p><b>Gout.—</b>In such disorders as gout there is little question but that a +tendency to it runs in families. On the other hand it may also be acquired +without special susceptibility. There is no evidence, however, that +because a father has gout the effect of the gout is reflected on his +germ-cells and the son has gout as a result. Indeed, often a son who +becomes gouty was born long before the father became gouty. Son and father +both have gout then, because each has innate germinal tendencies which +when subjected to certain evocative stimuli become expressed as gout.</p> + +<p><b>Nervous and Mental Diseases.—</b>Inasmuch as the question of nervous and +mental diseases has become one of such overshadowing importance at the +present day, a discussion of the subject at some length will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> presented +in a separate chapter. I shall merely point out here that the general +verdict of experts in nervous and mental disorders is to the effect that +externally induced mental disorders are of rare occurrence except as the +result of general poisoning or enfeeblement of the system in some way, or +by traumatic conditions such as a blow on the head, and that there is no +evidence of the transmission of the effects of such conditions. In most +cases of insanity, supposedly caused by fright or worry, a close study of +the family stock will reveal nervous instability of some kind. The +supposed cause has been merely the precipitating stimulus which has +brought to expression a dormant weakness of germinal origin. The stress +and strain of modern life is particularly likely to test out and reveal +such neurally unstable individuals.</p> + +<p><b>Other Disorders Which Have Hereditary Aspects.—</b>Space will not permit +discussion of various other specific disorders which are known to have +important hereditary aspects, although none shows any convincing evidence +of having become hereditary in nature through first affecting the soma. +Some of these, such as epilepsy and other nervous affections, +tuberculosis, color-blindness, cataract and various malformations, have +already been mentioned. Others that may be listed are cancer, +arterio-sclerosis, obesity and certain forms of rheumatism, and of heart +and kidney diseases. In practically all of these cases in which heredity +enters as a factor the condition is one of inheriting a special +susceptibility and not the disease itself. Which means simply that the +disorder in question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> is much more easily called forth in such persons by +appropriate bacterial or other stimulus, than in the case of the normal +individual.</p> + +<p><b>Induced Immunity Not Inherited.—</b>Lastly, it is well known that various +animals, including man, after recovery from an attack of any one of +certain diseases, become more or less immune from further attacks of the +same disease. Moreover in some instances as in inoculation against typhoid +or diphtheria, immunity may be artificially induced by means of +anti-toxins. The question arises as to whether such immunity is +transmitted to offspring. Experiments have been made (see <i>Bulletin No. +30, U. S. Hygienic Laboratory</i>) to test this and it has been found that +the condition is not inherited. Young guinea-pigs, for instance, born of +mothers immunized during pregnancy are immune at birth but they lose their +immunity in the course of a few weeks. The effect is clearly one of direct +transference from the blood of the mother. The same temporary immunity can +be produced in the young, in fact, by merely having them nurse from an +immunized mother.</p> + +<p><b>Non-Inheritance of Parental Modifications Has Social, Ethical and +Educational Significance.—</b>Like many other biological conclusions these +relative to the non-inheritance of parental modifications are of extreme +importance to humanity. It is clear that they have not only physical but +social, ethical and educational significance. For if the education which +we give our children of to-day, or the desirable moral conduct which we +inculcate does not affect the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>offspring of succeeding generations through +inheritance, then the actual progress of the race is much slower than is +commonly supposed, and the advance of modern over ancient times lies more +in an improvement in extraneous conditions through invention and the +accumulation and rendering accessible of knowledge, than in an actual +innate individual superiority. And when we face the issue squarely we have +to admit that there is no more indication of the inheritance of parentally +acquired characters as regards customs, knowledge, habits and moral +traditions than there is of physical features. In fact, if such +acquirements were inherited then we should soon have a race which would +naturally, spontaneously as it were, do what its ancestors did with +effort. Yet we do not find the children in our schools reading, doing sums +and developing proper social relations without ceaseless prompting and +urging on the part of the teacher. Indeed I can testify that this +necessity carries over even into a university. In short, the habits and +standards of each generation have to be instilled into the succeeding +generation.</p> + +<p><b>No Cause for Discouragement.—</b>At first glance when we realize that +notwithstanding our individual advancement, that in spite of all our +painstaking efforts toward self-improvement, we can not add one jot or +tittle to the native ability of our children, that, aside from possible +advantageous germinal variations, they will have to start in at +approximately the same level as we did, and like us will have to struggle, +or be coaxed, pulled or spurred up to the higher reaches of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> attainments, +we are apt to feel discouraged and to look on heredity as the hand of fate +which irrevocably bars progress. But there is another side to the picture. +This very fact of heredity which can not be altered at will is the +conservative factor which maintains the excellence of our standard strains +of plants and animals, and sustains man himself at his present level of +accomplishment. While we are denied advancement through the efforts of the +flesh, we are also largely protected from our misfortunes and follies, as +witness the non-inheritance of mutilations, of various maladies of +extrinsic origin, or of personally acquired bad habits.</p> + +<p><b>Improved Environment Will Help Conserve the Superior Strains When They Do +Appear.—</b>If we can not hand on to our descendants a personally enhanced +blood heritage, we at least can do our share toward building up a social +heritage of established truth, of efficient institutions and of +stimulating ideals, through which their dormant capacities may be led to +expand more surely and more effectively to their uttermost limits. Each +advance in such social heritage will tend more and more to create an +atmosphere which will make it sure that the occasional real progressive +and permanent variations which occur from time to time will find adequate +expression and preservation in future lines of descendants. It will reduce +the numbers of our “mute, inglorious Miltons” by more certainly disclosing +the individual of exceptional talents and insuring for him an opportunity +of revealing them to the best advantage. Above all, since surrounding +influences are especially powerful on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> young and developing organisms, we +should realize that great care must be exercised in behalf of the young +child to secure an environment which is saturated with wholesome +influences. For it is a rule of development that if the environment is +faulty the organism is impaired.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<p class="title">PRENATAL INFLUENCES</p> + + +<p><b>All That a Child Possesses at Birth Not Necessarily Hereditary.—</b>We come +now to the more specific discussion of what may happen to offspring of +mammals, and particularly man, in the interval between fertilization and +birth; that is, during the intra-maternal period. We have already seen +that anything affecting the offspring during this period has to be +reckoned as environmental, our formula reading, Mammal = germ + +intra-maternal environment + external environment. It is evident, then, +that all that a child possesses at birth is not necessarily hereditary, +since the unborn child may be influenced by conditions prevailing in +either parent.</p> + +<p><b>The Myth of Maternal Impressions.—</b>In order to clear the way for more +urgent matters let us first inquire into the question of the production of +changes in the unborn child as a result of “maternal impressions.” As the +tale generally goes, structural changes are produced in the unborn child +corresponding to some mental experience of the mother, usually a vivid +impression of strong emotion, but when a given individual is pinned down +to sources, it is usually a case of hearsay.</p> + +<p>Stock examples are: The mother sees a mouse with the result that a +mouse-shaped birthmark occurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> on the child; or she sees a crushed hand +and in consequence bears a child later with some of the bones of the hand +missing; the mother touches her body when frightened and thus marks the +unborn child on the corresponding part of the body; or she produces beauty +in the child by long contemplation of a picture of a beautiful child; and +so on almost endlessly. The favorite is usually the production of a red +birthmark or marks on the child’s body by strong desire on the part of the +mother for strawberries, tomatoes, etc.—the fruit must be red since the +mark is red—or by fright from seeing a fire. As a matter of fact it is +not uncommon for the capillary blood vessels of the skin of a new-born +infant to remain dilated in spots instead of contracting as they normally +should do. The result is more or less of a red or “flame” spot. It is easy +to see, therefore, why such birthmarks are so frequently referred back by +the credulous mother to her desire for or fear of some red object.</p> + +<p>An analysis of the case of a child shuddering at the sight of peaches is +of interest in this connection. The child showed the greatest aversion to +peaches, particularly to the fuzzy covering. The mother’s explanation was +that peaches were unusually plentiful the year the child was born and that +she had worked hour after hour at peeling and canning peaches shortly +before his birth until she had become thoroughly sick of them. This +acquired aversion on her part she believed had been transferred to the +child. A few questions revealed the fact, however, that the mother, +herself, had never liked peaches and when asked if they were distasteful +to any other member of her own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> family she exclaimed, “Oh, yes, my mother +would shudder and shake if a peach were brought near her.” And there we +have it. The idiosyncrasy was an inherited one as many similar +peculiarities are. The mental impression produced in the mother by her own +experience with peaches had nothing to do with its occurrence in the +child.</p> + +<p>Very frequently also one encounters the mother who is sure she has +engendered musical ability in her child by constant practise and study of +music during pregnancy. The child is musical; what better evidence does +one want! It seems never to occur to such a mother that the child is +musically inclined because she herself is, as is evinced by her own desire +in the matter even if she is not a skillful performer.</p> + +<p>When we take into account the extreme credulity of many people, the +unconscious tendency of mankind to give a dramatic interpretation to +events where causes are not certainly known, the hosts of coincidences +that occur in life, and the multitude of cases where something should +happen but nothing does, we are compelled to believe that the whole matter +of direct specific influence of the mother’s mind on the developing fetus +is a myth. After seeing the conditions which prevail in Mendelism, for +example, it will take strong faith to believe that a mother with duplex +brown eyes can “think” or “will” blue eyes on her baby, yet this would be +a mild procedure compared to some we are asked to accept by believers in +the transmission of maternal impressions. Most of all, however, when we +recall the actual relation between the embryo and the mother—a narrow +umbilical cord is the sole means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> communication between the two—the +physical impossibility of a connection between some particular mental +happening of the mother and a corresponding specific modification in the +fetus becomes evident. For there are no nerves in the umbilical cord, the +only path of communication between mother and fetus being the indirect one +by way of the blood stream. Even this method of communication is limited +inasmuch as the mother’s blood does not circulate through the blood +vessels of the fetus. Gaseous and dissolved substances are merely +interchanged through the thin walls of the capillary blood vessels in the +placenta.</p> + +<p><b>Injurious Prenatal Influences.—</b>However, the denial that a particular +mental impression of the mother is associated with a particular structural +defect in a child does not carry with it the implication that prenatal +influences of all kinds are negligible factors. On the contrary any +deleterious effect which can reach the fetus through absorption from the +blood of the mother may be of grave consequence. There is not the least +doubt that malnutrition or serious ill-health on the part of the mother +often has a prejudicial effect on the unborn offspring. Severe shock or +grief, worry, nervous exhaustion, the influence of certain diseases, +poisons in the blood or tissues of the parent, such as lead, mercury, +phosphorus, alcohol and the like, may all act detrimentally, but they +operate either by rendering nutrition defective, by direct poisoning, or +by generating toxins in the blood of the parent which then poison the +fetus. Among the latter may be mentioned the toxic products of +tuberculosis and certain other bacterial diseases. Such factors operating +on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> the unborn young or even on the germ-cells may cause malformations, +arrests of development, instabilities of the nervous system, and general +physical or mental weakness. The effects are general, however, and not +specific.</p> + +<p>To distinguish certain of these prenatal effects, particularly those of +certain diseases or poisons, from true hereditary influences they are +frequently spoken of as cases of <i>transmission</i> rather than inheritance +from parents. Some writers use the technical term <i>blastophthoria</i>, or +false-heredity, extending the meaning so as to include also any damage +that might be inflicted on the germ-cells.</p> + +<p><b>Lead Poisoning.—</b>By way of illustration of how certain cumulative poisons +may act we may examine a tabulation of eighty-one cases of lead poisoning +as reported by Constantin Paul (Fig. 29, <a href="#Page_164">p. 164</a>).</p> + +<p>The table requires little comment. The disastrous effects of such +poisoning are apparent in every class of cases. The sixth class where the +husband alone was exposed to lead shows that the poison can operate +directly through the germ-cell. Other observers note that in the children +of workers in lead, there is a distressing frequency of feeble-mindedness +and epilepsy.</p> + +<p>That lead poisoning operating through the germ-cells of the father can +affect the development of the young harmfully is well shown in Fig. 30, <a href="#Page_165">p. 165</a>, +which is a photograph of two young rabbits from the same litter The +white young one is from a normal albino mother mated to an albino father +which had received lead treatment. The pigmented young one is from the +same albino mother by a normal pigmented father.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> Although the white +father was considerably larger than the pigmented father, nevertheless the +young of the former, because of the harmful effects of the lead, is +distinctly smaller and less lively. A number of litters, each from the +same mother but in part from a lead-poisoned father and in part from a +normal father, have been secured. All show more or less the same results. +The experiments are still in progress in the department of experimental +breeding at the University of Wisconsin.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Number<br />of<br />cases.</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Number<br />of<br />pregnancies.</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Abortions,<br />premature<br />labor, and<br />stillbirths.</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Infants<br />born<br />living.</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Remarks.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bt" valign="top">1.</td> + <td class="btr" valign="top">Mother showing symptoms<br />of plubism</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">4</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">15</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">13</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">2</td> + <td class="bt" valign="bottom">One infant died<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">within 24 hours.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">2.</td> + <td class="br" valign="top">Mother working in type<br />foundry, all of whose<br />previous pregnancies had<br />been normal</td> + <td class="br" align="center">5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">36</td> + <td class="br" align="center">29</td> + <td class="br" align="center">7</td> + <td class="dent" valign="bottom">Four of these died<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in first year.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">3.</td> + <td class="br" valign="top">Mother who during period<br />of work in type foundry<br />had five pregnancies</td> + <td class="br" align="center">1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0</td> + <td class="dent" valign="bottom">After ceasing to<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work had</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">healthy child.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">4.</td> + <td class="br" valign="top">Mother working intermittently<br />in type foundry; while<br />working there</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0</td> + <td class="dent" valign="bottom">When away from<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work for some</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">period of time</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">gave birth to</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">healthy children.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">5.</td> + <td class="br" valign="top">Mother in whom blue line<br />on gum the only sign of<br />lead poisoning</td> + <td class="br" align="center">6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">29</td> + <td class="br" align="center">21</td> + <td class="br" align="center">8</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bb" valign="top">6.</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="top">Husband alone exposed to<br />lead</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">?</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">32</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">12</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">20</td> + <td class="bb" valign="bottom">Of these, eight<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">died in first year,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">four in second,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">five in third.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29</span></p> + +<p class="center">Tabulation of eighty-one cases of lead poisoning recorded by Constantin Paul (from Adami).</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img29.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Photograph of young rabbits from the same litter, the smaller one stunted +by lead-poisoning of its father (Courtesy of Professor L. J. Cole).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span><b>The Expectant Mother Should Have Rest.—</b>The mere matter of rest on the +part of the pregnant mother is, judging from the work of Pinard, a +Frenchman, and his pupils, an important one. In a number of detailed +investigations they have shown that rest on the part of the working mother +during the last three months before the child is born results in the +production of markedly larger and more robust children than those born of +mothers equally healthy but who have not had such rest. Moreover the +danger of premature birth is considerably lessened.</p> + +<p><b>Too Short Intervals Between Children.—</b>Too short an interval between +childbirths would also seem to be an infringement on the rights of the +child as well as of the mother. Thus Doctor R. J. Ewart (“The Influence of +Parental Age on Offspring,” <i>Eugenic Review</i>, October, 1911) finds that +children born at intervals of less than two years after the birth of the +previous child still show at the age of six a notable deficiency in +height, weight and intelligence, when compared with the children born +after a longer interval, or even with first-born children.</p> + +<p><b>Our Duty to Safeguard Motherhood.—</b>Doubtless the unventilated factory and +tenement also do their share, even though we can give no exact +quantitative measure of it. Obviously, it becomes a civic duty to protect +as much as possible all members of our social system from such injurious +factors as have just been discussed. It is particularly necessary to +safeguard mothers before confinement, especially working mothers.</p> + +<p><b>Expectant Mothers Neglected.—</b>According to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> claims of life insurance +men, expectant mothers are the most neglected members of our population. +Doctor Van Ingen, of New York City, estimates that ninety per cent. of +women in this country are wholly without prenatal care. Yet every +prospective mother should be taught the probable meaning of such symptoms +as headache, hemorrhages, swelling of the feet and disturbed vision. She +should realize the importance of submitting a sample of urine for analysis +at least once a month before childbirth and twice a month for a while +thereafter. She should be specially informed regarding work, exercise, +diet and dress. A recent government bulletin written by Mrs. Max West +which may be had free by writing to the Children’s Bureau, Department of +Labor, Washington, D. C., gives much useful information on this subject.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">ALCOHOLISM</p> + +<p><b>Unreliability of Much of the Data.—</b>One of the most important poisons that +plays a prominent part among ante-natal influences is alcohol. But when it +comes to a study of the problem of alcoholism from the standpoint of +heredity and parental influences we meet with many difficulties, prominent +among which are the inaccuracy and unreliability of many of the statistics +brought forward in this connection. Many of the results are vitiated by +the prejudices of propagandists who propose to make a case either for or +against alcohol as a beverage whether or not the facts justify their +conclusions. When one tries to view the matter with an open mind he finds +that there is a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>deplorable lack of statistics which are not susceptible +to more than one interpretation. However, using as much as possible what +seems to be unbiased data, the evidence is almost wholly against alcohol +as a beverage, at least to any immoderate extent.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol a Germinal or Fetal Poison.—</b>The bad effects as far as offspring +are concerned reveal themselves in the main under the category of “false +heredity,” i. e., germinal or fetal poisonings rather than of heritable +changes induced in the germ-cells. Most investigators feel that there are +too many criminal, imbecile, insane and unhealthy persons among the +offspring of drunkards to dismiss the matter as a coincidence. In an +investigation of Imbault, for example, we find recorded of one hundred +tuberculous children that while forty-one were of tuberculous parentage, +thirty-six per cent, were the offspring of inebriates. Furthermore Imbault +cites the observations of Arrivé on 1,506 cases of juvenile meningitis to +the effect that this malady is twice as frequent in the children of +alcoholic as in those of tuberculous parentage. It has been proved by +Nicloux (<i>L’Obstetrique</i>, Vol. 99, 1900) that in dogs and guinea-pigs +alcohol passes through the placenta and may be detected in fetal tissues; +hence it is in position to influence the fetus. He found that in a very +short time the amount of alcohol in the blood of the fetus about +paralleled that in the blood of the mother.</p> + +<p><b>Progressive Increase in Death-Rate of Offspring of Inebriate Women.—</b>In an +investigation on the effects of parental alcoholism on the offspring, +Sullivan (<i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, Vol. 45, 1899) gives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> some +important figures. To avoid other complications he chose female drunkards +in whom no other degenerative features were evident. He found that among +these the percentage of abortions, still-births and deaths of infants +before their third year was 55.8 per cent. as against 23.9 per cent. in +sober mothers. In answer to the objection that this high percentage may be +due merely to neglect, and not to impairment of the fetus by alcoholism, +he points out the fact based on the history of the successive births, that +there was a progressive increase in the death-rate of offspring in +proportion to the length of time the mother had been an inebriate, thus:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">No. of<br />cases</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Per cent.<br />born dead</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Per cent.<br />dying<br />before 3</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Total<br />percentage</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">First births</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">80</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .25em;">6.2</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">27.5</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">33.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Second births</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">80</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">40.8</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">50.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Third births</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">80</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .25em;">7.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">45.0</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">52.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Fourth and fifth</td> + <td class="br" align="center">111</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">54.9</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">65.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Sixth to tenth</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">93</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">17.2</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">54.8</td> + <td class="bb" align="center">72.0</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Views of a Psychiatrist on Alcohol.—</b>Forel, who for years was the +psychiatrist at the head of a large insane asylum at Zurich, Switzerland, +has this to say about the effects of narcotic poisons and alcohol in +particular:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The offspring tainted with alcoholic blastophthoria suffer various +bodily and physical anomalies, among which are dwarfism, rickets, a +predisposition to tuberculosis and epilepsy, moral idiocy, and idiocy +in general, a predisposition to crime and mental diseases, sexual +perversions, loss of suckling in women, and many other misfortunes.”</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>In another passage he<a name='fna_6' id='fna_6' href='#f_6'><small>[6]</small></a> remarks as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“But what is of much greater importance is the fact that acute and +chronic alcoholic intoxication deteriorates the germinal protoplasm of +the procreators.... The recent researches of Bezzola seem to prove +that the old belief in the bad quality of children conceived during +drunkenness is not without foundation. Relying on the Swiss census of +1900, in which there figure nine thousand idiots, and after careful +examination of the bulletins concerning them, this author has proved +that there are two acute annual maximum periods for the conception of +idiots (calculated from nine months before birth); the periods of +carnival and vintage, when the people drink most. In the wine-growing +districts the maximum conception of idiots is enormous, while it is +almost nil at other periods. Moreover, these two maximum periods come +at the time of year when conception is at a minimum among the rest of +the population, the maximum of normal conceptions occurring at the +beginning of summer.”</p></div> + +<p>Another interpretation of Bezzola’s results has been suggested to the +effect that the license of these periods enables the defective members of +the community, such as the feeble-minded, an opportunity of mating more +readily and that consequently the result is direct inheritance of idiocy +and allied defects instead of idiocy produced through alcoholic poisoning +of the parental germ-cell.</p> + +<p><b>Other Views.—</b>There are indeed many competent investigators who believe +that alcoholism in parents has little or no part in the direct production +of mental defects in children. For instance, Tredgold quotes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> Doctor +Ireland’s observations that although at New Year, when the fishermen +return, the whole population of certain villages in Scotland gets drunk, +there is no noticeable excess of defectives born nine months later, and +remarks further that, “I have histories of idiots conceived under such +circumstances, but so I have of normal children, and my opinion is, that +while this may be a cause in some cases, the number of instances in this +country at any rate is exceedingly small.” Again, Goddard, one of our best +known American students of feeble-mindedness, who has made careful study +of this point under especially favorable conditions, feels that his data +do not prove that alcoholism of either the father or the mother causes +feeble-mindedness in the child. He concludes, “Everything seems to +indicate that alcoholism itself is only a symptom; that it for the most +part occurs in families where there is some form of neurotic taint, +especially feeble-mindedness.” Goddard, however, in common with many other +observers, notes that miscarriages and deaths in infancy are far higher +among inebriates than among abstainers.</p> + +<p>Doctor Mjöen cites an interesting parallel between the increase of +feeble-mindedness in Norway and a period from 1816 to 1835, when every one +was permitted to distil brandy. In some districts many of the farmers +distilled brandy from corn and potatoes, and in such regions during this +period feeble-mindedness increased nearly one hundred per cent. Later the +home distillation of brandy was stopped. According to Doctor Mjöen, “The +enormous increase in idiots came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> and went with the brandy.” He is +inclined to believe, however, that the alcohol operated injuriously mainly +on stocks already defective.</p> + +<p><b>The Affinity of Alcohol for Germinal Tissue.—</b>Nicloux and Renault have +shown that alcohol has a decided affinity for the reproductive glands. In +individuals who have recently taken alcohol the proportion of alcohol in +the gonads is soon almost equal to the amount found in the blood. Thus in +experiments on mammals it was found that the proportion of alcohol in the +ovary to that in the blood was as three to five, and in the testis as two +to three. This would afford abundant opportunity for alcohol to act +directly on the spermatozoon or the ovum.</p> + +<p>A number of different investigators concur in finding that the germ-glands +of the male human inebriate in many cases show more or less atrophy and +other degenerative changes. In guinea-pigs which have been repeatedly +intoxicated with alcohol, Stockard found that while he could detect no +visible abnormality in the gonad, nevertheless their defective and +weakened progeny showed that the germ-cells had been affected.</p> + +<p><b>Innate Degeneracy Versus the Effects of Alcohol.—</b>Many observations on +human beings have been brought forward which at first sight seem to +indicate that noticeable defects, particularly mental and nervous, occur +with appalling frequency in children resulting from conception during +intoxication, although, unfortunately, the evidence is rarely clear as to +whether the defects are really due to the effects of the alcohol or to the +fact that the parent or parents were degenerate to begin with.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>A very interesting human case cited by Forel on the authority of +Schweighofer is that of a normal woman who had three sound children when +married to a normal man. After the death of this husband she married an +inebriate by whom she had three other children. One of these suffered from +infantilism, one turned out to be a drunkard, and the third became a +social degenerate and drunkard. Moreover the first two contracted +tuberculosis, although hitherto the family stock had been free from this +malady. Ultimately the woman married again and by this third husband, who +was normal, she again had sound children. Similar cases might be cited, +as, for example, a record of eighty-three epileptics, of whom sixty had +drunken parents, but it can be urged against all of them, of course, that +the defective offspring were due to an innate degeneracy of the drunken +parent which made him a drunkard rather than to the effects of the alcohol +he took. While one is skeptical as to the validity of this objection in +all of the many cases which occur with such monotonous frequency in man, +there is no way of escaping such an interpretation with the evidence at +hand. It must be admitted, moreover, that there are many families with one +or both parents alcoholic in which the children are not mentally +defective.</p> + +<p><b>Experimental Alcoholism in Lower Animals.—</b>Many of the objections that +exist in the case of man, however, do not apply in that of lower animals. +If normal animals are experimentally alcoholized and are shown to produce +defective offspring under such conditions, then in their cases at least, +the disorders in the offspring must be due to the effects of alcohol and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +not to an innately degenerate condition of the parent. Disorders similar +to some of those seen in the children of alcoholics do actually result in +alcoholized animals of one kind or another.</p> + +<p>Against the earlier experiments on animals it has been urged that too few +individuals were used to give conclusive results, but this objection can +not be brought against the recent experiments of Stockard. While he has +published accounts of his work in various scientific periodicals lately, +the reader will find a full statement of his own experiments, together +with a review of the whole subject of experimental alcoholism in animals +and the effects on progeny in <i>The American Naturalist</i>, Vol. XLVII, +November, 1913, together with a useful bibliography.</p> + +<p>Before taking up Stockard’s results we may select a few of the more +significant experiments made earlier by other investigators.</p> + +<p>Laitinen alcoholized rabbits and guinea-pigs. He found that the treated +individuals had more still-born young than the control, and also that +growth of the living young was retarded. His alcoholized rabbits and +guinea-pigs produced more young than did the normal individuals used as a +control. Laitinen’s studies on man, together with three other studies of +the Eugenics Laboratory in London, show that in man also more children are +born to alcoholics than to normal parents. Goddard’s investigations in +America corroborate this fact.</p> + +<p>Ceni found that only 43 per cent. of the eggs from alcoholized fowls +developed normally, as against 77 per cent. of normal development in the +controls. Moreover<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> the eggs of alcoholic fowls were shown to be less +resistant to adverse conditions than normal eggs from the fact that +fluctuations of temperature at the beginning of incubation kept all the +alcoholic eggs from developing perfectly, while 27 per cent. of the +control eggs developed normally under the same adverse circumstances.</p> + +<p>Hodge made a pair of dogs alcoholic. Of 23 pups obtained from the pair, 8 +were deformed and 9 were dead; 4 alone were viable. From a control pair of +dogs 45 pups were obtained, of which 4 were deformed, none were born dead, +and 41 were viable.</p> + +<p><b>Stockard’s Experiments on Guinea-Pigs.—</b>Stockard’s experiments demonstrate +that the offspring of mammals may be injured or modified in their +development by treating either parent repeatedly with alcohol. The +guinea-pigs used in the experiment were all first tested by normal matings +and found to yield normal offspring. The alcohol was given to them by +inhalation. It was found to be readily taken into the animals’ blood and +to produce intoxication. While guinea-pigs alcoholized in this way as +often as six times a week for two and one-half years would maintain their +own bodily vigor and health apparently, the deleterious effects on their +progeny were marked. The defects were general rather than specific, +although the central nervous system and special sense organs were +apparently affected most.</p> + +<p>Out of 119 total young produced by the alcoholic animals, only 52, or less +than 44 per cent., survived, whereas out of 64 young produced from normal +parents used as a control for the experiment, 56, or over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> 87 per cent., +survived. In some cases alcoholic males were mated with normal females, in +other, alcoholic females with normal males. In still other instances both +parents were alcoholic.</p> + +<p>The results are summarized in the accompanying table (Fig. 31), taken from +Stockard’s paper:</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Condition of the Offspring from Guinea-Pigs Treated with Alcohol</span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Condition<br />of the<br />Animals</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Number<br />of<br />Matings</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Negative<br />Result<br />or Early<br />Abortion</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Still-born<br />Litters</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Number<br />Still-born<br />Young</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Living<br />Litters</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Young<br />Dying<br />Soon<br />After<br />Birth</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Surviving<br />Young</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Alcoholic ♂ by normal ♀</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">59</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">25</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">15</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">26</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">21</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Normal ♂ by alcoholic ♀</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">15</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Alcoholic ♂ by alcoholic ♀</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">29</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">15</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><span class="smcap">Summary</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">103</td> + <td class="br" align="center">43</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30</td> + <td class="br" align="center">46</td> + <td class="br" align="center">37</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Normal ♂ by normal ♀</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">35</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">32</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">2d generation by normal</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">2d generation by alcoholic</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span><br />1 def.</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">2d generation by 2d generation</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">19</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top">12</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="top"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span><br />1 def.</td> + <td class="dent" align="center" valign="top">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Female treated during pregnancy</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">4</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td> + <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31</span></p> + +<p class="center">Table showing condition of the offspring from guinea-pigs treated with alcohol (after Stockard).</p> + +<p>Lines four and five give a comparison between the 103 total matings of all +treated individuals and 35 normal matings. In the first case almost 42 per +cent. of the matings gave negative results or early abortions, whereas in +the normal control matings, failure to yield a full-term litter occurred +in only two cases. The 103 matings of alcoholic animals gave only 46 +living litters, or about 45 per cent. On the other hand the 35 control +matings produced 32 living litters, or 91½<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> per cent. It will be +observed also that from such of the 103 matings of alcoholics as produced +young there were 30 still-born, 37 which died soon after birth, and only +52 surviving young, whereas from the 35 matings of normal individuals +there were only 4 still-born young, 4 which died soon after birth, and 56 +surviving young.</p> + +<p>The bottom line of the table, although, as Stockard points out, containing +too few cases to prove wholly convincing, indicates that alcoholizing +erstwhile normal females during pregnancy was not particularly harmful to +the embryos <i>in utero</i>.</p> + +<p>Some of the most interesting results were obtained when offspring termed +second generation animals, derived from alcoholic parents though not +themselves treated with alcohol, were mated in various ways. When such +individuals were mated with normal individuals, although the litters were +small, the results were normal, the normal mate having seemingly +counteracted any defects which might have lurked in the second generation +animal. On the other hand, out of three matings of second generation +animals with alcoholic individuals, two produced still-born young, of +which one was markedly deformed, while the third yielded two living young.</p> + +<p>However, the most striking results were obtained when two second +generation individuals, the offspring of alcoholic parents, were bred +together. Although themselves untreated, these individuals, of which 19 +matings were made, produced as many or more defective young than did their +alcoholic parents. Seven of the matings were unfruitful. The remaining 12<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +matings gave living litters consisting of 19 individuals in all. Six of +these showed various nerve disorders (spasms, epileptic-like seizures, +etc.) soon after birth; one was eyeless and otherwise deformed.</p> + +<p><b>Stockard’s Interpretation.—</b>Stockard’s interpretation of his experiments +is as follows: “Mammals treated with injurious substances, such as +alcohol, ether, lead, etc., suffer from the treatments by having the +tissues of their bodies injured. When the reproductive glands and +germ-cells become injured in this way they give rise to offspring showing +weak and degenerative conditions of a general nature, and every cell of +these offspring having been derived from the injured egg or sperm-cell are +necessarily similarly injured and can only give rise to other injured +cells and thus the next generation of offspring are equally weak and +injured and so on. The only hope for such a line of individuals is that it +can be crossed by normal stock, in which case the vigor of the normal +germ-cell in the combination may counteract, or at any rate reduce, the +extent of injury in the body cells of the resulting animal.”</p> + +<p>He also believes that various deformities and developmental arrests such +as harelip and cleft-palate may similarly be cases of transmission rather +than true inheritance, due to the weakening of the germ-cells in some way, +or to some lack of full vigor in the uterine environment.</p> + +<p><b>Further Remarks on the Situation in Man.—</b>Returning now to the question of +alcoholism in man, it seems in view of the strong circumstantial evidence +in the case of man himself, together with the result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> experiments on +animals, that little doubt remains that excessive alcoholism might result +in the production of defective offspring. On the other hand an antecedent +degeneracy or neural instability undoubtedly plays an important part in +many cases, in the original production of drunkards, and when such occurs, +it, as well as the direct effects of alcoholic poisoning, must be reckoned +with in the effects on progeny. Studies carried on by Pearson, Elderton +and Barrington of the Eugenic Laboratory in London lead these +investigators to the conclusion that extreme alcoholism is a <i>result</i> not +a <i>cause</i> of degeneracy. That is, the degeneracy is due to the defective +stock, not to alcohol. They cite in evidence their records of four +thousand school children of alcoholic and of sober parents, which fail to +show any unfavorable effect of alcohol on offspring. Some of their +critics, however, maintain that they did not choose subjects who were +sufficiently alcoholic to give the injurious results that might +legitimately be expected among the offspring of excessive drinkers or +habitual drunkards.</p> + +<p>Where children show a hereditary inclination toward drink, unquestionably +one of the strongest factors is the inheritance of the same disposition, +the same unstable nervous constitution and its accompanying lack of +self-control which led the parent to drink, rather than the inheritance of +the effects of the drink on the parent. For in many cases a parent may not +become a drunkard until after the children who also become drunkards are +born. That the tendency to drink immoderately is frequently due to a +strain of feeble-mindedness or epilepsy becomes more evident<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> every day. +In many of the so-called “periodical” drunkards, the accompanying features +of their periodic attacks of drink-craving, such as clouding of memory, +restlessness and depression, are those commonly associated with ordinary +epileptic attacks.</p> + +<p><b>Probably Over Fifty Per Cent. of Inebriety in Man Due to Defective Nervous +Constitution.—</b>Branthwaite, an English authority on drunkenness, finds +that about sixty-three per cent. of the inebriates who come to his notice +are mentally defective. In alcoholic insanities heredity is a potent +factor. It is coming to be realized more and more that pronounced +alcoholism is due in a large percentage of cases, perhaps over half, to a +defective nervous make-up. While it is true that many drunkards would not +develop without free access to alcohol, on the other hand many would never +develop without a bad heredity back of them, which gives them a peculiar +nervous constitution that renders alcohol an undue stimulus. In a recent +report of the New York State Hospital Commission it is stated that in +fifty-four per cent. of the cases of alcoholic insanity, a family history +of insanity, epilepsy or nervous disease exists. Thus in the presence of +alcohol most of these unfortunates are helpless pawns of a hereditary +weakness.</p> + +<p>So when the question of alcoholism is viewed from all angles, the children +of the human drunkard would seem to run a double menace of misfortune, +since they may be subject both to the direct poisoning effects of alcohol +and the results of an inheritable degeneracy.</p> + +<p><b>Factors to Be Reckoned With in the Study of Alcoholism.—</b>In any +thoroughgoing study of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>alcoholism in man many factors will have to be +reckoned with. First of all there is the question of inherent lack of +control. This is probably the principal thing inherited where heredity +truly enters as a factor. That example and social environment are +important factors in addition to or in place of heredity is clear, too, +when we observe that often it is the boys only who take after a drunken +father, for there is no evidence that the inherited tendency when it +really exists is at all sex-linked. Again, in certain occupations carried +on under unwholesome influences relief is frequently sought in alcoholic +stimulants, and such custom may easily crystallize into habit. +Furthermore, the accustoming young children to doses of alcohol, or the +unborn young to alcohol through the body of a drunken mother, may be +strongly contributory toward establishing inebriety in certain cases. As +we have seen from an abundance of experimental data on animals, moreover, +the nurture effects on germ-cells may result in the production of weakened +offspring. Such offspring in the case of man are probably less able to +withstand temptations of all kinds and hence readily succumb to the +habit-forming effects of alcohol if once its use is begun. Lastly, it must +not be forgotten that alcoholism in the father usually means poverty and +the subsequent accompaniment of malnutrition and neglect of the children, +and this in itself may not only account for poor development of the +latter, but may also be strongly contributory toward establishing the +habit of alcoholism in them.</p> + +<p>An inherent bias plus most of the other conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> just enumerated is the +not unusual lot of the offspring of drunkards.</p> + +<p><b>Venereal Diseases.—</b>There is yet another very considerable class of +maritally unfit who in any conscientious discussion of unfitness for +marriage or of racial improvement must be considered. I refer to those who +are afflicted with the diseases which are inseparably associated with the +so-called “social evil.” To <i>gonorrhea</i>, one of the most prevalent of +these diseases, more than one-fourth of our total one hundred and ten +thousand blind in the United States are said to owe their affliction. +Milder types of eye disease may also result from such infections. As much +as eighty per cent., or some say practically all blindness in children +born blind is caused by it, the infection occurring at the time of birth +or within a few days thereafter. The terrible consequences of this disease +to the innocent wife would alone make its discussion imperative.</p> + +<p><b>The Seriousness of the Situation.—</b>Unfortunately the insidious nature of +gonorrheal infections is unknown to most persons. A cure is apparently +effected, yet as a matter of fact the germs may live for years and, if in +the male, later be transmitted to the wife, subjecting her to a future of +invalidism and misery. Reliable statistics from various medical +authorities reveal the appalling fact that seventy-five per cent. or more +of the surgical operations for inflammatory pelvic disorders peculiar to +women, such as pus tubes and peritonitis, are attributable to this +disease, as is also the involuntary sterility of forty-five per cent. of +childless women. Unwelcome as the fact is there is an abundance of +evidence to show that a large percentage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> of men in particular have at +some period of their life been infected with venereal disease. Of our +fourteen million males in the United States under the age of thirty we +find estimates by some specialists in venereal diseases to the effect that +five million of them, that is, one out of three, suffer from some one of +the social diseases or their consequences. Doctor Hugh Cabot, one of the +chief surgeons of the Massachusetts General Hospital at Boston, a member +of the faculty of the Harvard Medical School and president of the American +Association of Genito-Urinary Surgeons, has this to say about the +situation: “We have of late years heard much about the frequency and +serious consequences of tuberculosis; it has been dubbed the ‘white +plague,’ and so active has been the campaign that a wide-spread +understanding of this serious disease has resulted. It may safely be +averred that in the urban population at least there are two, and perhaps +three, individuals with syphilis to every one with tuberculosis. The +frequency of gonococcus infection is much higher.” He believes that over +half the male population acquire a gonococcus infection at some period of +their career. While as a layman, one can not but feel that a specialist’s +estimate may run unduly high because of the fact that he is encountering +an inordinate proportion of such maladies every day, still such +specialists are in position to get at the truth as no other person can and +their calculations are probably not grossly in error. In any event any one +who has progressed in worldly knowledge beyond the naïveté of a child must +recognize the appalling prevalence of these maladies.</p> + +<p><b>Infantile Blindness.—</b>So serious has the matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> of infantile blindness +become that some state boards of health and some city health departments +supply all physicians and midwives with specially prepared packages +containing cotton and nitrate of silver solution for preventive or +curative treatment of the eyes of all new-born children. At the time of +the first bath each eye is carefully washed with a separate pledget of +cotton saturated with boric acid solution. Each then receives a drop of +the silver solution, which is made just strong enough to kill any +gonococci that might be present without itself inflaming the eye. Water +used in bathing the baby’s body of course is not allowed to come in +contact with its eyes. Such treatment should be given every child no +matter how unsuspicious the circumstances may be. German authorities who +have been following this method now for some years assure us that +nineteen-twentieths of the blindness of infancy can thus be prevented.</p> + +<p><b>Syphilis.—</b>As to <i>syphilis</i>, another and even more terrible of these +diseases, we have before us the absurd fact that while thousands upon +thousands of dollars are being spent to establish a rigid inspection and +preventive measures against the spread of a very similar disease in the +horse, this malady in man is allowed to pass unchallenged and we are +confronted by the gruesome certainty that there are hundreds of these +diseased persons about us to-day who, on their mere affirmation that they +are unmarried and of age, will be given the right to marry and thus +produce families of infected children irrevocably doomed to early death or +to lifelong misery.</p> + +<p>While syphilis is most commonly spread through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> relations between the +sexes, it may be acquired in various other ways, as for example, through a +cut in shaving with the same razor an infected individual has used. It is +commonly transmitted from parent to child. Practically every prostitute is +a center of dissemination. Katherine Bement Davis has shown in her studies +made at the New York State Reformatory for Women that while ordinary +clinical tests show that apparently only twenty-one per cent. of these +women are infected with venereal disease, more careful laboratory tests +showed at least ninety per cent. to be infected.</p> + +<p>Syphilis is caused by <i>Treponema pallidum</i>, a small unicellular animal +parasite. Given access to the blood by any means whatever, possibly even +through an abrasion in the lip by means of a kiss, it multiplies rapidly +and any part or organ of the body may be attacked. Usually a small sore +occurs at the point of entrance to the body, but often it heals up readily +with little indication of the seriousness of the infection.</p> + +<p>The development of the malady is insidious and long continued. As a matter +of clinical convenience physicians divide its progress into successive +stages although in reality the transitions are frequently variable and ill +marked. The symptoms that arise within the first few months or even years +are readily controlled by appropriate treatment, but to insure a cure +prolonged and most thoroughgoing treatment is imperative. The symptoms +disappear so completely after a short period of treatment that it is very +difficult to persuade the average patient that he is not yet cured. Two +years at least are none too short a period of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>treatment, yet the majority +of patients, fully convinced that they are merely being exploited by the +physician as a source of revenue, drift away at the end of a few months. +As a matter of fact, however, the germs usually persist long after the +obvious symptoms of the disease have disappeared, and in consequence many +of the most serious results of syphilis may not manifest themselves for a +period of perhaps ten, twenty or thirty years.</p> + +<p><b>Some of the Effects.—</b>It is now known that <i>paresis</i>, also termed general +paralysis or softening of the brain, is probably invariably due to +syphilis. The work of Flexner and Noguchi on <i>paresis</i> and <i>tabes +dorsalis</i> show that always in such afflictions the tissues of the central +nervous system have been invaded by the parasite. The original infection, +however, may have occurred so long before as to have been almost forgotten +by the patient. Thus many an apparently robust man is stricken down in the +prime of life. Earlier and prolonged treatment would in all probability +have eradicated the germs and thus prevented the mental breakdown, which +can not be cured by any known treatment. Postmortem examination always +shows that the <i>Treponema</i> has wrought wide-spread damage in the brain. +The frequency of paresis may be realized when one learns that in some +regions it is responsible for about one-fifth of all cases of insanity +sent to hospitals for the insane. It ranks next to the highest as a cause +of insanity. Statistics show that in the state of New York more deaths +result annually from paresis than from smallpox, tetanus, malaria, +dysentery and rabies all combined.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>In some cases the disease attacks the membranes of the brain and the small +blood vessels giving rise to a still different type of mental disorder. +Practically all patients with <i>locomotor ataxia</i> owe their condition to an +antecedent syphilis. Moreover it is one of the important causes of +<i>arterio-sclerosis</i>, or hardening of the blood vessels, and is also a +prominent factor in certain forms of heart-disease, as well as by no means +an unimportant cause of blindness in children.</p> + +<p>As to specific cases of the effects of this disease on descendants the +literature of the subject is crowded full. While it is needless to conduct +the reader through a chamber of horrors by reviewing clinical cases, it is +desirable to point out in a general way some of the effects. Doctor George +H. Kirby, director of Clinical Psychiatry, Manhattan State Hospital, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“We find that when either the father or the mother suffers from +paresis that many other members of the family may be infected with +syphilis, and furthermore, we find that a large number of children in +these families are feeble-minded, nervous, or in other ways abnormal. +Doctor Plant examined a group of 100 children, the offspring of cases +of paresis, and found that 45 per cent. were plainly damaged mentally +or physically, or in both fields; the blood test showed that one-third +of these 100 children had the syphilitic poison in their systems.</p> + +<p>“Another investigator found in a group of 139 children, the +descendants of parents who had syphilitic nervous disease, that over +25 per cent. were definitely feeble-minded or affected with some +serious nervous disorders.</p> + +<p>“Other studies indicate that there exists a close <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>relation between +syphilis and many of the hitherto unexplained cases of +feeble-mindedness, including idiocy, imbecility, infantile paralysis, +and some forms of epilepsy. While the question is not yet settled, it +appears that syphilis is the real cause of many of these cases of +mental defect in children.”</p></div> + +<p>Still other investigators give details of physical afflictions and +distortions, of suppressed development, of inordinate percentages of +stillbirths—perhaps the most merciful lot for the little victims—but +sufficient has been said to indicate the full horror of the situation.</p> + +<p>Goddard,<a name='fna_7' id='fna_7' href='#f_7'><small>[7]</small></a> although not minimizing the terrible nature of the disease, +finds little evidence in his studies that syphilis in parents is a +specific cause of feeble-mindedness.</p> + +<p><b>A Blood Test.—</b>Fortunately a delicate blood test known as the Wasserman +test has been discovered by means of which, through an examination of a +few drops of blood, any trace of syphilitic poison which exists in the +body may usually be detected. This is true even though the individual may +at the time show no visible symptoms of syphilis. The test is therefore of +great value in detecting the latent germs of syphilis in individuals who +have apparently been cured, and also often in making an early diagnosis of +paresis. The Wasserman test, however, is reliable only in the hands of a +skilled operator. It may occasionally give a positive reaction when +syphilis does not exist and on the contrary a negative when it is present. +The <i>luetin</i> test is also now applied by some specialists, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> is too new +a test to have come into general use. It works on the same principle as +the tuberculin test for tuberculosis. Some army physicians now also give +what is termed a provocative Wasserman. That is, in a suspicious case +which gives only negative results by an ordinary Wasserman, they can get, +if syphilis really exists, a positive reaction after giving small doses of +potassium iodide or salvarsan.</p> + +<p>It should be well understood by every one that syphilis is usually curable +provided the patient is given modern scientific treatment by a <i>competent</i> +physician. I emphasize competent because there are so many quacks in this +field that one undergoing treatment can not be too careful in assuring +himself of the competency of the physician. In even a case of long +standing, where the symptoms have been in abeyance for a number of years, +the disease can be cured provided it has not developed into an active +cerebro-spinal type, and even the latter can be much benefited by proper +treatment. The great danger of the cerebro-spinal type is that it will +result in paresis or locomotor ataxia.</p> + +<p>As long as the blood of a patient shows a <i>positive</i> Wasserman reaction, +marriage should certainly not be consummated. If after a proper course of +treatment by a well-informed physician, the patient shows a <i>negative</i> +Wasserman when tested by a competent examiner, he probably would not +infect his wife or offspring, although prudence would require that he wait +at least six months or a year before marriage, and marrying then only if +later tests remain negative.</p> + +<p>The only way for a patient to be sure that he is not harboring the +cerebro-spinal form would be to have a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> spinal puncture made and the +cerebro-spinal fluid examined. While the cerebro-spinal phase often does +not occur until long after the primary infection, cases are known in which +it has appeared within a few weeks. Evidence that the central nervous +system is frequently invaded early in the course of the disease is +increasing. Marriage of an individual suffering from the cerebro-spinal +form should not take place, since such a one is almost sure to become a +burden on the family or the state.</p> + +<p><b>Many Syphilitics Are Married.—</b>It may seem to some that in a treatise on +being well-born the subject of syphilis might be ignored as not being +especially pertinent, but the supposition that no considerable percentage +of syphilitics marry is not borne out by the facts. Seventy-five per cent. +of men with insanity due to syphilis who are admitted to hospitals are +married. The insanity in such cases is mainly the result of infections in +earlier years, often long before marriage. While syphilis, strictly +speaking, is not inherited, that is, does not become part and parcel of +the germ-plasm, still the frequency of its direct transmission to +offspring is so appalling that the outcome, as far as the immediate child +is concerned, is quite as disastrous as the most thoroughgoing real +inheritance could be.</p> + +<p><b>Why Permit Conditions to Continue as They Are?—</b>When one faces the easily +ascertained facts regarding venereal disease, it seems incredible that we, +an intelligent people, can go on complacently handing our daughters and +sisters over to the surgeon’s knife and a life of personal misery, and +even in not a few instances to become mothers of incurably defective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +children, yet the dire fact confronts us that we do. We can no longer +excuse ourselves on the plea of ignorance, for the grisly record may now +be read in many medical and not a few popular treatises, and we find the +theme entering even into the modern drama, as witness Brieux’s <i>Damaged +Goods</i>. Further indifference to these conditions can only be attributed to +culpable apathy or prudery.</p> + +<p>The extreme dangers to which parents are subjecting their daughters if +they do not demand a clean bill of health on the part of their prospective +husbands are obvious. Fathers and mothers perfectly willing to inquire +into their future son-in-law’s social connections, his income, securities, +or business chances become strangely “modest” when it comes to determining +whether he is physically fit for marriage.</p> + +<p>One great cause of ignorance in the past was the prudish taboo against +frank discussions of venereal diseases which has thrown the veil of +silence about the subject. To-day, however, it is coming to be recognized +that these maladies are diseases and not a standard of social propriety, +and that like most other diseases the surest way to secure prevention and +gradual eradication is through the enlightenment of the public. They are +prevalent in all classes of society. Moreover, it must not be forgotten +that there is no form of venereal disease which may not be innocently +acquired. Even where acquired through transgression of moral law an +ignorant attitude toward the sexual instinct is often at the bottom of the +difficulty.</p> + +<p><b>Medical Inspection Before Marriage.—</b>Ante-nuptial medical inspection is +certainly as necessary to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> welfare of society as the certification of +age and of the single state now required by law. No one objects to a +medical examination pertaining to venereal and other diseases when it +comes to taking out a life insurance policy, and why there should be any +more objection to it as a preliminary to marriage is a mystery. A few +states already have compulsory ante-nuptial medical inspection. The laws +have been enacted too recently to judge adequately of their working. There +has been much debate in Wisconsin as to whether their law (Chapter 738, +Laws of 1913), which went into effect January 1, 1914, is constitutional +and whether it requires a Wasserman test. The Wisconsin law applies to +males only. The Supreme Court of the state has declared it constitutional +and that its requirement of “the application of the recognized clinical +and laboratory tests of scientific search” involves only such examination +as the ordinary licensed physician is equipped to make and can reasonably +be expected to make for three dollars, the maximum fee specified in the +law.</p> + +<p>A number of the physicians of the state are still dissatisfied with the +wording, although most do not oppose the principle of the law. Many +believe that it should apply to the women as well as to the men, and +others feel that the law should be extended to cover still other kinds of +marital unfitness. Most of the practitioners with whom I have discussed +the matter appreciate the motive underlying the law and are endeavoring to +make it successful.</p> + +<p>The general public of the state as a whole seems to be in favor of the +provision. At least one hears much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> favorable comment and little +dissension among those who understand its purpose. The very controversy +over it which sprang up after its passage proved to be of great benefit in +the education of the public regarding the necessity of such measures. Such +physicians as I have been able to question report that the candidates for +marriage rarely object to the requirement, but on the contrary strongly +favor it. Especially where they have suffered from venereal disease +earlier in life most are eager to know their condition and to have medical +advice. To my own mind this last fact is the most significant of all, as +it will give every candidate for marriage a chance to know the truth. Most +men are not so much brutal or vicious as ignorant in such matters. The +vast majority of those unfit for marriage as a consequence of venereal +disease will, when they realize the danger their condition imposes on wife +and children, take every possible means to put themselves into proper +condition.</p> + +<p>Desirable as the Wasserman test may be, it requires special laboratory +facilities and equipment as well as a specially trained examiner to make +it a reliable test. Moreover it can not be given by the general +practitioner for the very moderate fee that must obtain in a pre-nuptial +examination compelled by law. If it or the serum test for gonorrhea are to +be applied then the legislative body of the state will find it necessary +to establish a special public laboratory or laboratories for their +application. This, however, is not a matter of particular difficulty and +would be capital well invested in any state.</p> + +<p><b>The Perils of Venereal Disease Must Be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>Prevented at Any Cost.—</b>However, +no matter what the cost may be to the state, no matter what the exaction +from the individual, the grave perils of venereal disease to society +<i>must</i> be prevented. We owe it to the cause of humanity that there be +fewer victims born into a world of eternal night, that from a parentage of +polluted blood there spring no longer hosts of children with feeble +misshapen bodies or with tarnished intellects, death-marked at the door of +life.</p> + +<p><b>Bad Environment Can Wreck Good Germ-Plasm.—</b>In conclusion it is evident +from our discussion of prenatal influences that not all of being well-born +is concerned with heredity in its proper sense, since the unborn young may +be influenced either directly or indirectly by environmental conditions +which are in no sense products of heredity, although as far as the +immediate child is concerned the result may be quite as disastrous where +the influence is a baneful one. As to the production of beneficial +prenatal effects, while parents can do nothing toward modifying favorably +such qualities as are predetermined in their germ-plasm, nevertheless they +must come to realize that bad environment can wreck good germ-plasm. They +can see to it that they keep themselves in good physical condition by +wholesome temperate living, and thereby insure as far as possible healthy +germ-cells for the conception and good nutrition for the sustenance of +their progeny. Their one sacred obligation to the immortal germ-plasm of +which they are the trustees is to see that they hand it on with its +maximal possibilities undimmed by innutrition, poisons or vice.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<p class="title">RESPONSIBILITY FOR CONDUCT</p> + + +<p>Since both physical and mental attributes are unquestionably inherited, it +becomes a matter of importance to inquire into the nature of the entity we +call personality. To what extent is human conduct a product of parentage? +Although apparently free agents are we in reality only by infinitely +subtle indirections making the responses, forming the habits, establishing +the characters which result merely from the blind impulsions of an +inherent constitution? If so, who is praiseworthy, who blameworthy? Are +men</p> + +<p class="poem">“But helpless pieces of the Game He plays<br /> +Upon this chequer-board of Nights and Days.”</p> + +<p><b>All Mental Process Accompanied by Neural Process.—</b>Whatever the ultimate +decision of psychologists may be regarding the relation of mind to the +sensory and nervous mechanism of man it is certain that there is so close +an association between them that the least alteration in the mechanism +means a parallel effect in the mind, or in the words of Huxley, “every +psychosis is definitely correlated with a neurosis.” The rind or <i>cortex</i> +of gray matter which constitutes the surface of the large cerebral +hemispheres of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> human brain is regarded as the seat of consciousness. +The development of the mental powers in the infant is dependent on the +development of the elements of this cortical substance and the waning of +the mental faculties in old age goes hand in hand with its atrophy. +Abnormal arrangements, injuries or omissions in it mean mental +unsoundness. How the activity of the structural mechanism gives a reaction +in consciousness is not understood, but we know that in the living being +the two phenomena are inseparably linked. Whether we accept the hypothesis +that consciousness is an actual product of the structural mechanism or the +hypothesis that the latter is only an instrument for the manifestations as +consciousness of an outside force or entity, just as the telegraphic +instrument manifests the existence of electricity, is neither here nor +there for our purposes. On either supposition the degree and manner of +expression are determined by the structure of the mechanism. Our main +problem is to decide as nearly as possible how much of the mechanism is +rigidly inherited, how much is at birth largely undestined, so that its +ultimate outcome is in part a product of the forces which play upon it, or +in other words of education and training.</p> + +<p><b>Gradation in Nervous Response from Lower Organisms to Man.—</b>To comprehend +fully the basic nature of human neural responses one must seek the roots +in the behavior of lower organisms. For there is found in a simpler form +many of the fundamental activities and the first dim gropings which emerge +in man as memory, reason and will. As we ascend the scale of animal life +we find a continuous advance in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> neural complexity and nervous response +that in many respects grades up closely to the human type.</p> + +<p>A windmill or a weather-vane points toward the source of the wind, +obviously not because either exercises any special choice in the matter, +but because it is constructed on such lines of symmetry that when the wind +strikes it, if it slants the slightest to left or right, the more exposed +surface receives the greatest pressure and thus swings the body back into +the line of least resistance.</p> + +<p><b>Behavior of Many Animals Often an Automatic Adjustment to Simple External +Agents.—</b>It is a far cry, of course, from the responses of such a machine +as a windmill to the responses of even the simplest living thing, but in +spite of the broad gap between the two, there is much reason to believe +that the behavior of many living organisms is due in a marked degree to +the directive effects of comparatively simple external factors rather than +to the complex internal volitions the casual observer is likely to +attribute to them.</p> + +<p><b>Tropisms.—</b>It is a marked characteristic of all living protoplasm that it +has the power of responding to external stimuli. This power of response is +termed <i>excitability</i> or <i>irritability</i>. In describing the motor responses +of living organisms to stimuli resulting from a change in surroundings the +term <i>tropism</i> (Gr. <i>Tropē</i>, turning) is frequently used and the kind +of stimulus is indicated by a prefix. Thus the term phototropism means a +turning or <i>orientation</i> brought about by means of light. An organism +which reacts by a movement toward the source of light is said to be +<i>positively phototropic</i>, one which moves away from it,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> <i>negatively +phototropic</i>. By using such a neutral terminology the physiologist avoids +implying that necessarily “likes” or “dislikes” or any other psychic +reaction enter into the movements.</p> + +<p>Several kinds of tropisms are recognized, such as <i>phototropism</i> or +<i>heliotropism</i>, reaction to light; <i>thermotropism</i>, reaction to heat; +<i>electrotropism</i> or <i>galvanotropism</i>, to electric current; <i>geotropism</i>, +to gravity; <i>chemotropism</i>, to a chemical; <i>rheotropism</i>, to current; +<i>thigmotropism</i> or <i>stereotropism</i>, to contact; and <i>chromotropism</i>, to +color.</p> + +<p><b>Many Animals Show Tropic Responses.—</b>Many of the lower animals seem to +have their movements determined more or less mechanically by the action of +such external factors, some being positively, others negatively responsive +to a given kind of stimulus, or the same individual may be at one time +positive, at another negative, according to modifying conditions to be +mentioned presently.</p> + +<p>In plants and in simpler lower animals there is no special nervous system. +The responses of these organisms depend on the general irritability of +their constituent protoplasm. In other animals a nervous system is +developed, crude and diffuse in lower forms, extremely delicate, complex +and definitely ordered in higher forms. But it should be borne in mind +that nerve protoplasm possesses only in high degree a capacity for +irritability, conduction, etc., that is common to all living substance. In +keeping with other “physiological divisions of labor” or specialization +which mark the increasing complexity of animals, this enormously enhanced +sensitivity and conductivity of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>certain tissues have come about, and they +have become set apart for these special functions. In higher animals, +therefore, the tropisms where operative must act more or less through the +agency of the nervous system instead of directly through the general +protoplasm of the organism.</p> + +<p><b>Certain Apparently Complex Volitions Probably Only Tropisms.—</b>Where +nervous systems enter into tropic responses there must be specific +sensibility of certain nerve terminations (i. e., sense organs) at the +surface of the body. These sensory or receiving nerves connect through the +central system with corresponding motor nerves which in turn supply +certain specific muscles through the contraction of which the organism is +as surely and as mechanically oriented as in the simpler cases. For +example, if light is the stimulating agent, when it strikes a positively +phototropic animal, if the latter is not already oriented, the eyes or +other nerve terminations sensitive to light transmit an impulse through +the central nervous system to certain muscles causing them to increase +their tension and thereby swing the animal around with its head toward the +light. Progressive movements which the organism then makes must carry it +toward the source of light. Thus it is not “love of light” that draws the +moth into the flame but the mechanical steering of the body toward the +source of light through the stimulations produced by the light waves. It +is chemotropism, not solicitude for its offspring, which drives the flesh +fly to lay its eggs on decaying meat. And it is stereotropism and not a +desire for concealment which impels certain animals such as many worms +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> insects to get into a close contact with solid bodies, or in other +words to “hide” themselves in burrows and crevices.</p> + +<p><b>Complicating Factors.—</b>However, beautifully as these theories of tropisms +work out in a broad general way, there are various additional factors +entering which must be reckoned with, and these become more numerous and +of more consequence as the organism becomes more complex. In the first +place certain internal conditions must be considered. Living matter is +characterized by its instability. There are continual synthetic and +disruptive processes in progress which the physiologist terms metabolic +changes. The very “life” of such matter seems to be the manifestation of +such changes. Concerning what the ultimate source of these changes is, +whether or not indirectly they may be referred to external conditions as +seems probable to many biologists, no one so far has ever given a +convincing, positive answer. It is sufficient for our purposes to know +that they may have set up certain internal stimuli which may modify the +behavior of the organism in which they reside, and that the “physiological +state” of the organism at the time of external or internal stimulation +will condition the response. This physiological condition may be dependent +on the general metabolic equilibrium of the animal, or on the extent of +previous stimulation by means of the same or different agents. Thus the +organism may not always react in the same way to the same stimulus.</p> + +<p>The intensity of the stimulation and change in the intensity of the +stimulation, are also factors to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> reckoned with. Moreover, it must be +taken into account that a given organism is often operating under the +control of more than one external influence. For example, swarm spores in +a dish of water which at a given temperature are positively phototropic, +that is, gather at the side of the dish toward the light, may, if the +temperature of the water is raised or in case of marine forms if the +salinity is increased, become negatively phototropic. Sometimes two or +more forms of stimuli may cooperate in bringing about certain behavior as, +for instance, in the reaction of the earthworm to a suitable habitat, +through a combination of chemical and contact stimuli. On the other hand, +two different stimuli may interfere with each other; for example, the +usual phototropic responses of certain animals do not manifest themselves +when they are mating or feeding. In short, anything that alters the +physiological state of the organism may cause it to react in a different +manner. And thus with the interplay of shifting external agents and +variable internal state the bounds of behavior on these purely mechanical +bases become considerably extended.</p> + +<p><b>Many Tropic Responses Apparently Purposeful.—</b>The query arises as to why +if these responses are mechanical they are so often apparently purposive; +that is, why do they so often subserve some useful end for the animal? +While they do not always work out to the animal’s benefit, as for instance +in the case of the moth and the light or under many other conditions that +can be devised experimentally, as a matter of fact under normal natural +conditions they are on the whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> useful to the organism, carrying it +into suitable surroundings of food, lessened danger, temperature, and the +like.</p> + +<p>The probabilities are that in their first origin the reactions were not +purposive. However, if any proved harmful they would result in the +extermination of their possessors and hence of that particular strain of +individuals. Those types that happened to have useful reactions would be +left and in course of time as the process of eliminating the others went +on, would become the prevailing types. Any organism which the useful +reaction had preserved would tend to hand it down to the succeeding +generation where again it would be the conserver of those individuals +which possessed it in sufficient degree.</p> + +<p><b>Authorities Not Agreed on Details of Tropic Responses.—</b>Although all the +foremost modern students of animal behavior accept as facts the more or +less mechanical orienting effects of external stimuli, there is by no +means unanimity of opinion regarding details. Some stress as the directive +factor the continuous action of the stimulating agent on sensitive tissues +symmetrically situated. Others would maintain that it is the time rate of +change in the intensity of the stimulating agent, or that the factor is +different in different cases. Some make much of an automatic sort of +“trial and error” system by which certain organisms test out an inimical +environment until the path of least irritation is hit upon as the way to +safety. The field is a broad one and to get at the finer shades of +distinction the reader will have to refer to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> the works of such +authorities as Loeb, Jennings, Holmes and Mast.</p> + +<p><b>Tropisms Grade Into Reflex Actions and Instincts.—</b>The tropisms in many +cases become indistinguishable from <i>reflex actions</i> and these in turn +grade up into the <i>instincts</i> of animals. The latter may be looked on as +but subtler and more involved reactions made possible through a more +intricate structural organization. As might be expected of instincts, the +feature of utility is more in evidence than in simpler tropisms because +they have become of proportionately greater magnitude, but the same +fundamental mechanism is apparently at bottom of both. It has already been +seen how the “instinct” of the blow-fly to lay its egg on meat is +interpretable as a chemotropic response. Thus no elaborate psychic +mechanism is necessary in such behavior.</p> + +<p><b>Instincts.—</b>In the typical instinct there is a series of “chain reflexes” +in which one step determines the next until mechanically the whole gamut +of changes is run to the last step. It is characteristic of a purely +instinctive act that an animal performs it without practise, without +instruction, and without reason. Moreover, all of the same kind of animals +tend to perform the act in the same way. But with instincts, as with +tropisms, the physiological state of the organism must be regarded. For +instance, the instinctive reactions of an animal sated with food or hungry +will be different.</p> + +<p><b>Adjustability of Instincts Opens the Way for Intelligent Behavior.—</b>As we +progress in the scale of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> animal life this adjustability of instincts to +new conditions comes more into evidence. While prescribed in the main by +internal impulse the carrying out of the action is capable of some +adaptability to circumstances. And in proportion as this adaptability +releases the organism from a blind rigid working-out of a predetermined +end, there is opened up the possibility of intelligent behavior; that is, +of modification of the instinctive behavior by individually acquired +experience.</p> + +<p>While the generation of instinctive impulses still occurs it is left more +for individual experience to teach discrimination between ends. But we can +not escape a fundamental structural mechanism, for with this new capacity +of educability must come new structural mechanisms in the nervous system +and this must be as faithfully reproduced in each individual as is the +basis for any other nervous response. How low in the scale of animal life +animals can profit from their experiences to the extent that their future +conduct is conditioned thereby is not known. Some would place it as far +back as the protozoa, others would not. Where such modification of +behavior is possible there must be some mechanism for the storage of +impressions in the form of what we term <i>memory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Modification of Habits Possible in Lower Animals.—</b>Among invertebrates +such animals as crayfish will acquire new habits, or rather will modify +old ones. Even as lowly an organism as the starfish can have changes of +habit thrust on it. When a starfish is placed upon its back it rights +itself by means of its arms or rays. Professor Jennings found that in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +given individual the tendency was always to employ certain rays for this +rather than others. However, by preventing the use of the rays customarily +employed, he found that the animal would use a different pair and that +ultimately in this way it could be trained into the habit of using this +pair of rays even when restrained in no way. One starfish which was given +one hundred eighty such lessons in eighteen days after an interval of +seven days still retained the new habit; young individuals were found to +be more easily trained than old ones.</p> + +<p><b>Some Lower Vertebrates Profit by Experience.—</b>Among vertebrates it is +known that those as low in organization as fish will profit by experience. +They will learn to come for food at a regular time and apparently learn +more or less to appreciate the presence of certain obstacles with which +they have had unsatisfactory experiences. Professor Sanford sums up what +he believes are the limitations of the piscine mental organization as +follows: “No fish is ever conscious of himself; he never thinks of himself +as doing this or that, or feeling in this way or that way. The whole +direction of the mind is outward. He has no language and so can not think +in verbal terms; he never names anything; he never talks to himself; as +Huxley says of the crayfish, he ‘has nothing to say to himself or any one +else.’ He does not reflect; he makes no generalizations. All his thinking +is in the present and in concrete terms. He has no voluntary attention, no +volition in the true sense, no self-control.”</p> + +<p><b>Rational Behavior.—</b>Finally, however, out of these first dull glimmerings +of intelligence as exemplified<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> in the higher invertebrates and the lower +vertebrates, which can modify behavior as the result of experience, come +the still higher factors so dominant in man, of <i>rational</i> behavior. This +higher mental process can realize the end to be reached and can deliberate +on the means to be employed. By means of his <i>reason</i> man can overcome +difficulties in advance by “thinking” out suitable schemes of action. Some +naturalists believe that man stands alone in possessing the power to +reason, although others believe that some of the other mammals, notably +the other primates, possess the same attribute although in a much less +degree.</p> + +<p><b>Conceptual Thought Probably an Outgrowth of Simpler Psychic States.—</b>Is +the capacity for such conceptual thought, however, which appears as the +final efflorescence of complex neural activity something entirely new? +Most students of comparative psychology maintain that it is not. Just as +one kind of an instinct frequently grows out of another, so has this grown +out of the complex of <i>psychic</i> states which preceded it. It apparently is +the product of the increasing awareness on the part of animals of their +neural processes and the outcome of these processes, which becomes more +and more prominent as we ascend the scale of animal life. With the advent +of associative memory the mind comes more and more to deal with attributes +of objects instead of merely with each single concrete object as it +presents itself, and these attributes being common to many objects, come +to represent definite ideas which can be manipulated by the mind. +Language, of course, has been an <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>indispensable aid to man in this regard, +for words become descriptions of facts and symbols of concepts, and +thereby allow of abstract thought.</p> + +<p><b>The Capacity for Alternative Action in High Animals Renders Possible More +Than One Form of Behavior.—</b>With this modification of instinct by +experience made possible, there comes at the same time, of course, the +capacity for a rational instead of a purely instinctive behavior. This +very capacity for alternative action opens up many new possibilities of +behavior and together with the well-known fixative effects of habit, also +the opportunity of permanently establishing certain ones. Thus it is +obvious that a behavior toward which in a strict sense there can not be +said to have been an original specific tendency, can be developed. What +was present in the first place was only a general possibility of the +development of any one of several types of behavior. The final choice of +the alternatives together with repetition makes it the habitual behavior +of the individual. Of course it can be urged that if the selection of the +type of behavior is left to the individual then the latter will operate +automatically toward the various impulsions of its neural make-up and one +path will be followed because of stronger inclination in that direction, +so that the whole procedure is in the end the mere operation of an +automaton. But however this may be in the individual left to itself, the +fact is in man that the young individual is never left to itself and in +the nature of things can not be, so that without entering into this +troubled pool of controversy regarding freedom of the will, I wish merely +to point out that the possibility<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> of more than one form of behavior +exists and that if one is more desirable than the others then this one can +be chosen by the ones responsible for the training of the young individual +and clenched fast by the agency of habit.</p> + +<p>Intelligence, reason and habits, however, no less than instincts and +tropism must have neural as well as psychical existence and we can not +escape therefore the underlying mechanism.</p> + +<p><b>The Elemental Units of the Nervous System Are the Same in Lower and Higher +Animals.—</b>It is interesting to note that the fundamental neural mechanism +which underlies the mental processes of higher animals is not essentially +different from that which serves in lower forms. Although as animals +become more complex their nervous systems have become proportionately +larger and incomparably more intricate, still all the changes have been +rung on the same basic neural unit, the <i>neuron</i> or nerve-cell (Fig. +32<i>A</i>, <a href="#Page_209">p. 209</a>). The higher nervous system differs from the lower in the +number, in the specializations and in the associations of these units +rather than in possessing something of entirely different elemental +structure.</p> + +<p><b>Neuron Theory.—</b>According to the prevailing modern conception the entire +nervous system is made up of a series of units called <i>neurons</i>. Each +neuron is a single cell with all its processes. The latter consists +typically of short branching processes on the one hand, known as +<i>dendrites</i>, and of a single process on the other, known as the <i>axon</i>, +which extends from the cell to become a nerve fiber (Fig. 32, <a href="#Page_209">p. 209</a>). The +various neurons, with possibly a few exceptions, are not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>anatomically +continuous but contiguous. They communicate with one another apparently by +contact only. The axon of each neuron ends in an elaborate series of fine +branchings which lie in contact with the dendrites of another neuron, or +in some cases with the body of the other cell (Fig. 32, <a href="#Page_209">p. 209</a>). Thus the +nervous impulse passes from one neuron to the other at these points of +contact. An impulse is supposed to travel normally only in one direction +through a neuron, the dendrites being the receiving and the axon the +discharging terminals. There are various types of neurons. Some, +particularly within the brain, have their main processes so provided with +branches and brushes that they may come into physiological connection with +a number of other neurons.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img30.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">A—Diagram to illustrate neurons and their method of connection; <i>a</i>, +axon; <i>d</i>, dendrite; <i>s</i>, synapse. To simplify the diagram the medullary +sheathes of such fibers as would have them have been omitted. The arrows +indicate the direction in which the impulse travels. The lower series +shows diagrammatically how from the same neuron in the cortex two +subordinate neurons may be affected, the one excited to cause contraction +of a certain group of muscle fibers, the other inhibited so that the +antagonistic fibers may relax and thus not hinder the movement of a given +part.</p> + +<p class="descrip">B—Section of a region of the cerebral cortex (after Cajal). The cells +have been blackened with chrome-silver and are much less highly magnified +than the diagrams in A. The numerals refer to certain characteristic +layers of the cortex in this region.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span><b>Establishment of Pathways Through the Nervous System.—</b>It is believed that +more or less resistance to transmission of stimuli prevails at the point +of contact (<i>synapse</i>) between two neurons but that this resistance is +lessened by repetition of conduction. The frequent traversing of a given +pathway by similar impulses finally results in an automatic occurrence of +the transmission, or, in other words, the action becomes habitual. +Education consists largely in establishing such routes through the nervous +tissue. Because of the greater plasticity of the neural mechanism in youth +it is easier to open up and fix pathways of conduction than in later +years. Moreover the earlier established lines of conduction become the +more permanent.</p> + +<p><b>Characteristic Arrangements of Nerve Cells Are as Subject to Inheritance +as Other Structures of the Body.—</b>That the main features of the nervous +system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> are inherited becomes obvious when we see that each kind of animal +has its own distinctive numbers, arrangements and proportions of the +various neural units. In man, for example, there are certain +characteristics, types and groupings of nerve-cells which are reproduced +generation after generation with remarkable fidelity. This means that in +so far as these represent the mental make-up of the individual, his +mentality is continuously linked with others which have gone before. The +new-born child has all the nerve-cells in its brain that it will ever have +but the ultimate linkages of the finer connectives between them, or at +least the pathways of travel, remain in large measure to be made.</p> + +<p>As we have already seen, the cerebral cortex is the seat of the chief +mental faculties of man or at least of the highest of these. Professor +Lloyd Morgan, one of our greatest authorities on comparative psychology, +is inclined to believe that the instincts are located in the subcortical +material. In any event, the inheritance of mental ability resolves itself +into the inheritance of a certain cerebral mechanism.</p> + +<p><b>Different Parts of the Cortex Yield Different Reactions.—</b>The cerebral +cortex, however, is not functionally homogeneous throughout. Certain +regions have been shown to be motor, others sensory, and moreover, these +regions are apparently further specialized so that a given one of them is +associated with a specific type of sensory or motor response, not merely +with responses in general. Thus by injuring one of the sensory areas we +might destroy vision but not other sensations, or by stimulating one of +the motor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> centers we would get a response in a corresponding motor organ +but not in all such organs. Likewise, it is probable that still different +areas, the so-called “association areas,” relatively of much greater +development in man than in any other animal, are the regions in which +various perceptions and conceptions are synthesized and formed into +organized knowledge. Here also are engendered the volitions which when +flashed through the motor centers become expressed in activity or +behavior.</p> + +<p>It seems highly probable that just as the sensory and motor areas differ +in kind from one another, so we must suppose there are qualitative +differences in various parts of the association areas so that the +different parts give different reactions in consciousness; that is, each +special mental ability of the individual is more or less centered in a +special part of the cortex. And just as there may be variations in other +structures of the organism so there may be variations in these areas. The +“gifted” person in some one direction, whether it be in mathematics, +music, painting, or what not, is on this hypothesis one who has that +particular area of his brain which forms the basis for the talent in +question more highly developed than it is in the average individual. And +since such talents are handed down to descendants, this can only mean that +a similar grouping of the neurons in the region in question has occurred.</p> + +<p><b>Skill Acquired in One Special Branch of Learning Probably Not Transferred +to Another Branch.—</b>Such a differential arrangement of the brain-mechanism +which presumably underlies the various mental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> abilities would lead to the +inference that skill in one special branch of learning, in so far as it +involves only certain centers of the cortex, would not be transferred to +another branch based on different neural pathways and centers. Development +of historical knowledge, for example, would not enhance one’s mathematical +ability, or vice versa. The testimony of various psychologists bears out +this idea. In so far as certain factors of training, such as habits of +industry, concentration, etc., are common to the study of either +mathematics or history, the good effects of either discipline will +probably be much the same, but the identity of effect vanishes as soon as +the intrinsic characteristics of the subjects themselves are involved.</p> + +<p>Just how far we are warranted, however, in carrying this idea of localized +functions as regards the association areas is a moot question. Our present +attitude regarding the specificity of such localizations is largely a +matter of inference based on analogy to conditions which obtain in other +and better known parts of the brain, together with the indubitable +differences in inborn abilities which exist between individuals. Some few +brain physiologists maintain that the whole cortex operates more or less +as a unit in all of the higher psychical activities.</p> + +<p><b>Preponderance of Cortex in Highest Animals.—</b>One of the most interesting +conditions in the nervous system of the highest types of animals is the +way in which the cortex has outrun the other parts of the brain in size +and complexity and has come to dominate the organism more and more both +directly and indirectly. Aside from the proportionately greater <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>increase +in size of the cortex, there is an abundance of anatomical evidence of +this altered and probably altering system of control in man and the higher +apes. This is well illustrated in the fiber tracts (nerve bundles) of the +spinal cord.</p> + +<p><b>More Long Fiber Tracts in the Spinal Cord of Man.—</b>The spinal cord +although having many nerve centers of its own is also in great part a +large cable for conducting enormous numbers of fibers from one part of the +cord to another, or to and from the brain. In man and the higher apes a +considerably larger percentage of the total area of the cord is given up +to the long fiber tracts from the brain to the body than in lower +vertebrates. This progressive increase in long fiber tracts in the higher +anthropoids probably marks more and more domination of the body by the +higher brain centers and correspondingly less by the direct activity of +the cord and by the lower brain centers. However, even in man, many of the +simpler reflexes of the body still have their centers in the spinal cord.</p> + +<p><b>Special Fiber Tracts in the Cord of Man and Higher Apes.—</b>There are +certain special tracts of the cord that are particularly interesting in +connection with the increasing domination of the brain over the body, +namely, the <i>pyramidal tracts</i>. These were the latest tracts to appear in +the animal kingdom and are apparently the latest to become functional in +the individual. It is believed that the development of the medullary +substance (an enveloping sheath) of the common medullated nerve fiber +marks the time of entrance of the fiber into activity and it is a +significant fact that the formation of this sheath occurs last of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> all in +the fibers of the pyramidal tracts, where it does not appear till after +birth. These tracts convey impulses from the brain to the body. They +consist of two sets of tracts, in fact, one the crossed, the other the +direct. As an anomaly, probably arising most frequently from instrumental +injury at birth, the pyramidal tracts fail to develop normally, with the +distressing result that the infant, although possessing perfectly normal +brain activity and normal spinal cord reflexes, is unable to exercise +voluntary control of the body. In other words the condition, like +hare-lip, is one of suppressed development. At least this seems to be the +most plausible explanation of what is known as <i>Little’s disease</i>. Such +unfortunates usually die early although they may survive for a few years.</p> + +<p>The direct pyramidal tracts occur only in man and man-like apes. They vary +considerably in extent in different individuals. They originate in nests +of characteristic large cells located in the cerebral cortex and are +regarded as paths, though not the only ones, through which volitional +impulses are conveyed from the brain. They seem to control certain of the +finer and more delicate movements of the body.</p> + +<p><b>Great Complexity in Associations and More Neurons in the Brain of Man Than +of Other Animals.—</b>It has already been noted that as animals stand higher +in the scale of life while the general plan of their neural elements +remain the same, there is increasing complexity in the number and +connections of the neurons. The number of processes on individual +nerve-cells is also greater. There is in fact much greater complexity in +the number of processes and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>inter-connections of the neural cells +than in the numbers of the cells themselves. This would seem to indicate +that the greater mental activities of higher animals depend more on +richness in complex associations than on mere increase in number of +neurons. The latter, however, is by no means unimportant as may be seen in +man, for instance, in whom it is estimated that the cerebral cortex, that +is, that part of his brain in which his more complex mental processes +transpire, contains some nine billion more nerve cells than does the +corresponding region of the brain of an anthropoid ape.</p> + +<p>Of especial significance in the psychic make-up of man is his vastly +increased capacity for inhibition. Although not possessed by all men in +equal measure and not entirely wanting in lower animals it is a +distinctive feature in all human conduct. Much of any child’s education, +particularly as it pertains to behavior, must be concerned with training +in the exercise of proper inhibitions. He must learn to suppress certain +primitive types of reaction in favor of higher ones. This applies not only +to motor activities but to trains of thought as well. The essence of +self-control consists mainly in ability to substitute for one impulse or +idea other compensating ones. And the secret of concentration lies in +being able to banish irrelevant ideas and focus on the central thought.</p> + +<p><b>The Nervous System in the Main Already Staged at the Time of Birth for the +Part It Must Play.—</b>It is clear from what is known of its anatomy that in +the main the central nervous system is framed to respond in certain set +ways, that there are determinative elements in it which control or +determine the responses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> and therefore the behavior of the body. The same +evidence shows also, however, in the incompleteness of many of the +associations, that while the stage is all set and some of the main +features of the performance are determined at the time of birth, +considerable yet remains to be done toward fitting the parts together and +working up the detail. Just exactly what and how much is rigidly +determined no one knows.</p> + +<p><b>Many Pathways of Conduction Not Established at Birth.—</b>As we have already +seen the evidence is that many of the neural pathways are not yet fully +established at birth, and there is some indication that routes once opened +may be altered. To what degree this has bearing on behavior is still +unknown, but since neurologists attribute so much importance to the +richness and the associations of the cell-outgrowths, it is evident that +this increase in the number of pathways after birth with possible +alternatives of connections may be a very important factor in the +modification of behavior. Yet, on the other hand, we are completely in the +dark as to what extent these later associations are predetermined in the +earlier cells.</p> + +<p><b>The Extent of the Zone That Can Be Modified Is Unknown.—</b>There is little +doubt that many of the paths of action are already firmly established. +Others, although not irrevocably fixed, offer the least resistance and +would “naturally” be taken if not counteracted or modified by the more or +less artificial development and fixation of other paths through +cultivation and habit. Yet others perhaps are largely neutral; they still +await the initial decisive push which “choice” or external environment may +mete out to them. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> trainers of youth all that is left that we can do is +to attempt to develop in certain ways the elements of this indefinite, +impressible zone. Unfortunately, we must labor in the dark to a great +extent as we have all too little indication of which the malleable factors +of intellect and conduct are. We can only infer from long, intelligent and +sympathetic observation of children in successive stages of their +development. It is only by having clearly in mind the nature of our +problem that our conclusions will finally come to be of enhanced practical +value in the training of children. Observation to the present time clearly +indicates that many children are strongly predisposed this way or that “as +the sparks fly upward.”</p> + +<p>This is a point too frequently overlooked by educators. They are often +unduly actuated by the other piece of the truth that, “as the twig is bent +the tree inclines.” They sometimes fail to realize that after all the tree +remains the same kind of a tree. If an apple tree, while it may be bent +from the normal path of development, it can not produce other fruit than +apples. Just how much the destiny of man can be influenced by training and +the exercise of his own will power is the fundamental question not only of +pedagogy but of ethics as well. For if man’s rational judgments are +markedly conditioned by his neural make-up then the volitional judgments +which underlie conduct are likewise conditioned since they are +inextricably intermingled with his reason. We must believe that to a +considerable extent emotional expression, as well as other mental +functions, is due to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>hereditary dispositions of the neurons in the +various parts of the brain.</p> + +<p><b>Various Possibilities of Reaction in the Child.—</b>Despite the innate +predeterminations of the tree, it is nevertheless our province to see that +the twig <i>is</i> bent, but our work can only be done with due intelligence +when we recognize something of the limitations of our material. Of the +various possibilities of reaction we must see that certain desirable ones +are realized, even, in some cases, if only to have others thereby +excluded. It is a commonplace of psychology that all cerebral excitations, +no matter what the origin, must vent themselves in some way and if this +expression is not directed into proper channels it will very likely find +improper ones. We must see that the young wearer of the coat of +undetermined capacities gets it set by repeated performance into the +habitual wrinkles of normal social conduct. For it is a trite observation +that when habits are once well established it requires tremendous efforts +to do otherwise than as they dictate. There is not the least doubt that +some of our subjects will respond much more readily to training in certain +directions of habitual reactions than others, but we have always the +consolatory knowledge that no matter how difficult the art may be at +first, repetition reduces the difficulty.</p> + +<p>While much of any youth’s character must be determined by external forces +brought to bear upon it, the ultimate climax of our effort and measure of +our success will be the extent to which we have engendered in him the +capacity for initiating and carrying out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> through his own volition those +impulsions and inhibitions which tend to the highest good of humanity.</p> + +<p><b>Probable Origin of Altruistic Human Conduct.—</b>Those phases of human +conduct which find expression in consideration for others seem no less +than other mental attributes to have their origin in certain fundamental +instincts. Altruistic conduct, in last analysis, apparently resolves +itself back largely to certain very fundamental impulsions, namely those +which arise out of certain obligations for the welfare of others which are +necessarily associated with the marital, parental and filial relations +that must exist where the young require post-natal care. Looked at from +the standpoint of natural selection, this would come about as a mere +matter of survival value. Where the young, as in man, are helpless for a +long period of time, more opportunity would be afforded for the +development of both conjugal and filial affection. The sympathetic +emotions once established in such family relations would partly through +habit, partly through community of interest, readily become extended to +clan or tribe and as a final consummation to all mankind.</p> + +<p><b>Training in Motive Necessary.—</b>In the training of children, then, we must +recognize first of all that there are decided inclinations or bents which, +as long as they are not anti-social in nature, must be respected if not +always encouraged. While it is necessary to utilize these as much as +possible in their training still we must bear in mind that although it is +natural for a child to follow certain interests, the fact remains that as +regards social worth these natural interests may not be the most valuable. +When this is true we must strive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> to develop others which will compel +attention and thus become impelling factors in conduct. Where certain +fundamental impulsions run contrary to the common welfare it is necessary +to practise the child in the setting up of inhibitions or counter-impulses +until this becomes habitual. He must be led to construct a protective +mantle of appropriate scruples, doubts and fears. It is all important to +get the proper motives for action to prevail in his mind.</p> + +<p><b>Actual Practise in Carrying Out Projects Is All Important.—</b>But on the +other hand it is equally important to see that the action is effectively +carried out. In the matter of self-discipline, particularly, we may have +many ideal impulses and realize that they should prevail over certain of +our natural propensities, but unless we put forth effort to overcome the +propensities our ideal impulses are of no avail. The world has many such +moral paralytics to-day who can not seize their “languor as it were a +curling snake and cast it off.” It is training in this very overcoming of +reluctance, in this putting forth of actual effort toward worthy ends +instead of merely memorizing precepts about the desirability of such +accomplishments, that is so sadly lacking in our school and home life +to-day. We prate of the importance of self-control, we say with our lips +that the way to learn to do is by doing, we proclaim that it is more vital +to instil good mental and physical habits into our pupils than to stock +them with information, we preach that mere fact training is as conducive +to making a first-class rascal as an upright man, yet we jog on +complacently in the well-beaten ruts of memory routine which require the +memorizing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> of symbols rather than real understanding. We seldom require +that our protégés make intelligent judgments based on evidence, we rarely +exact of them decisions in matters of ethics, and almost never demand that +they put their knowledge into efficient accomplishment. It can not be too +strongly urged that we need less of formulæ learned by heart, less dead +erudition pigeonholed in the brain like so many foreign bodies, and vastly +more assimilation of knowledge into the living personality of the +individual.</p> + +<p>Where in school or home to-day do we find provision for such training? Our +tendency is, in fact, just the opposite. According to the modern code, as +it works out in many instances at least, the child must be taught through +play. Though it is a truism that he who has not learned obedience can +never be master of himself, the child of to-day must not be made to obey +but be wheedled into changing his mind. If a given subject of study proves +distasteful to him, the fault is the teacher’s for not making it +interesting, for he must always be led on by the thrill of fascination. In +other words, the child must not only be allowed but be encouraged to take +the path of least resistance. His own pleasure is to be the standard of +his actions. Let no stern demands of duty interfere!</p> + +<p>Is it any wonder that the products of such tutelage come into the +activities of life self-indulgent and undisciplined, and although often +recognizing our private and public shame in business, politics and +conduct, still remain supine, evasive of the unpleasantness or hardships +of reform, or inefficient or unwilling in accomplishing unselfish ends?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span><b>Interest and Difficulty Both Essential.—</b>The writer does not wish to be +understood as minimizing the importance of interest on the part of the +child in what he is doing. Interest is undeniably the open sesame to +desirable mental development; but what he does protest against is that not +uncommon interpretation of interest which deems it necessary to eschew +most serious consideration of a subject and evade such parts as present +difficulties. Certainly if there is any fact that stands out prominently +in human experience it is the fact that nothing conduces to the +development of moral stamina so much as the overcoming of difficulties, +particularly distasteful difficulties.</p> + +<p><b>Conduct Developed Through Actual Performance.—</b>Self-control and the will +to do can be trained and crystallized into habit as well as can any other +activity. It is a fact that one well grounded in morals by habit will +successfully resist subconscious impulsions to wrongdoing even when +suggested in the hypnotic state. Conduct is largely a matter of growth +through actual performance. For proper guidance of this growth there must, +of course, be high ideals around which the feelings are led to cluster and +by which they gradually come to be controlled.</p> + +<p><b>Construction of Ideals.—</b>The construction of such ideals through example, +through precept, through appeal and through actual practise in self-denial +and self-control on the part of the child, should be the foremost duty of +the parent or teacher. Above all it should be remembered that imitation of +teacher, of parents, of companions, is more of a factor than intellect in +the moral action of children. At present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> educationally we are in a fever +for vocational training, for “practical” work, and in general for all +things conducive to coaching our pupils in how to make a living, yet +commendable as all this may be, is it not of even more fundamental +importance to train them how to live?</p> + +<p><b>The Realization of Certain Possibilities of the Germ Rather Than Others Is +Subject to Control.—</b>It may be said in a sense that there exists +potentially in any germ all the things that can possibly come out of it +under any obtainable conditions of environment. The very initiation of a +given mode of expression by some environmental factor, however, often +mutually excludes many of the others. We get a given average result +ordinarily because development normally takes place in a given average +environment.</p> + +<p>As may be easily shown by experiment, this is manifest even in the +instincts of lower animals. In the young the various instincts do not come +into expression at the same time, and it not infrequently happens that if +one of the earlier instincts becomes operative toward certain objects or +situations, later instincts will have a wholly different relation toward +these objects or situations than they would otherwise have had. As a +result the whole life conduct of the animal is markedly modified. For +example, young animals immediately after birth have no instinct of fear. +They do, however, have a strong instinct to attach themselves to some +moving thing and follow it. The utility of such an instinct, as for +instance in the case of young chickens, is obvious. The object of +attachment is usually the parent, but man may take<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> the place of a parent +and the young animal will fearlessly follow him about. However if the +young animal has had no experience with man during its earliest infancy a +later instinct, that of fear or wildness, will have come into play and it +will flee from him. It is clear, therefore, that by familiarizing the +young animal with man before its instinct of fear has come to expression, +certain habitual reactions are set up in it which inhibit or limit the +application of its instinct of wildness as regards man. In other words, +the whole course of its life has been altered by this simple experience. +The same principle applies in even greater degree to the young of man.</p> + +<p>We have seen in a former chapter that what in the ordinary course of +nature was “predestined” to become one individual nevertheless contained +the possibility of becoming four or more if the environing conditions were +made such as to bring about a separation of the cleavage blastomeres. Or a +fish egg that contained the possibility of becoming a normal two-eyed form +also contained the possibility of becoming a one-eyed form and could be +made to do so by certain unusual modifications of the conditions under +which it develops. However we must not be led so far by the plausibility +of this comparison that we are misled, for the fact is that we are not +creating anything new by these environmental upheavals, but are mainly +altering features that already exist. Beyond doubt the nature of the +material is of greater import in the specificity of the outcome than are +the external forces brought to play on it. The only point I wish to make +is that even what seem ordinarily to be predestined ends can be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> altered +by environment, and that the probabilities are that certain features are +relatively indifferent at their inception, the environmental factor adding +the final touch of specificity. And our common experience in education +would indicate that the same is true of mental conditions, including +behavior. The actual appearance of a particular trait is not necessarily +always a matter of an initial trend, but may be due merely to the fact +that its development is possible under certain conditions of environment +and that these conditions have prevailed in the given instance. And even +where there is a specific bent it may be arrested through the awakening of +a contrary impulse, or, on the other hand, its exercise may prevent the +engendering of the opposite impulse.</p> + +<p><b>Our Duty to Afford the Opportunity and Provide the Proper Stimuli for the +Development of Good Traits.—</b>It is clearly our duty to see that the +expression of good traits is made possible. We must throw a sheltering +screen of social environment around the young individual which will fend +off wrong forms of incitement and chances for harmful expression, and we +must provide proper stimuli and afford opportunity for development of +proper modes of expression. We must not forget that a normal instinct +denied a legitimate outlet will not infrequently find an illegitimate one. +Above all we must not forget the vital importance of establishing correct +habits nor the possibility of even replacing undesirable ones by good +ones. If training can redirect the machine-like behavior of as lowly a +creature as the starfish into new courses, why should we be so willing as +some of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> genetists would seem to be to throw up our hands and admit +failure in the case of man before we have even made a rational attempt to +correct the evils in question? Even in lowly organisms we have seen that +behavior is not only the result of an innate constitution but also of the +degree and kind of stimulations to which it has been subjected.</p> + +<p>If the individual himself has not the initiative or will to make the +attempt to set up proper or corrective habits, or to cultivate the +necessary specific inhibitors, then all the more is it our duty to see +that he is led by suggestion and drill into the proper routine of +activities for their establishment. For if the individual with +propensities toward moral obliquity is to be saved to society it must be +through the stereotyping effects of good habits.</p> + +<p><b>Moral Responsibility.—</b>Beyond question different men have different +degrees of capacity for mental and moral training. All can not be held +equally responsible ethically, but the lowermost limit of obligatory +response to social and ethical demands necessary to rank one as within the +pale of normal conduct is at such a level that any one not an actual +defective can in a reasonably wholesome environment surmount it. All +normal men are responsible for their conduct.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<p class="title">MENTAL AND NERVOUS DEFECTS</p> + + +<p>Some of the most important and serious problems which confront humanity +to-day lie in the realm of mental and neural maladjustments. For human +progress and social welfare are in last analysis based fundamentally on +the results of normal reactions of human nervous systems. Any serious +derangement of the latter may, and in certain cases must, lead to more or +less disaster for the individual and disorder for society of which he is a +unit. So appalling has the number of neuropathic subjects become in modern +times that the matter may well cause even the most thoughtless citizen to +pause and consider.</p> + +<p><b>Prevalence of Insanity.—</b>As to the prevalence of insanity, one learns from +recent charts prepared by a member of the National Committee for Mental +Hygiene that in 1910 we had more insane (187,454) in our institutions than +there were students (184,712) in all our colleges and universities in the +United States, or officers and enlisted men (142,695) in our combined +United States army, navy and marine corps; further, the yearly cost +($32,804,450) of caring for these insane is greater than the annual cost +of construction ($32,520,100) on such a stupendous undertaking as the +Panama Canal. In New York over twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> per cent. of the revenues of the +state go to support the insane. Doctor Lewellys F. Barker, President of +the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, says: “It is calculated that +some 250,000 people in the United States are insane. One of every five men +discharged from the United States army for disability is discharged +because of insanity, 60 per cent. of the cases being <i>dementia precox</i>.”</p> + +<p>Even in individual states with exceptionally large university populations +we still find these outnumbered by those of the insane. Thus in Wisconsin +by 1914 the state university had attained a population of about 4,700 +students resident at the university during the regular school year, and of +approximately 6,000 attending during some part of the year, but the number +of insane under restraint in public institutions in the state June 20, +1912, was 6,851, with an additional 1,284 on parole. This does not include +the insane in various private sanatoria, and moreover a considerable +greater number of patients had been treated in these public institutions +than were resident there June twentieth.</p> + +<p>To make such comparisons complete one should, of course, know the average +length of residence of students in college, and of insane patients in +institutions. No accurate data on this point are at hand. The average +period of residence in hospitals for the acutely insane is doubtless +considerably shorter than the average period of attendance of students in +college, while on the other hand the average period of residence of +inmates in asylums for chronic insane is probably considerably longer. For +example, the Wisconsin State<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> Hospital for the Insane reports a total of +1,224 patients under treatment, but an average population at any one time +of only 622 during the year 1911, and the Northern Hospital for the +Insane, a total of 1,194, with a daily average of 613 during the same +period. The combined thirty-four county asylums in Wisconsin, for chronic +insane, had a total population of 5,384 during the year 1911, with a loss +of 517, or approximately 10 per cent. During 1912 the figures for these +same institutions run 5,758 and 742 respectively, or a loss of over 12.5 +per cent. The conditions in other states are probably much the same.</p> + +<p>In other representative states we find the number of insane in public +institutions as follows: California, 7,909; Michigan, 7,703; Minnesota, +5,329; Pennsylvania, 16,992. Epileptics are estimated by alienists to be +about equal in number to the insane, feeble-minded to be more numerous. +The estimate that in the United States there are 300,000 feeble-minded is +probably a minimal figure.</p> + +<p><b>Imperfect Adjustments of the Brain Mechanism Often Inheritable.—</b>The +outside layer or “cortex” of the brain is the region in which the more +complicated adjustments occur, especially such as pertain to human +behavior, and inasmuch as this portion of the brain is extremely complex +and delicate in its mechanism, it is peculiarly liable to derangements +which, even when slight, may have far-reaching effects.</p> + +<p>This brain-mechanism is as much a product of ancestry as is any other +structure of the body, and it is obvious therefore that imperfect +adjustments of its structure must be as subject to the laws of +inheritance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> as are other malformations of the body. And just as with +other defects, mental disorders may thus flow from pre-existing ancestral +maladjustment of the nervous system or from immediate causes thrust upon +it, such as syphilis, alcoholism, degeneration of the blood vessels and +traumata. Or, in other words, the mechanism of mentality may be faulty +from the beginning, or it may be made faulty by bad environmental +conditions.</p> + +<p>The records of the inheritance of insanity, imbecility, feeble-mindedness +and other forms of nervous and mental defects are truly startling. Active +researches in this field have been in progress now for several years, and +as each new set of investigations comes in the tale is always the same. It +is questionable if there is a single genuine case on record where a normal +child has been born from a union of two imbeciles. Yet the universal +tendency is for defective to mate with defective. Davenport gives a list +of examples, beginning with such a one as this: “A feeble-minded man of +thirty-eight has a delicate wife who in twenty years has borne him +nineteen defective children.” Little wonder, in the light of such facts as +these, that the number of degenerates is rapidly increasing in what are +called civilized countries.</p> + +<p><b>Many Mental Defectives Married.—</b>But, it may be urged, these are +exceptional cases, there is surely no considerable number of mental +defectives who are married. Let us look at the available facts. In Great +Britain in 1901, of 60,000 known feeble-minded, imbeciles and idiots, +19,000 were married, and in the same year, of 117,000 lunatics, 47,000 +were married; that is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> a sum-total of 66,000 mentally defective +individuals were legally multiplying, or had had the opportunity to +multiply their kind, to say nothing of the unmarried who were known to +have produced children.</p> + +<p>In the state of Wisconsin I note from the tenth biennial report of the +Board of Control that of 574 patients admitted to the Northern Hospital +for the Insane during the year from July 1, 1908, to June 30, 1909, 274 +were married and 29 others were known to have been married; this is a +total of 303 out of 574, considerably over half. At the Wisconsin State +Hospital for the Insane we find the conditions are no better, for out of +499 admitted in the year 1909-10, 208 were married and 65 others had at +some time been married, or a total of 273 out of 499. There is every +reason to believe that conditions are approximately similar in other +states.</p> + +<p><b>Disproportionate Increase in the Number of Mental Defectives.—</b>Writing of +conditions in England the Commissioners in Lunacy state in their +fifty-fourth report that now (1901) there is one officially known lunatic +to 301.32 individuals of population, whereas in 1859 there was only one to +536 individuals of population. In Great Britain, taking into account +mental defectives of all kinds, the 1901 census showed a total of 485,507, +or 1:85 of total population. Rentoul estimates that 1:50 would be nearer +the truth because of the fact that the number of officially known mental +defectives is much less than the actual number. The conditions in Ireland +are even more impressive, for in 1851 there was one known lunatic to 657 +individuals of population; in 1871, one to 328, and in 1901 one to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> 178. +When all allowance is made in these statistics for the greater accuracy of +recent enumeration, and for other modifying influences, such as migration, +we are still forced to believe that an alarming increase in insanity is in +progress and that society is woefully derelict in permitting the marriage +of such unfortunates.</p> + +<p>A census of the insane under public care in Wisconsin June 30, 1910, not +counting the paroled, shows 6,537, or one to each 357 of population, since +the population of the state was then 2,333,860. If, however, we should add +the number of insane in private sanatoria and the number unconfined the +proportion of normal individuals would be very much reduced.</p> + +<p>In the United States as a whole, while I know of no data giving the number +of married insane, it is estimated that at least one-fourth of the insane +are not in asylums or hospitals. In all states the number of insane in +state institutions (there are no available records of most private +institutions) is rapidly increasing. According to the special census of +1903 covering a period of fourteen years, during which the general +population increased thirty per cent., the number of insane in +institutions increased one hundred per cent. This is due doubtless in part +to the fact that because of better facilities for keeping them a +proportionately greater number of insane are being sent to state hospitals +than in former years. Moreover, improved sanitation has cut down the +death-rate in asylums. The increase is in such vastly greater proportion +than the increase in general population, however, that it seems impossible +to attribute it wholly to the greater accuracy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> of recent enumerations and +the increasing custom of confining the insane in asylums. This is a matter +that demands our gravest attention and one that should be investigated +with the greatest thoroughness. One of the most disquieting facts in the +situation in most states is that many patients—an average of +approximately one thousand a year, in Wisconsin for example—are on parole +subject to recall. This means that although it is recognized that these +patients are likely to have to be returned to the asylum or hospital, +little or no restraint in the meantime is placed on their marital +relations.<a name='fna_8' id='fna_8' href='#f_8'><small>[8]</small></a></p> + +<p><b>Protests Voiced by Alienists.—</b>Is it any wonder under the circumstances +that we find Doctor Charles Gorst, superintendent at the Mendota Hospital, +voicing in his 1910 report the following vigorous protest—and certainly +such men as he are in the best position to know. He says: “No one doubts +for a moment that defective mental conditions are transmitted from parent +to child as surely as the physical defects and deformities. Every one +knows that it is common for defectives to be attracted to each other and +marry, and that the defects of both parents are liable to be transmitted +to the children. It is also true that there are more children born in such +families; and for that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> reason the percentage of defectives is continually +on the increase. The report of the state of Illinois shows the increase to +be alarming, and many other states are no better. It is absolutely wicked +that the persons suffering from periodical insanity should be allowed to +return to their homes to propagate and scatter their children about the +state as dependents.”</p> + +<p><b>Examples of Hereditary Feeble-Mindedness.—</b>No one can look at the +remarkable series of charts and records brought together by Doctor Goddard +of the institution at Vineland, New Jersey, and by other directors of +similar institutions, and doubt for an instant the inheritability of +feeble-mindedness and allied defects. In some instances the family history +has been followed back as far as five generations, and it is always the +same dire sequence of insanity, idiocy, epilepsy or feeble-mindedness, +from generation to generation. For example, Fig. 33, <a href="#Page_236">p. 236</a>, is one of +Doctor Goddard’s charts. It shows thirteen descendants of a supposedly +normal father (possibly a carrier) and a feeble-minded mother, of whom +seven were feeble-minded, the others dying in infancy. The mother herself +was one of seven feeble-minded children, who were in turn the descendants +of feeble-minded parents, of whom the woman had five feeble-minded +brothers and sisters. In Fig. 34, <a href="#Page_237">p. 237</a>, he shows mental defects running +through four generations. Fig. 35, <a href="#Page_238">p. 238</a>, is a remarkable exhibit which, +starting in the fifth generation back with a feeble-minded, alcoholic +man—the mental condition of his wife being unknown—shows that in every +generation down to and including the present there has been nothing but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>feeble-minded (or worse) offspring, leaving out of account two unknown +and a number who died in infancy without revealing their mental condition. +This is true notwithstanding the fact that in the course of the various +generations there had been several matings with apparently normal +individuals. The new blood, however, instead of redeeming the tainted +stock, itself became vitiated. The numerous specific cases of inheritance +of family traits reviewed in recent books or in special reports of trained +workers give us abundant confirmatory evidence of the inevitable +inheritance of various nervous and mental defects.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img31.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Inheritance of feeble-mindedness (after Goddard): squares represent males, +circles females; F, feeble-minded; N, normal; E, epileptic; I, insane; C, +criminal; T, tuberculous; d. inf., died in infancy; the hand shows the +individual from whom the record was traced back; small black circle indicates miscarriage.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Difficult to Secure Accurate Data.—</b>It is obvious, of course, that in +tabulations such as these there may lurk considerable margins of error. +Notwithstanding our Binet-Simon and other tests for feeble-mindedness, for +example, there is yet much to be desired in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> the way of accuracy. Many +cases just bordering normality are by no means easy to decide. Then again +in most human records, when one gets back beyond the third or, at most, +the fourth generation, the investigator has to depend on the hearsay +evidence of relatives, friends or neighbors, and how vague this generally +is can only be appreciated by those who have themselves tried to collect +such data. But in spite of all the difficulties, there is little doubt +that the more carefully prepared records are sufficiently accurate to +establish the fact beyond dispute that defective tends in large measure to +breed defective.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img32.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34</span></p> + +<p class="center">Inheritance of feeble-mindedness (after Goddard); symbols same as in Fig. 33, <a href="#Page_236">p. 236</a>.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>One serious drawback in making a study of the inheritability of insanity +and other nervous disorders is that so far we have dealt mainly with mass +effects rather than specific neuroses. But even when the latter is +attempted we are confronted by the fact that there are various +intergradations of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>recognized types of defect, that because of +varying degrees of defect in the same type a standard is hard to +establish, and above all that what appears as a specific mental malady in +one individual may crop out in his descendants in an entirely different +guise. Moreover, not only the predisposition of the individual, but age +and precipitative cause enter as factors in determining the ultimate +symptoms.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img33.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35</span></p> + +<p class="center">Inheritance of feeble-mindedness (after Goddard); symbols same as in Fig. 33, <a href="#Page_236">p. 236</a>.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Feeble-Mindedness and Insanity Not the Same.—</b>Authorities make a sharp +distinction between insanities on the one hand and feeble-mindedness on +the other. According to Goddard, not only is there no close relationship +between the two conditions, but in reality they stand at opposite ends of +the psychical scale. In general, insanity is a degenerative process,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +whereas feeble-mindedness is an arrest of development. In the first case +the victim loses part of the mentality he once had, in the second he stops +short of normal development.</p> + +<p><b>Many Types of Insanity.—</b>The commonest manifestations of insanity are +undue depression, apathy, excitement, instability, obsessions, +hallucinations and delusions. Some mental disorders are associated with +recognizable structural changes in the nervous system, but the structural +basis of many is not known.</p> + +<p>In general there is more doubt about the inheritability of some of the +insanities than about cases of mental deficiency. The term insanity is +merely a loose descriptive one, and we shall gain little definite +knowledge about the inheritance of such maladies until we study each +separate insane diathesis specifically. Psychiatrists recognize many +different forms of insanity, some of them very distinct from others and +the product of unrelated underlying causes. Often it is only a question of +degree or sometimes a matter of chance as to whether a given individual is +certified as insane or not. A neuropathic person who manifests certain +anti-social activities is sure to be classed as insane, whereas another +individual with the same diathesis in a less degree might pass +unrecognized. It is almost impossible in some instances to tell just where +the border-line between a neuropathic and a normal constitution lies. Many +of the idiosyncrasies of the insane, indeed, are merely exaggerations of +characteristics seen in normal people. Recent studies of the psychology of +the insane show that most of their hallucinations and delusions are +closely related to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> some previous mental experience they had before +becoming insane. And it has been found that the surest means toward +removing the obsessions of the patient in curable cases is to ferret out +these earlier experiences and correct the wrong impressions regarding +them. Again, certain forms of insanity do not become manifest except as +special reactions to particular environmental conditions, and if these +conditions do not happen to occur, then the neuropathic constitution +though existing would not be revealed. Certain critical periods of life +such as puberty, pregnancy and the close of sexual life are particularly +likely to test out the mentally unstable, although such individuals may +have maintained normal mental balance up to the crisis in question.</p> + +<p><b>Not All Insanities of the Same Eugenical Significance.—</b>Of the various +kinds of insanity some seem to be of much greater eugenical significance +than others, not only because they are strongly heritable, but also +because of the periodicity of the attacks. The patient may be repeatedly +in and out of the asylum and in his sane intervals wholly unrestrained as +far as propagating his kind is concerned. <i>Manic depressive</i> psychoses and +<i>dementia precox</i> in the order named represented the largest number of +admissions to the Wisconsin State Hospital for the Insane in 1911 and +1912, and both of these very frequently have a hereditary basis. Fig. 36, +a chart showing the insanity in a local family as worked out by one of my +pupils, is a good example of a recurrent type. The father (Fig. 36, <a href="#Page_241">p. 241</a>) +was about eighty-two years old when the record was made. His memory +was poor and he could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> not talk connectedly, although this was possibly +attributable to old age rather than to insanity. His brother, written to +in Ireland, stated that to his knowledge there had never been insanity in +his side of the family. The mother (2) was insane at nine, again at +twenty-nine and again at thirty-six. In her later life she has been in the +Mendota Hospital for the Insane five times and in the County Asylum twice. +The eldest daughter (3) has been in the State Asylum five times and is now +at home. The next daughter (4) spent five months in the asylum in 1885. +Another daughter (5) likewise spent a short period in the asylum. Two sons +(6, 7) have each spent two periods in the asylum, and a third son (8) has +had an attack of insanity. The youngest child died at the age of three. +Thus of the eight adult children six have been insane at some time. The +cases in this family seem all to be instances of manic-depressive +insanity.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img34.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36</span></p> + +<p class="center">Inheritance of insanity in the L—— family. See text for description.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>A Neuropathic Constitution May Express Itself Differently Under Different +Conditions.—</b>Some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> the difficulties of getting genealogies of specific +forms of insanity are obvious from the following quotations chosen from +the works of eminent psychiatrists. Kraepelin, for instance, expresses the +opinion that: “The psychopathic charge of a family may reveal itself not +only by the appearance of mental disorders but also by other forms of +manifestation. Here belong before all, those diverse slighter deviations +from mental health which go to make up the borderland of insanity: +nervousness, states of anxiety and compulsion, constitutional depressions, +slight hysterical disorders and forms of feeble-mindedness, tics; also odd +characters, peculiarities in mode of living, criminal tendencies, lack of +self-control, intemperance, love of adventure, mendacity, suicide on an +inner basis.”</p> + +<p>From the volume of Church and Peterson on <i>Nervous and Mental Diseases</i> a +further confirmatory opinion may be cited: “In determining the factor of +heredity we must not be content with ascertaining the existence of +psychoses in the ascendants, but must seek, by careful interrogation of +various members of the family, for some of the hereditary equivalents, +such as epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, neurasthenia, somnambulism, migraine, +organic diseases of the central nervous system, criminal tendencies, +eccentricities of character, drunkenness, etc., for these equivalents are +interchangeable from one generation to another, and are simply evidence of +instability of the nervous system. It is the unstable nervous organization +that is inherited, not a particular neurosis or psychosis, and it must be +our aim in the investigation of the progenitors to discover the evidence +of this.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span><b>Certain Forms of Insanity, But Not All, Seem to Behave as Mendelian +Recessives.—</b>A number of psychiatrists and investigators of the +inheritance of insanities (Rudin, Lunborg, Davenport, Rosanoff, Jolly), +although working independently and in different countries, concur in the +opinion that manic-depressive insanity, dementia precox and allied +psychopathic conditions tend to occur after the manner of a Mendelian +recessive. On the other hand such maladies as Huntington’s chorea are +transmitted as a dominant and in all probability at least half of the +children of an afflicted individual will inherit and manifest the defect. +As to inheritance of various other psychoses we have too few accurately +charted pedigrees for most types to make very positive statements about +their degree or manner of inheritance. Little can be said beyond the +statement that there is a decided tendency for various forms to recur in +offspring. Where more than one case of insanity occurs in a given family +or stock it is strong presumptive evidence that a hereditary defect is at +the bottom of it. As Doctor Wilmarth says, “Mental accident may occur in +any family, but it is rarely a second case occurs unless there is a +tendency to nerve degeneracy.” For example, of 818 insane at the Wisconsin +State Hospital for the Insane during the biennium 1909-10, 187, or +practically one-fourth were positively known to have insane relatives. Of +these, 24 had insane fathers, 31 insane mothers, 30 insane brothers, 23 +insane sisters, 25 insane uncles, 21 insane aunts, and 21 insane cousins. +Where definite information could be obtained it was found that of the +5,700 admissions of insane patients<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> to the New York state hospitals +during the year ending September 30, 1911, 27.7 per cent. of the cases +showed a history of insanity in the family and an additional 22.9 per +cent. showed a history of alcoholism, nervous diseases and the like.</p> + +<p><b>Grades of Feeble-Mindedness.—</b>As to the various grades of +feeble-mindedness, while no sharp lines of demarcation can be drawn, a +rough and ready test usually applied is the relative ability of such +subnormal individuals to take care of themselves. In all, the conditions +exist from birth or shortly after. <i>Idiots</i> are such defective individuals +as are unable to take care of themselves even to the matter of guarding +against common physical dangers. Their mentality does not progress beyond +that of a two-year-old child. <i>Imbeciles</i> can take care of themselves in +the cruder physical ways, but are unable to earn their living. Their +mental age ranges from three to seven years inclusive. <i>Morons</i>, or the +“feeble-minded” in a more specific usage of the term, can under proper +direction become more or less self-supporting but they are as a rule +incapable of undertaking affairs which demand judgment or involve +unrestricted competition with normal individuals. Their intelligence +ranges with that of normal children from seven to twelve years of age. The +last class grades up insensibly into the shiftless, ne’er-do-well types +which exist in every community. It is the hordes of the feeble-minded in +the restricted sense that afford our most serious problems to-day. The +idiot and the imbecile are usually early and easily recognized and are +kept more or less under restraint, but the higher grades of feeble-minded, +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> so-called moron type, can be detected often only by carefully devised +tests.</p> + +<p><b>About Two-Thirds of the Feeble-Minded Have Inherited Their +Condition.—</b>Concerning the various types of feeble-mindedness there is +strong evidence that heredity is a factor of greater magnitude than in +most insanities. All facts point to the conclusion that most mental +deficiency is strongly inheritable and that the majority of our defectives +of this type come from degenerate stocks. Practically all specialists at +the heads of asylums and homes for the mentally deficient concur in the +opinion that about two-thirds of the cases are hereditary. For example, +Doctor Alfred Wilmarth, superintendent of the Wisconsin Home for +Feeble-minded, says: “My own observations, and those of others in this +country and Europe, would indicate that at least two-thirds of the +feeble-minded have defective relatives.”</p> + +<p>In his study of two thousand children tested by the Binet measuring scale +for intelligence, Doctor Henry H. Goddard, director of the Department of +Research at the Training School for Feeble-minded at Vineland, N. J., +remarks concerning heredity of feeble-mindedness: “But we now know that +sixty-five per cent. of these children have inherited the condition, and +that if they grow up and marry they will transmit the same condition to +their offspring. Indeed, we know that this class of people is increasing +at an enormous rate in every community and unless we do something to stop +this great stream of bad protoplasm we shall some day be swamped in a sea +of degeneracy.”</p> + +<p>E. R. Johnstone, superintendent of the training<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> school at Vineland, N. +J., in a recent bulletin remarks concerning feeble-minded and epileptics, +“We are now convinced that from sixty to eighty per cent. of the cases are +hereditary.”</p> + +<p>Again, we find Doctor A. C. Rogers, superintendent of a school for +feeble-minded in Minnesota, saying, “We have no survey of mentality in +this country except in very small areas, but probably about sixty-five per +cent. of the feeble-minded children that we know of are feeble-minded from +heredity; that is, they come from families in which there is much +feeble-mindedness, usually associated with various neuroses or psychosis. +There are about thirty-five per cent. approximately that are acquired +cases. These cases develop from various things. Full development may be +prevented during gestation, or early childhood, or early adolescence, but +these acquired cases are entirely distinct from the hereditary ones.”</p> + +<p>In a recent paper Doctor Martin W. Barr, chief physician for the +Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-minded Children, says: “In my +individual study of 4,050 cases of imbecility, I find 2,651, or 65.34 per +cent., caused by malign heredities; and of these 1,030, or 25.43 per +cent., are due to direct inheritance of idiocy; and 280, or 6.91 per +cent., to insanity.” From these figures it will be seen that Doctors Barr, +Goddard, Wilmarth, Johnstone and Rogers all agree in their estimates; +namely, that two-thirds of our imbeciles are so through inheritance.</p> + +<p><b>Some Results of Non-Restraint of the Feeble-minded.—</b>The following excerpt +from a paper by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> Doctor Barr, is a fair sample of what happens when such +defective individuals are not restrained from propagating their kind:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“My own study and observation alone, of over 4,000 degenerates, shows +such examples as: A man 38 years of age, the father of 19 defective +children, all living, he and his wife both under par mentally; as was +another couple, with 9 imbecile children; an idiot woman with 7 idiot +children. A forcible instance is that of a man with two daughters and +one illegitimate grandchild, all feeble-minded.... I could name a +family, one of the proudest in the land, where there are five +children, an aunt and two uncles, all feeble-minded.</p> + +<p>“Yet another, which in seven generations numbering some 138 +individuals, records 10 still-born children (premature births), 16 +insane, 7 imbeciles, 3 epileptics and 32 with mental peculiarities so +pronounced as to occasion remark. Of the 138 there remain 80 +apparently normal, who are nevertheless hopeless slaves of a neurotic +heredity, direct or collateral.</p> + +<p>“In a study of 15 imbecile girls, 3 were recognized prostitutes, 9 had +each 1 illegitimate child (2 being the result of incestuous +intercourse with brothers); 1 had 2; 2 epileptics had, the one 3, and +the other 4 idiot children.</p> + +<p>“Four feeble-minded women had 40 illegitimate children.</p> + +<p>“A feeble-minded woman living in an almshouse since early childhood, +allowed to go out to service periodically, had given birth to six +illegitimate children, all inheriting her defect.</p> + +<p>“An imbecile drunkard is the father of three feeble-minded children. +The daughter, seduced before the age of sixteen, gave birth to an +idiot child; one son is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>a harmless imbecile, but the other is a moral +imbecile, a sexual pervert, a thief on the streets, and a pyromaniac, +firing in sheer wantonness a large mill property.</p> + +<p>“Another shows the entire family for three generations below normal. +Father, mother, mother’s sister, and father’s uncle, all imbecile. +Five children feeble-minded. One girl had a proposal of marriage, and +one boy is married to a feeble-minded girl.</p> + +<p>“One insane woman, whose brother and sister committed suicide, had +five sons. The oldest, feeble-minded, a drunkard and hobo, had one +son, a criminal. The second son, insane, had three imbecile children. +The third, an insane epileptic, had three imbecile sons, one of whom +was an epileptic. The fourth son was insane. The fifth, apparently +normal, had a morally imbecile son and an epileptic daughter.”</p></div> + +<p>Yet striking as is the inheritance of these maladies, Doctor Barr points +out that of the 10,000 known cases of feeble-mindedness in Pennsylvania, +only 3,500 are sequestrated. This leaves a balance in that state of 6,500 +totally irresponsible individuals to work havoc in society by producing +their kind.</p> + +<p><b>Inheritance Not a Factor in Some Cases of Mental Deficiency.—</b>On the other +hand as our data show, there remain about one-third of the mentally +deficient type to be accounted for on other than a basis of heredity. As +already noted, some of these are doubtless the product of suppressions of +normal development by various extraneous factors operating before or +shortly after birth. There is one class particularly, estimated by some +authorities as constituting as high as thirty per cent. of the +feeble-minded which is unusually puzzling. These are the so-called +mongolians. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> name is given because the features of such individuals +bear more or less resemblance to those of some of the Mongolian races. The +defect does not seem to be hereditary although it is usually congenital. +It appears to be due to something which interferes with prenatal +development. Whatever the conditions, whether lack of nutrition in the +mother, alcoholic or other poisoning, the cases seem to be as hopelessly +incurable as are the hereditary forms. From the social standpoint, of +course, such individuals are in their immediate generation, as incompetent +or as dangerous to society as those suffering from the more surely known +hereditary forms of mental defect.</p> + +<p><b>Epileptics.—</b>Although epileptics are not classed as imbeciles ordinarily, +as a matter of fact no sharp distinction can be drawn between the two +classes. Doctor Wilmarth says, “Epilepsy and mental deficiency are as +closely related as branches on the same tree.... Over one-half and perhaps +two-thirds of all feeble-minded are subject to convulsive seizures at some +period of their lives, and we are never surprised at the appearance of +epilepsy in any feeble-minded person. On the other hand, so small a +percentage of epileptics maintain normal mental actions as hardly to be +worth consideration ... even those who retain a normal mind in the early +stages of the diseases almost infallibly become imperfect later.” How +slight a chance the epileptic has of ever becoming normal may be inferred +from a statement made by Doctor Frank Billings in a paper read before the +Illinois State Medical Society in 1909 to the effect that “ten per cent. +or more can be cured by proper care.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>According to the estimates of “The Committee of Fifty” in the state of +Illinois, who have been agitating for the establishment of a colony for +epileptics, there are 10,000 of these unfortunates in that state. The +consensus of opinion of experienced workers in various states is that +there is about one epileptic to each three hundred fifty to five hundred +inhabitants.</p> + +<p><b>In Heredity Conditions of Feeble-Mindedness Are Probably Recessive to +Normal Condition.—</b>As to the mode of inheritance of the various forms of +feeble-mindedness, the evidence points to such defects in the main as +being recessive. However, no particular grade can be picked out and shown +to be a pure recessive. For instance, the children of two epileptics will +be defective but it is impossible to predict always whether the defect +will appear as epilepsy or feeble-mindedness. This is doubtless due to the +fact that mental deficiencies even of the inheritable type are not all due +to the same specific cause, and in many cases the individual is defective +in more than one direction. If one or more of a great number of units +which are necessary for complete mental development are lacking, obviously +mental deficiency will result. In other words, feeble-mindedness and +allied disorders may not be definite characters, but simply evidences of +the fact that the nervous system has not developed all factors necessary +for normal mental coordination. Goddard, however, one of our best +authorities on the heredity of feeble-mindedness, is inclined to regard +the condition as a unit character, “due either to the presence of +something which acts as an inhibitor, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> due to the absence of some +stimulus which sends the normal brain on to further development.”</p> + +<p>Supposing nervous defects finding expression in feeble-mindedness, +epilepsy and related conditions, to act as a Mendelian recessive, then the +marriage of one such defective with another should yield only mentally +enfeebled offspring. How nearly this expectation may be realized is seen +from the following examples.</p> + +<p>In an extensive study<a name='fna_9' id='fna_9' href='#f_9'><small>[9]</small></a> of feeble-mindedness, just from the press, Doctor +Henry H. Goddard points out that of 482 children with both parents +feeble-minded all but six were feeble-minded. Even the exceptions may be +apparent rather than real as there is possibility of mistake in judging +the condition of the parents or of the children themselves. Moreover, with +the feeble-minded one is not always sure of the paternity of a child, as +is instanced by Doctor Goddard in a case quoted from Doctor Emerick in +which of twelve children in a white family with both father and mother +feeble-minded ten were feeble-minded and two were not, but these two were +<i>mulatto</i> children.</p> + +<p>In a paper by Weeks (<i>The Inheritance of Epilepsy</i>), in part an extension +of an earlier joint paper by Davenport and Weeks, is recorded among others +a study of twenty-seven fraternities in which both parents were either +epileptic or feeble-minded. Of the 28 progeny, 19 lived long enough to +reveal their mental state. Of these 3 were feeble-minded, 8 epileptic and +8, from parents who developed epilepsy late in life, were what Doctor +Weeks terms “tainted.” In 15<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> fraternities in which one parent was +epileptic and the other feeble-minded he found there had been 81 +conceptions. Of these 7 were too young to classify and 19 had died before +fourteen years of age. Of the remaining 55, 28 were epileptic, 26 +feeble-minded, and 1 insane. Again, in 9 families in which the parents +were both feeble-minded, of the 38 surviving offspring who were old enough +to classify, 7 were epileptic, 29 feeble-minded, and 2 drunkards. In 5 +families where one parent was insane and the other epileptic or +feeble-minded, 5 children died before the age of fourteen, the condition +of 2 was unknown, 2 were epileptic, 4 feeble-minded, 1 insane, 8 tainted, +and 7 seemingly normal. Regarding the latter Doctor Weeks says they came +from two families where in one case the father’s insanity seemed to be +traumatic and in the other alcoholic.</p> + +<p>In a few cases where the defect in one parent has apparently been of a +type different from the defect of the other parent a “normal” child was +produced. That is, presumably each parent carried normality in the trait +defective in the other so that the child became simplex with reference to +each defect. Davenport points out that not infrequently two deaf-mutes +whose defects are due to different causes may have normal children.</p> + +<p>In general, however, the reasonable expectation is that where two +feeble-minded individuals marry, a very common occurrence, the children +will all show mental deficiency. A mating between a feeble-minded person +and one of perfectly normal stock will apparently result in normal +children although they will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> carriers. There is some evidence, however, +that such carriers may occasionally show “taints” of abnormality in the +form of migraine (nervous sick headache), alcoholism, queerness, violent +temper, etc. Thus according to the studies of Doctor Weeks, “In 50 matings +where at least one parent is migrainous, there were 350 conceptions, of +which number enough is known of 212 to classify 55, or 26 per cent., as +epileptic; 12, or 6 per cent., as feeble-minded, with the others tainted +or normal. In the 131 matings where at least one parent is alcoholic, +there were 845 conceptions. Of the 494 classified, 151, or 31 per cent., +were epileptic; 54, or 11 per cent., feeble-minded, with the balance +tainted or normal.” Marriage between two carriers will cause the defect to +reappear in active form in approximately 25 per cent. of the offspring and +50 per cent. will continue to be carriers.</p> + +<p><b>Many Apparently Normal People Really Carriers of Neuropathic +Defects.—</b>There is considerable evidence that many apparently normal +individuals of our average population are in reality carriers of some form +of neuropathic defect, some authorities placing the proportion +provisionally at over thirty per cent. This being true, then it is easy to +explain the apparently unaccountable appearance of epilepsy, +feeble-mindedness, or similar defects among the children of what pass for +normal stocks. The probabilities are that in many cases it means simply +that the parents of the defective children have been carriers.</p> + +<p>As to the contention that in preventing the propagation of the +feeble-minded we may be depriving the world of geniuses, Doctor Goddard +remarks: “It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> a significant fact that in our three hundred family +histories totaling 11,389 individuals not a single genius has been found. +Not only are there no geniuses but the fact can not be too strongly +emphasized that even the people who are considered normal ... are not as a +rule people of average intelligence....” However, between insanity and +genius he finds more kindred spirit.</p> + +<p><b>Tests for Mental Deficiency.—</b>As to tests for mental deficiency, the one +commonly meted out to victims in the every-day world is the +social-economic one of survival in the competitions of life. The mentally +deficient fail. Although often unrecognized as feeble-minded they drift +through life social and economical derelicts who have to be supported by +the community.</p> + +<p>Of laboratory tests many have been devised. While all yet leave much to be +desired, still through their application the majority of mental defectives +can be detected. Fairly accurate standards of normality have been +established from which the relative degree of “backwardness” can be +determined. We have just awakened to the importance of detecting +defectives early in life, hence many of our tests have been planned with +reference to children. They are based not so much on training or conscious +learning as on fundamental processes which develop at certain ages in +children. Another impetus toward securing adequate criteria of mental +deficiency has been the crying need of having some easily applied standard +for detecting the very large numbers of defective immigrants who are +continually seeking to enter the United States.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>Most of the methods consist of “performance” tests which are planned to +test the powers of perception, concentration, application, ingenuity and +education of the subject. Previous environment, education and the +difficulties under which the subject may be laboring at the time of the +test must, of course, be taken into account. It is particularly difficult +to get adequate tests for the immigrant which will enable one to +distinguish between ignorance, stupidity, fear and temporary psychic +depression on the one hand, and congenital mental deficiency on the other.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most successful single set of tests for mental deficiency is +that known as the Binet-Simon Scale. From an examination of large numbers +of French school children Binet constructed a scale of tests of increasing +complexity accurately graded to age and previous training of the average +normal child. In the Binet-Simon system tests are given for each age from +three years to thirteen. When a child successfully passes the tests for +his age he is classed as normal. If he succeeds only in tests which +normally are those given for a child a year younger then he is backward to +the extent of one year. Similarly he may show by these graded tests that +he is backward to the extent of two years, three years and so on. If a +child is more than three years backward according to the test he is +regarded as mentally defective. Various corrections and adjustments of the +original scale have been worked out to allow for unevenness in mental +development. On the whole the scheme works out satisfactorily when applied +by one skilled in its use. The attitude of the examiner, however, is of so +great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> importance that the tests are of less value in the hand of +inexperienced workers. A revision of the scale to adapt it better to +American children has recently been made by Doctor Goddard.<a name='fna_10' id='fna_10' href='#f_10'><small>[10]</small></a> Besides +the Binet-Simon tests various performance tests, standardized for children +of different ages, such as Seguin’s form board, Healy’s pictorial +completion test, Fernald’s construction puzzle, the Rossolimo test, De +Sanctis test, etc., are used by different investigators. Questions +designed to reveal moral tone are also employed. Doctor Howard A. Knox, +assistant surgeon United States Public Health Service, in a recent +article<a name='fna_11' id='fna_11' href='#f_11'><small>[11]</small></a> gives an interesting account of the tests applied to determine +the exact mentality of immigrants entering the United States together with +a brief review of various tests. A full account and discussion of the +various tests for the mentally subnormal will be found in a recent +publication by Doctor William Healy,<a name='fna_12' id='fna_12' href='#f_12'><small>[12]</small></a> director of the Juvenile +Psychopathic Institute, Chicago.</p> + +<p><b>The Backward Child in School.—</b>It is only in recent times that we have +come to realize the seriousness of the problem which the backward child +presents in our schools. It is of the utmost importance to discover early +in school life which of the backward children owe their condition to +adenoids, defective sight or hearing, poor nutrition, imperfect +circulation, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> other remediable defects, and which are the victims of +innate mental deficiency. The treatment of the individual must be very +different in the two cases. In the one the condition can be cured by +proper manipulations or other treatments; in the other it can only be +ameliorated. All school children who are two or three years below grade +should be rigidly inspected by the medical examiner.</p> + +<p>From a study of about two thousand children comprising the first five +grades of an entire public school system Goddard found that eighteen per +cent. were definitely “backward.” Of these between two and three per cent. +were actually feeble-minded, the condition in the remaining fifteen per +cent. being presumably capable of correction. Other similar surveys have +given practically the same results.</p> + +<p><b>The Exceptionally Able Child Likely to Be Neglected.—</b>However, while we +must not forget that it is important to recognize backward children and to +see that they are segregated into small groups which are not required to +do the full amount of work in regular time, it is equally urgent to see +that the unusually bright individual is also given opportunity to advance +more rapidly than the rank and file. Only too often the holding back of a +child in school leads to lack of interest and habits of mental laziness, +and sometimes to truancy and incorrigibility. The general attempt in our +graded schools to keep all children close to the average is to be strongly +condemned.</p> + +<p><b>Cost of Caring for Our Mentally Disordered.—</b>Doctor Charles L. Dana, +member of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, estimated in 1904 +that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> actual cost of caring for feeble-minded and insane in the +United States amounted to sixty million dollars, to which should be added +the corresponding loss in industrial activity on the part of the +afflicted,—at least twenty million dollars more, and he figures that the +amount was increasing at the rate of four per cent. per annum. Many +investigators concur in the opinion that our insane and feeble-minded +alone cost us far above one hundred million dollars. Adding to this +economic burden the cost of our delinquents and criminals the total +expense becomes stupendous. And when we consider still further the even +greater burden of suffering of the unfortunates themselves and the sorrows +of those to whom they are dear, a burden not measurable in money, the +feeling that something must be done to relieve the situation becomes +overpowering.</p> + +<p><b>Importance of Rigid Segregation of Feeble-Minded.—</b>As regards the really +feeble-minded little can be done beyond making them as happy as possible +and developing the limited gifts they have been given by nature. Their +teaching must be in the main concrete and simple. At the age of puberty it +is imperative to see that the sexes are separated and kept under +sufficient permanent supervision to prevent all possibility of +procreation. There is neither economic nor common sense in even allowing +the remotest chance of such occurrences as the following: “This is the +case of a feeble-minded and epileptic woman who had six children by +various persons while an inmate of a county poor house. One child at the +age of eighteen died in the almshouse, two died in infancy, one was +epileptic (the son of a man with a criminal record)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> and two who are now +living in the almshouse are feeble-minded, one being the son of a negro.” +Again, we find a superintendent of an English almshouse reporting that one +hundred and two out of one hundred and five children born there in five +years were feeble-minded.</p> + +<p>As conditions are to-day every institution for the feeble-minded has a +long waiting list and the same is true of most asylums for the insane. +Instead of providing the prolonged care necessary for such patients, +institutions are forced to discharge many prematurely in order to make +room for more urgent cases.</p> + +<p><b>Importance of Early Diagnosis of Insanity.—</b>In insanities, even when of +hereditary origin, there is much hope in certain cases of greatly +benefiting the individual, though a permanent cure, or at least the +establishment of procreative fitness may be impossible. It is extremely +important that the public realize how much can be done through early +examination and advice in such mental afflictions. Most of the insane who +recover usually do so within a few months of their first alienation, hence +the importance of losing no time in detecting the condition and securing +early treatment. It is now well known that many cases of chronic insanity +may be measurably improved under the care of a psychiatrist by systematic +re-education, especially in industrial lines. But how little of this may +be expected at the hands of the untrained custodians who “feed” the +inmates of our county almshouses, to which in many states the chronic +insane are entrusted, is obvious.</p> + +<p><b>All Insane Should Be Passed Upon by Competent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> Psychiatrists.—</b>The +atrocious system of turning the chronic insane over to county poorhouses +manned by supervisors whose chief qualification for the position has not +infrequently been the lowness of their bid for boarding and caring for the +inmates, can not be too strongly condemned. Incredible as it may seem, in +some states the court can on its own judgment send patients directly to +these institutions without first submitting them to the study of expert +physicians in the state hospital for the insane. The viciousness of such +procedure is evident when one realizes that often careful scrutiny on the +part of the very best experts, extending over a considerable period of +time, is required before the true condition of the patient can be +determined. Recently a psychiatrist of high standing, who was gathering +data on county asylums for a national organization, informed the writer +that beyond the shadow of a doubt he had come across case after case in +county asylums which would have been curable under proper treatment.</p> + +<p>Here again the responsibility in last analysis must rest upon us as +citizens, for it is largely through our intelligent demands as voters that +conditions will be improved and competent experts be put in charge of +county asylums as well as of the state hospitals for the acutely insane.</p> + +<p><b>Some Insanities Not of Hereditary Origin.—</b>Some alienists believe that +self-poisoning known as <i>auto-intoxication</i>, due to improper elimination +of poisons generated through faulty digestion or metabolism, if of long +standing, may be not only a contributory but a more or less direct cause +of insanity. About twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> per cent. of insanities of men living in cities +and about fifteen per cent. of those living in the country seem to be +directly related to the intemperate use of alcohol. The corresponding +figures for women are seven per cent. and one per cent. respectively. +General paresis or softening of the brain is probably invariably preceded +by syphilis. About twenty-two and five-tenths per cent. of the first +admissions to hospitals for the insane from city-dwelling men, and eight +per cent. from men living in the country in the state of New York are +cases of this kind of insanity. The corresponding figures for women are +five and five-tenths per cent. and two and five-tenths per cent. +respectively.</p> + +<p><b>Importance of Heredity in Insanity Not Appreciated.—</b>We have already seen +that heredity plays an important part in insanities. There can be little +doubt that the tendency is to under-estimate rather than over-estimate its +importance. Many cases said to be “caused” by mental strain such as those +occasioned by domestic infelicities, business reverses and the like should +in all probability be fundamentally attributed to something far more +deep-seated than the more obvious cause. In many such instances there is +little doubt that an inherent weakness in mental make-up exists which +predisposes the individual toward mental breakdown. This is more apparent +when one recalls that there are thousands of other individuals who undergo +equally great or greater calamities without loss of mental balance. There +are well-recognized types of mental disposition which later contribute to +corresponding forms of insanity. In many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> instances the final catastrophe +may be averted if the “peculiar” individual can be kept in good health and +guided into right habits of thought. Undoubtedly certain infectious +diseases, arterio sclerosis, various poisons in the blood, child-birth, +and similar influences often enter as important contributory factors. In +all cases of cure, however, we must face the fact that under existing +conditions these mentally restored individuals are released into society +without let or hindrance as regards their marital relations.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<p class="title">CRIME AND DELINQUENCY</p> + + +<p><b>The Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment in This Field +Uncertain.—</b>The whole question of crime and delinquency is a highly +complex one. Here, perhaps, more than in any other phase of race +betterment we find the greatest difficulty in separating the effects of +hereditary predisposition from the results of unfavorable environment. +While there is no longer a reasonable doubt about such nervous disorders +as epilepsy, feeble-mindedness and certain forms of insanity being rooted +largely in ancestral taints, the degree to which crime or delinquency is +based on heredity is far more questionable. Every student of genetics +knows that we may have dwarf plants because the constitution of the germ +is of a nature to produce only such individuals, or we may have dwarfed +plants because of adverse conditions of soil and lack of an opportunity to +climb or rise to their full capacity. Bateson pertinently remarks, “The +stick will not make the dwarf pea climb, though without it the tall can +never rise. Education, sanitation, and the rest are but the giving or +withholding of opportunity.” The important sociological question for us to +determine is which of these lowly peas of the human family are really +dwarfs and which are dwarfed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> simply because the stick of opportunity on +which to climb is lacking.</p> + +<p>Beyond doubt a considerable portion of crime and degeneracy is due in +large measure to innate inclination, but with just as little doubt much is +the effect mainly of vicious habits acquired through an unwholesome +environment. A normal appetite or impulse may be given a pathological +trend by bad influences. And one has to reckon, moreover, with degrees of +hereditary aptitude to crime. Just what is the measure of normality? To +what extent by developing to their highest point certain inhibitive or +opposing tendencies, can we counteract certain inherent proclivities for +wrong-doing? By what means shall we sift the congenital defectives from +the victims of suppressed opportunities? These and kindred questions +confront us at the very outset of our studies of crime and delinquency. It +is obvious that although we may institute the strictest elimination of the +socially unfit, unless we can provide a wholesome environment for the fit, +lapses into unfitness are sure to recur.</p> + +<p><b>Feeble-Mindedness Often a Factor.—</b>The conviction is steadily growing +among students of human heredity that a considerable amount of crime, +gross immorality and degeneracy is due at bottom to feeble-mindedness and +that, therefore, if we can once eliminate feeble-mindedness, these vicious +accompaniments will at the same time in equal measure disappear. Goddard, +for example, one of our authorities on the inheritance of +feeble-mindedness, is convinced that a large proportion of the delinquent +girls who fill our reformatories are actually feeble-minded. They are +often the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> higher grade or moron type, and their mental condition remains +unsuspected because they have never been thoroughly tested in this +respect.</p> + +<p><b>Many Delinquent Girls Mentally Deficient.—</b>According to Havelock Ellis, +2,500 of some 15,000 women who passed through Magdalen homes in England +were definitely feeble-minded and were known to have added a thousand +illegitimate children to the population.</p> + +<p>The preliminary reports of the so-called white slave investigations now in +progress in New York City classes 25 per cent. of these unfortunate women +as mentally incapable of taking care of themselves. Other investigations +indicate that from 40 to 60 per cent. of this class of women are +defectives. For example, from the report of the Massachusetts “Commission +for the Investigation of the White Slave Traffic, So-Called,” one reads: +“Of 300 prostitutes, 154, or 51 per cent., were feeble-minded. All +doubtful cases were recorded as normal. The mental defect of these 154 +women was so pronounced and evident as to warrant the legal commitment of +each one as a feeble-minded person or as a defective delinquent.... The +135 women designated as normal, as a class were of distinctly inferior +intelligence. More time for study of these women, more complete histories +of their life in the community, and opportunity for more elaborate +psychological tests might verify the belief of the examiners that many of +them were also feeble-minded or insane.”</p> + +<p>The data from some of our public reformatories, industrial schools and +state homes for delinquent girls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> are very instructive in this respect. +Reports from a number of such institutions show that many of their inmates +are mentally subnormal. The proportions range from thirty-three per cent. +in the New Jersey Reformatory at Rahway to eighty-nine per cent. in the +institution at Geneva, Illinois.</p> + +<p><b>Institutional Figures Misleading.—</b>However, significant as are these +figures from institutions for delinquents, one should not be misled by +them. They are undoubtedly not representative of offenders in general, but +of a selected group of the most hopeless cases. In the first place the +more capable individuals escape the dragnet which lands the defective +delinquents in an institution, and furthermore, because of liberal systems +of probation, only the more incorrigible or the very stupid make up the +bulk of the population of such places. Miss Augusta F. Bronner, assistant +director of the Psychopathic Institute of the Juvenile Court of Chicago, +from a careful study of five hundred and five cases of delinquent boys and +girls in the Detention Home, chosen with as little selection as possible, +finds the proportion of mentally subnormal among them to be less than ten +per cent.</p> + +<p><b>Many Prisoners Mentally Subnormal.—</b>Doctor Walter S. Fernald, of the +Massachusetts School for Feeble-minded, estimates that “at least 25 per +cent. of the inmates of our penal institutions are mentally defective.” +Among the various available estimates at hand this seems to be a fairly +conservative approximation. Hastings H. Hart points out that this +calculation of 25 per cent. means that there are 20,000 adult defective +delinquents in prison, and 6,000 youths in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> juvenile reformatories, or a +total of 26,000 in custody in the United States.</p> + +<p><b>The Inhibitions Necessary to Social Welfare Not Well Established in +All.—</b>But let us look at this matter of delinquency a little more in +detail. In common with other living creatures mankind has two strongly +predominating instincts without which there can be no prolonged individual +or racial existence, namely, the self-preservative and the reproductive. +Says Schiller: “While philosophers are disputing about the government of +the world, Hunger and Love are performing the task.” Under +self-preservative would be included everything pertaining to food, +property and self-protection. In addition, however, man, together with +certain other social animals, has developed a third set of activities or +instincts—an impulsion toward the preservation of the community to which +he belongs—and so far has this evolved in his case that it outranks in +importance the other two. For the highest accomplishments and ideals of +the race are in last analysis expressions of this social instinct. But +with this system of mutual help comes the necessity of certain restraints, +because for society to exist its members must impose upon themselves, or +have imposed upon them, certain inhibitions of their self-preservative and +reproductive instincts.</p> + +<p>Being a late acquisition of the race and less firmly ingrained, the social +instinct is not well established in all individuals. Some have it +sufficiently strong to exercise of their own accord the necessary +inhibitions of other instincts. Experience has shown that others, either +through a lack or through a wrong cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> of it, can not or will not +do so unaided. For the latter, society has instituted certain conventions +and the criminal law whereby through a system of restraints and +punishments such an individual is held in check either by actual physical +restraint of his property or person or through the powerfully inhibitive +factors of shame or fear. Man as a normal member of society must +constantly take heed of the physical, intellectual or moral danger the +exercise of a given feeling, action or procedure on his part will bring to +humanity, and govern himself accordingly.</p> + +<p>But it is in just these very inhibitions that mental defectives are +lacking. They are almost invariably anti-social types because they are +unable to establish the personal abstentions which are necessary for the +good of the community. While in the individual of innate normal mentality +anti-social traits may have developed because of improper training or +surroundings, in mentally defective types some factor or factors necessary +to normality have been left out of their make-up and as a result they are +often wholly lacking in social instincts or have these so feebly developed +that education and exhortations toward social ideals are fruitless. We can +not appeal successfully if there is nothing to appeal to; we can not +develop something out of nothing.</p> + +<p><b>The High-Grade Moron a Difficult Problem.—</b>One great difficulty in +identifying the high-grade morons who are a bountiful source of our +criminals is our almost universal failure to recognize that a memory test +alone is not sufficient to determine the mental responsibility of an +individual. Not only memory, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> judgment, will-power and perhaps, also, +to a lesser degree, the powers of attention and concentration are all +indispensable elements in the make-up of a normal individual. There are +cases on record of imbeciles with prodigious memories, yet hopelessly +incapable of caring for themselves or of respecting the rights of others. +In fact certain types of morons, usually cunning, often prepossessing and +superficially clever, are characterized by good memories and will +<i>moralize</i> volubly, although their wills are too weak to inhibit impulses +when they face temptation. It is obvious that just in proportion as the +intelligence of the high-grade degenerate approaches normality and yet +remains abnormal, the more dangerous he may become to society.</p> + +<p><b>Degenerate Strains.—</b>A number of family records are now available which +show convincing evidence of the hereditary nature of a degeneracy which +finds expression in pauperism, immorality and crime.</p> + +<p>As has already been pointed out, there is reason to believe that much of +this is based in some degree on feeble-mindedness. One of the most +remarkable of these is the recent study on degeneracy by Goddard as set +forth in his book called <i>The Kallikak Family</i>. The record is that of six +generations of descendants from an original progenitor to whom the +fictitious name of Kallikak has been assigned. This individual, descended +from good stock, before his marriage met a feeble-minded girl by whom he +became the father of a feeble-minded son. Later he married a normal woman +by whom he had normal children. Thus from one normal father have sprung +two lines of progeny, one vitiated with feeble-mindedness, the other +normal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> The comparison may be readily made by drawing up in parallel +columns the data as follows:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Line A</span></td> + <td><span class="spacer"> </span></td> + <td align="center"><span class="smcap">Line B</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>In five generations 480 direct<br />descendants from a normal father<br />father and a feeble-minded<br />mother have been accounted for<br />as follows:</td> + <td> </td> + <td valign="top">In five generations 496 descendants<br />from the same normal father as in<br />Line A and a normal mother have the<br />following record:</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">143 known to be feeble-minded.</td> + <td> </td> + <td valign="top">All but one of normal mentality.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">291 mental status unknown or<br />doubtful.</td> + <td> </td> + <td valign="top">Two men known to be alcoholic.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">36 illegitimate.</td> + <td> </td> + <td valign="top">One case of religious mania.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top">33 sexually immoral, mostly<br />prostitutes.<br /><br />24 confirmed alcoholics.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Among the rest have been found<br />nothing but good representative<br />citizenship, numbering doctors,<br />lawyers, educators, judges,<br />traders, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>3 epileptics.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>No epileptics or criminals.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>82 died in infancy.</td> + <td> </td> + <td>Only fifteen children died in infancy.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>3 criminals.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>8 keepers of disreputable houses.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>46 only ones known to ben ormal.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Certainly there is abundant food for thought in these two records.</p> + +<p>If we take still other families of criminal or degenerate antecedents the +same multiplication of viciousness, as a rule, is in evidence. Thus, +<i>Margaret, the Mother of Criminals</i>, has left a progeny of some 700 +paupers, prostitutes and criminals, some of the women bearing as many as +twenty children. The famous Jukes family, so often cited, with its 310 +professional paupers, 300 deaths in infancy, 440 physical wrecks from +debauchery, 50 prostitutes, 60 habitual thieves, 7 murderers, and 130 +other convicts out of a total 1,200 descendants who have been identified, +has alone cost the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> state of New York $1,250,000 in the care of its +criminal, defective and immoral progeny.</p> + +<p>Another family record, the Zeros, reported by Poellman, of Bonn, starts +with a female confirmed drunkard. In six generations of her descendants, +totaling 800 people, Poellman found 102 professional beggars, 107 +illegitimates, 181 prostitutes, 54 in almshouse, 76 convicted of serious +crime, 7 of murder, and costing some $1,206,000. Or we might cite the +so-called <i>Tribe of Ishmael</i>, the progeny of a neurotic man and a +half-breed woman. They have spread their ill-favored spawn over various of +the central states in a veritable flood of imbecility and petty crime. And +to these families may be added the records of <i>The Hill Folk</i>, <i>The +Pineys</i>, or others of the several recent studies of degenerate strains. +All bear the same message of rapidly multiplying degeneracy.</p> + +<p><b>Intensification of Defects by Inbreeding.—</b>Most of these regional surveys +that are now in progress show that there is particular danger in a +population becoming broken up into small communities and isolated. Under +such conditions there is a pronounced tendency to intermarry, and if +deterioration is already present in the stock such communities become +centers of marked degeneracy. The situation is well exemplified in the +following excerpt from Davenport:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“I have been going over the records of one family in New York, the +so-called Nam family. There were 55 per cent. consanguineous matings, +marriage between cousins, in one generation, and, owing to the fact +that the strain was already loaded with defects, we can see how these +defects were concentrated by these cousin <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>marriages, so that about 90 +per cent. of the strain is feeble-minded. There were fully 90 per +cent. of the men who are unable to resist the lure of liquor. +One-fourth of the children are born illegitimates. Infanticides, +incest, murder, harlotry, are all over the chart. This is a highly +inbred community, keeping a nearly pure strain of social defects, and +the cost to the community has been a million and a half on a fair way +of figuring, not directly in the care, but indirectly in the damage +they have done. These constitute a rural community. Out of this +community we can trace those who have gone to the cities and become +murderers, prostitutes and thieves. They are not confined to one +state; they spread out over the country. One branch of the family came +to the state of Minnesota. We sent to one of Doctor Rogers’ trained +field workers to learn whether she had ever heard of this family, and +received a reply that the family was well known to social workers in +the state of Minnesota. These strains of degenerates are not local +matters at all; they are matters of national interest.”</p></div> + +<p>Concerning crime and delinquency, we find that all evidence tends to show +that an alarming increase is in progress although satisfactory data are +hard to obtain. It is certain that there is a tremendously +disproportionate increase in the number of prisoners in recent years +compared with general population, for while the total population has +increased three and one-half fold, the prison element has increased +fifteen fold. According to Wier, in this country there are four and +one-half times as many murders for every million of our population to-day +as there were twenty years ago.</p> + +<p>It may be urged that this increase in prison population is not a +disproportionate increase in the number of defectives or criminals, but +only an increase in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> number sent to prison, and this is probably a +partial truth—but when we recall such pedigree as those of the Nams, the +defective line of Kallikaks and other known unsound strains, he must be +hopeful indeed who can find much consolation in this supposition. In any +event, no such uncertainty exists regarding the number of murders and +homicides, since these have in all probability been as fully recorded in +the past as at present.</p> + +<p><b>Vicious Surroundings Not a Sufficient Explanation in Degenerate +Stocks.—</b>It is sometimes urged that we are not dealing in such cases with +degenerate strains, but merely with unfortunate individuals who have been +subjected to pernicious surroundings from the beginning. And it can not be +denied that parents who are mentally defective, dissipated or syphilitic +afford most noxious developmental and environmental conditions for their +children. But when one notes how intimately the moral degeneracy in such +stocks is bound up with some degree of feeble-mindedness, he is strongly +skeptical toward the sufficiency of such an interpretation, although +environment undoubtedly intensifies the results. Concerning this point +Davenport says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“We have certain methods of testing whether it is bad environment or +bad breeding which produced these people. Some of the children have +been taken at an early age and ‘placed out’. We have traced their +subsequent history. In most cases they have turned out quite as bad as +those who have remained at home. In a few cases they have turned out +well, but it is also true that some of the children who remained at +home in bad environment have turned out well.”</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>And to Davenport’s testimony may we add that of Doctor Wilmarth, who, +speaking of children at the home for feeble-minded, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“In no place is this subject of the power of heredity in relation to +environment so easily studied as among our children. A group of many +little children came to us from the state school, being untrainable +there. They have had with us the same teaching and the same +companionship. Each one has lived, eaten and slept among the others, +and, so far as we know, with but one exception, those of vicious +parentage have turned instinctively to vicious traits by preference, +while those of simple but honest stock do evil things only under +strong temptation, and do not persist in them after the wrong is +pointed out.”</p></div> + +<p><b>By No Means All Delinquents Are Defectives.—</b>One must not overlook the +fact, however, that <i>delinquent</i> and <i>defective</i> are by no means +synonymous terms, and that many delinquents are with little doubt the +product of adverse social circumstances.</p> + +<p>The recent careful work of Doctor William Healy<a name='fna_13' id='fna_13' href='#f_13'><small>[13]</small></a> in connection with the +juvenile delinquents of Chicago shows convincingly that the underlying +causations of delinquency are many. Such factors as immorality or constant +quarreling of parents, bad companions, lack of parental control, defective +sense organs, debilitating habits, lack of healthy mental interests and a +host of other environmental factors are not infrequently sufficient in +themselves to develop delinquency in the absence of inherited deficiency. +The present-day efforts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> of the student of heredity should not be +misunderstood. They are not attempts to make all delinquents out +defectives, but rather to determine what percentage of delinquents may be +legitimately reckoned as defective and to make the facts known. Since +there is no longer any reasonable doubt that, to express it in the mildest +terms, an amount of delinquency far from negligible is due in great +measure to congenital omissions or propensities, then the sooner the +public learns this the better, for we may then set about supplementing our +present efforts at race betterment through external improvement by +devising means of cleansing the fountain source as well.</p> + +<p>It can scarcely be doubted that the average man differs little if any in +inherent personality and capacity from many a criminal who is such by +occasion rather than by undue predisposition. Who can truthfully answer +how many individuals there are who are not potentially criminals to some +extent, given sufficient evocative conditions of ignorance, vice, adverse +economic pressure and undue temptation?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Virtue itself turns vice, being misapplied.”</p></div> + +<p><b>No Special Inheritable Crime-Factor.—</b>The main difficulty in trying to +find a hereditary basis for crime lies in the multiplicity of things crime +may be. The individual impulsions which lead to certain offenses may be +utterly different from those which conduce to others. Undoubtedly many +inborn tendencies which are perfectly normal or neutral in themselves may +be warped by circumstances into the commission of what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> are classified as +crimes. The moral man may have the same desire for a thing that the +criminal does, but when he finds that this desire can only be gratified by +injury to others, he inhibits it because of his repugnance to such injury. +The criminal makes no such inhibition.</p> + +<p>In general, crime means an offense of some kind against person, property +or state. But a biological analysis of it, could it be made, would require +among other things knowledge of crime in terms of motive or lack of +motive, whether the act was intended to benefit the perpetrator, some +other person, or even the race or state; whether the offense was one of +dishonesty, of cupidity, of lust, or of violence against another.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact no satisfactory classification of crime can be made +since so many factors enter and in such varying degrees. Most +classifications made in our legal codes are a hodge-podge based on a +mixture of motive on the part of the participant, degree of turpitude +involved, nature and extent of the injury inflicted, and the object +against which the offense was perpetrated, whether an individual, society +or the state. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that in many instances +what was crime in the past is no longer so, and vice versa many things +which are regarded as criminal to-day were not considered so in the past. +So the futility of seeking a specific inherent propensity for “crime” is +manifest. How, for instance, in terms of hereditary determiners shall we +draw the fine lines of distinction among those who bribe legislators and +legal officials, those who are avaricious and dishonest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> in the world of +trade, and those who are wilfully obtuse in providing proper safeguards +for employees?</p> + +<p><b>What Is Meant by a Born Criminal?—</b>All we can do is to fall back on the +assurance that any act directly or indirectly injurious to society is an +offense, and that those offenders who are congenitally unable to +distinguish between what is generally accepted as right and wrong, or who +if recognizing this are nevertheless uncontrollably impelled toward or are +unable to refrain from anti-social acts because of some inherent condition +of intellectual or volitional make-up, may be legitimately classed as +individuals born with an aptitude for crime and social transgressions. In +such individuals the natural mental make-up is lacking in some of its +necessary elements so that memory, judgment, or will-power are not up to +the minimum that is necessary for the establishment of proper conduct. In +some cases, apparently, this lack finds expression in almost any kind of +vice or crime into which circumstances happen to lead the individual. In +others, however, there seem to be tendencies toward the commission of +certain types of crime or vice. Certain family strains are characterized +by petty thieving, others by deeds of violence, and still others by sexual +offenses. Certain types of mental defect are closely associated with +certain crimes. Thus sufferers from incipient paresis seem particularly +prone to commit assaults and larceny; epileptics, crimes of brutality and +violence.</p> + +<p><b>The Epileptic Criminal Especially Dangerous.—</b>One of the characteristics +of epilepsy, indeed, emphasized by various psychiatrists, is that +frequently it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> leads to loss of those forms of self-restraint which are +absolutely indispensable to morality and the safety of society. Cruelty, +atrocious sexual offenses and other vicious crimes are the result. It is a +noteworthy fact, moreover, that often in the milder forms of affliction, +where instead of well-marked convulsions only momentary lapses of +consciousness occur, the greatest amount of mental and moral deterioration +and fluctuation is sometimes found.</p> + +<p>The situation as regards the epileptic is well presented by Doctor William +Healy, Director of the Juvenile Psycopathic Institute of Chicago, in an +article entitled “Epilepsy and Crime; the Cost”, in the <i>Illinois Medical +Journal</i>, November, 1912. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“In the work of our institute,<a name='fna_14' id='fna_14' href='#f_14'><small>[14]</small></a> which represents the most +thoroughgoing research into the genetics of criminalism ever +undertaken in this country, we have with the help of parents and +others carefully studied nearly 1,000 young repeated offenders. We +have found that no less than 7½ per cent. of these are ordinary +epileptics, and we have reason to suspect others. This by no means +represents the total number of epileptics seen in connection with +juvenile court work, where, of course, first offenders as well as +large numbers of dependents are seen. In addition to my above +enumeration, other cases seen by the Detention Home physicians and +myself amount up to many scores of cases. If one remembers that it is +ordinarily calculated that one person in every 500 is epileptic, the +significance of this high criminal percentage is clear, and the +practical bearing of it is still further accentuated by the fact that +some of the worst repeaters are epileptics, and that many of the +gravest crimes are committed by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>those unfortunates. The connection +between epilepsy and crime has everywhere been recognized by students +of the subject, but it apparently needs constant emphasis in order +that common sense steps may be taken toward guardianship of these who +suffer from a disease which wreaks such extravagant vengeance on +society.”</p></div> + +<p><b>Mental Disorders Most Frequently Associated With Crime.—</b>Doctor Charles +Mercier, an English authority on crime and insanity, in enumerating the +mental disorders most frequently associated with crime, places the +insanity of drunkenness first. Any one who will take the trouble to verify +the facts in his own community will find that a large percentage, +frequently considerably over half, of the arrests made by the police are +for acts committed while the offender was more or less under the influence +of alcohol. Next to drunkenness among mental disorders which lead to crime +Doctor Mercier places feeble-mindedness. Next to feeble-mindedness comes +epilepsy; then paranoia or systematized delusion; next paresis; and lastly +melancholia.</p> + +<p>Paranoics are peculiar in that they are particularly apt to attack persons +of prominence. Highly egotistical, they almost invariably believe +themselves or some one or some cause dear to them, the subject of a plot, +perhaps to rob them, to torture them, to steal their inventions or +literary productions, or to persecute them in some way. Two if not three +of our murdered presidents owe their assassinations to paranoics. Many +rulers have been attacked and some killed by such insane individuals. Most +of the “cranks” who write threatening letters are lunatics of this type.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>Of the kinds of mental unsoundness known to be inheritable which are of +special significance from the standpoint of crime and delinquency +undoubtedly feeble-mindedness ranks first. We have already seen that as +our methods for detecting the higher grades of feeble-mindedness become +more accurate we disclose in border-line cases a veritable hot-bed of +mental incapacity suitable for the engendering of the criminal and the +vicious. Here in addition to some of the more pronounced criminal types +belong hosts of our chronic petty offenders, our sexually vicious and our +“won’t-works”. One interesting outcome of a recent investigation into the +army of unemployed in England was the discovery of the general unfitness +of these unemployed. In our own country the habitually unemployed are so +not because of lack of work, but largely because it is unprofitable to +employ them.</p> + +<p><b>The Bearing of Immigration on Crime and Delinquency.—</b>Perhaps in no field +more than this of crime and delinquency, especially in so far as it is +based on innate deficiency, does the gravity of the immigration question +impress itself on us. How stupendous this problem<a name='fna_15' id='fna_15' href='#f_15'><small>[15]</small></a> has become may be +realized from the fact that according to the census of 1910, 13,345,545, +or one out of seven of the inhabitants of the United States, were foreign +born. And if we add to these the 18,897,837 of whom one or both parents +were of foreign birth, we reach the astonishing total of over 32,000,000, +or more than one-third of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> our total population, who are foreign born, or +who have one or both parents of foreign birth.</p> + +<p>During the decade from 1900 to 1910, 8,500,000 foreigners came to the +United States, of whom 5,250,000 remained to make a permanent home. This +shows how rapidly our whole population might be radically changed. In +recent years the source of our immigrants has shifted proportionately from +northwestern Europe to southern and eastern Europe (Italy, Austria-Hungary +and Russia), and whether for weal or woe this new blood must inevitably +leave its impress upon us. Does it not behoove us then to seek with +anxious eyes some knowledge of these invading hordes with whom we are to +mingle our life-blood?</p> + +<p>Even the most superficial examination may well cause us grave concern. We +find that in one year (1908) at Ellis Island alone, 3,741 paupers, 2,900 +persons with contagious disease, 184 insane, 121 feeble-minded, 136 +criminals, 124 prostitutes and 65 idiots were denied entrance, and yet, +according to the estimate of Doctor F. K. Sprague, of the United States +Public Health Service, probably only about 5 per cent of the mentally +deficient and 25 per cent. of those who will become insane have been +detected. When confronted by such data we can begin to realize what we are +facing. Others estimate that from 6 to 7 per cent. of the immigrants who +are now arriving are feeble-minded. We learn further that recently while +the foreign-born population of New York state was about 30 per cent., the +foreign-born population of the insane hospitals of the state was over 43 +per cent., and at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> one time approximately 65 per cent. for New York City. +In one year (1908) 84 per cent. of the patients in Bellevue Hospital, New +York City, were of foreign parentage. Paresis, which probably always has +syphilis as its antecedent, is proportionately twice as prevalent among +foreigners as among natives in New York City.</p> + +<p>But from the standpoint of inheritance, however great the danger may be +from classifiable defectives, it is probably far greater from that much +larger class of aliens we are now receiving with open arms who are below +the mental and physical average of their own countries. Moreover, with our +present system of inspection there is no way of detecting the grades of +feeble-mindedness above idiocy and imbecility in the great numbers of +foreign children under five when brought in, who are beginning to show up +in alarming numbers in the schools of some of our larger cities. About +thirty per cent. of the annual increment of our population is due to +immigration and not to births; and once in our country the alien far +outbreeds the native stock, with relatively little increase in death-rate, +thus making a double contribution to the increase of population. When we +take all these facts into consideration it certainly is high time that we +arouse from our self-complacent attitude and consider the whole question +of immigration most earnestly.</p> + +<p>In spite of the fact that many individuals are caught in the net of +inspection at our portals, it is clear that still more rigid rejection<a name='fna_16' id='fna_16' href='#f_16'><small>[16]</small></a> +is imperative. The inspectors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> at our various ports are doing the best +they can under the circumstances, but there are at present too few of them +and they are too restricted in their powers to meet the situation +satisfactorily. Moreover, when at one of our ports in one year (1910), of +1,483 immigrants certified by the inspecting surgeons as unfit to land +because of serious mental or physical defects, 1,370 were landed anyway, +it is evident that there is a strong and reprehensible pull somewhere to +evade the obvious intent of the law.</p> + +<p>It remains for us as a people to decide whether we shall continue to let +the large employers of cheap labor, the railroad and steamship agents and +brokers, who care nothing about the innate fitness of the immigrants they +bring, determine the character of our future population, or whether we +shall insist on a proper regulation of this flood so that we may receive +only an honest, intelligent, industrious and healthy stock. To continue to +absorb these aliens with as little selection as we now do is nothing short +of criminal carelessness. Let us not be deceived by the promptings of a +misguided sentiment, “The voice is Jacob’s voice, but the hands are the +hands of Esau.” The voice is Jacob’s voice, nor should this voice of the +easily persuaded, the sentimentalist, the interested organization to which +the relatives of the defective alien belong, or any other pressure move us +from our obvious duty of refusing to fasten upon this country an incubus +of degeneracy for which we as a nation are in no way responsible.</p> + +<p>To render us safe we should not only have more carefully drawn laws and +more rigid selection at our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> ports of entry, but we should if possible +also know the stock from which our future citizens come. This is +peculiarly desirable for such defects as feeble-mindedness and various +other mental imperfections, some of which require prolonged observation +for detection. Davenport estimates that it is wholly within the realm of +possibility and good business sense to maintain a corps of trained +inspectors abroad in the chief centers from which our immigrants come who +shall certify the desirable applicants. He makes the point that the +national expense would be far less than the cost of maintaining the army +of defectives we are now admitting to our own country, many of whom almost +immediately become public charges, to say nothing of the hordes of +carriers who though normal themselves, will transmit undesirable traits.</p> + +<p><b>Sexual Vice.—</b>As to sexual vice, the skein is indeed a tangled one. Since +nine-tenths of the difficulty centers in a lack of self-restraint, and +inasmuch as the mating instinct is one of the strongest that tugs at the +flesh of humanity, it is obvious that those by nature deficient in +volitional control will almost without exception give way to the call. So +as might be expected the hordes of our feeble-minded and epileptic are +always a source of grave danger in this respect. However, the mentally +enfeebled are by no means the only offenders; indeed, they are probably +not the majority. The true situation is finally dawning on society and the +reformer’s call for instruction in “sex-hygiene” resounds through the +land. The whole matter is one of the most perplexing and momentous that +confronts us to-day.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span><b>The Question of School Instruction in Sex-Hygiene.—</b>While the writer does +not for an instant underestimate the gravity of the situation, and has +only contempt for the nonsense that is palmed off on children about their +origin, or the indelicate self-consciousness which puts under the ban the +discussion of so serious a problem by adults, still he is not convinced +that the universal teaching of the subject to children in schools by the +average teacher, as advocated by some, is to be the solution of the matter +or is even a wise attempt at solution. Yet he freely admits that he is +possibly overfearful of the effects of the undesirable features of such +instruction. True it is that all children do learn, frequently at an +astonishingly early age, about sex, and their knowledge is usually of an +undesirable kind from unreliable and often vicious sources, and it is +equally true that parents, either through ignorance or prudery, generally +can not be depended on to give the child necessary instruction. But before +entering on a wide-spread campaign of undiluted sex-instruction in schools +might it not be more prudent to make an attempt toward reaching fathers +and mothers and convincing them of the necessity of dealing more frankly +and intelligently with their children regarding sex?</p> + +<p>Even to the novice in psychology the powerful nature of suggestion is +known, and with this knowledge before us, is it not wiser to strive in the +main to keep the child’s mind off of sex rather than specifically to focus +it on it by special convocations and discourse? If our psychology means +anything, then the worst possible thing we can do for a child is to make +him unduly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> sex-conscious. Something might be done profitably perhaps in +schools in an unobtrusive way by specially gifted persons, but the +self-conscious way in which most teachers go about topics of sex is +certainly not reassuring to the thoughtful observer as regards the benefit +derived from such instruction. The one evident method of accomplishing +wholesome sex-instruction in schools, devoid of all possibility of +undesirable suggestion and sex-consciousness, is in the form of biological +work where plants and animals are studied in all their relations, the +subject of propagation being taken up in as matter-of-fact a way as the +functioning of any other organ system of plants or animals. In such a +course, long before the subject of sex in higher animals need be +approached the pupil will have developed an attitude of mind which will +lead him to see nothing unusual or suggestive in the function of sex no +matter where it may be found. Incidentally, inasmuch as the manner in +which germs affect living organisms should be studied in such a course +anyway, it would be a simple matter to give all necessary information +about the dangers of infection from venereal diseases.</p> + +<p><b>Mere Knowledge Not the Crux of the Sex Problem.—</b>However, desirable as +correct knowledge about sex is, knowledge alone is not the crux of the sex +problem. The moral dangers and abuses that we are trying to circumvent lie +rather in the realm of the emotions than that of the intellect. The +problem must be solved from a broader foundation than mere information. +The all-important consideration is the early establishment of general +habits of self-control<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> so that these may become incorporated in the +nervous organization of the child and become inhibitory anchors against +passions and temptation. Children must be taught to suppress the present +impulse, to sacrifice the immediate pleasure for the more distant or +permanent good. They must be practised in calling up feelings that will +counteract other promptings which if followed blindly are inimical to +social welfare. Their control must come from within not as a matter of +external compulsion. That way character lies.</p> + +<p>So in viewing the problem of sexual hygiene the writer feels that our +attempts toward damming the torrents in the adolescent by a belated effort +at verbal instruction on sex-hygiene is at best only a palliative or an +attempt to cure the symptoms of a more deeply-seated, organic, social +malady. The treatment should have been in progress long before in the form +of training in self-control, and in the inculcation of the sense of +dignity and self-respect which springs from the individual’s consciousness +of being, not a slave to his desires, but his own master. This, together +with the judicious schooling of boys in a greater chivalry and respect for +womanhood, and of girls in the necessity of meriting such esteem, will, in +my estimation, carry us further than formal courses in sex-hygiene.</p> + +<p><b>Early Training in Self-Restraint an Important Preventive of Crime and +Delinquency.—</b>As to crime and delinquency in general, it is evident that +the same early training in self-restraint is a most important factor of +prevention. A wise warden in charge of a large prison says, “Most of these +men are here because they have not learned sufficiently the lesson of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +self-control.” This is the age of preventive medicine, why not also of +preventive crime and delinquency? Instead of confining our practise to +punishing offenders, necessary as this may be under the present +conditions, why not strive more to prevent the commission of offenses? As +far as normal individuals are concerned much can be done by early +cultivation in self-discipline and through the establishment of moral +backbone by training in the overcoming of difficulties. Much, very much, +also remains to be done in the correction of wrong social conditions.</p> + +<p><b>Unpardonable to Permit Delinquent Defectives to Multiply Their Kind.—</b>As +for our mental defectives and moral imbeciles, knowing now how strongly +hereditary the underlying factors of these conditions are, and with no +preventive or curative agents in sight, to let them produce progeny, is +clearly unpardonable.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> +<p class="title">RACE BETTERMENT THROUGH HEREDITY</p> + + +<p>Most of us have heard in one form or another the fairy story of the youth +on adventure bent, who was captured by the giant and under dire penalty in +case of failure was set the task of sweeping out the giant’s stable before +sundown. The peculiarity of this stable, it will be recalled, was that, as +fast as the refuse was swept out at the door an even greater quantity +poured in through the windows so that the sweeper, just in proportion to +his zeal, became more and more encumbered with his burden.</p> + +<p><b>A Questionable Form of Charity.—</b>Though we smile at the childishness of +this legend, are we not as a civilized people attempting through our +charities a feat parallel to that of this unfortunate youth? We foster and +favor our social wastage with the inevitable result that it runs riot +under our sheltering hand and deluges us with an ever accumulating flood +of its like. For are we not constantly building more asylums, sanitaria +and prisons, to preserve more unfit, to produce more defectives, to +require still greater numbers of asylums, sanitaria and prisons, to +preserve more unfit, and so on in unending progression?</p> + +<p>At nearly every period of history there have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> certain individuals who +have seen the necessity of a state eliminating its supply of defectives.</p> + +<p><b>Past Protests.—</b>For instance, we find the importance of this strongly +urged by Plato. After pointing out the fact that the shepherd, in order to +maintain the standard of his flocks, bred only from the best individuals, +as did likewise the huntsman with his dogs and horses, and the fancier +with his various pets, Plato went on to show the danger to the state of +allowing the constantly increasing body of defectives and degenerates to +multiply their kind. Repeated expression of the same idea has occurred +from time to time during the succeeding centuries.</p> + +<p>Little heed was paid to these remonstrances, however, with the result that +is known to us all. To-day, “the glory that was Greece and the grandeur +that was Rome” is still sung by the poet, but the original nations +themselves have long since passed into the night.</p> + +<p><b>An Increasing Flood of Defectives.—</b>Strive to ignore the unpleasant facts +as we may, we have to admit that the same problem of what the human +harvest shall be is with us in grave form to-day. The alarming phase of +the situation, however, lies in the fact that we are facing an ever +increasing flood of social wastage.</p> + +<p>But <i>why</i> this increase of defectives? It can not be attributed to +oppression, to grinding poverty, or to decline in attention to our sick +and needy, for never was prosperity greater, never were charities more +flourishing, never such activity in the search for palliatives and cures. +The simple fact is that we are breeding our defectives. The human harvest +like the grain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> harvest is based fundamentally on heritage. And to get a +better crop of human beings, we must, as with other crops, weed out bad +strains.</p> + +<p>To whatever source of information we turn the facts are essentially the +same. Abroad we find that in England, for example, the ratio of defectives +to normals more than doubled between 1764 and 1896. At home, from the +investigation of Davenport and Weeks we learn that in the state of New +Jersey the number of epileptics doubles every thirty years. And other +investigators estimate that the fecundity of mental defectives in general +is about twice as great as that of the average of our population. In a +recent report of the New York State Board of Charities we read, “There are +about thirty thousand feeble-minded persons in the state of New York, of +whom four thousand are intermittently sequestered while twenty-six +thousand who are a menace to society are at liberty and may produce the +unfit.” And a passage from the last Massachusetts report reads as follows: +“We have been obliged to refuse a very large number of applicants for the +admission of feeble-minded women—many of whom have given birth to one or +more children. The prolific progeny of these women almost without +exception are public charges from the date of their birth.”</p> + +<p>How fertile defective types may be is shown by a passage in one of Doctor +Wilmarth’s papers which runs as follows: “One feeble-minded woman, now +removed from this state, had by different men eighteen children in +nineteen years, she alleges.” In a letter Doctor Wilmarth tells me that +the birth of the twenty-third<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> child of this woman has just been +announced! In one English workhouse Potts reports sixteen feeble-minded +women who have produced one hundred sixteen mentally defective children, +and Branthwaite ninety-two female habitual drunkards who have had eight +hundred fifty babies. If we include the two million individuals cared for +annually in various institutional homes, hospitals and dispensaries as +dependents, the estimated total of insane, feeble-minded, epileptic, deaf +and dumb, criminals, juvenile delinquents, paupers and other dependents in +the United States in 1910 was approximately three million, or one in every +thirty of our population! With the higher fertility of certain of these +classes and with only a small percentage under custodial care where will +it all end? Is it not time for us to waken from our lethargy and stem this +tide of national deterioration?</p> + +<p><b>Natural Elimination of Defectives Done Away With.—</b>With our improved +methods of sanitation and care of the sick, the pauper and the defective, +these classes have been freed from the stress of an environment that under +natural conditions would have resulted in their premature death and +consequent infertility. Or in the terminology of the biologist, we have +done away with the factor of <i>natural selection</i>, the factor which in +state of nature keeps all races purged of the unfit, the ill-adapted. With +this restraining, and purifying influence removed, however, the weakling, +the defective, may arrive at maturity and commingle his blood with that of +the strong, with the inevitable result that the general vigor of the +progeny from generation to generation is sapped and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> progressively +undermined. Thus we are confronted by the stubborn fact that through +present humanitarian methods we are driving the race toward decadence.</p> + +<p><b>Why Not Prevent Our Social Maladies?—</b>Now there is no reasonable person, I +think, who will not admit that the motives underlying our modern +altruistic practises are the noblest fruitage of our slow upward struggle +from the brute to man. As humane beings, we can not cast aside these +principles and return to the painful and pitiless method of nature which +would leave the sick and the defective alone to perish miserably; the +sacrifice would be too great.</p> + +<p>Is there then no escape from this dilemma? To this query the modern +student of heredity answers yes; let us but add more wisdom to our charity +and the enigma is solved. We need no sacrifice of pity but rather an +expansion of it. Let us but extend our vision from immediate suffering to +the prospective suffering of the countless unborn descendants of our +present unfit and ask ourselves the question, why should they be born? Why +not prevent our social maladies instead of waiting to cure them? This is +the province of eugenics.</p> + +<p><b>Eugenics Defined.—</b>The term Eugenics was coined in 1883 by Francis Galton +in his book entitled <i>Inquiries Into Human Faculties</i>, and we may +therefore look to him for a satisfactory definition. He says, “Eugenics is +the study of the agencies under social control, that may improve or impair +the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or +mentally.” And again, “I take Eugenics very <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>seriously, feeling that its +principles ought to become one of the dominant motives in a civilized +nation, much as if they were one of its religious tenets.... Man is gifted +with pity and other kindly feelings, but he also has the power of +preventing many kinds of suffering. I conceive it to fall well within his +province to replace natural selection by other processes that are more +merciful and not less effective. This is precisely the aim of Eugenics. +Its first object is to check the birth-rate of the unfit instead of +allowing them to come into being, though doomed in large numbers to perish +prematurely. The second object is the improvement of the race by +furthering the productivity of the fit, by early marriages and the +healthful rearing of their children.”</p> + +<p><b>Improved Environment Alone Will Not Cure Racial Degeneracy.—</b>While many an +enthusiastic humanitarian is laboring under the assumption that if we can +improve external conditions human deficiencies will disappear, the student +of heredity realizes that this is in large part a delusion unless we can +secure an accompanying improvement in intrinsic qualities of the human +species itself through the suitable mating of individuals. Just as the +intelligent farmer to-day demands selected seed as well as good soil and +proper cultivation, so one with the facts of heredity at hand would, as he +views social problems, urge the fundamental importance of having selected +stock with which to start. No shifts or shapings of environment will ever +enable men to “gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span><b>Heredity and Environment.—</b>To wrangle over the question of which is the +more important, heredity or environment, is about as idle a proceeding as +to argue which is the more important, the stomach or something to put in +the stomach. Man would soon come to grief without either. So, too, the +question of human development is not one of heredity alone nor of +environment alone; both are necessary and must work hand in hand. Dormant +capacities must have proper environment to call them forth, but on the +other hand no kind of environment can evoke responses if some degree of +aptitude is not present.</p> + +<p>Professor Thorndike undertook experiments with groups of school children +of high and of low initial ability respectively to determine whether equal +opportunity or equal special training would produce an equalizing effect +in easily alterable traits such as rapidity in addition and the like. +Without exception he found that at the end of such experiments, although +both groups had improved, the superior individuals were farther ahead than +ever, that equality of opportunity and training had widened rather than +narrowed the gap between the two classes. Others who have made special +studies on the causes of individual differences have come to the same +conclusion; namely, that individuals differ widely by original nature and +that similarity in conditions of nurture and training will not avail in +deleting these differences.</p> + +<p>Galton and others, from extensive studies based on English sources, have +shown that notable achievements have run in certain families to a degree +that is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>inexplicable on the basis of opportunity alone; it can be fully +accounted for only by attributing much to superior inborn capacity. Doctor +Woods has shown much the same thing for certain families in America. +Schuster and Elderton have proved that there is a high degree of +similarity in scholastic standing between fathers and sons in Oxford. +Professor Pearson’s measurements of mental characters in brothers and +sisters while at school show a high degree of innate resemblance in many +cases and certain cases of decided contrast. Where contrasts exist in +certain families they remain unreduced in spite of the similarity of +environment, thus proving that environment is less operative in the final +intellectual establishment of such individuals than are their inborn +aptitudes. Even in twins, as both Galton and Thorndike have shown, there +is no tendency for similar education, home life and the like to render +those originally different any more similar with advancing years.</p> + +<p>Professor Karl Pearson has done more perhaps than any other individual +toward attempting actually to measure the relative strength of heredity +and environment. Numerous statistical measurements lead him to conclude +that it is a conservative estimate to regard heredity as at least five or +ten times as important as environment in the development of the +individual. A vigorous defense by him of this position will be found in +<i>Biometrika</i> for April, 1914.</p> + +<p><b>Inter-Racial Marriage.—</b>Some of the dangers of racial deterioration which +threaten us because of our laxity regarding immigration have already been +indicated. It is high time that we give this whole <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>question the most +serious consideration of which we are capable. From the rate at which +immigrants are increasing it is obvious that our very life-blood is at +stake. For our own protection we must face the question of what types or +races should be ruled out. Aside from the dangers which lie in the +defective or unsuccessful types already discussed in Chapter IX, many +students of heredity feel that there is great hazard in the mongrelizing +of distinctly unrelated races no matter how superior the original strains +may be. Unfortunately there is a great lack of reliable data on this +point. The mulatto of our own country, the Eurasians in India and the +mixed races of South America are, according to the testimony of many +observers, eloquent arguments against such hybridization. Agassiz remarked +on this point as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Let any one who doubts the evil of the mixture of races and who is +inclined from mistaken philanthropy to break down all barriers between +them come to Brazil. He can not deny the deterioration consequent upon +the amalgamation of races, more wide-spread here than in any other +country in the world, and which is rapidly effacing the best qualities +of the white man, the Indian, and the negro, leaving a mongrel +nondescript type deficient in physical and mental energy.”</p></div> + +<p>Of the American mulatto one not infrequently meets with the assertion that +he is on the average inferior mentally, morally and physically to either +the white or the negro race. Thus Doctor J. B. Taylor<a name='fna_17' id='fna_17' href='#f_17'><small>[17]</small></a> states<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> that, +“It is demonstrated by well-attested facts that these hybrids of black and +white are vastly more susceptible to certain infections; their moral as +well as physical stamina is lower than that of either original race.” +Others would deny that conclusive evidence to this effect exists. However, +it is certain that under existing social conditions in our own country +only the most worthless and vicious of the white race will tend in any +considerable numbers to mate with the negro and the result can not but +mean deterioration on the whole for either race.</p> + +<p>There is certainly not one iota of evidence that the crossing of any two +widely different human races will yield superior offspring in any respect +and there are many indications that such intermixture lowers the average +of the population. Our evidence derived from plant and animal breeding is +also against pronounced crosses. The inferiority of the mongrel is +universally recognized. No sane farmer, for example, would seek to improve +his Jerseys or his Herefords by crossing one with the other. It is true +that in pure breeds of plants and animals we sometimes venture on a cross +to introduce some new desirable character but we follow up such mixture by +a rigid selection in which is eliminated all but the rare individuals +having the desired characteristics, and we continue this elimination +generation after generation to fix our characters again. It is obvious +that no such selection as this would be possible among the progeny of +human crosses.</p> + +<p>It clearly becomes our duty then to determine as accurately as possible +the degree of non-relationship between races it is inadvisable to +transcend in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>inter-racial marriages. We are certainly taking great risks +in accepting in any considerable numbers those races we can not assimilate +to advantage into our own stock.</p> + +<p><b>War.—</b>The deteriorating effect of war on national physique and vigor has +been so frequently cited by eugenists<a name='fna_18' id='fna_18' href='#f_18'><small>[18]</small></a> and is so obvious as scarcely to +require further comment. It should be pointed out, however, that where, as +is the case at present in Great Britain, armies are assembled from +volunteers, instead of by conscription, there is the greatest danger from +the eugenic standpoint, since not only physical but moral qualities are +involved. For it is the brave, the generous, the individual with a high +sense of duty who goes forward to the slaughter leaving the cowardly, the +selfish or the indifferent to father the race. With the awful deadliness +of modern warfare upon exhibition before our very eyes to-day, the extreme +seriousness of such selective action must be evident to every thoughtful +person.</p> + +<p><b>Human Conservation.—</b>We talk much in recent years of <i>conservation</i>; but +what are our forests and frontiers, our minerals and our waterways, +compared with our national health and life-blood? No farmer would think of +setting aside a diseased or physically defective <i>animal</i> for breeding +purposes, yet the same man together with the majority of mankind is wholly +oblivious to similar faults when it comes to the mating of human beings. +But is it not as important to look to fitness in man as in Poland China +hogs or Holstein cows? Certainly the various strains are as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> marked and +breed as true in the human family as in our live stock. Why face +complacently in our own families what we would not tolerate in our +piggery?</p> + +<p>From the expenditure of comparatively small sums in studying the +inheritance of various qualities in wheat, corn and other grain, +improvements based on the laws of genetics have been secured which are +enormously increasing our agricultural output and thereby adding to our +national wealth. But if it costs relatively little to discover and +conserve millions of dollars’ worth of hereditary qualities in our plants +and animals, what are we to think of ourselves, an intelligent people who, +knowing that “every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt +tree bringeth forth evil fruit,” still go on placidly permitting the +production of defectives and delinquents? Can we continue to drink the +sluggish blood of the pauper and the imbecile into our veins and hope to +escape unscathed?</p> + +<p>We are all familiar with the fate of Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Egypt and +Rome. Why not America? Certainly we have no pledge of special immunity +from Divine Powers. If so, what then is the meaning of our 366 hospitals +for insane which cost us annually $21,000,000; our 63 institutions for +feeble-minded costing us over $5,000,000; our 1,300 prisons maintained at +a cost of more than $13,000,000; our 1,500 hospitals whose annual +maintenance requires at least $30,000,000; our 115 schools or homes for +deaf and dumb; our 2,500 almshouses with an annual expense account of +$20,000,000 and our 1,200 refuge homes costing annually several millions +of dollars more? To say that we spend annually over $100,000,000 on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>custody of insane, feeble-minded, paupers, epileptics, deaf, blind and +other charges is expressing the situation very conservatively.</p> + +<p><b>Kindness in the Long Run.—</b>There is no one I think who will not admit that +the sympathy and charity of the human heart are its noblest virtues. But +we must face the problem of what is kindness in the long run. Havelock +Ellis well says, “The superficially sympathetic man flings a coin to the +beggar; the more deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so +that he need no longer beg; but perhaps the most radically sympathetic of +all is the man who arranges that the beggar shall not be born.”</p> + +<p>What shall we do?</p> + +<p><b>The Problem Has Two Phases.—</b>For an intelligent consideration of the +problem one must recognize at the outset that it has two distinct phases; +namely, (1) a selective union of the fittest, or in other words, a +conscious attempt to breed a superior race; and (2) the elimination of the +obviously unfit by preventing their reproduction, with the purpose of +purifying the present race. It is evident at a glance that these are two +essentially distinct problems although the practise of either method could +result in racial improvement. The first is sometimes spoken of as +<i>positive</i> or <i>constructive eugenics</i>, the second as <i>negative</i> or +<i>restrictive eugenics</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Constructive Eugenics Must Be Based on Education.—</b>As to the first phase, +direct selection for superiority, the campaign must, in the very nature of +things, be one of education. With the necessary knowledge of the facts in +mind, the awakening <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>conscience of the individual together with an +enlightened public opinion will form the safest guide. Increasing popular +comprehension of the inevitable nature of human inheritance must engender +a sense of responsibility as to the positive eugenic fitness of a +contemplated marriage. The growth of this sentiment will doubtless be +slow, and properly so, for as yet we have but half-lights on what are the +most desirable types of humanity. No one can say what the highest type of +man should be, but almost any one can readily pick out types which +certainly should <i>not</i> be.</p> + +<p><b>Inferior Increasing More Rapidly Than Superior Stocks.—</b>Modern eugenists, +although realizing that the constructive phase is of great importance, are +making no attempt to map out any fixed mode of procedure for it beyond +pointing out the desirability of larger families among the better classes. +The need for individuals of superior physical, mental and moral qualities +to multiply is so obvious as scarcely to require comment. Yet the fact is +that judging from all appearances these are the very ones who have the +lowest birth-rate. Eugenics is mainly concerned with the relative rates of +increase of the various classes, not with mere fertility in itself. And +the actual increase must be measured in terms of the extent to which +birth-rate exceeds death-rate. If a high birth-rate is accompanied by a +high death-rate then it is not especially significant in increasing a +given class as a whole. All available evidence points to the fact that +to-day the lower strata of society are far outbreeding the middle and +higher, with an almost negligible difference in death-rate, and just in +the measure that these lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> strata are innately inferior just in that +degree must the race deteriorate. The seriousness of the whole situation +as it exists to-day hinges, therefore, on the extent to which the lower +strata are inferior to those above them.</p> + +<p><b>An Unselected Population May Contain Much Valuable Material.—</b>In +evaluating these lower strata a matter of very great importance is whether +the population is a selected or an unselected one. If the population has +been long resident in a given region and has had fairly good opportunity +for education then we will find in the lower reaches a larger percentage +of sedimentation made up of the worthless and inferior stocks. If, +however, a continual fomentation and geographical shifting of the +population is in progress as in parts of America, or if adequate +educational opportunities are lacking, as in some parts of Russia, the +poor and less well-to-do classes may contain, no one can tell how much, +relatively valuable stock.</p> + +<p>Forel remarks on this point as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“If we compare the nature of delinquents, abandoned children, +vagabonds, etc., in a country where little or nothing has been done +for the people (Russia, Galicia, Vienna, etc.), with that of the same +individuals in Switzerland, for example, where much has already been +done for the poor, we find this result: In Switzerland, these +individuals are nearly all tainted with alcoholism, or pathological +heredity; they consist of alcoholics, incorrigibles, and congenital +decadents, and education can do little for them because nearly all +those who have a better hereditary foundation have been able to earn +their living by honest work. In Russia, Galicia, and even in Vienna, +we are, on the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>contrary, astonished to see how many honest natures +there are among the disinherited when they are provided with work and +education.”</p></div> + +<p><b>The Lack of Criteria for Judging Fitness.—</b>Barring the untold hordes of +actual defectives who have gravitated into this lower stratum, there are +few positive criteria by which we can measure the real fitness of the +remainder. Before we can set out on a campaign of positive eugenics we +must have some standard by which to steer, and it would be a rash advocate +indeed who would assert that class distinction alone, or even success as +measured by public opinion to-day should be our whole criterion of +fitness. Shall we measure fitness in terms of how successfully one can +acquire worldly goods, or in other words, by the property test, or what +shall be our standard?</p> + +<p><b>The College Graduate.—</b>Many of our modern critiques of the birth-rate +situation make much of the fact that our college graduates as a group are +scarcely reproducing themselves. According to Davenport, Bryn Mawr College +between 1888 and 1913 has graduated 1,193 bachelors of arts, but these +women have produced up to January, 1913, only 263 girls to take their +place in the next generation. He also points out that statistics on some +of the graduate classes of Harvard of twenty years ago or earlier show +that they are little more than maintaining themselves; thus one class of +328 graduates twenty years later had produced 195 sons, and in another +case a class of 278 individuals had produced, twenty-five years later, 141 +sons. Relatively similar statistics can be cited for other eastern +colleges.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>All such cases of college graduates cited as especially deplorable +declines in birth-rate are based on the assumption that these individuals +are a particularly superior stock.<a name='fna_19' id='fna_19' href='#f_19'><small>[19]</small></a> But one might question this premise +as a generalization. It may or may not be true. Are they superior or have +they had mainly a combination of luck and incentive, luck in that their +parents had sufficient means, acquired possibly through their own +superiority, possibly not, to send them to college, and incentive derived +from a fortunate environment which awakened a desire in them—or in their +parents for them—for college education? Is the woolly-witted son of +opulence, so abundant in our colleges to-day, who is boosted through by +hook or by crook, of superior eugenical value to the alert eager boy—and +his name is legion—destined for economic reasons to go to work at or +before the completion of his high-school course, perhaps because of the +very fact of an unlimited fecundity in his own family which necessitates +his help for the general support?</p> + +<p>When one first learns of the declining birth-rate among college women and +men he feels appalled, but immediately the question flashes up, if this is +<i>the</i> superior stock, and up to date it has died out or is dying out +rapidly, whence then this ever augmenting rush of young folk who fairly +deluge our universities and colleges to-day? Does it not rather point to +the fact that in our own country at least, the man who will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> and can take +a college education successfully is not so much the product of breeding +from college men, but of a prosperity which leaves a sufficient surplus in +the family exchequer to enable sons and daughters to go to college, and is +it not reasonable to suppose that there is yet an abundant stock back of +these who similarly await but the golden touch of opportunity? When we +consider such men as Carlyle, Lincoln and a host of others who were not +the sons of collegians, although we may be university pedigreed ourselves +we can not but feel doubtful of the validity of a premise which takes a +college stock unqualifiedly as having any considerable monopoly of innate +superiority. After all, college can mean little more than opportunity, and +the obtaining of such opportunity in this world of economic maladjustments +and accidents of social position is too largely a matter of chance, at +least in America, to stamp the possessors of these advantages, on this +criterion alone, as of inborn superiority. Undoubtedly much that is +intrinsically good now slumbers in the lower strata of society because of +lack of favorable environment to call forth the latent possibilities.</p> + +<p><b>Native Ability, Independence and Energy Eugenically Desirable.—</b>Although +we can not sift out with certainty the superior from the inferior in our +normal population by the property test or the educational standard alone, +it is undoubtedly true that, on the whole, native ability, independence +and energy are present to a higher degree in our well-to-do and prosperous +families than in the stocks which merely hold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> their own or which +gradually decline, and there is no gainsaying the fact that in so far as +the lower classes are where they are through actual deficiency—and there +are enormous numbers in this category—they threaten our very existence as +a race. It is imperative that the great middle class in particular +establish in some way a selective birth-rate, by increased fertility on +their own part, and diminished fecundity on the part of inferior stocks, +which will offset or more than offset the disproportionate increase of the +socially unfit.</p> + +<p><b>Four Children to Each Marriage Required to Maintain a Stock.—</b>It is +estimated that under present conditions an average of at least four +children should be born to each marriage if a stock is to maintain its +numbers undiminished. Some of our most valuable strains are falling far +short of this average. In a statistical table on the relative fertility of +different stocks, prepared by Pearson, we find the mentally defective, +criminal, deaf-mute and degenerate stocks heading the list with averages +ranging from five to seven children per family, while the American +graduate (based on Harvard statistics) and the English intellectual types +average less than two children per marriage. While the death-rate is +higher in the undesirable classes mentioned, it is by no means enough +higher to compensate for the difference in birth-rates. Thus while certain +very desirable types are not maintaining themselves genetically, other +extremely undesirable ones are rapidly more than replacing themselves. +Investigations made by Heron in London show that this condition as regards +English desirables did<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> not exist sixty years ago; then the richer a +community was in professional men and well-to-do families, the higher was +the birth-rate.</p> + +<p><b>Factors Contributing to Low Birth-Rate in Desirable Strains.—</b>Most +students of the subject believe that the fecundity of much of the best +blood in our country has reached such a low ebb as to threaten the whole +fabric of our commonwealth. How to correct this is the pressing problem to +which no one has found a solution. However much one may deplore it the +fact remains that always in the history of the civilized world with the +rise of material conditions in any class of a population there has come an +accompanying limitation of child-birth. Explain this as we may in modern +times—whether as an awakened individualism which looks only to the +immediate interest of the individual as against the ultimate interest of +the race, or a desire for luxuries or for a better opportunity for smaller +numbers of children, or as a determined effort of the wage earner to +better his conditions, or to the feminist movement with its accompaniment +of a greater personal freedom of married women and the recognition of the +fact that marriage and child-bearing are often bars to employment, or to +general increasing pressure of economic burdens—in brief whatever the +cause or causes, there is no denying the fact of a diminishing birth-rate +among our abler men and women. Moreover, no amount of coaxing, cajoling or +dire prophecy seems to avail in altering the conditions. Various partial +remedies, many of them of questionable practicability, have been proposed, +but so far there has been no far-reaching effort<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> made to put any of them +into effect. It has been suggested that society return to the simple life +so that our young folk may marry earlier and live more easily on limited +means, but so far few volunteers have appeared to lead the procession. +While there is no doubt that present economic conditions tend to penalize +parenthood, the simple life will not return for the mere asking. It has +been pointed out that the father is in unfair competition with the +bachelor and is also unfairly taxed in comparison, and some would +therefore tax unmarried men more heavily. Others would pay a direct bounty +on reproduction, but it is probable that such rewards would merely +stimulate families of the lower types to increased fruitfulness. And so +one panacea after another may be weighed and found wanting.</p> + +<p><b>The Educated Public Must Be Made to Realize the Situation.—</b>It seems +probable that the most success will be met with through the slow and +unspectacular methods of education. The necessity of the situation must be +driven home so that it becomes part and parcel of the collective +intelligence of the educated public. Different ideals of life will have to +be established in the young. If knowledge of the facts of heredity is +thoroughly disseminated among the people and ideals regarding parenthood +are fostered, then much will have been accomplished by the psychic power +of suggestion alone toward the end desired.</p> + +<p><b>Utilization of Family Pride as a Basis for Constructive Eugenics.—</b>There +are few more powerful incentives to make the best of one’s abilities, or +few greater deterrents from vice than family pride; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> there is no +reason why this same sentiment may not be aroused in behalf of unborn +generations. The sentiment of caste or aristocracy in some form is well +nigh universal in mankind. The family of Mr. A came over in the Mayflower +and is therefore worlds above the family of Mr. B, who arrived fifty years +later. Mr. X’s income is $5,000 a year, Mr. Y’s only $1,500. The poor +family in the front suite of the tenement regards itself as far superior +to the one in the rear. Among criminals the professional house-breaker +feels himself to be of higher caste than the sneak-thief, and in turn is +surpassed by the bank-burglar. Even in the insane asylum the feeling is +rampant. With such a wide-spread tendency for a foundation the creation of +a sentiment of eugenic aristocracy is by no means a visionary undertaking.</p> + +<p><b>The Tendency for Like to Marry Like.—</b>Even now there is a decided though +unconscious tendency for like to marry like and thus create particular +strains. We have lines, for instance, which produce notably families of +scholars, others which yield mainly statesmen, and still other strains of +inventors, of financiers, of naval men, of soldiers, and of actors +respectively. And there is little doubt that people, with the facts of +inheritance of ability once before them, will be led to act more or less +in accordance with their knowledge. On the other hand, due apparently to +the same unconscious tendency for like to marry like, we find produced +criminalistic, feeble-minded, deaf-mute and tubercular stocks. The first +type of family is often termed <i>aristogenic</i> and the second or defective +type, <i>cacogenic</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span><b>Public Opinion as an Incentive to Action.—</b>Much of our social conduct is +the result of the pressure of public opinion, yet so accustomed are we to +this that we ordinarily do not feel it as a hardship. There is little +doubt that similarly the more wholesome attitude toward parenthood +advocated by the eugenist would be taken as a matter of course, once the +idea became prevalent. It would come to be one of those socially +preconceived ideas which are as much actualities and which become +unconscious guides to action no less certainly than do the more obvious +personal habits of the individual. And just in the degree that we as a +race get the “feeling” that intellect, morals and skill are highly +desirable attributes in marriage selection, just in that degree will one’s +affections in their earlier stages gravitate toward individuals who +possess such qualities in high degree. In the main, those stocks which +have shown by ancestral as well as personal achievement their superiority +will tend to insure most certainly a continuation of this superiority in +offspring.</p> + +<p><b>Choosing a Marriage Mate Means Choosing a Parent.—</b>Although marriages, as +all young folks know, are made in Heaven, it is interesting to see what a +vast number of these foreordained matches coincide with propinquity in +college, in church, or in the same social set. Moreover, children are born +here on earth. The one thing of all things that the eugenist desires is +for these young folk to get a clear-eyed vision of the fact that in +choosing a marriage mate they are also choosing the future father or +mother of their children with all that this implies.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span><b>The Best Eugenic Marriage Also a Love Match.—</b>A few recent writers, who +show an utter misconception of what the aim of modern eugenics is, have +raised the cry of give us the old-fashioned love match instead of the +eugenic marriage, as if the eugenist’s ideal of moral cleanliness, freedom +from transmissible physical taints or mental enfeeblement, and an attitude +of special approval toward marriages which bring together individuals of +more than average mental or spiritual endowment, had anything in it that +was inimical to love. No one better than he realizes the sordid depths to +which marital relations devoid of mutual affection and regard must reach. +Certainly there is nothing in the eugenic ideal when its full import is +understood that can shock the sensibilities of the most delicate-minded. +Indeed it is people of fine susceptibilities who will be the first to feel +repugnance toward a marriage which means mental or physical deterioration +of their own blood.</p> + +<p><b>Good Traits No Less Than Bad Ones Inherited.—</b>An inspection of such charts +as those shown in Figs. 37, 38 and 39, <a href="#Page_313">pp. 313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>—and an abundance +of such encouraging records may now be found—reassures us in our +convictions that good traits are no less inheritable than bad ones. And +what any healthy, mentally well-endowed person may be depriving the world +of if he or she declines to enter into a fruitful marriage can not be +better exemplified than in the following excerpt from Davenport:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Many a man at the opening of his life work vows, as Judge John Lowell +of the middle of the eighteenth century did, as he was being graduated +from Harvard <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>College, that he will never marry. But nature was too +strong for John Lowell and he married three times, and among his +descendants was the director of a great astronomical observatory, the +president of Harvard College, a principal founder and promoter of the +Massachusetts General Hospital and the Boston Atheneum; the founder of +the city of Lowell and its cotton mills; the founder of the Lowell +Institute at Boston; the beloved General Charles Russell Lowell and +his brother, James, both of whom fell in the Civil War, and James +Russell Lowell, poet, professor and ambassador; besides brilliant +lawyers and men entrusted with large interests as executors of +estates. Do you think John Lowell would have taken that vow could he +have foreseen the future?”</p></div> + + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img35.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Pedigree of family with artistic (dark upper section), literary (dark +right section) and musical (dark left section) ability (from Davenport).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>The Elimination of the Grossly Unfit Urgent.—</b>But even if, under present +conditions of partial knowledge and lack of an adequate standard, the +constructive phase of eugenics must be left in the main to the awakening +conscience of the individual as humanity improves in general +enlightenment, the second phase,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> the elimination of the grossly unfit is +one of the greatest social obligations that confronts us to-day. For if +there is an alarming amount of mental impairment in civilized nations, and +if the problems of pauperism, inebriety, prostitution and criminality are +closely interwoven with the problems of mental unsoundness, as we have +every reason to believe from available data, then any means which will +operate toward securing normally functioning brains will at the same time +operate toward diminishing, defects and delinquencies. And inasmuch as a +considerable proportion of defects, both mental and physical, are +inheritable, it is obvious that if we can diminish the number of children +born into the world with defective brains or bodies we have made a long +stride in the right direction.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img36.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38</span></p> + +<p class="center">Inheritance of ability (from Kellicott after Whetham).</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span><b>Suggested Remedies.—</b>But how go about it? Various schemes have been +proposed, of which the chief are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Laws restricting marriage.</p> + +<p>2. Systems of mating with the purpose of covering up and gradually +diluting out defective traits.</p> + +<p>3. Segregation during the reproductive period.</p> + +<p>4. Sterilization.</p> + +<p>5. Education in the principles of eugenics.</p></div> + +<p><b>Inefficacy of Laws Which Forbid Marriage of Mental Defectives.—</b>The utter +inefficacy of the first proposition, namely the enactment of laws +restricting marriage, at least as regards the socially unfit whose +condition is based on impaired mentality, has been demonstrated time and +again. If they are forbidden marriage, they merely have children without +getting married. Most states have laws to prevent the marriage of such +individuals but these laws are almost wholly ineffective in preventing +procreation on their part. We might as well recognize once for all that in +such cases nothing short of close custodial care or sterilization will +accomplish the end desired.</p> + +<p>As to the second proposition, systems of mating with the purpose of +covering up and gradually diluting out defective traits, this has been +shown to be possible with certain types of defectives. Whether it is +desirable or not is a different question.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img37.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39</span></p> + +<p class="descrip">Inheritance of ability (chart condensed and incomplete) in three markedly +able families (from Kellicott after Whetham):</p> + +<p class="descrip">1, Charles Darwin; 2, his cousin, Francis Galton, founder of the modern +eugenic movement.</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Systems of Mating Impracticable in the Main.—</b>By systems of mating, it +should be said, is not meant the arbitrary marrying of two individuals +willy-nilly, but rather it is the prevention from marriage of two +individuals having similar defects. In general the facts at our command +indicate that in the majority of cases the offspring from a marriage of an +insane, feeble-minded or epileptic person with a normal individual free +from all neuropathic taints are normal or at most show but slight effects +of the taint. But what normal individual would knowingly marry into such a +stock? With few exceptions such traits where inheritable are apparently +negative, that is, not represented by some positive abnormal factor but +due to the lack of some element or elements necessary to the proper +working of the normal brain. In the offspring of such a union the +necessary missing factors are supplied by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> normal parent. Or in +Mendelian phraseology, the defective traits are recessive and are +dominated by the normality of the other parent. Such offspring, however, +while apparently normal of body are not normal of germ-plasm, inasmuch as +half of their germ-cells will carry the abnormality of the defective +parent as earlier explained (<a href="#Page_119">page 119</a>) under Mendelism. We have already +seen (<a href="#Page_119">page 119</a>) how by continually marrying into strong strains the +liability to recessive defect can be diluted out until the descendants are +no more likely to have defective children than are members of our ordinary +population. If, however, as is estimated in Bulletin No. 5 of the +<i>Eugenics Record Office</i>, about thirty per cent. of our general population +already carry recessive neuropathic taints, it certainly is a hazardous +proceeding to attempt thus to breed out nervous defects unless one is +absolutely sure of the normality of the strain into which it is proposed +to marry. The great difficulty is in determining whether or not there is a +defective ancestry in a given stock. We have at present no criteria for +identifying normal individuals who have defective germ-plasm. As a +practical test, however, if no defect has appeared in the stock for three +or four generations back, the marriage would be relatively as safe as are +the marriages of our average population to-day.</p> + +<p><b>Corrective Mating Presupposes Knowledge of Eugenics.—</b>But such a scheme of +corrective mating presupposes a relatively high degree of intelligence and +judgment on the part of the participants, and this is just what we do not +have and in the nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> of things can not get, in the types of +feeble-minded, epileptic and degenerate strains we are striving to +eliminate. All our evidence shows that when unrestricted there is a marked +tendency for feeble-minded to mate with feeble-minded, degenerate with +degenerate. About sixteen per cent. of the feeble-minded, in fact, come +from consanguineous marriages. If we try to legislate them into specific +types of marriage then we encounter the same futility pointed out under +our discussion of restrictive legislation, they will produce offspring +without the formality of marriage.</p> + +<p>In certain cases of insanity and in other than neuropathic defects one can +see how the system might be inaugurated with greater prospects of success, +but even then a knowledge of the principles of eugenics would be necessary +to the participants, or in other words we could only accomplish our end +through our fifth proposition, education.</p> + +<p><b>Segregation Has Many Advocates.—</b>As to the third proposition, segregation +during the reproductive period, this seems to have a larger number of +advocates than any other coercive measure. While on theoretical grounds it +is plausible enough, when we face the actual putting of the method into +practise we are confronted by the fact that tremendous sums of money would +be required to sequestrate and maintain colonies or industrial refuges.</p> + +<p>When one realizes that no state now provides for more than a small +minority of its defectives, and knowing also of the pressure that must be +brought to bear on legislatures to secure sufficient funds to provide for +these cases of extremest urgency, one can not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> be overly optimistic about +the practicability of extensive sequestration.</p> + +<p>E. R. Johnstone, the superintendent of a large training school for +feeble-minded in New Jersey, points out that no state in the Union is +providing for many more than one-tenth of her feeble-minded and +epileptics. If his estimate is true, to place in institutions, treat and +train all its feeble-minded and epileptics would even now almost swamp any +state treasury. But what <i>will</i> it be in the future if we permit this +unrestricted nine-tenths to go on and multiply their kind?</p> + +<p>Leaving out of account the enormous sums spent in private charities even +now from one-fifth to one-seventh the total public expenditures of almost +any one of our states is going to maintain its defectives, dependents and +criminals. From the 1912 report of the secretary of state, in the state of +Wisconsin, for instance, I learn that of the total expenses for 1912, +sixteen per cent. was for charitable and penal institutions. The situation +is even worse in some other states. Think of it! Think what a large total +of expense it becomes! And the expense is far secondary from the +humanitarian standpoint to the misery involved.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Survey</i> of May 24, 1913, we find Mr. Hastings H. Hart, Director of +the Department of Child Helping of the Russell Sage Foundation, proposing +very specifically “a working program for the extinction of the defective +delinquent,” which involves segregation during the reproductive period. He +gives the number of feeble-minded under public care as 20,000 in +institutions for the feeble-minded, 16,000 in almshouses, 5,000 in +hospitals for the insane, and 26,000 in prisons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> and reformatories, or a +total of 67,000 already under custodial care. And he asserts that as +nearly as can be judged, this is one-third of the feeble-minded persons in +the United States.</p> + +<p>Between this estimate that one-third of our feeble-minded are in +institutions and Doctor Johnstone’s that we are not providing for many +more than one-tenth of our feeble-minded and epileptic, there is a wide +discrepancy, but I know of no accurate data<a name='fna_20' id='fna_20' href='#f_20'><small>[20]</small></a> whereby the matter can be +settled definitely. One point of difference may be that Doctor Johnstone +specifically includes epileptics and another may be one of definition of +feeble-minded. However, supposing that we could get them all into +institutions, institutional care at present by no means also implies +prevention of propagation. It is not an unusual history of feeble-minded +women in our county poor-houses that they alternate between periods of +housework in some family and periods of residence in the almshouse, the +return to the latter being only too often to bear an additional child.</p> + +<p>Not a few students of the problem, however, advocate a rigid segregation +as the only reasonable preventive measure, no matter what the expense. +They point out that the cost is mounting up higher each year and that we +are only increasing it ultimately by procrastination. They urge, moreover, +that when counting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> the cost of the segregation of the feeble-minded we +should bear in mind also that we are reducing the expenses of our other +charity and penal institutions, since much of degeneracy, pauperism and +petty criminality centers in mental enfeeblement. Some believe that +colonies can be established which are in considerable measure +self-supporting. Doctor Johnstone, for instance, although his estimates of +the number of feeble-minded and epileptic is one of the highest, sketches +out in a recent paper (in <i>Pediatrics</i>, August, 1912) a plan which he +considers feasible.</p> + +<p>But what assurance have we that we can prevent the production of +defectives by segregation? In reply may be cited a recent experiment on an +extensive scale. Cretinism is a condition due to disease of the thyroid +glands. It is characterized by goiter, marked deformities and imbecility. +It is hereditary and has been very prevalent in certain valleys of +southern Switzerland and northern Italy. Cretin mated with cretin and +consequently a large new supply was constantly produced. In recent years +in certain communities the sexes have been segregated (see <i>Eugenic +Review</i>, 1910, Jordan) with the result that in such places cretinism has +about disappeared.</p> + +<p>Coming now to the fourth solution proposed, namely, sterilization,<a name='fna_21' id='fna_21' href='#f_21'><small>[21]</small></a> let +us consider some of its alleged advantages and disadvantages.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span><b>Sterilization.—</b>First of all, since there is some considerable popular +misunderstanding on the subject, it should be made plain that by +sterilization is not necessarily, nor in fact generally, meant +asexualization, or the removal of the reproductive glands. On the +contrary, in the male, sterilization is ordinarily accomplished by an +operation known as <i>vasectomy</i>, in which a small piece of each sperm duct +is removed. Such reports on it as I have found indicate that it is a +comparatively simple minor operation which involves no special +inconvenience or hardship on the subject beyond the deprivation of +offspring. In fact, according to Doctor Sharp’s report, in the majority of +cases where it has been put into practise the patient has usually +submitted voluntarily after having the details of the situation explained +to him and has often advised fellow delinquents to do likewise.</p> + +<p>Even should later developments show that a mistake had been made, in all +probability the matter could be remedied by a second operation in which +the cut ends of the ducts can be reunited. This has been accomplished +experimentally in dogs, and furthermore, in men rendered sterile by +occlusion of the duct through inflammatory diseases, the sterility has +been remedied by removing the blocked area and reuniting the ends of the +duct on either side.</p> + +<p>In women the corresponding operation—a section of the oviduct—is termed +<i>salpingectomy</i>. Here, however, the operation is a more serious one as it +usually involves opening the abdominal cavity and the accompanying hazard +of infection, a danger sufficiently great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> that it is safe to say that the +operation will be resorted to more rarely than vasectomy in man.</p> + +<p><b>As a Eugenic Measure.—</b>Sterilization as a eugenic measure has many +advocates and perhaps more opponents; and among the latter, it must be +said, are many competent and thoughtful students of the subject who +recognize existing conditions and deplore their continuance as much as any +one. They maintain that while we may have to come to it as a last resort, +we are yet too ignorant of the actual effects of the operation, or are too +little informed on the inheritability of the specific traits we are trying +to eradicate, to launch forth on so radical a program. We must not forget +that when we put sterilization into effect we are going to have to deal +with individual cases, not general averages.</p> + +<p><b>To What Conditions Applicable.—</b>And just here, it seems to me, is the crux +of the situation. When confronted by the defective individual, in a +practical case, just what criteria are we going to use to determine +whether this particular individual should be sterilized or not? Nearly all +of the twelve states which have sterilization laws specify insanity, +feeble-mindedness, epilepsy and criminality.</p> + +<p><b>In Insanity.—</b>When it comes to insanity I strongly suspect that those who +have the selection of the examining board will have difficulty in finding +an alienist who is willing to take the responsibility of deciding on just +which insane individuals shall be operated on and which not. For among the +insane there are so many kinds and degrees of mental unsoundness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> and +these are of such varying and as yet unknown eugenical significance, that +a positive decision is frequently out of the question. Of the twenty-seven +or more recognized forms of insanity who knows with any considerable +degree of certainty which are heritable, which not? Shall we treat all +manic-depressives alike? Shall we treat them as, for instance, we would +those suffering from dementia precox? Who will take the responsibility of +answering positively? Again, what shall we do in cases of paresis, or +general paralysis of the insane, an affliction which probably invariably +has syphilis as its antecedent? Yet it constitutes one of the commonest +forms of insanity found in asylums. Doctor George H. Kirby, director of +Clinical Psychiatry, Manhattan State Hospital, says that with one +exception there are more admissions of paretics to Manhattan State +Hospital than sufferers from any other form of mental disorder. He +continues, “We find that when either the father or the mother suffers from +paresis that many other members of the family may be infected with +syphilis, and furthermore, we find that a surprisingly large number of +children in these families are feeble-minded, nervous, or in other ways +abnormal.” But here, it is clear, the patient has done the damage before +he reached the hospital, nor was it paresis as such that did the harm but +the syphilitic infection of which paresis itself was but the outcome.</p> + +<p>Certainly the one fact which stands out conspicuously when we face most +concrete cases, is that at present we need more urgently than +sterilization laws for the insane, exhaustive studies of the +inheritability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> of specific mental infirmities that we may know with some +degree of certainty which warrant sterilization.</p> + +<p>Yet on the other hand one of the most disquieting facts that confronts us +to-day is the large number of patients who are on parole from our +hospitals for the insane, subject to recall. What shall we do with them? +Shall we submit them to the tremendous hardship of still remaining under +custodial care although to all intents and purposes sane, or shall we make +their release contingent upon their submission to vasectomy or +salpingectomy?</p> + +<p>In a few cases such as Huntington’s chorea (Figs. 26, 27, <a href="#Page_114">pp. 114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">115</a>) we +can proceed with a fair degree of assurance, for we know that this +dreadful malady is transmitted as a positive trait and that in all +probability half of the children of an afflicted individual will inherit +the defect. Such patients, if they ever rally sufficiently temporarily to +leave the hospital, or where encountered outside the hospital should +certainly be restrained from procreation. It is questionable if even their +children, though apparently normal, should be allowed to have offspring, +for usually the disorder does not manifest itself until middle life and +then it is too late to try to prevent its transmission since the affected +individual has already probably married and had children. But Huntington’s +chorea is a comparatively rare form of insanity, and one of only a few +about which our knowledge as regards its transmissibility is fairly +satisfactory.</p> + +<p><b>In Feeble-Mindedness.—</b>When we come to institutions for the feeble-minded, +however, there seems to be much more unanimity of opinion among +physicians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> in charge of such institutions that sterilization would be an +effective and satisfactory disposition to make of many cases, if we are to +release the patients in question from custody. Unquestionably in cases of +imbecility it is easier than in insanities to pass conclusive judgment on +the inheritability of the condition in a large class of cases. Practically +all are agreed that either permanent custodial care through the +reproductive period or sterilization should be enforced. Some maintain +that such individuals should remain permanently in institutions anyway and +that therefore to sterilize them is needless, while others urge that if +sterilized many capable of making their own living could be freed and +allowed to do so.</p> + +<p>According to Goddard the feeble-minded woman is about three times as +likely to find a mate as a feeble-minded man, hence it would seem to be of +much greater importance to sterilize the woman than the man.</p> + +<p>Again it might be urged with much justification, that even though +sterilized, the feeble-minded individual because of lack of self-control +will transgress sexually and will thus certainly become a menace to +society in the spread of venereal diseases. If Mr. Hart’s estimate is +anywhere near correct, that there are 60,000 feeble-minded women in the +United States of child-bearing age, and that 13,000 are already in +custody, then the task of getting all women of this class into custody is +not so insurmountable as would at first appear.</p> + +<p><b>In Cases of Epilepsy.—</b>As to epilepsy, I find a very decided difference of +opinion among physicians.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> Some consider it, on account of its apparently +strong inheritability, together with the shocking crimes perpetrated by +epileptic criminal types, one of the most serious menaces, while others +point out that we know nothing of the real cause of epilepsy, that there +are all degrees and shades, that it is probably referable to different +causes in different cases and that no one is able to say what the +offspring of any given epileptic will be.</p> + +<p>As to criminal types, here again we face the difficulty of deciding any +particular case. Let us suppose that twenty-five per cent. of criminals +are mental defectives, how shall we sift them out from the seventy-five +per cent. who are supposed to be eugenically normal? Doubtless in many of +the twenty-five per cent. class, the indications of defective mentality +are sufficiently evident to prevent mistakes, but a considerable number of +uncertain status must also remain near the border-line.</p> + +<p><b>Sterilization Laws.—</b>Although twelve of our states already have +sterilization laws, only two, Indiana and California, seem to have made +any active attempt to enforce them. The situation is too new yet in +Wisconsin, Michigan and Pennsylvania for these states to have shown what +they intend to do. Although the Indiana law says, “it shall be compulsory +for each and every institution” to maintain the practise, it has fallen +into disuse since 1911, presumably because the governor believed the law +unconstitutional. It is of interest to see the motive underlying the law +in various states. In the majority it is purely eugenic. In Connecticut it +is mainly eugenic though partly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> therapeutic. In California it is +apparently in part therapeutic, since it is stated as being for the +physical, mental or moral benefit of inmates of various state +institutions, and in part punitive and eugenic, since individuals twice +committed for sexual offenses or three times for other crimes are subject +to the operation.</p> + +<p>In Washington and Nevada the object is purely punitive, the persons +specified being habitual criminals and persons adjudged guilty of carnal +abuse of female persons under ten years of age, or of rape. In these +states also the court orders the operation instead of leaving it to the +decision of a board of medical experts.</p> + +<p><b>Social Dangers in Vasectomy.—</b>It has been urged against vasectomy that it +will work untold harm because it relieves of the responsibility of a +probable parentage. This argument does not appeal to one as very weighty +as far as the imbecile or other degenerate is concerned, because one of +the very traits characteristic of such individuals is lack of any sense of +responsibility. By this same token, however, we have a very good argument +for sequestration as against sterilization, for the degenerate, even +though sterilized, will not be restrained sexually and will be likely to +disseminate venereal diseases or commit rape. Furthermore, there will be +the temptation to sterilize and liberate certain types that would +otherwise have been kept permanently in custody.</p> + +<p><b>Our Present Knowledge Insufficient.—</b>When all is said and done, after we +take into account the meagerness of our present knowledge on the subject, +it is not to be wondered at that many thoughtful <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>students of a +conservative turn of mind, feel that any considerable practise of +sterilization is premature. The problem has so many phases, and despite +occasional bits of positive knowledge, we are yet in such a sea of +ignorance regarding it, that in no field is the good Friar Laurence’s +admonition of “wisely and slow; they stumble that run fast,” needed more +at present than it is here.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that in theory the feeble-minded and similar +defectives should be sent to institutions and kept there, but the +important practical question is, can this be done? We can have no final +answer until it is tried. While the initial expense would undoubtedly be +great, if we could keep our defectives from propagation for a single +generation we could very materially lessen their numbers and in succeeding +generations the expenses of their care would rapidly diminish.</p> + +<p>The one crying need that stands out most prominently in this whole field +is that of careful investigation of individual cases and specific types of +malady, together with an accurate census of conditions as a whole. Our +knowledge of individual malign heredities is too meager to carry us very +far at present. When we have found after adequate investigation in just +which specific types of defects heredity is an important factor—and we +shall undoubtedly find it to be one in many cases—then we can proceed +confidently with sterilization, if it will prove to be more practical and +desirable than sequestration.</p> + +<p><b>Sterilization Laws on Trial.—</b>It will be of great interest and instruction +to see how extensively, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> various states which have recently passed +sterilization laws, the experts selected will find it expedient to carry +on sterilization, and what criteria they will use in deciding on +individual cases. That sterilization can be put into effect is +indisputable, as may be seen from the fact that several hundred operations +have been performed in Indiana. If the board on whom the decision depends +happens to be one which feels that many people are likely to distress +themselves unduly over the border-line cases, and overlook the fact that +there is always a goodly residue with which to proceed without great risk +of mistake, then we may expect to see a vigorous campaign inaugurated, and +those of us who are still undecided in the matter will have an opportunity +of learning more certainly the merits or the failings of the scheme.</p> + +<p>Certain married degenerate types would seem to be the ones most urgently +demanding attention. Having already begotten several defective children +and with nothing else in prospect but the production of the same kind, it +is difficult to see from any standpoint why a vasectomy on the male would +not be a merciful act. There are not a few such families where the father +is periodically in the hands of the law and yet not in permanent +restraint. Once in custody his release could be made contingent on +vasectomy.</p> + +<p><b>An Educated Public Sentiment the Most Valuable Eugenic Agent.—</b>Coming now +to the last proposition, education of the public in the principles of +eugenics, this is the method calculated to be of more far-reaching service +than any other, in the negative as well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> as in the positive phases of +eugenics. Education is necessary before we can have effective restrictive +measures for the mentally incompetent established and enforced, and it is +also a prerequisite to intelligent procedure on the part of normal +individuals in considering their own fitness for marriage.</p> + +<p>Of greatest importance in preventing undesirable marriages, as far as +people of normal intelligence is concerned, will be the sentiment of +disapproval which will arise on the part of society itself when it becomes +really convinced that certain marriages are inimical to social welfare. +Public opinion is, in fact, one of the most potent influences in marital +affairs, simply because refusal to abide by the dictates of the community +means social ostracism.</p> + +<p>That social disapproval of certain unions can become a very real factor in +preventing such marriage is evinced on all sides by the numerous barriers +to marriage already in existence based on race, religious sect or social +status. Even in our much vaunted democracies one is looked down on who +marries “beneath” his or her social set. This sentiment of taboo, so +readily and often so senselessly cultivated in our present human society, +will inevitably spring up in consequence of a wide-spread knowledge of the +facts of human heredity. It is to such a growth, to the establishment of a +disapproval which is the product of its own sentiments rather than to +legislative enactments, that society must look for the greatest +furtherance of the eugenic program.</p> + +<p>Necessary as legal restraint is in certain cases, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> must obviously be +restricted to only the most glaring defects. Moreover, legislation can not +run far in advance of public opinion.</p> + +<p><b>The Question of Personal Liberty.—</b>It must be admitted that there is a +reluctance on the part of many even thoughtful individuals to the +application of methods which savor in any way of restraint. An objection +not infrequently urged by such persons against the application of certain +eugenic principles is that they demand an unwarranted curtailment of +personal liberty.</p> + +<p>To those who hoist the flag of personal liberty, it may fairly be asked, +how much personal liberty does the syphilitic accord his doomed and +suffering wife and children, or how much personal liberty is the portion +of the offspring of feeble-minded parents? Or, what quota of personal +liberty will accrue to the ill-fated descendants of the epileptic, the +habitual drunkard or criminal, the gross moral pervert, the congenially +deaf and dumb, or to even the progeny which may result from the union of +two well-established tubercular strains?</p> + +<p>We do not hesitate to send the pick of our stalwart healthy manhood to war +to be slaughtered by the thousands and tens of thousands when an affront +is offered to an abstraction which we term our national honor, and, +sublimely unconscious of the irony of it all, we throw ourselves into a +well-nigh hysterical frenzy of protest when it is proposed to stop the +breeding of defectives by infringing to a certain extent on their personal +liberties.</p> + +<p>Society has already found it necessary to suppress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> certain individuals +and yet we hear little complaint about loss of personal liberty in such +cases. But if it is necessary to restrain the man who would steal a purse +or a horse, is it not still more urgent to restrain one who would poison +the blood of a whole family or even of an entire stock for generations? +Surely there can be but one answer; society owes it to itself as a matter +of self-preservation to enforce the restraint of persons infected with +certain types of disease and of individuals possessing highly undesirable +inheritable traits, so that perpetuation of such defects is impossible.</p> + +<p><b>Education of Women in Eugenics Needed.—</b>One of the most crying needs of +the present is the awakening and educating of women to the significance of +the known facts. For they are perhaps the greatest sufferers, and once +informed, as a mere matter of safety if for no other reason, they will see +the necessity of demanding a clean bill of health on the part of their +prospective mates. Furthermore in the last analysis woman is the decisive +factor in race betterment, for it is she who says the final yea or nay +which decides marriage and thus determines in large measure the qualities +which will be possessed by her children. Above all, young women must come +to realize that the fast or dissipated young man, no matter how +interestingly or romantically he may be depicted by the writer of fiction, +is in reality unsound physically, and is an actual and serious danger to +his future wife and children.</p> + +<p><b>Much Yet to Be Done.—</b>But plain as is our duty regarding the application +of facts already known, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> we consider that the student of heredity has +made only a beginning, it is equally evident that he must be urged on in +his quest for new facts, and the establishment of new principles. There is +imperative need to carry on proper experiments with plants and animals, to +collect necessary data regarding man, and for what is scarcely less +important, the publication of the facts already acquired so that the +public may be guided aright.</p> + +<p>Just at present it is of the utmost importance to secure more trustworthy +statistics in order that we may intelligently go about instituting +suitable restrictive measures for undesirable human strains. We must know +the exact number and kinds of feeble-minded, epileptic and insane in our +population, and we must have more insight into the personal status and +pedigrees of our delinquents and criminals. For purposes of rational +procedure such information is indispensable. Much can be done by +hospitals, “homes” and penal institutions by determining and recording +more accurately all obtainable facts regarding the ancestry of their +charges. Moreover, in such states as Wisconsin, where the state hospitals +for the insane have each an “after-care-agent,” the duties of such +officers might well include the collection of more adequate data regarding +the hereditary aspects of their patient’s condition. And lastly, if in +every census, whether state or national, it were made an important part of +the work to secure accurate vital statistics, particularly as they pertain +to human heredity, the contribution toward enabling us ultimately to +purge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> the blood of our nation of certain forms of suffering, degeneracy +and crime would be inestimably great.</p> + +<p><b>A Working Program.—</b>And now after reviewing at some length various aspects +of man’s hereditary and congenital endowment, the important question +arises as to whether it is possible, with the knowledge at present +available, to go ahead with a practical program which will insure to the +child of the future its right of rights, that of <i>being well-born</i>. When +one considers the matter it is evident that much can be done at once. Most +of the needs set forth in the preceding paragraph can clearly be met in a +fair degree by instituting the procedures indicated.</p> + +<p>One of the obvious duties in a restrictive way that confronts us right at +the start is the care and control of the feeble-minded and of the +defective delinquent in such a way as to prevent procreation. Much help +can be given also through intelligent agitation for the establishment of +colonies for epileptics and the higher grades of feeble-minded which can +be made in considerable measure self-supporting. A given colony must, of +course, be for one sex alone. Much can be done, furthermore, by putting +into operation, both in and out of institutions, effective systems of +registering births and deaths together with accompanying facts which may +prove of eugenical significance.</p> + +<p>Again, we should more surely identify and exclude undesirable immigrants +and also undertake thoroughgoing investigations to determine which races +we can not profitably assimilate into our own blood.</p> + +<p>Physicians should pay more attention to the hereditary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> and congenital +aspects of their cases and make it more a matter of conscience than they +do at present to advise patients with regard to marriage. Prenuptial +medical inspection should become the custom, if not by law at least as a +voluntary procedure. Every parent must come to realize the grave risk to +which he is subjecting his daughter if a guarantee of physical fitness, +even more than assurance of financial standing or social position, is not +forthcoming from her prospective mate.</p> + +<p>Wholly apart from the field of heredity though in a realm intimately +concerned with the birthright of the child, much practical good can be +accomplished by pondering the facts and the fictions of prenatal influence +and in the light of the knowledge thus gained, seeing that while foolish +and unnecessary worries are abolished, the conditions of health, nutrition +and occupation surrounding the expectant mother are the best obtainable. +It is the sacred duty of every individual, moreover, to see that the +maximal possibilities of his own germ-plasm are not lowered by vicious or +unwholesome living.</p> + +<p>As individuals we can cultivate a greater sense of responsibility +regarding marriage and parenthood in those for whose training we are +responsible. We can study this whole subject conscientiously, keep pace +with new knowledge and see that other people are likewise informed. In +showing an enlightened interest in the ideals of eugenics and a +sympathetic approval of wholesome marriages, a sentiment toward parenthood +will gradually arise which will make it seem more desirable to many worthy +people than it does at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>present. If we are of good stock ourselves we +should recognize that it is highly desirable that we give to the race at +least four children. On the other hand, if we come from a strain which is +eugenically undesirable we should with equal conscientiousness refrain +from contributing to human misery. For where serious obstacles to a union +exist, renunciation is certainly a higher manifestation of love than is +consummation of a marriage which will result in untold misery to the +object of the affections. As a matter of fact, with adequate preliminary +knowledge as to what actually constitutes a serious drawback to marriage, +where such really exists and is recognized by the associated individuals, +love of the kind that leads to marriage is not likely to arise.</p> + +<p>As has been suggested by various students of eugenics, it is even at +present perhaps not infeasible for earnest individuals to start in a quiet +way local centers for the keeping and filing of accurate records of their +family traits for the future use of their descendants. Such groups, +voluntary though they be, would soon acquire a degree of distinction that +would make other people of good endowments wish to join in and go on +record as eugenically desirable.</p> + +<p>Lastly, it should not be forgotten that good traits are inherited as +certainly as bad ones. Moreover, in the realm of human conduct, even +though the fundamental features of behavior are based on an inherited +organization, man is not always driven by an inexorable linkage of +inherited neutral units into only one line of conduct, since more or less +capacity for alternative action is also inherited. It is the personal +duty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> of every member of society to aid in affording the opportunity and +providing the proper stimuli to insure that out of the many possibilities +of behavior which exist in the young at birth, those forms are realized +which are best worth while to the individual and to society. And while we +recognize that improved environment alone can not correct human +deficiencies we must nevertheless not relax our efforts to get cleaner +foods, cleaner surroundings, cleaner politics and cleaner hearts.</p> + +<p>Why go on alleviating various kinds of misery that might equally well be +prevented? When one squarely faces the issue, surely the absurdity of our +present practises can not but be evident to even the most thoughtless.</p> + +<p><b>Which Shall It Be?—</b>As a matter of social evolution, human homes +originated in the necessity of an abiding place for the nurture and +training of the young past their first period of helplessness. Well in the +foreground of the mental picture which arises when we hear the very word +<i>home</i>, are children. What shall the home of the future be with regard to +its most important assets, the children? Shall we as a people continue to +be confronted at every turn by the dull countenance of the imbecile, the +inevitable product of a bad parental mating; or the feeble body and the +clouded intellect of the child sprung from a parentage of polluted blood; +or the furtive cunning of the born criminal, the will-less mind of the +bred degenerate, or the shiftless spawn of the pauper? Or shall it be a +type with laughing face, with bounding muscles, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> unclouded brain, +overflowing with health and happiness—in short, <i>the well-born child</i>?</p> + +<p>The answer is in our own hands. The fate of many future generations is +ours to determine and we are false to our trusteeship if we evade the +responsibility clearly laid before us. How conscientiously we heed known +facts, how actively we acquaint ourselves with new facts, and how +effectively we execute the obvious duties demanded by these facts, will +give us the answer.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE END</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p> + +<h2>GLOSSARY</h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p> +<p class="title">GLOSSARY</p> + + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Acquired Characters</span>, traits developed in the body through changes in +environment or function, in contra-distinction to those which have their +specific causes in the germ-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Adaptation</span> (L. <i>ad</i>, to; <i>aptus</i>, fit), fitness to environment.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Albinism</span> (L. <i>albus</i>, white), a condition of deficiency in pigment.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Allelomorph</span> (Gr. <i>allelon</i>, of one another; <i>morphē</i>, form), one of a +pair of alternate Mendelian characters.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ameba</span> (Gr. <i>amoibē</i>, change), a primitive single-celled animal.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Amphibian</span> (Gr. <i>amphi</i>, both; <i>bios</i>, life), capable of living both on +land and in water.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Anthropoid</span> (Gr. <i>anthropos</i>, man; <i>eidos</i>, form), man-like.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Aristogenic</span> (Gr. <i>aristos</i>, best; <i>genesis</i>, origin), pertaining to the +genetically most desirable human strains.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Association Areas</span>, those regions of the brain in which presumably the +higher mental processes are effected.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Atavism</span> (L. <i>ad</i>, before; <i>avus</i>, grandfather), a return in one or more +characters to an ancestral type. See <a href="#Page_8">p. 8</a> for restricted modern usage.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Atrophy</span> (Gr. <i>a</i>, negative; <i>trophē</i>, nourishment), a wasting away of a +part of a living organism.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Axon</span> (Gr. <i>axon</i>, axis), the process from a nerve cell which becomes a +nerve fiber.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Binet-Simon Scale</span>, a series of tests graded to age and previous training +of the average normal child, much used in measuring mental deficiency.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Biology</span> (Gr. <i>bios</i>, life; <i>logos</i>, discourse), the study of life and of +living things.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Biometry</span> (Gr. <i>bios</i>, life; <i>metron</i>, measure), the study of biological +problems by means of statistical methods.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Blastomere</span> (Gr. <i>blastos</i>, germ; <i>meros</i>, part), one of the early cells +formed by the division of the ovum.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Blastophthoria</span> (Gr. <i>blastos</i>, germ; <i>phtheiro</i>, destroy), deterioration +of the germ as the result of direct pathogenic or other disturbing agents.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Blending Inheritance</span>, inheritance in which the characters of the parents +seem to blend in the offspring.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cacogenic</span> (Gr. <i>kakos</i>, bad; <i>genesis</i>, origin), pertaining to genetically +undesirable human strains.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cell</span>, the fundamental unit of structure in plants and animals.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Centrosome</span> (Gr. <i>kentron</i>, center; <i>soma</i>, body), a small body which +functions in indirect cell-division.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Character</span>, any distinguishing feature, trait or property of an organism.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chemotropism</span> (chemical and tropism), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chromatin</span> (Gr. <i>chroma</i>, color), deeply staining substance of the +cell-nucleus.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chromosomes</span> (Gr. <i>chroma</i>, color; <i>soma</i>, body), characteristic deeply +staining bodies, typically constant in number and appearance in each +species of animal or plant, which appear in the cell during indirect division.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Chromotropism</span> (Gr. <i>chroma</i>, color; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cleavage</span>, the division of the egg-cell into many cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Congenital</span> (L. <i>con</i>, together; <i>gigno</i>, bear), present at birth.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Conjugation</span> (L. <i>con</i>, together; <i>jugum</i>, yolk), the union of germ-cells +or unicellular individuals for reproduction.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Constructive</span> (or positive) <span class="smcap">Eugenics</span>, a system of securing a superior race +through propagation of the fittest individuals.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cortex</span> (L. <i>cortex</i>, bark), the outer or investing layer of the brain.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cytoplasm</span> (Gr. <i>kytos</i>, cell; <i>plasso</i>, form), the protoplasm of the cell +outside of the nucleus.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Daltonism</span>, the commonest form of color-blindness in which the affected +individual is unable to discriminate between red and green.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Dendrites</span> (Gr. <i>dendron</i>, tree), branching processes which spring from +nerve-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Determiner</span> (L. <i>determinare</i>, to determine), the distinctive cause or unit +in a germ-cell which determines the development of a particular character +in the individual derived from that cell. The terms <i>gene</i> and <i>factor</i> +are sometimes used as synonyms of determiner.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Dihybrids</span> (L. <i>di</i>, two; <i>hybrida</i>, mongrel), the offspring of parents +differing in two characters.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Diploid</span> (Gr. <i>diploos</i>, double; <i>eidos</i>, form), the dual or somatic number +of chromosomes.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Dominant Character</span> (L. <i>dominare</i>, to be a master), a character from one +parent which manifests itself in offspring to the exclusion of a +contrasted character from the other parent.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Drosophila</span>, a genus of fruit-flies of which there are several species.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Duplex</span> (L. <i>duo</i>, two; <i>plico</i>, fold), the condition in which a character +is represented by two determiners, one from each parent.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Electrotropism</span> (Gr. <i>electron</i>, amber; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Embryo</span> (Gr. <i>embryon</i>), the young organism in its earliest stages of +development.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Embryogeny</span> (Gr. <i>embryon</i>; <i>genesis</i>, generation), the development of the +embryo.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Eugenics</span> (Gr. <i>eugenes</i>, well-born), the science relating to improvement +of the human race through good breeding.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Factor</span>, the determiner of a particular hereditary character.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Feeble-Mindedness</span>, deficiency in mental development. For grades, see <a href="#Page_244">p. 244</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fertilization</span>, union of the sexual cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fetus</span> (L. <i>feuere</i>, to bring forth), the unborn young animal in its later +(after the second month in man) stages of development.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Flagellum</span> (L. <i>flagellum</i>, little whip), a vibratile, thread-like organ of +locomotion.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Gamete</span> (Gr. <i>gamos</i>, marriage), a mature germ-cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Genetics</span> (Gr. <i>genesis</i>, origin), the science which deals with heredity +and the origin of individuals in general.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Genotype</span> (Gr. <i>genea</i>, race; <i>typto</i>, strike), the germinal constitution +of an organism.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Geotropism</span> (Gr. <i>ge</i>, earth; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Germ-Cell</span>, a reproductive cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Germinal Variations</span>, variations which owe their origin to some +modification in the germ-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Germ-Plasm</span>, the material basis of inheritance.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Gonad</span> (Gr. <i>gonos</i>, generation), a germ-gland.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Haploid</span> (Gr. <i>haploos</i>, single; <i>eidos</i>, form), the single or reduced +number of chromosomes as found, for instance, in the mature germ-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Heliotropism</span> (Gr. <i>helios</i>, sun; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Heredity</span> (L. <i>heres</i>, heir), resemblance of individuals to their +progenitors based on community of origin.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Heritage</span> (L. <i>heres</i>, heir), all that is inherited by an individual.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Heterozygote</span> (Gr. <i>heteros</i>, other; <i>zygon</i>, yolk), an individual produced +through the union of germ-cells which are unlike in one or more +determiners. Adjective, <i>heterozygous</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Homozygote</span> (Gr. <i>homos</i>, same; <i>zygon</i>, yolk), an individual produced +through the union of germ-cells which are alike in determiners. Adjective, +<i>homozygous</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hybrid</span> (L. <i>hybrida</i>, mongrel), the offspring of parents which differ in +one or more characters.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Identical Twins</span>, twins which show identical inborn characters, both having +come presumably from the same ovum.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Idiot</span> (Gr. <i>idios</i>, peculiar, private), defined, <a href="#Page_244">p. 244</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Imbecile</span> (L. <i>imbecillis</i>, weak), defined, <a href="#Page_244">p. 244</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Inheritance</span> (L. <i>in</i>, in; <i>heres</i>, heir), the sum of all characters which +are transmitted by the germ-cells from generation to generation.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Inhibitor</span> (L. <i>in</i>, in; <i>habeo</i>, hold, have), that which checks or +restrains.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Instinct</span> (L. <i>in</i>, in; <i>stingno</i>, prick), defined, <a href="#Page_203">p. 203</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Intra-uterine</span> (L. <i>intra</i>, within; <i>uterus</i>, the womb), within the womb.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Irritability</span> (L. <i>irrito</i>, excite), the property of responding to stimuli.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Linin</span> (L. <i>linum</i>, flax), filaments of the cell-nucleus not readily +stained by dyes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Luetin Test</span> (L. <i>lues</i>, pest), a test for syphilis; see <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mammals</span> (L. <i>mamma</i>, breast), warm-blooded, hairy animals which suckle +their young.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Maturation</span> (L. <i>maturus</i>, ripe), the final stages in the development of +the sex-cells characterized by two divisions in one of which the number of +chromosomes is reduced by one-half.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mendelian</span>, <span class="smcap">Mendelism</span>, referring to Mendel, the founder of a theory of +heredity. See <a href="#Page_67">p. 67</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Metazoa</span> (Gr. <i>meta</i>, over; <i>zoon</i>, animal), all animals higher than the +protozoa.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mitosis</span> (Gr. <i>mitos</i>, thread), indirect nuclear division, characterized by +the appearance of a fibrous spindle and a definite number of chromosomes. +The latter split to form daughter chromosomes which diverge to the poles +of the spindle to form parts of the new nuclei.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mongolian</span>, a type of feeble-minded individual, see <a href="#Page_248">p. 248</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Monohybrid</span> (Gr. <i>monos</i>, single; L. <i>hybrida</i>, mongrel), the offspring of +parents, differing in one character.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Moron</span> (Gr. <i>moros</i>, foolish), defined, <a href="#Page_244">p. 244</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mutations</span> (L. <i>mutare</i>, to change), abrupt, inheritable germinal +variations. Frequently though not necessarily they are changes of +considerable extent.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Neural</span> (Gr. <i>neuron</i>, nerve), pertaining to the nervous system.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Neuron</span> (Gr. <i>neuron</i>, nerve), a nerve-unit consisting of a nerve-cell with +branching processes called dendrites and an axon or axis cylinder process +which gives rise to a nerve fiber.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Neuropathic</span> (Gr. <i>neuron</i>, nerve; <i>pathos</i>, suffering), relating to +disease of the nervous system.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Nucleolus</span> (L. dim. of nucleus), a well-defined body found within the +nucleus of a cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Nucleus</span> (L. <i>nux</i>, a nut), the central organ of a cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Nulliplex</span> (L. <i>nullus</i>, not any; <i>plico</i>, fold), the condition in which no +determiners of a given character exist in a particular individual.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Oöcyte</span> (Gr. <i>ōon</i>, egg; <i>kytos</i>, cell), the ovarian egg in one stage of +development.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Oögenesis</span> (Gr. <i>ōon</i>, egg; <i>genesis</i>, origin), the development of ova +from primitive sex-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Oögonium</span> (Gr. <i>ōon</i>, egg; <i>gonos</i>, generation), a primordial egg-cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ovary</span> (L. <i>ovum</i>, egg), the organ in which the egg-cells multiply and are +nourished.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ovum</span> (L. <i>ovum</i>, an egg), the female sex cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Parthenogenesis</span> (Gr. <i>parthenos</i>, virgin; <i>genesis</i>, origin), development +of an egg which has not united with a male gamete.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Phenotype</span> (Gr. <i>phaino</i>, show; <i>typto</i>, strike), the existing type of +individual irrespective of hereditary possibilities which may reside in it +undeveloped.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Phototropism</span> (Gr. <i>phos</i>, light; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Placenta</span> (L. <i>placenta</i>, a flat cake), the organ by which the fetus of the +higher mammals is attached to the uterine wall of the mother for purposes +of nourishment, respiration and excretion. In it the maternal and fetal +blood, although not intermingling, are brought into such close proximity +that an interchange of dissolved substances is possible.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Polar Bodies</span>, the minute cells which are separated from the egg in its +maturation divisions.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Primate</span> (L. <i>primus</i>, first), the highest order of animals, including +monkeys, apes and man.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Pronucleus</span>, the nucleus of the mature ovum or sperm-cell.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Protoplasm</span> (Gr. <i>protos</i>, first; <i>plasma</i>, form), the essential living +substance.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Protozoa</span> (Gr. <i>protos</i>, first; <i>zoon</i>, animal), single-celled animals or +animals composed of cells not separable into different tissues.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Psychical</span> (Gr. <i>psyche</i>, the soul), pertaining to the mind.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Recessive Character</span> (L. <i>recessus</i>, a going back), a character from one +parent which remains undeveloped in offspring when associated with the +corresponding dominant character from the other parent.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Reduction Division</span>, a division of the maturing germ-cells in which the +dual or somatic (diploid) number of chromosomes is reduced to the single +(haploid) number.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Reflex Action</span> (L. <i>re</i>, back; <i>flectere</i>, bend), an automatic response of +the nervous and motor mechanism of the body.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Restrictive</span> (or negative) <span class="smcap">Eugenics</span>, a system of improving the human race +by preventing reproduction of the unfit.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Reversion</span> (L. <i>re</i>, back; <i>verto</i>, turn), the reappearance of ancestral +traits which have for some generations been in abeyance.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Rheotropism</span> (Gr. <i>rheo</i>, to flow; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Salpingectomy</span> (Gr. <i>salpinx</i>, trumpet; <i>ectomē</i>, cutting out), removal +of part or all of a Fallopian tube (oviduct).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Segregation</span> (L. <i>se</i>, aside; <i>grex</i>, flock), separation.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Sex Chromosome</span>, a special chromosome which is supposed to be concerned in +the determination of sex.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Sex-Linked Characters</span>, defined, <a href="#Page_60">p. 60</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Simian</span> (L. <i>simia</i>, ape), ape-like.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Simplex</span> (L. <i>sim</i>, same; <i>plico</i>, fold), the condition in which a +character is represented by a determiner from only one of the two parents.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Soma</span> (Gr. <i>soma</i>, body), the body considered apart from the germ-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spermatid</span> (Gr. <i>sperma</i>, seed), a cell resulting from the last division of +the germ-cell in spermatogenesis. It transforms into the spermatozoon.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spermatocytes</span> (Gr. <i>sperma</i>, seed; <i>kytos</i>, cell), cells concerned in the +maturation divisions of the male germ-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spermatogenesis</span> (Gr. <i>sperma</i>, seed; <i>genesis</i>, origin), the development +of spermatozoa from primitive sex-cells.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spermatogonium</span> (Gr. <i>sperma</i>, seed; <i>gonos</i>, generation), a primordial +sperm-cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spermatozoon</span> (Gr. <i>sperma</i>, seed; <i>zoon</i>, animal), the functional male +sex-cell.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spindle</span>, a fibrous organ formed in indirect cell-division.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Spireme</span> (L. <i>spira</i>, coil), a characteristic stage preliminary to indirect +cell-division in which the chromatin material of the nucleus appears in +the form of a skein of filaments.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Stereotropism</span> (Gr. <i>stereos</i>, solid; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Sterilization</span> (L. <i>sterilis</i>, barren), deprivation of reproductive power. +For methods, see <a href="#Page_322">p. 322</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Synapse</span> (Gr. <i>syn</i>, together; <i>hapto</i>, unite), the coming in contact of +the processes of one nerve cell with the processes or body of another.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Synapsis</span> (Gr. <i>syn</i>, together; <i>hapto</i>, unite), union of the chromosomes +in pairs preliminary to the reduction division.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Telegony</span> (Gr. <i>telegonos</i>, born far away), the supposed influence of an +earlier sire on offspring born later of the same mother to a different sire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Thermotropism</span> (Gr. <i>thero</i>, heat; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Thigmotropism</span> (Gr. <i>thigmo</i>, touch; <i>tropē</i>, turning), defined, <a href="#Page_198">p. 198</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Toxin</span> (Gr. <i>toxicon</i>, poison), poisonous compounds of animal, vegetable, +or bacterial origin.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Tropism</span> (Gr. <i>tropē</i>, turning), the automatic directing of an organism +toward or away from a source of stimulus.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Unit-Character</span>, a character which behaves as an indivisible unit in +heredity.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vasectomy</span> (L. <i>vas</i>, vessel; <i>ektomē</i>, cutting out), removal of a +portion of the vas deferens (duct for conveying spermatozoa).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vestigeal</span> (L. <i>vestigium</i>, footstep), representing organs which existed +once in a more developed condition.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Volvox</span> (L. <i>volvo</i>, roll), a small fresh-water organism occurring in +spherical colonies.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Wasserman Reaction</span>, a test for syphilis, see <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">X-Element</span>, same as sex-chromosome.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Zygote</span> (Gr. <i>zygon</i>, yolk), the product of the union of two gametes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> +<h2>REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY</h2> + + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p> +<p class="title">REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY</p> + + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bateson, W.</span>, 1909. <i>Mendel’s Principles of Heredity.</i> Cambridge, The +University Press. The best technical account of Mendelism. It contains +also a translation of the original papers of Mendel.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Castle, William E.</span>, 1911. <i>Heredity.</i> New York, D. Appleton and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Castle, William E.</span>; <span class="smcap">Coulter, John M.</span>; <span class="smcap">Davenport, Charles B.</span>; <span class="smcap">East, Edward +M.</span>; <span class="smcap">Tower, William L.</span>, 1912. <i>Heredity and Eugenics.</i> Chicago, The +University of Chicago Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Conklin, Edwin Grant</span>, 1915. <i>Heredity and Environment in the Development +of Men.</i> Princeton, Princeton University Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Davenport, Charles B.</span>, 1911. <i>Heredity in Relation to Eugenics.</i> New York, +Henry Holt and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Doncaster, L.</span>, 1911. <i>Heredity in the Light of Recent Research.</i> +Cambridge, The University Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Doncaster, L.</span>, 1915. <i>The Determination of Sex.</i> Cambridge, The University +Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ellis, Havelock</span>, 1912. <i>The Task of Social Hygiene.</i> New York, Houghton +Mifflin Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Galton, Francis</span>, 1869. <i>Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry Into Its Laws and +Consequences.</i> London, Macmillan and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Galton, Francis</span>, 1889. <i>Natural Inheritance.</i> New York, The Macmillan +Company.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Galton, Francis</span>, 1895. <i>English Men of Science; Their Nature and Nurture.</i> +New York, D. Appleton and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Galton, Francis</span>, and <span class="smcap">Schuster, Edgar</span>, 1906. <i>Noteworthy Families</i> (Modern +Science). London, J. Murray.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Goddard, Henry Herbert</span>, 1912. <i>The Kallikak Family; a Study in the +Heredity of Feeble-mindedness.</i> New York, The Macmillan Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Goddard, Henry Herbert</span>, 1914. <i>Feeble-mindedness; Its Causes and +Consequences.</i> New York, The Macmillan Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Healy, William</span>, 1915. <i>The Individual Delinquent.</i> Boston, Little, Brown +and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Kellicott, William E.</span>, 1911. <i>The Social Direction of Human Evolution; an +Outline of the Science of Eugenics.</i> New York, D. Appleton and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Morgan, Thomas Hunt</span>, 1913. <i>Heredity and Sex.</i> New York, Columbia +University Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Punnett, R. C.</span>, 1911. <i>Mendelism.</i> New York, The Macmillan Company. The +best popular account of Mendelism.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Saleeby, Caleb William</span>, 1909. <i>Parenthood and Race Culture; an Outline of +Eugenics.</i> London, Cassell and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Schuster, Edgar</span>, 1912. <i>Eugenics.</i> London, Collins Clear-Type Press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Thomson, J. Arthur</span>, 1908. <i>Heredity.</i> London, John Murray.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Walter, Herbert Eugene</span>, 1913. <i>Genetics.</i> New York, The Macmillan Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Whetham, W. C. D.</span> and C. D., 1909. <i>The Family and the Nation.</i> London, +Longmans, Green and Company.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Woods, Frederick Adams</span>, 1906. <i>Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty.</i> New +York, Henry Holt and Company.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Various Authors</span>, 1914. <i>Eugenics; Twelve University Lectures.</i> New York, +Dodd, Mead and Company.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Journals</span>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang"><i>The Journal of Heredity.</i> The organ of the American Genetic +Association, Washington, D. C.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>The Eugenics Review.</i> Issued at the University of London.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Memoirs and Bulletins</i> published by the Eugenics Record Office, Cold +Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.</p></div> + +<p>Every one interested in eugenics should be acquainted with the work of +this office. In its own words its functions are:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. To serve eugenical interests in the capacity of repository and +clearing house.</p> + +<p>2. To build up an analytical index of the traits of American families.</p> + +<p>3. To train field workers to gather data of eugenical import.</p> + +<p>4. To maintain a field force actually engaged in gathering such data.</p> + +<p>5. To cooperate with other institutions and with persons concerned +with eugenical study.</p> + +<p>6. To investigate the manner of inheritance of specific human traits.</p> + +<p>7. To advise concerning the eugenical fitness of proposed marriages.</p> + +<p>8. To publish results of researches.</p> + +<p>To such persons as will undertake to fill them out it furnishes free +in duplicate (one copy to be retained by the applicant) the following +blank schedules: 1. <i>Record of Family Traits.</i> 2. <i>Index to +Germ-plasm—A Parallel Family Record for Prospective Marriage Mates.</i> +3. <i>Musical Talent.</i> 4. <i>Mathematical Talent.</i> 5. <i>Tuberculosis.</i> 6. +<i>Special Trait Chart.</i> 7. <i>Harelip and Cleft-palate.</i></p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Publications of the Volta Bureau</i> of Washington, D. C., an institution +given over entirely to data regarding deaf mutes.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Studies in National Deterioration.</i> The University of London.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Memoirs and Lectures</i>, from the Biometric Laboratory, University of +London.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Treasury of Human Inheritance</i>, a series of studies being issued from the +Eugenics Laboratory, University College, London.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p> +<p class="title">INDEX</p> + + +<p class="index"> +Ability: <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">calculating, literary, musical, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Able child likely to be neglected, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Achondroplasy, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Acquired characters, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adami, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adaptations, establishment of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adaptive responses, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Agassiz, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Albinism, in man, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alcohol: and crime, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and degeneracy, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and germinal tissue, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a poison, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alcoholism: <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">factors in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in lower animals, <a href="#Page_173">173-178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">views regarding inheritance of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alkaptonuria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Allelomorph, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alpine plants, non-inheritance of acquired characters, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alternative action in behavior, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Altruism, possible origin of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ambystoma, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ameba, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ancestors, number of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ancestry: a network, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dual, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in royalty, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pride of, as a eugenic agent, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Backward child, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Backwardness, importance of early determination, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bardeen, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Barker, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Barr, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Barrington, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bateson, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bees, inheritance in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Behavior: lower animals, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiability of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-207</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not wholly established by heredity, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rational, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various forms of, possible, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bell, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bezzola, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span><br /> +Billings, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Binet-Simon test, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Biometry, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Birthmarks, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Birth-rate: significance of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">too low in desirable stocks, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Blastomeres, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blastophthoria, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blended inheritance, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blends, mistakes for, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blindness, infantile, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blistering, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Body: how built up from germ, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duality of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Brachydactylism, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brain: in higher animals, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mechanism, maladjustments of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Branthwaite, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Breeding, experiments, method of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brewer, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brieux, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bronner, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brown Sequard, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Cabot, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cacogenic strains, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cajal, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cancer, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Capsella, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Castle, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cataract, presenile, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cattle: horn characters, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">roan, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cell: a unit of structure, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diagram of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structure of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cell-division: <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect (mitosis), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of indirect, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cell-theory, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cellular basis of heredity, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ceni, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Centrosome, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cerebral cortex, not functionally homogeneous, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Character: defined, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dominant, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recessive, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Characters: contrasted, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">determiners of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritable and non-inheritable, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">more than two pairs of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new combinations of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separable, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbols for, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two pairs of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chauvin, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chemotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Childbirths, intervals between, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span><br /> +Children of the future: ours to determine quality of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and home, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cholera, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chorea: <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Huntington’s, <a href="#Page_113">113-115</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chromatin, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chromosome, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chromosomes: individuality of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">determiners in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in germ and body cells, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendelian factors and, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number and appearance, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pairs of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance of, in heredity, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chromotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Church, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cleavage, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cleft-palate, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cole, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +College graduates and birth-rate, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coloboma, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Color-blindness, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conceptual thought, origin of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conduct: importance to young of practise, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hereditary predisposition and, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">responsibility for, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Congenital traits, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conjugation, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Consciousness, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conservation: of superior strains, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Constructive eugenics, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corneal opacity, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Correns, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cortex of brain, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cost, of caring for our disordered and delinquent, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cretins, effects of segregating the sexes, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Crime: and delinquency, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_264">264-270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bearings of immigration on, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classifications of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity vs. environment in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mental disorders most frequently associated with, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no specific hereditary factor for, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Criminal: the born, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the epileptic, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Criminality, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Criss-cross inheritance, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Criteria for judging reproductive fitness, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cytoplasm: <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in heredity, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Daltonism, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dana, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Darwin, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Davenport, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Davis, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deaf-mutism, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span><br /> +Death, natural, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Decline of nations, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Defective delinquent, should prevent procreation of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Defectives: increase due to breeding, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">natural elimination done away with among, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unpardonable to let multiply, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Defects: breeding out, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mental and nervous, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Degenerate strains: <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a product of surroundings, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Degenerates, sterilization of married, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Delinquency, causes of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Delinquents not all defectives, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Delinquent women and girls, many mentally defective, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dendrite, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +De Sanctis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Determiners: <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">different producing the same character, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">segregation of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Development: in higher organisms, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppressed, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +De Vries, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Diabetes, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Difficulty, educational value of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Digital malformations, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dihybrids, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Diploid number of chromosomes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Disease: defined, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predisposition to, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reappearance of not necessarily inheritance, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dominance: <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">delayed, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incomplete, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in human genealogies, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in man, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Don Carlos, number of ancestors, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Drosophila, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Duplex character, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dwarfing, by starvation, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dwarfs, true, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +East, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Education: actual practise in carrying out projects important, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affording opportunity for development of good traits, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of not inherited, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishing pathways through the nervous system, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of difficulty in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">non-transference of skill acquired in one line to other lines, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">providing proper stimuli, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">training in motive necessary, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of interest in, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Egg, a cell, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Egg-cell and sperm-cell contrasted, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Elderton, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Electrotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span><br /> +Ellis, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Embryo, relation to mother, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Embryogeny, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Emerick, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Environment: direct action on germ cells, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of faulty, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in crime and delinquency, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Epidermolysis, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Epilepsy: <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in guinea-pigs, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Epileptic, the criminal type, <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Epileptics, number of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenic agent, educated public sentiment, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenics: and education, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and personal liberty, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a working program of, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constructive, based on education, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desirable traits, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education of women in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of public opinion on, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">much yet to be done, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positive and negative, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ewart, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Exceptional child likely to be neglected, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Experimental breeding, method of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +External conditions, influences of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eye-color: <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Eye-defects, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Family pride and eugenics, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Farabee, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fay, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Feeble-minded: prevention of procreation in, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of non-restraint, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Feeble-mindedness: <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and crime, <a href="#Page_264">264-269</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grades of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not insanity, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of alcohol to, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fernald, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fertilization, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fetus: poisoning of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to mother, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fiber-tracts in man, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fitness, criteria for judging, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Flexner, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Forel, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fowl, Andalusian, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Frederick the Great, number of ancestors, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Friedreich’s disease, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fruit-fly, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Galton, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gamete, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span><br /> +Gametes in dihybrids, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gametic matings in man, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Geddes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Genealogies, imperfect, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Genotype, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Geotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germ and body distinct, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germ: control of possibilities in, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">singleness of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +German emperor, number of ancestors, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germ-cells: affected by poisons, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">changes in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early set apart, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of effects of body on, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of external influences on, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Miastor, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">metabolic changes in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possibilities of development, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two classes of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Germinal continuity, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germinal variation and the origin of new characters: <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases analyzed, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual reproduction in relation to, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Germ-plasm and bad environment, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gifted persons, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Glaucoma, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goddard, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gonads, transplantation of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gonorrhoea: seriousness of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevalence, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gorst, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gout, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Guinea-pigs: alcoholism in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendelism in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Guyer, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Habit, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Habits, modification of in lower animals, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hair-color, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hair shape, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hamburger, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Handwriting, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Haploid number of chromosomes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Harelip, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hart, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Healy, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hearing, hardness of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heart disease, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hegner, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heliotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Helm, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hemophilia, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hereditary character defined, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span><br /> +Hereditary mingling, mosaic rather than blend, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hereditary transmission, laws of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heredity: and environment, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dual ancestry in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">false, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, uncertainty of records, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in protozoa, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in insanity, importance of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in sexually reproducing forms, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in unicellular forms, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of study, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new discoveries in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a blend, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">race betterment through, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Heritage, blood, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heron, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heterozygote: <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">detection of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hill-folk, the, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hodge, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Holmes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Home, for children, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Homozygote, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Huntington’s chorea, <a href="#Page_113">113-115</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Huxley, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hybrids: <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">whites and negroes, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hypotrichosis, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hysteria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ichthyosis, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ideals, importance of establishing in children, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Idiots, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Imbeciles, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Immigrants, duty of excluding undesirable, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Immigration: and mental unsoundness, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bearing on crime and delinquency, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bearing on venereal diseases, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of restricting, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Immortality: of protozoa, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the race, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Immunity, artificial, not inherited, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inbreeding, in defectives, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Individual, and race, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inebriate women, offspring of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inebriety, constitutional, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Infant mortality, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Infection, prenatal, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inheritance: and disease, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blended, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of tendencies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Inhibitions, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inhibitors, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Insane, increase in numbers of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Insanity: <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certain forms recessive, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eugenical significance of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of early diagnosis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some forms not hereditary, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">types of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevalence in the United States, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span><br /> +Insect colors, effect of temperature, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Instincts: <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjustable, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not inherited acquirements, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of intelligent behavior from, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Institutional figures misleading, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Intelligence, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Intelligent behavior, opening up possibilities of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ireland, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Irritability, characteristics of living protoplasm, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Jennings, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Johnson, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Johnstone, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jolly, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jordan, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jukes, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Kallikak family, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kellicott, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kellogg, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Keratosis, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kidney diseases, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kirby, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Knox, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kraeplin, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Laitinen, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Language, as mental aid, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lapsed intelligence, theory of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Larval stages, susceptibility of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Laws, sterilization, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lead-poisoning: <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">experiments on rabbits, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lederbaur, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Legal restraint of defectives limited, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lens: displaced, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cataract, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Leprosy, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leptinotarsa, production of variations in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Linden, Countess von, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Linin, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Little’s disease, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Locomotor ataxia, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Loeb, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Longevity, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lord Morton’s mare, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lorenz, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Low birth-rate, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lowell, Judge John, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Luetin test, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lunborg, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span><br /> +<br /> +MacDougal, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Margaret, Mother of Criminals, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Marriage: barriers to, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inter-racial, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">medical inspection before, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mast, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maternal impressions, <a href="#Page_159">159-160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maturation: <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parallel between egg and sperm-cell, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mechanical skill, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mechanism of heredity, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40-54</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Melancholia and crime, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Memory: <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a complete test of normality, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mendel: <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">work on peas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mendelian factors and chromosomes: <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance and man, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principles, rediscovery of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ratio, cause of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mendelism, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental and nervous defects, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental defective: defined, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disproportionate increase in, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numbers married, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inefficiency of marriage laws concerning, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mental deficiency: not always inherited, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tests for, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mental organization of lower vertebrates, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental process as neural process, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental unsoundness, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mentality, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mentally disordered, cost of caring for, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mercier, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Merriere’s disease, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Metazoa, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Metz, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mice, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Michigan, state report on mentally defective, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Migraine, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mind, relation to brain, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mitosis: <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mjöen, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Modifiability of behavior, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mongolians, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moral responsibility, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morgan, C. Lloyd, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morgan, T. H., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moron, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morons and crime, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mosaic, heredity a, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span><br /> +Motherhood, safeguarding, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Motive, training in, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mott, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mulattoes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Multiple sclerosis, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Muscular atrophy: <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gower’s, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Musical ability, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mutations: artificial production of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">germinal, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mutilations, non-inheritance of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Myopia, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Naegeli, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nam family, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Natural selection partly done away with in human society, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Near-sightedness, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nervous and mental diseases, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nervous organization, inheritable, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nervous response, in lower organisms, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nervous system: mainly inherited, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of pathways in, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maladjustments of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special developments in man, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">units of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Nervous systems of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neural pathways, not all established at birth, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuritis optica, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neurons, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuron theory, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuropathic constitution, expression of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuropathic defects, carriers of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuter insects, heredity in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> +<br /> +New characters, origin of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Newman, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nicloux, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Night-blindness, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nilsson-Ehle, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Noguchi, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nucleolus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nucleus, structure of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nulliplex character, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Obesity, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Offspring: from one parent only, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">different from either parent, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Oöcyte, primary, secondary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oögenesis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oögonia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Optic nerve, atrophy of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Organs, formation of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span><br /> +Origin of sex cells, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ovaries, transplantation of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ovum, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Paralysis, general, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paranoia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parent-body and germ distinct, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parenthood, cultivation of wholesome sentiment toward, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paresis: <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and crime, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parthenogenesis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Patterson, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paul, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pearson, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peas, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Performance tests, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peron, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Personality determined by heredity, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peterson, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phenotype, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phillips, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phototropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pinard, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pineys, the, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Plato, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poellman, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Polar bodies, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Polydactyly, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Potato-beetle, production of variations in, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Potts, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Predisposition to disease, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pregnancy, neglect of mothers during, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prenatal care: <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">infection, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Prenuptial medical inspection desirable, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Presence and absence theory: <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formulæ for man, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Primrose, experiments on, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Principles, Mendelian, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prisoners, many mentally subnormal, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pronucleus, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Protective coloration, not of somatic origin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Protoplasm, germinal, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Psychical development, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pyramidal tracts, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Quagga hybrid, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Race amalgamation: <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deterioration, in a selected population, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Racial degeneracy, not curable by improved environment alone, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span><br /> +Ratio: the 1:2:1, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 3:1, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 9:3:3:1, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 15:1, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the 63:1, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rational behavior, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reason, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Recessiveness: <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in man, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Records of family traits desirable, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reduction division, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reflexes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Regression, law of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Renault, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rentoul, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reproduction: asexual, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual and variation, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Reproductive cells, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Responsibility for conduct, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rest, importance of, in pregnancy, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reversion: <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and atavism, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in guinea-chicken hybrids, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rheotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rheumatism, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ritter, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rogers, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Romanes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rosanoff, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rossolimo, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rudin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Salpingectomy, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sanford, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +St. Vitus’ dance, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schulze, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schuster, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sclerosis, multiple, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Segregation: in dihybrids, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendelian, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of defectives, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Seguin, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Self-control, importance of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sex: and chromosomes, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and heredity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cells of Volvox, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chromosome, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">determination, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">differentiation and X-element, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evolution of, <a href="#Page_25">25-30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hygiene, question of school instruction in, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in certain insects, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">linked characters, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a necessary factor in heredity, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">problem, knowledge alone not sufficient, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sexual vice, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sharp, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Simplex character, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Skill, non-transference in brain, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Skin, color of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span><br /> +Smallpox, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Social maladies, prevention of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Softening of the brain, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Soma, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spermatid, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spermatocyte, primary, secondary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spermatogenesis, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spermatogonium, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spermatazoon: <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a cell, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structure of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Spindle, in cell-division, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spottedness of hair-coat, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sprague, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Starfish, training a, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Statistical methods, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Statistics, trustworthy needed, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stature, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stereotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sterility, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sterilization: <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in epilepsy, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws, on trial, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws, states having, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stevens, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stockard, <a href="#Page_174">174-178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Strength, muscular, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stripes, reversionary, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stutzman, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sullivan, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Superior strains, conservation of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Synapse, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Synapsis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syndactyly, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syphilis: <a href="#Page_184">184-190</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and prostitutes, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cerebro-spinal form, <a href="#Page_189">189-190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prenuptial inspection for, <a href="#Page_190">190-192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevalence, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stages of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tests for, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Syphilitics: children of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">married, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Tabes dorsalis, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Taints, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Talent, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Taylor, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Telegony, alleged cases of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Temperament, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thermotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thigmotropism, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Third generation, segregation in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thomsen’s disease, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thomson, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thorndike, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span><br /> +Tower, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Training of children: and heredity, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faults in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Transmission, not necessarily inheritance, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tredgold, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Treponema pallidum, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tribe of Ishmael, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tropic responses: often purposeful, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uncertainties in, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tropisms: <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complications in, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in plants and animals, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations to reflex actions and instincts, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tschermak, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Twins: identical, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sex of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Typhoid, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Unemployed, frequently morons, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Unfit, elimination of, urgent, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Unit-character: <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Unicellular organisms: <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inheritance in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Use and disuse, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Van Ingen, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vasectomy, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Venereal disease, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Virchow, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Voison, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Volitions as tropisms, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Volvox, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +War, eugenical effects of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wasserman, provocative, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wasserman test, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Webbed digits, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weeks, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> +<br /> +West, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wheat, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Whetham, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Whitman, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wilmarth, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wilson, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woods, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +X-element, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Zebra hybrids, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zeros, the, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zygote: <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chromosomes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p> + +<p><a name='f_1' id='f_1' href='#fna_1'>[1]</a> The reader desiring more detailed information will find fuller +discussions in the following:</p> + +<p>Wilson, E. B.: <i>Recent Researches on the Determination and Heredity of +Sex</i>. Science, January 8, 1909.</p> + +<p>Wilson, E. B.: <i>The Chromosomes in Relation to the Determination of Sex</i>. +Science Progress, April, 1910.</p> + +<p>Guyer, M. F.: <i>Recent Progress in Some Lines of Cytology</i>. Transactions of +the American Microscopical Society, April, 1911.</p> + +<p>Morgan, T. H.: <i>Heredity and Sex</i>. Columbia University Press, 1913.</p> + +<p><a name='f_2' id='f_2' href='#fna_2'>[2]</a> A translation of Mendel’s original papers will be found in <i>Mendel’s +Principles of Heredity</i>, by W. Bateson.</p> + +<p><a name='f_3' id='f_3' href='#fna_3'>[3]</a> <i>Heredity of Skin Color in Negro and White Crosses</i>: Publication No. +188, of the <i>Carnegie Institution of Washington</i>.</p> + +<p><a name='f_4' id='f_4' href='#fna_4'>[4]</a> Whitman, C. O.: <i>Animal Behavior, Biological Lectures</i>, Marine +Biological Laboratory, 1898.</p> + +<p><a name='f_5' id='f_5' href='#fna_5'>[5]</a> <i>The Fight Against Tuberculosis and the Death Rate from Phthisis</i>, +London, Dulau & Co., 1911.</p> + +<p><a name='f_6' id='f_6' href='#fna_6'>[6]</a> Forel, August: <i>The Sexual Question</i>, p. 268.</p> + +<p><a name='f_7' id='f_7' href='#fna_7'>[7]</a> Loc. cit. p. 251.</p> + +<p><a name='f_8' id='f_8' href='#fna_8'>[8]</a> In this connection it is instructive to note from a Michigan state +report, just off the press, that, among 4,917 insane individuals +concerning whom satisfactory information was obtained, 65.4 per cent. “had +among their ancestors or family such hereditary influences as insanity, +apoplexy or paralysis, psychopathic abnormalities or alcoholism.” See +<i>Report of the Commission to Investigate the Extent of Feeble-mindedness, +Epilepsy, Insanity and Other Conditions of Mental Defectiveness in +Michigan</i>. Wynkoop Hollenbeck Crawford Co., State Printers, Lansing, +Michigan, 1915.</p> + +<p><a name='f_9' id='f_9' href='#fna_9'>[9]</a> <i>Feeble-mindedness; Its Causes and Consequences</i>, by Henry H. Goddard, +The Macmillan Company, 1914.</p> + +<p><a name='f_10' id='f_10' href='#fna_10'>[10]</a> <i>The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence</i>, by Henry H. +Goddard, 1911. The Training School, Vineland, N. J. Price 15 cents.</p> + +<p><a name='f_11' id='f_11' href='#fna_11'>[11]</a> “Tests for Mental Defects,” by Howard A. Knox, <i>Journal of Heredity</i>, +March, 1914. See also Knox: <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i>, +1914.</p> + +<p><a name='f_12' id='f_12' href='#fna_12'>[12]</a> <i>The Individual Delinquent</i>, by William Healy, M. D. Little, Brown & +Co., Boston.</p> + +<p><a name='f_13' id='f_13' href='#fna_13'>[13]</a> <i>The Individual Delinquent</i>, by William Healy, M. D. Little, Brown & +Co., Boston.</p> + +<p><a name='f_14' id='f_14' href='#fna_14'>[14]</a> The Psycopathic Laboratory in connection with the Juvenile Court of +Chicago.</p> + +<p><a name='f_15' id='f_15' href='#fna_15'>[15]</a> See “The Foreign Born in the United States.” <i>The National Geographic +Magazine</i>, September, 1914.</p> + +<p><a name='f_16' id='f_16' href='#fna_16'>[16]</a> See First Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the +American Breeders’ Association, “On Immigration”, <i>American Breeders’ +Magazine</i>, Vol. III, No. 4, 1912. Also Second Report of same, <i>The Journal +of Heredity</i>, July, 1914.</p> + +<p><a name='f_17' id='f_17' href='#fna_17'>[17]</a> “The Negro and His Health Problems,” <i>Medical Record</i>, September 12, +1912.</p> + +<p><a name='f_18' id='f_18' href='#fna_18'>[18]</a> See D. S. Jordan, <i>The Human Harvest</i>, or V. L. Kellogg, <i>Eugenics +and Militarism</i>.</p> + +<p><a name='f_19' id='f_19' href='#fna_19'>[19]</a> For arguments indicating the superior eugenical fitness of college +graduates see “Wellesley’s Birth-Rate,” by Roswell H. Johnson and Bertha +Stutzman, <i>The Journal of Heredity</i>, June, 1915. See also, “Education and +Race Suicide,” by Robert J. Sprague, <i>ibid.</i>, April, 1915.</p> + +<p><a name='f_20' id='f_20' href='#fna_20'>[20]</a> Since the present manuscript went to press an excellent government +report (<i>Insane and Feeble-Minded in Institutions in 1910</i>, Department of +Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1914, Washington, D. C.) has appeared. In +it one finds the estimate that not over one-tenth of our feeble-minded are +being cared for in special institutions.</p> + +<p><a name='f_21' id='f_21' href='#fna_21'>[21]</a> For summaries of existing sterilization laws and statements of the +issues involved see (1) <i>The Legal, Legislative, and Administrative +Aspects of Sterilisation</i>, Bulletin 10B, February 3, 1914, Eugenics Record +Office, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.; (2) <i>Sterilisation of Criminals</i>, +Report of Committee H of the American Institute of Criminal Law and +Criminology, Bulletin No. XV, September, 1914.</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Being Well-Born, by Michael F. Guyer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEING WELL-BORN *** + +***** This file should be named 39751-h.htm or 39751-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/7/5/39751/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |