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diff --git a/39747.txt b/39747.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b57cc3a --- /dev/null +++ b/39747.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17235 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of Ancient History, by A. H. L. +(Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: A Manual of Ancient History + Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity + + +Author: A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) Heeren + + + +Release Date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY*** + + +E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made +available by Internet Archive/American Libraries +(http://archive.org/details/americana) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + http://archive.org/details/manualofancienth00heeriala + + + + + +A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, + +Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce, +and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity. + +by + +A. H. L. HEEREN; + +Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order; Aulic Counsellor +and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and +Member of Several Other Learned Societies. + +Translated from the German. + +THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED. + + + + + + + +Oxford: +Published By D. A. Talboys. +M DCCC XXXIII. + +Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + +TO THIS EDITION. + + +It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are +indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those +synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study +of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this +class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are +distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the +minute accuracy of their details. + +The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches +during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer +and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be +any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time, +ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may +be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the +present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has +spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of +which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information +immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of +his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge +has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added +of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the +particular portion of history under notice; both being generally +accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value +of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances, +and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage, +the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals +with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography, +chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient +world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is +the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history +are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems, +moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the +power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon +the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts +a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the +mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in +the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of +reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate +course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected +stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been +condensed into so small a compass. + +The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be +gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions +in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into +almost every language of Europe. + +The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings +of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they +only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour +with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable +author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the +highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly +bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he +trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not +only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently +compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the +original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to +this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been +sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently +examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the +public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original +work as the nature of things will allow. + +In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher +announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following +it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author, +viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their +Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very +shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he +begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same +author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical +Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the +Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction; +the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into +the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the +Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will +appear in a few weeks. + +To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with +dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books +denote that they are written in German. + + OXFORD, + _March, 1833_. + + + + +PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS. + + +The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has +been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly +printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or +separate of the publisher of this volume. + + + VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous + Historical Pieces). + + VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten ueber den Verfasser. + (Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.) + + 1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation fuer Europa. + (Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics + of Europe). + + 2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der + britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress + of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay + will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe, + see vol. viii. ix. below. + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the + Influence of Political Theories on Europe). + + VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalitaet besiegter Voelker. + (On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.) + Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French. + + 2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege fuer Europa. (Development of + the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the + prize of the French Institute in 1808). + + 3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die franzoesische Sprache und + Poesie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and + Poetry). + + 4. Ueber die Colonisation von Aegypten, und ihre Folgen fuer Europa. + (On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to + Europe). + + 5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The + Influence of the German Federation upon Europe). + + VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's. + (On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives). + + 2. Geschichte der buergerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the + Civil Commotions under the Gracchi). + + 3. Fuenf archaeologische und antiquarische Aufsaetze. (Five + Archaeological and Antiquarian Tracts). + + VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter. + (History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages). + + VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical + and Literary Memoirs). + + 1. Christian Gottlob. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical + Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren. + + 2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.) + + VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. + (Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second + edition of the English translation). + + VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europaeische + Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the + History of the European States-system and their Colonies). + + VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel + des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the + Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of + Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction; + 2. Persians. + + VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians; + 2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians. + + VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians. + + VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians; + 2. Ethiopians. + + VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians. + + VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks. + + +Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now +published or will very shortly be so. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + + +In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published, +I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present +has been executed. + +It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them +it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it +necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many +facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for +public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such +incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual +prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not +extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every +nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their +general civilization and political eminence. + +The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the +formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by +which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations +respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with +that department, their extension severally by means of colonies. + +The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a +different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like +indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so +loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these +subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere +detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course +of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent +them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together +the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the +whole. + +Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more +especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times, +and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties, +everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's +solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the +Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of +little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten +this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by +so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have +endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the +smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means +I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest +of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my +history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish +to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike +this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the +introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own +lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the +necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have +drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references +do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the +first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points, +explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere. + +Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has +not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced, +always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not +extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should +be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have +observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are +interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be +judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to +include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon +the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them. + + [a] I have made use of D'Anville. + +With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform +plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By +preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient +and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have +deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all +claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the +chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on +the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers, +where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact +determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a +continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where +unconnected facts are recorded. + +The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient +history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A +knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain +means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now +performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many +opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan; +but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the +history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to +the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been +published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so +doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser +and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more +correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to +promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds +of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in +this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful +recompense my labour can receive. + +GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS. + + +The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation +to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been +carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of +books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now +first added; the former edition containing only references to the +sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be +considered an essential service to the friends of historical science, +more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these +additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly +obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred +to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will +serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work +but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been +improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles, +and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter +method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable, +notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the +matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the +History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however, +these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon +quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_ +states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of +modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political +system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no +means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between +them. + + [b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.] + +I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology +of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be +made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this +has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the +reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches, +together with references to the passages by which they are supported; +leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot +be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history. + + [c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme a son Texte par C. F. Volney. + Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Goett. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816. + +I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of +the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in +ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact +of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides +this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and +precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents +recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era, +whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc. +And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher, +has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of +remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of +greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise +who would closely examine all ancient history according to this +era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ +as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good +beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency. +For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and +equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the +year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically +certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as +we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of +history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in +which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the +point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the +harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place? + +In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in +the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections +which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and +discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to +effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these +will be best seen by comparison. + +_Goettingen_, 1828. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus 15 + + General geographical outline of Asia ib. + + Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and + Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires 22 + + History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of + Cyrus 25 + + I. Assyrian monarchy ib. + + II. Median monarchy 26 + + III. Babylonian monarchy 27 + + IV. States in Asia Minor 29 + 1. Trojan empire ib. + 2. Phrygian empire ib. + 3. Lydian empire ib. + + V. Phoenicia 30 + + VI. Syrians 33 + + VII. Jews 34 + 1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest + of Palestine 35 + 2. Period of the federative republic 36 + 3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600 38 + The Jewish state as one single kingdom ib. + The Jewish state as a divided kingdom 40 + + African Nations 45 + + General geographical outline of Ancient Africa ib. + + I. Egyptians 47 + + 1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, + about B. C. 1500 51 + + 2nd Period. From the Sesostridae till the sole dominion + of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650 62 + + 3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the + Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525 69 + + II. Carthaginians 73 + + 1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the + wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480 74 + + 2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with + Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome, + B. C. 480-264 80 + + 3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with + Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146 82 + + + Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330 90 + + + Book III. History of the Grecian states 112 + + Geographical outline of Greece ib. + + 1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war, + about B. C. 1200 118 + + 2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out + of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500 127 + + History of the Hellenic states within Greece ib. + General history ib. + Sparta 131 + Athens 136 + + Principal data for the history of the smaller states: + + I. Within the Peloponnesus: + _a._ Arcadia 142 + _b._ Argos ib. + _c._ Corinth 143 + _d._ Sicyon 144 + _e._ Achaia ib. + _f._ Elis 145 + + II. Central Greece, or Hellas: + _a._ Megaris 146 + _b._ Boeotia 147 + _c._ Phocis 148 + _d._ Locris ib. + _e._ Aetolia ib. + _f._ Acarnania 149 + + III. Northern Greece: + _a._ Thessaly 149 + _b._ Epirus 150 + + IV. Grecian Islands: + _a._ Corcyra 151 + _b._ Aegina ib. + _c._ Euboea 152 + _d._ The Cyclades ib. + _e._ Crete ib. + _f._ Cyprus 154 + + History of the Grecian colonies 155 + + General observations ib. + + Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor: 157 + 1. Aeolian colonies 158 + 2. Ionian colonies 159 + 3. Dorian colonies 161 + + Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea 162 + + Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia 163 + + Colonies on the western coast of Greece 164 + + Grecian settlements in Lower Italy: + _a._ Tarentum 165 + _b._ Croton 166 + _c._ Sybaris ib. + _d._ Thurii 167 + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii ib. + _f._ Rhegium 168 + _g._ Cumae ib. + + Grecian settlements in Sicily: + _a._ Syracuse 169 + _b._ Agrigentum 174 + _c._ The smaller Sicilian cities 175 + + Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica ib. + + Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia 176 + + Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum ib. + + Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene ib. + + Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to + Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336 178 + + + Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy: + + Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the + Great, B. C. 800-323 206 + + Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death + of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301 222 + + Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states + which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian + monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus 232 + + I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidae + B. C. 312-64 232 + + II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, + B. C. 323-30 247 + + III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the + death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146 268 + + Achaean league 280 + Aetolian league 279 + + IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms + and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy 290 + + The kingdom of Pergamus 291 + Bithynia 293 + Paphlagonia 294 + Pontus 295 + Cappadocia 297 + Armenia 298 + The kingdom of Parthia 299 + The kingdom of Bactria 305 + The restored kingdom of the Jews 306 + 1. Under the Persians 307 + 2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae 308 + 3. Under the Maccabees 309 + 4. Under the family of Herod 311 + + + Book V. History of the Roman state: + + Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy 314 + + Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of + Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage, + B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490 321 + + Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage + to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi, + B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620 339 + + Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under + the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30, + or A. U. C. 620-724 362 + + Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the + overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476 402 + + Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, + and other countries connected with it by war or commerce ib. + + 1st Section. From Augustus Caesar to the death of + Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193 411 + + 2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, + A. C. 193-284 437 + + 3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the + Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476 454 + + + Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus, + according to Volney 475 + + + Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon 481 + + -------------------------------------------- the Seleucidae 482 + + -------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies 483 + + -------------------------------------------- the Jews 484 + + -------------------------------------------- the Caesars 485 + + -------------------------------------------- Constantine 486 + + + * * * * * + + +OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE. + + + * * * * * + + + +MANUAL + +OF + +ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + + I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads; + the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various + writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different + divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so + far as they are sources of history, will be found in: + + OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primae lineae_. + Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have + been made since it was published. + + II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY. + + 1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided + in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in + the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively + devoted to ancient history. + + _a._ To the first class belong: + + _The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and + additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67 + vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions. + + This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been + translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM. + JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate + it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the + first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part. + + WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World, + from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols. + 8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered + valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G. + HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted + the dates, and added his own observations. + + _b._ To the second class belong: + + ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des + Assyriens, des Medes el des Perses, des Macedoniens, des Grecs._ + Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best + edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient + history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It + was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.: + frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the + _Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first + period, _Sources_. + + JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris, + 1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French + one of their classics. + + [English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.] + + MILLOT, _Elemens de l'Histoire Generale_. Paris, 1772, sq. + [Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an + improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The + ancient history is contained in the first two volumes. + + # JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the + use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols. + + # J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third + edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.) + + # DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations + of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman + commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation: + _History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work + rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the + author of the labours of other writers. + + # H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts. + + # L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In + each of the above works the first part contains the ancient + history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject. + + [The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the + English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I. + extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and + Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best + edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the + Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.] + + # F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin, + 1821. + + Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization, + government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly + speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very + closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned: + + GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de + leurs progres chez les anciens peuples; nouv. edit_. Paris, 1778. + [Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols. + 8vo.] + + # A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and + Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third + edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third + part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the + last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the + great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in + 3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An + English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part + II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians. + Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has + been published.] + + 2. _Manuals_, or epitomes. + + The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced + manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in + their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science + at the universities. + + # J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World + to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses + this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense + with the earlier manuals published by that author. + + # CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the + Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The + first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This + volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of + books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of + a particular work on the subject. + + # J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the + creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition. + Brunswick, 1832. + + # J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest + edition, 1795. + + # G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the + chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into + English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have: + + _The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's + Cabinet Cyclopaedia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and + highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient + abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and + continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its + reputation and success to the want of a better work on the + subject.] + + 3. _Helps._ + + Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the + first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables. + + # D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of + Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of + the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804. + +1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of +nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal +affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important +objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs, +it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the +friendly relations and intercourse with other states. + + Observe here the difference between universal history, or general + history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter + forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between + political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human + being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without + regard to political circumstances. + +2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts: +_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The +first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took +place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the +second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to +the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third +extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present +time. + + The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the + events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that + the division of history, into that before and after the birth of + Christ, is not judicious. + +3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history +does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is +known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered +from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations, +affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must +be referred to the general history of man. + + It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved + in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human + race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called + an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a + separate division of history. What has been said above will + satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history + in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of + such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and + civilization of the human race. + +4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general +heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The +history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which +remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in +some degree adopted by the people. + +5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is +comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by +a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found +among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community. +This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly +historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to +a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and +handed down to posterity. + + Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very + heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of + various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas + of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their + deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations + and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All + these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because + man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily + represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some + physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to + mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected + whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is + difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology, + and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology + should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not + without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of + antiquity. + + These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier + antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his + commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of + Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of + the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of + these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in + the science of antiquity. + +6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a +great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than +imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among +men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form +of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while +in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology; +and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very +naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of +poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, +inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a +more especial manner the attention of the historian. + + The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in + later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and + committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and + others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original + character. + +7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than +the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be +arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into +use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under +which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological +records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real +philosophical works on history. + +8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance +of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or +even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most +ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art +into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became +formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances +and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture +arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, +for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable +events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some +particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this +nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those +of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later +period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the +great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of +any importance as regards history. + + The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical + (hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The + invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly + ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape + of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication + with them, in the interior of Asia. + + The general collections of inscriptions are: + + LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_. + Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI, + _Supplementa_. Luccae, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquae + totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRAEVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol. + + C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, auctoritate et + impensis Academiae literarum Borussicae_, vol. 1. 1827, folio. + + Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient + history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia, + Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best + edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable + edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek + text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo. + +9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by +the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known +from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The +importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions +of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the +works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts +and fragments. + + EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Praestantia Numismatum_. + Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on + this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of + antiquity is: + + ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennae, 1792-1798, 8 vols. + 4to. And the epitome: + + # ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707, + 8vo. Another very useful work is: + + J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universae Rei Nummariae Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5 + vols. 8vo. + +10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written +historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the +use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date +than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods +of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state +chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for +their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones, +history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such +chronicles. + +11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works +composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by +their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also +a development of their connection with one another, their causes and +effects. + + But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the + ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance + with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To + the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are + under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or + more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal + connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most + under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence + under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of + civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the + observing and unravelling of the political connection of events + presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture. + +12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place +in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are +indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially +the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be +considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are +of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place. +A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient +history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the +countries which were the theatres of the principal events. + +13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each +nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient +history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be +fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be +obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the +creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has +the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater +convenience. + + Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of + the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by + years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads + commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at + B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to + Cato.--The era of the Seleucidae, in the Syrian empire, commences + with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar, + commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by + Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_. + + Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to + which will be found in: + + # J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most + excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been + communicated to the public by: + + # L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical + Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A + very useful and portable work. + + [In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales: + + HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History + and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond. + 1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4 + vols. 8vo. + + BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to + the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio. + + And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory + volumes: + + H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology + of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth + Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And + the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford, + 1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon + the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the + first volume is principally occupied.] + +14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the +fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary +science to history, all that can be expected is some general information +respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting +their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal +cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous. + + Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every + nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every + early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are + peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as + civilization increases, and discovery widens its + horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the + manifold changes to which the division and the face of the + countries of the ancient world have been at various periods + subjected. + + CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2 + vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum + 1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an + indispensable, treatise on ancient geography. + + # H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg, + 1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly + designated classical, from the historical and critical learning + which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain; + II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhaetia, Noricum; IV, The + Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and + the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3 + parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII, + Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and + Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts. + + # F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the + earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first + division, contains the historical, the second contains the + mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps. + + GOSSELIN, _Geographie des Grecs analysee_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A + development of the system of mathematical geography among the + Greeks. Partly continued in + + GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens_. Paris, an. + vi. vol. 1-4. + + J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to. + + [Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the + benefit of the English reader may be mentioned: + + RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia, + with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the + author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER, + principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of + Oxford; they are, + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a + map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a + map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. + + _Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a + map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo. + + The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to + perfection. + + As useful compendiums, there are: + + _An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of + Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the + Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo. + + _A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton + School; illustrating the most interesting points in History, + Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of + Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and + numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly + bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol. + 8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830. + + BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_. + Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_, + consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated + index. 8vo.] + + We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient + geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol. + + [The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with + the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by + the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful + and correct.] + +15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is, +according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is, +according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its +advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and +formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has +been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as +follows: + +FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and +kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, +about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated +fragments. + +SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330. + +THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other +parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336. + +FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms +which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman +empire. + +FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a +monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476. + + + * * * * * + + + + +MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FIRST BOOK. + + + HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND + STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +I.--ASIATIC NATIONS. + + + + +_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._ + + + See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and + Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the + African Nations. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great +divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square +geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those +of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the +greatest portion of the northern temperate zone. + + Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the + globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in + consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its + surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large + streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior. + +2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to +the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers. + + Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the + Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of + both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus + extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus, + on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the + rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from + north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the + Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea: + two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the + Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or + Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr). + +3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia, +comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries +between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of +Taurus. + +4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude, +(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown +in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it, +are found in Herodotus, the father of history. + +5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees +of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and +Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of +arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of +pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed +abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal +government. + + Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful + influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political + history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of + the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider + that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and + from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state. + +6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to +about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those +of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all +other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly +favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly +productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption +of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from +the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade, +from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America. + + Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether, + according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by + agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by + which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god, + (communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest + states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable + fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the + priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on + early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by + the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land + trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes + across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to + become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra + and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris, + Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and + Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line + of Grecian and Phoenician factories. + +7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the +Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to +the eastern ocean. + +A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on +this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly. +between the Tigris and the Indus. + +1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._ + +(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys +and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. +Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, +Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus +in Mysia. + +Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital +Tarsus. + +Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek +ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together +with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celaenae; Cappadocia, +with the city of Mazaca. + +(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of +Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name. + +(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, +properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In +the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending +along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an +island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; +Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains: +Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead +sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes; +afterwards into the provinces, of Judaea, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria; +cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee. + +(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost +entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts +render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north, +Arabia Petraea, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. +In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the +native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense; +and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. +Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and +the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise +marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane +(Ceylon). + +2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._ + +(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely +occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, +Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis. + +(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time +without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black +sea. + +(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was +separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness +of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, +and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation, +the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates, +Borsippa. + + Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size + and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the + great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad + conquerors. + +3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._ + +(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities: +Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela. + + The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider + acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is + sometimes even confounded with Syria. + +(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river +Choaspes, or Eulaeus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian +monarchs. + +(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and +fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and +Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and +cemetery of the kings of Persia. + + The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography, + taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries + between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria. + In this sense, it contains three countries towards the + south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three + central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries + towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana. + +(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging +along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia. + +(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania +and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards +the north, mountainous. Town, Pura. + +(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country; +mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. +Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the +name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media. + +(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one +city, Aria or Artacoana. + +(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India; +bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus +and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous +population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence +of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of +Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus. + +(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of +Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during +the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and +without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the +inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation. + +(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in +natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River: +Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa. + + Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the + north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi, + (Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this + country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has + placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium + for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we + penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like + Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international + commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles + of infant civilization. + +(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes, +the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) +Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring +Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand). + +B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing +remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv. + + + + +_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of +the great Asiatic Empires._ + + +1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of +immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their +constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were +frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same. +Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in +constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various +revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia. + +2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by +Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which +inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or +circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and +carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of +southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change +in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner, +subjugated. + +3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their +immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief +duration. + +4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been +nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is +accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast +extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have +recourse to satrap-government. + +5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable +nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was +corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political +constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic +despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign +that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic +economy. + + To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms + despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE + essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in + which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of + their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,) + nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the + legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and + can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of + the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of + their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from + the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of + the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a + pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is + most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless, + be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may + therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of + the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as + citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of + the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form, + may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy, + or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called + a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing + heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and + the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious + institutions. + +6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires +formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich +territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions +already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally +suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a +fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of +the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into +provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of +satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal +ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio +on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences +are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution +of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from +without. + + + + +_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to +Cyrus._ + + + Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings, + particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets; + together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus, + Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius, + Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to + arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different + by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by + the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers + contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript. + + VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814: + very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of + Herodotus's chronology. + + + +I. _Assyrian monarchy._ + + +1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the +ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. +With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of +conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy +between the Grecian and Hebrew statements. + +2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly +Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of +ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a +large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris; +traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the +east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus. + + According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration, + 1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus + and Eusebius. + +3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological +history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the +nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the +Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia. + + Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria. + 2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus. + 3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria. + Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib, + about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a + pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and + Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise + of the state and the two first kings. + + + +II. _Median monarchy._ + + +1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to +designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common +appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to +the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before +Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a +conquering nation. + +2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the +Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian +power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the +eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological +history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of +dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous +to the Persians. + + _a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are + unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called. + Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling + nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their + empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east, + unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the + various nations to one another, according to their distance from + the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute. + Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder + of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers + Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military + discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the + Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He + takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was + dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by + another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the + Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus. + Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings, + between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18 + _y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes, + 22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with + the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14 + _y._ Astyages, the last king. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly + archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to + Servius Tullius. + + + +III. _Babylonian monarchy._ + + +Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about +630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538. + +1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is +mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political +treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of +Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of +Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in +Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish +writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire. + +2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation +of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there +establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest, +to the Mediterranean. + + Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a + distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of + Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by + Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the + name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747: + (probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of + the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an + exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor + his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the + six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604. + Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the + Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh, + near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant + period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and + Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into + Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about + Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3. + Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary + of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few + months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably + the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by + Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538. + + See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of + Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus + and Servius Tullius. + + + +IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._ + + +The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was +probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The +most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the +Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the +Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. +Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the +Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian. + + +1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of +mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological +data. + + Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros + (Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy, + after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190. + + _Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of + Rome, 450 years. + + +2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and +Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the +death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the +Lydian empire, about 560. + + +3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the +Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; +the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae +down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper +history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty. + + Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost + uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast. + Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under + his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628. + Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of + Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia + Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a + Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor + becomes a province of the Persian empire. + + _Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian + empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of + Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the + Romans, the kings. + + + +V. _Phoenicia._ + + +The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of +Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected +history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we +possess, we may from these trace out a general outline. + + The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon + deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly + Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments + which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius, + historians of Tyre. + + MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de + l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four + papers. + + The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S + _Researches on the Politics, etc._ + +1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not +constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of +several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally +formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful, +particularly of Tyre. + +2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of +superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular +government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have +possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates +associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people, +it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length +of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we +possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete. + + This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through + Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about + B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the + successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's + brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by + Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican + constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian + rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing + period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls + therefore between 1000-332. + + _Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes, + and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David. + Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the + last two centuries. + +3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the +establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became +as powerful as the mother states. + + General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely + necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever + their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise + been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive + increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from + political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will, + or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements + in distant regions. + +4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a +very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which, +however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal +countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain +(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the +Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast +of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they +formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands +of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein). + +5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the +extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much +farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations, +commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the +Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of +their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the +latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_) +Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and +the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very +probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the +northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection +with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of +the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the +Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of +India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several +extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the +circumnavigation of Africa. + +6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by +caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan +trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the +Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened +them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia +and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with +Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper +utensils, etc. + +7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their +stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) +their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with +uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good +account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of +letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians. + + + +VI. _Syrians._ + + +1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when +Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one +single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its +separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, +Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity. + +2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and +their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish +province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when +Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus. + +3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the +greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming +tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended, +and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and +Israel. + + The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, + were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850. + Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of + Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, + about 740. + + _Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms + of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic + colonies.--Lycurgus. + + + +VII. _Jews._ + + +The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of +their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the +conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of +the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in +Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a +federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C. +1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical +government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards +as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the +latter, 588. + + Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges, + Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and + whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the + events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in + particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS, + as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary + historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_. + + Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on + the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one + written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism. + The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son + origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.; + and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and + others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI + _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly + his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his + # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew + Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials. + + +I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of +Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than +a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower +Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, +two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the +Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve +tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase +of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the +Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities. +Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of +Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine, +the land of promise. + + Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not + borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national + sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies + rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and + the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of + Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests. + + J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.; + translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4 + vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver. + + +II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of +Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100. + +1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation, +which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, +was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, +the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating +entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of +Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in +the land. + +2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land, +according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the +government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch +or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of +Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state. +Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are +conjoined out of the Levite caste. + +3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic +law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into +forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country, +and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family. + +4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common +ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together; +especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At +this time the high priests appear to have had but little political +influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved +by the dread of a foreign yoke. + +5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In +seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship +of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief +magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and +as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly +Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their +history. + +6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes +judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office +of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his +sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is +called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he +cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most +insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A +formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up +and deposited in the national sanctuary. + + Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts + made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power. + + +III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._ + + +I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._ + +1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory +over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which +Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his +sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off +the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This +was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately +anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David +acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much +difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid +constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he +and all his sons, except one, lose their lives. + +2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little +more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without +either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural +and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the +character of a warlike nation. + +3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven +tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is +only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years +later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is +recognized as king by the whole nation. + +4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during +the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three +years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national +sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive +religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political +consequence. + +5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with +Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumaea. Extent of +the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to +the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government; +the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of +David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons. + +6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the +interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade. +New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court. +Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre; +hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of +the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court. + +7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country +oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual +internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods +with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple +according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the +worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An +unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites, +who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even +during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the +foundation of the kingdom of Damascus. + +8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended +the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his +imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt, +and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and +Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam. + + +II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._ + +1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel. +Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was +Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two; +thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between +them was the more obstinate. + +2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the +nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in +order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the +national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies +of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as +to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression +itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and +political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel, +amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God; +the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of +the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively +recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets. + +3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with +slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in +consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes, +particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length +put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia. + + Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms. + + 1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different + families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1. + Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem; + of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests, + not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of + Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._ + 930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus, + brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in + 929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army + immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his + reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded + the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7. + Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon; + introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with + Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league + formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8. + Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues. + Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the + house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away + with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the + kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is + succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus + continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats + the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He + restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a + turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14. + Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last + remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel. + His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his + turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the + first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off + by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah, + under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the + Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740 + by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains + possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with + Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of + Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end + to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media + in Inner Asia, 722. + + 2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598. + The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed + without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's + usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1. + Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but + even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into + neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods. + Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by + Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince + was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no + doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in + breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of + the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of + Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red + sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel + is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter, + Athaliah; but Idumaea, under his reign, secedes wholly from the + kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next + year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of + Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession + of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of + Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from + the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years + forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought + by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877. + Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the + reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by + Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain + 838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn + defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is + sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah, + (or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11. + Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The + wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The + league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to + call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who + overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah + to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian + yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and + Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition + against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately + relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies + during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his + 55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes + general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law + into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah + restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of + the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more + found, and a complete reform instituted according to its + principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by + Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17. + Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by + Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary + prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the + Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his + Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and + Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The + prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former + king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part + of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar, + after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian + captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to + Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming, + however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian + yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem, + conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction. + Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his + children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the + remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon. + + S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum + Judae diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula + geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also + several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the + Jewish state. + + # BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii, + 1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise + to the fall of the state. + + + + +II. AFRICAN NATIONS. + + + + +_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._ + + + See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations. + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern +part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity. + +With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are +at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and +commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the +case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more +so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the +Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the +objects which gave rise to those excursions. + +2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in +situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate, +while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in +deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and +in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the +Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as +it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its +inhabitants. + +3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three +regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The +maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of +Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile +districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited: +hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is +now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat., +succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of +mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it +the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates, +(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of +N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this +part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns, +under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The +fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the +Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts +were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name +applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were, +however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the +Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in +Egypt. + +4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of +Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations: +Egyptians, Cyrenaeans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were +aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad +hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have +heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the +shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st. +Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy +deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47 deg. +E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek +colonies, called Cyrenaica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40 deg. E. +long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending +from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40 deg. E. long. This +territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser +Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of +Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the +territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very +fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part +Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania; +occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore +some Carthaginian settlements. + + + +EGYPTIANS. + + +Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about +two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more +extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its +physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage +on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend; +beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of +rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows +in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above +its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley +from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand, +and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first +divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their +waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium, +the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;) +from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the +time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number +has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms +of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of +the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The +fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore +confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of +the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well +watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name +of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain, +particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley +of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at +stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues +to the end of October; so that during three whole months the +above-mentioned parts of the country are under water. + +Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of +Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to +Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the +Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which +the most remarkable was Sais. + +Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Aethiopia supra Aegyptum_); which, from +the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been +closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above +Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still +inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain, +which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea, +and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just +above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this +country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows +as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river, +however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient +monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16 deg. N. lat. the appearance +of the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly +productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable +commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same +name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a +tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the +Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this +reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This +country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province +of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of +warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves. +Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at +its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so +early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it +was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with +Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian +gulf. + +The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration; +the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the +Sesostridae, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises +the reigns of the Sesostridae, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to +Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to +the Persian conquest, 650-525. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, about B. C. 1500._ + + Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt, + a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no + continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to + Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of + the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a + few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish + accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers. + (_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the + Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne + of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected, + in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the + country; he received his information from the most capable persons, + the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he + heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth + the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what + did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history? + And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in + what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were + preserved among the Egyptians. + + The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other + nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other + nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture + writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served, + as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds, + (_hieroglyphes phonetiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the + latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This + mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely + alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of + ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical + inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so + well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so + useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it + is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be + preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which + was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore, + could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4. + The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very + different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as + deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any + thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public + monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible + to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of + allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be + misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians + certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_, + confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life. + Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands + derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of + the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments + of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on + which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin + in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period + of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents + belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs. + + CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des anciens + Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which + the _Lettre a M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two + _Lettres a M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of + deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work + of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System + of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the + Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has + been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished + by being always enclosed within a border. + + These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will + derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by + Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to + Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt, + that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public + monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We + may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to + the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The + history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c. + 99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what + was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the + building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other + monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated + oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those + princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no + other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of + kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not + without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison + with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no + chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The + whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from + hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical, + the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the + priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it, + and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations. + To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the + robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell, + where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning + the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of + Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To + prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice + to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself + observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true + meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of + Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to + conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of + which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic: + such, for instance, as the completely _Graecised_ history of king + Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations + on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a + narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but + one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian + priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical + mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public + monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this + objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information + the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to, + consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these + they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings + who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments + behind them_, (c. 100.) + + (_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us + with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400 + years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his + history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests + of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and + particularly Hecataeus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as + not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction + between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did + not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings; + but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by + the number of generations which they contained. + + (_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian + _Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the + reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the + _Aegyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the + enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of + Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three + sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all + 31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each + dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their + reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely + established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have + been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong + the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second + and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper + Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is + worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of + the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes, + in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal + seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot, + therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians. + + The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus + Aegyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur + les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and + hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological + arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his + _Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History + of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be + reckoned: + + JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Aegyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo. + + GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Aegypt_. in _Commentat. + Societ. Gotting._ t. vii. + + _De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romae, 1797. + + _L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Geographie, la + Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant + l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814. + These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the + restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities + deduced from Coptic authorities. + + _Commentationes Herodoteae, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Aegyptica et + Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned + illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced + by different passages of Herodotus. + + The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii, + concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on + hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian + monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon + in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and + Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in + the magnificent work: + + _Description de l'Egypte, Antiquites_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i, + contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia + to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone. + + BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas. + + # MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824. + + L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819. + + F. C. GAU, _Antiquites de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy + continuation of the great French work on Egypt. + + FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage a Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825, + contains the description of the monuments of Meroe. + +1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period +than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham, +and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been +so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in +order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it +had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt +ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political +associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty +whether they did not exist still earlier in India. + +2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized +state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its +favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the +only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted +navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other +parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To +this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the +overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter +the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the +other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by +the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must +necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of +knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a +certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that +country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich +land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the +purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to +have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade. + +3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the +course of things must have been very different from what it was in the +desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this +valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their +origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity, +which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however, +be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the +seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the +settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took +place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the +negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in +painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt. + +4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only +in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in +Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the +southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth +of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined. +It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing +them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later +times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded +upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended, +if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on +their extension. + + General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating + at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same + country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress + in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and + to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe. + +5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the +principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the +Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this +worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore, +the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those +vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude +that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond +Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around +the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of +their gods the dominant religion in Egypt. + + Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and + express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from + Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the + worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other + cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been + founded by detachments from Thebes. + +6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population, +is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into +districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the +chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste +of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief +temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed. + +7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised, +not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the +warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of +several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of +each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although +each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood, +and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united +every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the +infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members +participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and +climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt: +agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support +of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the +principal political object of the ruling caste. + + Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession + of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had + constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their + hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they + rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of + dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods, + their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture. + +8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states +existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes, +Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in +the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt, +such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus. + + To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after + Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom + Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are + remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of + Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names + of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare + and arrange. + +9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is +impossible to determine accurately which of these states were +contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question +that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of +them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According +to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and +mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes +and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest. + + This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the + states of Lower Egypt to Memphis. + +10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of +Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or +Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous +and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture +flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted +civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by +Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the +king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already +threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming +aspect. + +11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by +nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes +poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these +invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately +followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the +Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_, +settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended +their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their +government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the +caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their +time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must +have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not +appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems +highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at +least but for a short time, suspended. + + The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and + consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews. + Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably + comprises the long periods of earlier wars. + +12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by +Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only +the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the +union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes +now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which +in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort, +must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as +it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately +followed. + + The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief + subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it + is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples + in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Sesostridae until the sole dominion of Psammetichus. +B. C. 1500-650._ + + The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and + the history still preserves the character of records handed down by + hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent + to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two + historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings, + not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced + solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the + following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have + likewise been indicated. + + HERODOTUS. DIODORUS. + + _Menes._ _Menes._ + + He was followed by three Followed by fifty-two successors, + hundred and thirty kings ranging over a period of more + belonging to the previous than 1400 years. + period, concerning which our + information is very incomplete: _Busiris I._ and eight successors; + among those sovereigns were the last of whom was + eighteen Ethiopians, and one + queen named Nitocris. _Busiris II._ the founder of + Thebes. + + _Osymandyas_ and eight successors; + the last of whom was + + _Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis. + + _Aegyptus_, grandson of the + foregoing. After the lapse + of twelve generations, + + _Moeris._ _Moeris._ + + Seven generations. + + _Sesostris._ _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_. + + _Pheron_, son of Sesostris. _Sesostris II._ son of the + foregoing: he assumed his + father's name. + + Interval comprising several + generations. + + _Amasis_, and the Ethiopian, + + _Actisanus._ + + _Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder + of the labyrinth. + + Anarchy which lasted five + generations. + + _Proteus_, in the time of the _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time + Trojan war. of the Trojan war. + + _Rhampsinitus._ _Remphis_, son of the foregoing. + + Seven generations, in the course + of which flourished _Nileus_, + from whom the Nile derives + its name. + + _Cheops_, builder of the great _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from + pyramid. Memphis, builder of the great + pyramid. + + _Chephres_, brother to the _Cephren_, brother to the + foregoing, builder of a pyramid. foregoing, builder of a pyramid. + + _Mycerinus_, son of Cheops, _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis, + builder of a pyramid. builder of a pyramid. + + _Asychis_ the legislator. _Bochoris_ the legislator. + + _Anysis_, who was blind. Interval of several generations. + + _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian. _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian + + _Anysis_, king for the second + time. + + _Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan. + + Dodecarchy. Dodecarchy. + + _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole + ruler. ruler. + + This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that + Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is + impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus, + more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great + importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus, + ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years + before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and + 1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was + the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be + denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must + remain content until more satisfactory information can be + discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that + the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by + Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be + accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished + by different names on the monuments and in common life. + + Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong + to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the + most important of the Pharaohs. + +1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant +age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being +represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was +natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a +period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be +developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire +was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this +period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to +Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of +that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha. + + The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders + of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their + names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty, + somewhere about 1600-1500. + + _Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the + temple of Amada, in Nubia. + + _Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos. + + _Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the + Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name + is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in + Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of + Luxor. + + _Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the + Lateran. + + _Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by + his brother: + + _Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in + Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to + this king. + + _Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before + them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses. + + Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400. + + _Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_; + founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror. + His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the + temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His + son and follower: + + _Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in + the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other + buildings. + + Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we + come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and + 950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore + furnishes a fixed date. + + # R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the + most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an + atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for + understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of + history. + +2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris, +son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of +Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter, +credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the +traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the +buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of +whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear +witness? + + Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and + conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against + wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia + Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even + the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed + improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single + great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the + interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of + the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey, + prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt. + +3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution +still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy +combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian +princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in +various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority; +the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and +private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the +established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the +high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be +denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his +power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even +successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation! + +4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the +people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste +being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for +that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors +could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was +united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not +have been completely established before the canals were excavated; +although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date. + + Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the + division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the + discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus. + +5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom +of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900: +although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a +long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end. +Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,) +subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a +priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the +throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the +caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an +irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence +compelled the invader and his host to retreat. + + The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as + conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700. + Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some + at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia. + +6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by +an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the +earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign +power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this +government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they +compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The +exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to +avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler. + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest +of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._ + + Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority + for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer + derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the + reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave + rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermeneis], who acted + both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the + Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information + respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore, + surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the + history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are + likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they + rivaled their predecessors. + + _Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian + empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa + Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon; + Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of + Judah; Babylonish captivity. + +1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the +capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the +general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly +Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants. +Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the +political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited +by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the +formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia. +Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs +of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the +erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated +to Phtha in Memphis. + +2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek +and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the +country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence, +emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern +portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are +formed against Asia. + +3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of +conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to +unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia +as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in +consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of +Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully +performed. + +4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and +conquests in the interior of Africa. + +5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of +conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the +Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A +revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse +to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution +headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his +mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his +throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had +reigned to this time. + +6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and +although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on +account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the +respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the +throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and +Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each +other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek +woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to +the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their +merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under +the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This +prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror, +Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against +Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a +seasonable death. + +7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked +by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle, +fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the +Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The +powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the +conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be +attributed rather to policy than fanaticism. + +8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of +Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently +became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown +over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid +a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the +produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts +occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and +influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius +Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the +consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by +the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was +quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in +consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks, +was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the +Pharaoh's being in some measure restored. + + This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During + this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtaeus, _d._ 408; + Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375; + Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered + by Artaxerxes III. 354. + + + +CARTHAGINIANS. + + + Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as + applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well + deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge, + however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient, + as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his + attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was + the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of + Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This + observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy + and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author + who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is + miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment. + de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.) + Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of + any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her + prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the + decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards. + But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist, + we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that + state.--The modern writers on Carthage are: + + HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful + compilation. + + # _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781. + A mere history of the wars. + + DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome_, tom. + i, ii. Very superficial. + + # W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827. + The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern + researches. + + Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_, + 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. + +The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods: +I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with +Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the +wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146. + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C. +880-480._ + + _Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians, + and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from + Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the + commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people. + +1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early +and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been +wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed +founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure +historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some +political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of +emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other +Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to +pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to +found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only +depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it +afterwards attained. + +2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet +even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of +power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of +foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the +Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring +aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within +their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with +the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of +agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory +extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception, +Carthaginian subjects. + +3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the +coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although +possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute +dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a +protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression. + +4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene, +the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to +the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this +district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from +their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest +importance to Carthage. + +5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest +without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle +on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the +western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan +of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares, +and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they +could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also +every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in +their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to +their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate +settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western +shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their +ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and +confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might +always ensure their dependence. + +6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important +conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with +his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic +in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that +Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian +monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The +Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive +conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their +commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their +first naval engagement, in which the Phocaeans were their adversaries. In +the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond +the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of +Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of +Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial +treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear +as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily. + +7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the +formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably +necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply +both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the +most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so +extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe +furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of +the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of +their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with +a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public +property. + +8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy +trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the +opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of +democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the +two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for +life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boule]) which contained within +itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of +electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also +shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power +was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being +always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an +instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief, +on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he +was more or less dependent. + +9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to +the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats, +particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's +conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government; +and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had +actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the +institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council +assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is +not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee +(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate. + +10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians +is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal +sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate +cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter +for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the +government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to +give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their +external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute +furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and +occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which +were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in +all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly +those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the +Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with +whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with +the use of money. + +11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a +monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the +growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all +strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly +by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies, +extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of +Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans, +consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes: +the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward +to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the +interior of Africa. + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of +those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._ + +1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above +period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with +extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining, +complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at +the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national +hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the +Carthaginians. + +2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon +his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive +even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis, +routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a +disgraceful peace. + +3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy +years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say +with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for +territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the +advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and +confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes. + +4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the +ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to +their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers +of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with +additional violence. + + Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years + 410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last + peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then + occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome. + + Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal + commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of + Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted + by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340. + + A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is + transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates + in favour of Carthage, 311-307. + + The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an + alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to + increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and + probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in + profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to + attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby + scattered between Carthage and Rome. + +5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not +informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial +channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two +attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical +party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and +afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war +with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the +finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a +circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to +Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world, +so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to +be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them? + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage, +B. C. 264-146._ + +1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of +a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have +foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests +should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little +importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may +not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that, +according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was +hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the +island of Sicily. + + First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the + possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by + Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it, + see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.) + +2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the +Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was +already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to +threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances; +a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how +many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been +annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such +an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more +terrific even than the war itself. + +3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among +the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations, +who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was +a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared +the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been +snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar. + + This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences + to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the + Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate + by becoming the leader of a democratic faction. + +4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of +that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power, +took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace. + +5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their +disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand +in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic +project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of +Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions +and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the +support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon +furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome +also. + +6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the +following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at +the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the +Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation +or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only +arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon +as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both +powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman +by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the +future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country. +Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the +party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a +young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every +thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary +project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and +the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great +must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that +time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the +same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of +Rome would perhaps have been very different. + + Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy + and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the + history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period + ii, parag. 6 sqq.) + +7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the +republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally +defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a +powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say +they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for +war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly +any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the +country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that, +too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration. +It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable +opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission, +for which the hero of Cannae paid dearly enough, by the failure of his +darling project. + +8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her +possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of +the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of +Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the +soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of +king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an +agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed +the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy, +moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the +last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave +abundant openings for dispute. + +9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still +preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate +at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and +the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the +finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of +the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are +not so readily annihilated as armies. + + The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first + elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian + constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the + senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo + judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the + hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national + inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised + oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had + served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared + unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this + oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their + office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In + the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that + after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still + sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of + tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public + treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled + to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged + to furnish by instalments. + +10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of +Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of +renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. +A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to +demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general +secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief +fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour +to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle. + + See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate + kingdoms. I. Seleucidae, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag. + 10 sq. + +11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more +under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty +advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the +exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by +the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and +his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome. + +12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the +Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had +been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the +component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested, +but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the +territory to the Numidian. + + Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for + fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in + 193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa + inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of + Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's + embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been + rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy + Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled + Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in + his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what + with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been + surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while + the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying + their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference. + +13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and +Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction +of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late +victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet +it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the +declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final +scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return +gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not +the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to +have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa, +previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first +incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then +opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome? +These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot +satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the +conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion. +The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was +not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and +the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage +was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which, +although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to +profit by dark and base intrigue. + + Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See + hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq. + + + * * * * * + + + + +SECOND BOOK. + + + + +_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._ + + + Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians + themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of + those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to + deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however, + availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their + authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently + acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled + from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the + whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by + Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar + sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period + of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also + his Cyropaedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished + ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of + Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with + the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books + of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as + containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its + manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_, + MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of + the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism; + they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us + acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of + their early history. + + The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who + have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on + Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the + _Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv. + + BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious + compilation. + + The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. + vol. i, part 1. + + [MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to + the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."] + +1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people, +subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province +of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life. +Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadae_, the +noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the +figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was +a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the +whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction +between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even +during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the +nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds. +Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant +nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADAE _more +especially_. + +2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, +was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of +romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is, +however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was, +on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in +Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the +Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the +Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the +time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the +decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly +established. + + Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achaemenes, (Jamshid?). That + family belonged to the Pasargadae tribe, and therefore remained the + ruling house. + +3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the +Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid +extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the +victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek +colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and +all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of +their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the +Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean, +to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races, +inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus +himself fell in the contest. + + It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars + waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias; + those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed, + the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always + as direct contradictions. + +4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of +the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of +Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and +national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were +guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of +the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes. + + Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national + religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of + Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof + that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly + the Pasargadae. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture. + + ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit + en Francois sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has + been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German + translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on + Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i. + + HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete + with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on + the subject. + + # J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An + excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion, + and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians. + +5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No +general new organization; but for the most part the original +institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay +tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are +associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in +subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support +of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which, +recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while, +as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted +are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are +issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of +warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education. + +6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as +king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes +independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon +after murdered by the command of his elder brother. + +7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed +against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring +Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But +the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments, +Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful; +that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of +the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand +Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana. + +8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians +was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than +against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in +religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be +particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of +Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived +entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. + +9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an +attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means +of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an +accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and +a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.) + +10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during +which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest +by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his +cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who +could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life. + +11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the +kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who +was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief +rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as +under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among +the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by +that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be +erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis, +(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under +Darius and Xerxes. + + The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike + for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in + the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels of + CHARDIN and NIEBUHR. Illustrations: + + # HERDER'S _Persepolis_, in the collection of his works, vol. i. + + # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Part I. vol. i. Great assistance in + studying the inscriptions, is furnished by + + DE SACY, _Memoires sur diverses Antiquites de la Perse_; Paris, + 1793, 4to. It must be observed, however, that this work is confined + to the illustration of the later monuments, belonging to the + _Sassanidae_. The most successful attempt at deciphering the + arrow-headed inscriptions of the old Persic, since TYCHSEN, + MUENTER, and LICHTENSTEIN, will be found in + + # GROTEFEND, _On the Interpretation of the Arrow-headed Characters, + particularly of the Inscriptions at Persepolis_, contained in the + appendix to HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. ii. with an accompanying Zend + alphabet. + +12. After a very remarkable debate held by the seven conspirators, +concerning the form of of government which should be established, +Darius, the son of Hystaspes, one of the family of the Achaemenides, was +raised to the throne by an oracle; this king endeavoured to strengthen +his right to the sceptre by marrying two of Cyrus's daughters. + +13. The reign of Darius I. which lasted thirty-six years, (according to +Ctesias 31,) is remarkable for the improvements made both in the +external and internal administration of the Persian empire. In the +former, by the great expeditions and conquests, which extended the +Persian realm to its utmost limits; in the latter, by several important +institutions, established for the internal organization of the state. + +14. The expeditions of the Persians under Cyrus were directed against +the countries of Asia; those of Cambyses against Africa. But those +undertaken by Darius I. were directed against Europe, though the Persian +territory was at the same time extended in the two other quarters of the +world. In the reign of this king likewise commenced those wars with the +Greeks, so fatal to the Persians; constantly fomented and supported by +emigrant or exile Greeks, who found an asylum in the Persian court, and +there contrived to raise a party.--First example of the kind exhibited +shortly after the accession of Darius, in the case of Syloson, brother +to Polycrates, who had been tyrant of Samos: at his request the island +was taken possession of by the Persians, and delivered up to him after +the almost total destruction of the male population. + +15. Great revolt in Babylon, which would not submit tamely to a foreign +yoke. After a siege of twenty-one months, Darius by stratagem regains +possession of the city. The power of Babylon and the importance of its +situation increased the jealousy with which it was guarded by the +Persian kings; so much so, that they were wont to reside there a certain +portion of the year. + +16. First great expedition of Darius undertaken against the Scythians +inhabiting the lands north of the Black sea: the former irruption of the +Scythians into Asia afforded a pretext for the war, which, therefore, +was considered as a general national undertaking. Unsuccessful as the +Persian arms were in this vast expedition against the Scythians, and +disgraceful as was the retreat from the barren steppes of the Ukrain, +yet the power of Darius was established in Thrace and Macedonia, and the +Persians obtained firm footing in Europe. + + Concerning the peculiar character of the Persian national wars, + or great campaigns, in which all the conquered nations were + obliged to participate, contrasted with the other wars waged by + Persian troops alone. + +17. The next expedition made by Darius was more successful. It was +carried on along the banks of the Indus, down which river Scylax, a +Greek, had previously sailed on a voyage of discovery. The highlands +north of the Indus were then subjected to the Persian dominion, and the +Indus became the boundary of the kingdom. About the same time that +Darius was engaged on the Danube and the Indus, Aryandes, his viceroy in +Egypt, led an expedition against Barca, to avenge the murder of king +Arcesilaus; a war which terminated in the destruction of the city, and +the transplantation of its inhabitants into Asia. + +18. However trifling the first occurrence which gave rise to the revolt +of the Asiatic Greeks, it was much more important in its consequences. +It was set on foot by Aristagoras, lieutenant-governor of Miletus, who +was secretly supported by his relation, the offended Histiaeus, then +resident at the Persian court. The share taken by the Athenians in this +rebellion, which led to the burning of Sardes, was the origin of the +national hatred between Persia and European Greece, and of the long +series of wars that ensued. The confederates were this time defeated; +but the naval battle off the island of Lada, could hardly have had such +a fatal result, had not the league been previously corrupted by the +craft and gold of Persia. Be that as it may, this war ended in the +reduction of the Ionians, and the destruction of Miletus, their +flourishing capital; a city which in those days, together with Tyre and +Carthage, engrossed the trade of the world. + +19. First attack upon Greece, particularly Athens. Darius, already +enraged against the Athenians by the firing of Sardes, is still further +instigated by the suggestions of the banished tyrant of Athens, Hippias, +the son of Pisistratus. This prince, who had fled to the Persian court, +was evidently the animating spirit of the whole undertaking. Although +the first attempt, made under the command of Mardonius, was thwarted by +a tempest, yet the mighty expedition which afterwards followed, was +undertaken with so much more prudence, and conducted with so much +knowledge of the country, that no one can fail to recognize the guiding +hand of Hippias. Even the battle of Marathon, which seems to have been +but a diversion on the side of the Persians, would not have decided the +war, had not the activity of Miltiades defeated the principal design of +the enemy upon Athens. + +20. It may be said that Darius, by these foreign wars, debilitated the +kingdom which he endeavoured to extend; this circumstance, however, it +cannot be denied, increases the merit which he has of perfecting the +internal organization of the empire. His reign constitutes precisely +that period which must enter into the history of every nomad race that +has attained to power, and is advancing towards political civilization; +a period at which it becomes visible that the nation is endeavouring to +obtain a constitution, however gradual the progress towards it. + +21. Division of the empire into twenty _satrapies_, and the imposition +of a regular tribute on each. This division at first depended solely on +that of the various tributary races, but from it gradually arose a +geographic division, in which the ancient distinction of countries was +for the most part preserved. + + Proofs that the division into satrapies was originally a mere + arrangement for the civil government and collection of taxes, + distinct from military power. Duties of the satraps. The attention + they were to pay to the cultivation and improvement of the land; to + the collection of the imposts; to the execution of the royal + commands relating to provincial affairs. An abuse of this + institution, at a later period, placed in the hands of these + satraps the command also of the troops.--Various means of keeping + the satraps in a state of dependence: royal secretaries appointed + for each, who were to be the first to receive the king's + commands.--Periodical visits paid to the provinces by commissioners + under the direct appointment of the king, or by the king himself + accompanied with an army.--Establishment of couriers in every part + of the empire, for the purpose of securing a safe and rapid + communication with the provinces, as was the case also in the + Mongol countries; (not a regular post, however, the institution + here alluded to being intended only for the court.) + +22. The Persian finance continues to preserve those peculiarities which +naturally result from the formation of an empire by a nomad race of +conquerors, desirous of living at the expense of the conquered, and +under a despotic form of government. + + Collection of tribute, mostly in kind, for the support of the court + and the armies; and in precious metals, not coined, but in their + raw state. Application of the treasure thus collected towards + constituting a private chest for the king. Various other royal + imposts.--Mode of providing for the public expenditure by + assignments on the revenues of one or several places. + +23. Organization of the military system, conformably to the primitive +state of the nation, and the necessity now felt of keeping the conquered +countries in subjection by means of standing armies. + + Military organization of the Persian nations, by means of a decimal + division pervading the whole.--Royal troops cantoned in the open + field, according to a certain division of the empire, or stationed + as garrisons in the cities, and distinct from the + encampments.--Manner in which the troops were supported at the cost + and by the taxes of the provinces.--Introduction of mercenaries + and Greeks, more particularly among the Persians, and fatal + consequences of that measure. Military household of the satraps and + grandees.--Institution of a general conscription in national wars. + Formation of the Persian navy, consisting of the Phoenician, and + not unfrequently of the Asiatic Greek fleets. + +24. From the time of Darius, the court of the kings of Persia attained +its complete form, and the government soon after was wholly concentrated +in the seraglio. Yet the mode of life which the kings led, surrounded by +a court, taken principally if not wholly from the tribe of the +Pasargadae, and changing their residence according to the revolutions of +the seasons, still preserved the traces of nomad origin. + + Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana, the usual residences; Persepolis now + used as a royal cemetery. The court supported by the most costly + productions of each province; hence arose the rigid ceremonial + observed at the royal table.--Internal organization of the + seraglio.--Influence of the eunuchs and queen-mothers on the + government. + +25. Already had Darius commenced preparations to wreak his vengeance on +Athens, when a revolution broke out in Egypt, and hindered him from +prosecuting his design. He died after nominating for his successor +Xerxes I. grandson of Cyrus, and his eldest son by a second wife, +Atossa, whose influence over her husband was boundless. + +26. Xerxes I. A prince educated in the seraglio, who knew nothing beyond +the art of representing the pomp of royalty. Subjection of Egypt, and +severe treatment of that country under the satrap Achaemenes, brother to +Xerxes. + +27. Xerxes' famous expedition against Greece was again the result of +the cabals and intrigues of the Greek exiles, the Pisistratidae, the +soothsayer Onomacritus, the Thessalian princes or Aleuadae, who +contrived to exert their influence on the king's mind, and to raise a +party in their favour among the grandees. But the progress of the +campaign showed that no Hippias was at the head of the invading army, +although the Persian king did certainly succeed in his avowed object, +the capture and destruction of Athens. + + Critique on the detailed account given by Herodotus of this + expedition, as a national undertaking in which all the subjugated + nations were obliged to take a share.--Preparations which last for + three years in the Persian empire; league framed with Carthage for + the subjection of the Sicilian Greeks, 483-481. The expedition + itself in 480; over Asia Minor and the Hellespont, through Thrace + and Macedonia.--Muster of the army and division of the troops + according to nations at Doriscus; the detailed description of which + found in Herodotus, was most probably borrowed from some Persian + document.--The pass of Thermopylae taken by treachery; on the same + day a naval engagement off Artemisium.--Athens captured and burnt. + Battle of Salamis, Sept. 23, 480. Retreat of Xerxes; an army of + picked men left behind, under the command of Mardonius.--Fruitless + negotiations with the Athenians.--Second campaign of Mardonius: he + is routed at Plataeae, Sept. 25, 479; and that event puts an end for + ever to the Persian irruptions into Greece: on the same day the + Persian army is defeated, and their fleet burnt at Mycale in Asia + Minor. + +28. The consequences of these repeated and unsuccessful expeditions, in +which almost the whole population was engaged, must be self-evident. The +empire was weakened and depopulated. The defensive war which the +Persians for thirty years were obliged to maintain against the Greeks, +who aimed at establishing the independence of their Asiatic countrymen, +completely destroyed the balance of their power, by compelling them to +transfer their forces to Asia Minor, the most distant western province +of the empire. + +29. Little as the Greeks had to fear from the Persian arms, the danger +with which they were now threatened was much more formidable, when the +enemy began to adopt the system of bribing the chieftains of Greece; a +system which succeeded beyond expectation in the first trial made of it +with Pausanias, and perhaps was not wholly unsuccessful with +Themistocles himself.--But the Persians soon found in Cimon an adversary +who deprived them of the sovereignty of the sea; who in one day +destroyed both their fleet and their army on the Eurymedon; and by the +conquest of the Thracian Chersonese, wrested from them the key of +Europe. + +30. What little we know further concerning the reign of Xerxes, consists +in the intrigues of the seraglio, which now, through the machinations of +queen Amestris, became the theatre of all those horrors which are wont +to be exhibited in such places, and to which Xerxes himself at last fell +a victim, in consequence of the conspiracy of Artabanes and the eunuch +Spamitres. + + Was Xerxes the Ahasuerus of the Jews?--On the difference between the + names of the Persian kings in Persian and Chaldee; not to be + wondered at when we consider that they were mere titles or surnames, + assumed by the sovereigns after their accession. + +31. Artaxerxes I. surnamed Longimanus. In consequence of the murder of +his father and his elder brother, in the conspiracy of Artabanes, this +prince ascended the throne, but was unable to keep possession of the +sceptre without assassinating, in his turn, Artabanes. His reign, which +lasted forty years, exhibits the first symptoms of the decline of the +empire, which this king, although possessed of many good qualities, had +not the talent or spirit to arrest. + +32. At the very commencement of his reign rebellions are excited in the +provinces; in the mean while the war with Athens continues. Two battles +are required to repress the insurrection of his brother Hystaspes in +Bactria. + +33. Second revolt of Egypt, excited by the Libyan king, Inarus of Marea, +in conjunction with the Egyptian, Amyrtaeus, and supported by an Athenian +fleet. Although the confederates did not make themselves masters of +Memphis, they defeated the Persian army, commanded by the king's +brother, Achaemenes, who lost his life in the battle; they were at last +overpowered by Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, and shut up together with +Inarus in the town of Byblus. Inarus and his party were admitted to +capitulation; but Amyrtaeus, having taken refuge in the morasses, +continued to make head against the Persians. + +34. The Grecian war takes, once more, an unfavourable turn for the +Persians: Cimon defeats the enemy's fleet and army near Cyprus. The fear +of losing the whole of the island accordingly compels Artaxerxes I. to +sign a treaty of peace with Athens, in which he recognizes the +independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agrees that his fleet shall not +navigate the Aegaean sea, nor his troops approach within three days' march +of the coast. + +35. But the haughty and powerful Megabyzus, enraged at the execution of +Inarus, in violation of the promise made by him to that prince, excites +a rebellion in Syria; repeatedly defeats the royal armies, and +prescribes himself the conditions upon which he will be reconciled to +his sovereign. This was the first great example of a successful +insurrection excited by one of the Persian satraps; and chequered as +were the subsequent fortunes of Megabyzus, his party continued to +subsist after his death in the persons of his sons. He possessed in the +centre of the court a support in the dowager queen Amestris, and the +reigning queen Amytis; (both notorious for their excesses;) who kept +Artaxerxes I. in a constant state of tutelage to the hour of his death. + +36. Revolutions in the government now succeed each other with rapidity +and violence. Xerxes II. the only legitimate son and successor of +Artaxerxes, is slain, after forty-five days' reign, by his bastard +brother Sogdianus; the latter, in his turn, after a reign of six months, +is deposed by another bastard brother, Ochus, who ascends the throne, +and assumes the name of Darius II. + +37. Darius II. surnamed the Bastard, or Nothus. He reigns nineteen years +under the tutelage of his wife, Parysatis, and of three eunuchs, one of +whom, Artoxares, even attempts to open a way to the throne, but is put +to death. In this period the decline of the state advances with hurried +steps; partly by reason of the extinction of the legitimate royal line, +partly by the increased practice of placing more than one province, +together with the military command, in the hands of the same satrap. +Although the repeated insurrections of the satraps are repressed, the +court, by the breach of faith to which it is obliged to have recourse, +in order to succeed in its measures, exhibits to the world a convincing +proof of its infirmity. The revolt of Arsites, one of the king's +brothers, who was supported by a son of Megabyzus, and that of +Pisuthnes, satrap of Lydia, are quelled only by obtaining treacherous +possession of their persons. + +38. In consequence of the weak state of the empire, the fire, which had +hitherto been smouldering under the ashes, burst forth in Egypt. +Amyrtaeus, who had remained till now in the morasses, issued forth, +supported by the Egyptians; and the Persians were again expelled the +land. Obscure as the subsequent history may be, we see that the Persians +were obliged to acknowledge, not only Amyrtaeus, but his successors. [See +page 72]. + +39. The Persians must have regarded it as a happy event, that the +Peloponnesian war, kindled in Greece during the reign of Artaxerxes, and +protracted through the whole of that of Darius II. had prevented the +Greeks from unitedly falling upon Persia. It now became, and +henceforward continued to be, the chief policy of the Persians to foment +quarrels and wars between the Grecian republics, by siding at various +times with various parties; and the mutual hatred of the Greeks rendered +this game so easy, that Greece could hardly have escaped total +destruction, had the Persian plans been always as wisely laid as they +were by Tissaphernes; and had not the caprice and jealousy of the +satraps in Asia Minor generally had more effect than the commands of +the court. + + Alliance of the Persians with Sparta, framed by Tissaphernes, 441; + but in consequence of the policy of Alcibiades, and the artful + principles of Tissaphernes, followed by no important results, until + the younger Cyrus, satrap of all Asia Minor, was by Lysander, 407, + brought over to the Spartan interest. (See below, the Grecian + history, III. Period, parag. 23.) + +40. Artaxerxes II. surnamed Mnemon. Although this prince was the eldest +son of Darius, his right to the throne might, according to the Persian +ideas of succession, have appeared dubious, since his younger brother, +Cyrus, had the advantage over him of being the first born subsequent to +the accession of his father. Relying on the support of his mother +Parysatis, Cyrus, even without this claim to the throne, would, no +doubt, have asserted his pretence to the sovereign power. It would have +been, in all probability, a fortunate event for the Persian empire, had +the fate of battle, in the ensuing war between the two brothers, +assigned the throne to him whom nature seems to have pointed out as the +fittest person. + + History of this war according to Xenophon. Battle of Cunaxa, + in which Cyrus falls, 401. Retreat of the ten thousand Greek + mercenaries in the service of Cyrus, under the guidance of Xenophon. + +41. During the whole of this reign, Artaxerxes, now firmly seated on the +throne, remained under the tutelage of his mother, Parysatis, whose +inveterate hatred against his wife, Statira, and against all who had any +share in the death of her darling son, Cyrus, converted the seraglio +into a theatre of bloody deeds, such as can be conceived and committed +only in similar places. + +42. The insurrection and rout of Cyrus produced a corresponding change +in the political relations between the Persian court and Sparta: which, +however, were now determined, not so much by the will of the monarch +himself, as by the satraps of Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, +of whose jealousy Sparta knew how to take advantage. The former, by his +severity towards the Asiatic Greeks, who had supported the cause of +Cyrus, excited a war with Sparta, in which he himself fell a victim. The +death of the satrap is not, however, succeeded by tranquillity; for +Agesilaus commands in Asia, and threatens to overthrow the Persian +throne itself. The policy of the Persians is shown by the war which they +foment in Greece against Sparta: Conon is placed at the head of their +fleet, and extricates Persia from her difficulties better than could +have been done by her own generals; in the peace of Antalcidas she +herself dictates the terms, by which the Grecian colonies of Asia Minor, +together with Cyprus and Clazomenae, are again delivered into her +possession. The rising power of Thebes under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, +with whom Persia keeps up a friendly connection, ensures her from any +future blow at the hands of the Spartans.--War for the possession of +Cyprus with Evagoras, who, however, by the subsequent peace retains the +sovereignty of Salamis. + +43. The war against the Cadusii in the mountains of Caucasus, proves +that Artaxerxes II. was not fitted for military command; and his attempt +to recover Egypt from king Nectanebus I. which was defeated by the feud +between Iphicrates and Artabazus, evinces that the most numerous +Persian host could achieve nothing without the assistance of Grecian +troops and Grecian generals.--It could hardly be expected that an empire +should endure much longer, when in the court all was ruled by the desire +of revenge in the women; when the political organization was already so +corrupt, that the satraps waged war against each other; and when those +generals who gave any proof of talent received no better reward than +that of Datames. + +44. In fact, it seemed not unlikely that the Persian empire would fall +asunder a little before the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A quarrel about +the succession arose in the court between the three legitimate sons of +the king, the eldest of whom, Darius, was put to death: the standard of +rebellion was erected in the western half of the empire, and joined by +all the governors of Asia Minor and Syria, supported by Tachos, king of +Egypt, to whose assistance the Spartans had sent Agesilaus. The +insurrection, however, was quelled in consequence of the treachery of +the chief leader, Orontes, who was bribed over to the court. + +45. In the midst of these commotions died Artaxerxes II.: his youngest +son, Ochus, took possession of the throne, and assumed the name of +Artaxerxes III. This king conceived that he could not establish his +power but by the total destruction of the royal family, numerous as it +was. He was contemporary with Philip of Macedon, in whom he soon found a +more formidable rival than any he could have met with in his own family. + +46. The new insurrection fomented by Artabazus in Asia Minor, was +accompanied with success so long as it was backed by the Thebans; but +the reception which Artabazus met with at the hands of Philip soon +betrayed the secret intentions of the Macedonian king. + +47. But the extensive rebellion of the Phoenicians and Cyprians, in +conjunction with Egypt, compelled the king to undertake another +expedition, which succeeded almost beyond expectation; although in this +case the object was again attained principally by treachery and by +Grecian auxiliaries. + + Treachery of Mentor, the leader of the confederates: the consequent + capture and destruction of Sidon, followed by the subjection of + Phoenicia, 356. Capture of Cyprus by Grecian troops, under the + command of Phocion and the younger Evagoras, 354. Expedition of the + king in person against Egypt: victory of Pelusium, won over king + Nectanebus II. with the help of Grecian mercenaries. Egypt becomes, + once more, a Persian province. + +48. This restoration of the empire to its former limits was followed by +a period of tranquillity, the result of force, as Mentor and the eunuch +Bagoas, holding the king in complete dependence, divided the kingdom, as +it were, between themselves; until Bagoas was pleased, by poison, to +remove Artaxerxes out of his way. + +49. After the assassination of the royal family, Bagoas placed on the +throne the king's youngest and only surviving son, Arces. Bagoas was +desirous of reigning in the name of that prince; but after the lapse of +two years, he found it necessary to depose him, and to substitute in his +place a distant relation of the reigning family, Darius Codomannus, who +commenced his reign by putting to death the wretch himself. + +50. Darius III. Codomannus, not having been educated, like his +predecessors, in the seraglio, gave proof of virtues which entitled +him to a better fate. Attacked in the second year of his reign by +Macedon, against which Persia had hitherto made no preparation for +resistance,--unless, perhaps, the dagger which pierced Philip was +pointed by Persian hands,--Darius was unable at once to reestablish a +kingdom which of itself was mouldering away. And yet, had not death +defeated the invasion of Macedonia by his general, Memnon, it might have +been matter of doubt, whether Alexander would ever have shone as the +conqueror of Asia.--After the loss of two battles, in which he fought in +person, Darius III. fell a victim to the treachery of Bessus, and the +burning of Persepolis made known to Asia that the realm of Persia was +destroyed, and that the east must acknowledge a new lord and master. + + For the history of the war, see below: the history of Macedon. + + + * * * * * + + + + +THIRD BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. + + + + +_Geographical Outline._ + + +_Greece_ is bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which +separate it from Macedonia; on the south and east by the Aegaean, on the +west by the Ionian sea. Greatest length from south to north = 220 geog. +miles, greatest breadth from west to east, = 140 geog. miles. +Superficial contents, = 29,600 square miles.--Principal rivers: the +Peneus, which discharges its waters into the Aegaean, and the Achelous, +which flows into the Ionian sea. Advantages in respect to fertility, +resulting from the mildness of the climate, between 37-40 deg. N. lat.; +from the number of small streams; from the qualities and variety of the +soil, in which this country has been so much more blessed by nature than +any other of similar extent, that every branch of cultivation may be +prosecuted equally and in conjunction.--Advantages in reference to +navigation and commerce: situated in the vicinity of the three quarters +of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and by reason of its +irregular, indented coast, abounding with commodious ports and havens. + +It may be divided into Northern Greece, from the north boundary to the +chain of Oeta and Pindus, between the Ambracian gulf west, and the +Maliac east. Central Greece, or Hellas, down to the isthmus of Corinth: +and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus. + +Northern Greece comprises two countries; Thessaly east, Epirus west. + +1. Thessaly, the largest and one of the most fruitful of the Grecian +countries. Length from north to south 60 geog. miles; breadth from west +to east 64 geog. miles. Rivers: the Peneus, Apidanus, and several +smaller streams. Mountains: Olympus, residence of the fabulous gods, and +Ossa in the north; the chain of Oeta, Othrys, and Pindus in the south. +Division into five provinces: 1. Estiaeotis; cities: Gomphi, Azorus: 2. +Pelasgiotis; cities: Larissa, Gonni, the vale of Tempe: 3. Thessaliotis; +cities: Pharsalus, etc. 4. Phthiotis; cities: Pherae, etc. 5. The +foreland of Magnesia, with a city of the same name. Other territories, +such as Perrhaebia, etc. for instance, derived their names from the +non-Greek races who inhabited them. + +2. Epirus. Next to Thessaly, the largest, although one of the least +cultivated countries of Greece: 48-60 geog. miles long, and the same in +breadth. Divisions: Molossis; city, Ambracia: Thesprotia; city, +Buthrotum; in the interior, Dodona. + +Central Greece, or Hellas, comprises nine countries. + +1. Attica, a foreland, extending towards the south-east, and gradually +diminishing. Length, 60 geog. miles; greatest breadth, 24 geog. miles. +Rivers: Ilissus, Cephissus. Mountains: Hymettus, Pentelicus, and the +headland of Sunium. City: Athens, with the harbours Piraeus, Phalereus, +and Munychius; in the other parts no towns, but hamlets, [Greek: demoi], +such as Marathon, Eleusis, Decelea, etc. + +2. Megaris, close to the isthmus of Corinth. The smallest of the Grecian +countries; 16 geog. miles long, and from 4-8 broad. City, Megara. + +3. Boeotia, a mountainous and marshy country, 52 geog. miles long, and +from 28-32 broad. Rivers: Asopus, Ismenus, and several smaller streams. +Mountains: Helicon, Cythaeron, etc. Lake: Copais.--Boeotia was, of all +the Grecian countries, that which contained the greatest number of +cities, each having its own separate territory. Among these, the first +in importance, and frequently mistress of the rest, was Thebes on the +Ismenus. The others, Plataeae, Tanagra, Thespiae, Chaeronea, Lebadea, +Leuctra, and Orchomenus, are all celebrated in Grecian history. + +4. Phocis, smaller than Attica; 48 geog. miles long, from 4-20 broad. +River: Cephissus. Mountain: Parnassus. Cities: Delphi, on Parnassus, +with the celebrated oracle of Apollo. Crissa, with the harbour of +Cirrha, and up the country Elatea. The other cities are insignificant. + +5, 6. The two countries called Locris. The eastern on the Euripus, +territory of the Locri Opuntii and Epicnemidii is the lesser of the two; +being but little larger than Megaris. City: Opus; pass, Thermopylae. The +western Locris on the Corinthian gulf, station of the Locri Ozolae, is +from 20-24 geog. miles long, and from 16-20 broad. Cities: Naupactus on +the sea, Amphissa up the country. + +7. The small country of Doris, or the Tetrapolis Dorica, on the south +side of mount Oeta, from 8-12 geog. miles long, and the same in breadth. + +8. Aetolia, somewhat larger than Boeotia; from 40-52 geog. miles long, +and from 28-32 broad; but the least cultivated country of all. Rivers: +Achelous, which skirts Acarnania, and the Evenus. Cities: Calydon, +Thermus. + +9. Acarnania, the most western country of Hellas, 32 geog. miles long, +from 16-24 broad. River: Achelous. Cities: Argos Amphilochicum, and +Stratus. + +The peninsula of Peloponnesus contains eight countries. + +1. Arcadia, a mountainous country, abounding in pastures, and situate in +the centre of the peninsula; greatest length, 48 geog. miles; greatest +breadth, 36 geog. miles. Mountains: Cyllene, Erymanthus, etc. Rivers: +Alpheus, Erymanthus, and several smaller streams. Lake: Styx. Cities: +Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenus, Heraea, Psophis; subsequently Megalopolis, +as a common capital. + +2. Laconia, likewise mountainous. Greatest length, 66 geog. miles; +greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. River: Eurotas. Mountains: Taygetus, +and the headlands Malea and Tenarium. Cities: Sparta on the Eurotas; +other places: Amyclae, Sellasia, and others of little importance. + +3. Messenia, west of Laconia; a more level and extremely fertile +country, subject to the Spartans from B. C. 668. Greatest length, 28 +geog. miles: greatest breadth, 36 geog. miles. City: Messene. Frontier +places, Ithome and Ira: of the other places, Pylus (Navarino) and +Methone are the most celebrated. + +4. Elis, with the small territory of Triphylia, on the west of the +Peloponnesus. Length, 60 geog. miles: greatest breadth, 28 geog. miles. +Rivers: Alpheus, Peneus, Sellis, and several smaller streams. Cities: in +the north, Elis, Cyllene, and Pylus. On the Alpheus, Pisa and the +neighbouring town of Olympia. In Triphylia, a third Pylus. + +5. Argolis, on the east side of the peninsula; a foreland opposite to +Attica, with which it forms the Sinus Saronicus. Length, 64 geog. miles: +breadth, from 8-28 geog. miles. Cities: Argos, Mycenae, Epidaurus. +Smaller but remarkable places; Nemea, Cynuria, Troezen. + +6. Achaia, originally Ionia, called likewise Aegialus, comprises the +north coast. Length, 56 geog. miles: breadth, from 12-24. It contains +twelve cities, of which Dyme, Patrae, and Pellene are the most important. + +7. The little country of Sicyonia, 16 geog. miles long, 8 broad, with +the cities of Sicyon and Phlius. + +8. The small territory of Corinth, of the same extent as the foregoing, +adjoining the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the main land. +City: Corinth, originally Ephyra, with the ports of Lechaeum and +Cenchreae; the former on the Corinthian, the latter on the Saronic gulf. + +The Greek islands may be divided into three classes; those which lie +immediately off the coasts, those which are collected in groups, and +those which lie separate in the open sea. + +1. Islands off the coasts. Off the west coast in the Ionian sea: +Corcyra, opposite Epirus, 32 geog. miles long, from 8-16 broad. City: +Corcyra. A Corinthian colony. Opposite Acarnania; Leucadia, with the +city and headland of Leucas.--Cephalonia or Same, originally Scheria, +with the cities of Same and Cephalonia. In the neighbourhood lies the +small island of Ithaca.--Opposite Elis: Zacynthus. Off the south coast: +Cythera, with a town of the same name. Off the east coast, in the +Saronic gulf: Aegina and Salamis. Opposite Boeotia, from which it is +separated by the strait named Euripus, Euboea, the most extensive of +all; 76 geog. miles long, from 12-16 geog. miles broad. Cities: Oreus, +with the headland of Artemisium on the north, in the centre Chalcis, +Eretria. Off Thessaly, Scyathus and Halonesus. Farther north, Thasus, +Imbrus, Samothrace, and Lemnos. + +2. Clusters of islands in the Aegaean sea: the Cyclades and Sporades; the +former of which comprise the western, the latter the eastern islands of +the Archipelago. The most important among them are, Andros, Delos, +Paros, Naxos, Melos, all with cities of the same names. + +3. The more extensive separate islands: 1. Crete, 140 geog. miles long, +from 24-40 broad. Mountain: Ida. Cities: Cydonia, Gortyna, Cnossus. 2. +Cyprus, 120 geog. miles long, from 20-80 broad. Cities: Salamis, Paphos, +Citium, and several smaller places. + + Concerning the principal Greek islands off the coast of Asia + Minor, see above, p. 18. + + # FR. CARL. HERM. KRUSE, _Geographico-Antiquarian delineation + of ancient Greece and its colonies, with reference to modern + discoveries_. Illustrated with maps and plates: first part, 1825. + General Geography: second part, first division, 1826. Second + division, 1827. Special Geography of Central Greece. A most minute + and careful description of Greece, founded on modern discoveries. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_The most ancient traditional history, down to the Trojan war, +about B. C. 1200._ + + + Sources: On the formation and progress of history among the Greeks. + Preliminary enquiry into the peculiarities of Grecian mythology in + a historical point of view, as comprising the most ancient history + of the national tribes and heroes. A history rich in itself, on + account of the number of tribes and their leaders; but embellished + and altered in various ways by the poets, particularly the great + early epic writers, and afterwards by the tragedians.--First + advance of history from tradition, wrought by the logographi, + especially those of the Ionian cities, Hecataeus, Pherecydes, etc. + until HERODOTUS, so justly called the Father of History, raised it + at once to such a lofty pitch of eminence. (Compare # _The + historical Art of the Greeks considered in its Rise and Progress, + by_ G. F. CREUZER; 1803.) Nevertheless, in Herodotus, and even + later writers, history continued to savour of its origin; and so + far as the realm of tradition extended, even Theopompus and Ephorus + felt no disinclination to borrow their materials from mythologists + or poets. It need scarcely be observed, that in this first period + the history is merely traditional. + + Among the moderns, the English have most successfully treated the + subject of Grecian history: the principal works are: + + JOHN GILLIES, _The History of Ancient Greece, its colonies and + conquests, from the earliest accounts till the division of the + Macedonian empire in the east, including the history of literature, + philosophy, and the fine arts_. London, 1786, 2 vols. 4to. and + + WILLIAM MITFORD, _The History of Greece_. London, 1784, 4 vols. + 4to. Several new editions have since appeared. Translated into + German, Jena, 1800, sqq. by _H. L. Eichstaedt_. Mitford is perhaps + superior in learning, copiousness, and solidity, but he certainly + is greatly surpassed by Gillies in genius and taste, and more + especially in a proper conception of the spirit of antiquity. [Few + English critics will here coincide with our author.] + + DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Grecs_, 1701, 2 vols. 8vo. Replete + with partial views and hypotheses. + + # HEEREN, _Researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of + the most celebrated nations of antiquity_: 3 vols. 1st part, 4th + edit. 1826. [Translated into English, Oxford, 1830, 8vo.] + + Many important enquiries on various portions of Grecian history and + antiquities will be found in the great collection: + + GRONOVII, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Graecarum_, 12 vols. folio. + + Others are contained in the transactions of different learned + societies; particularly in + + _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres_, + Paris, 1709, sqq. 49 vols. 4to. + + _Commentarii_, (4 vols.) _Commentarii novi_, (8 vols.) + _Commentationes_, (16 vols.) and _Commentationes recentiores + Societatis Scientiarum Gotting._ (5 vols.) + +1. Although Greece was originally inhabited by several insignificant +races, two principal tribes claim our attention, the _Pelasgi_ and the +_Hellenes_. Both probably were of Asiatic origin; but the difference of +their language characterized them as different tribes. The Pelasgi were +the first that extended their dominion in Greece. + + First seat of the Pelasgians in the Peloponnesus, under Inachus, + about B. C. 1800. According to their own traditions, they made + their first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages; + they must, however, at an early period, have made some progress + towards civilization, since the most ancient states, Argos and + Sicyon, owed their origin to them; and to them, perhaps, with + great probability, are attributed the remains of those most + ancient monuments generally termed _cyclopian_.--Extension of this + tribe towards the north, particularly over Attica; settlement in + Thessaly under their leaders Achaeus, Phthius, and Pelasgus; here + they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and remained for + a hundred and fifty successive years; about 1700-1500. + +2. The Hellenes,--subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their +chieftains,--originally the weaker of the two tribes, make their first +appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under king Deucalion; from whence +they are driven by a flood. They migrate into Thessaly, and drive out +the Pelasgi from that territory.--The Hellenes soon after this become +the most powerful race; and spreading over Greece, expel the Pelasgi +from almost every part. The latter tribe maintain their ground only in +Arcadia, and the land of Dodona; some of them migrate to Italy, others +to Crete, and various islands. + +3. The Hellenic tribe is subdivided into four principal branches, the +_Aeolians_, _Ionians_, _Dorians_, and _Achaeans_, which continue +afterwards to be distinguished and separated by many peculiarities of +speech, customs, and political government. These four tribes, although +they must not be considered as comprising all the slender ramifications +of the nation, are derived by tradition from Deucalion's immediate +posterity; with whose personal history, therefore, the history of the +tribes themselves and their migrations is interwoven. + + This derivation of the tribes will be better understood by an + inspection of the following genealogical table: + + DEUCALION. + | + HELLEN. + |--------------------|--------------------| + DORUS. XUTHUS. AEOLUS. + | |---------|-------------| | + DORIANS. | | AEOLIANS. + ACHAEUS. ION. + | | + ACHAEANS. IONIANS. + +4. The gradual spread of the various branches of the Hellenic tribe over +Greece was effected by several migrations, between B. C. 1500-1300; +after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained +until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidae, about 1100. + + _Principal data for the history of the separate tribes in this + period._ + + 1. AEOLUS follows his father Hellen into Phthiotis, which + consequently remains the seat of the Aeolians; they spread from + thence over western Greece, Acarnania, Aetolia, Phocis, Locris, Elis + in the Peloponnesus, and likewise over the western islands. + + 2. DORUS follows his father into Estiaeotis, the most ancient seat + of the Dorians. They are driven from thence after the death of + Dorus by the Perrhaebi; spread over Macedonia and Crete; part of the + tribe return, cross mount Oeta, and settle in the Tetrapolis + Dorica, afterwards called Doris, where they remain until they + migrate into Peloponnesus, under the guidance of the Heraclidae; + about 1100. (See below, p. 127). + + 3. XUTHUS, expelled by his brothers, migrates to Athens, where he + marries Creusa, daughter of Erectheus, by whom he has sons, Ion and + Achaeus. Ion and his tribe, driven out of Athens, settle in that + part of Peloponnesus called Aegialus, a name which by them was + converted into Ionia, and in later times exchanged for Achaia. The + Achaeans preserve their footing in Laconia and Argos, until the time + of the Dorian migration. + + # L. D. HUELLMAN, _Early Grecian History_, 1814. Rich in original + views and conjectures, beyond which the early history of nations + seldom extends. + + # D. C. OTFRIED MUELLER, _History of the Hellenic Tribes and + Cities_, 1820, vol. 1. containing, _Orchomenus and the Minyae_; + vols. 2, 3, containing the _Dorians_, 1825. + +5. Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period +came into Greece from civilized countries, from Egypt, Phoenicia, and +Mysia. The settlements of these strangers occurred probably between B. +C. 1600-1400. + + Establishment in Attica of the colony of Cecrops, from Sais in Egypt, + about 1550; in Argos, of the colony of Danaus, likewise from Egypt, + about 1500.--The colony of Cadmus, from Phoenicia, settles in Boeotia + about 1550.--The colony of Pelops, from Mysia, settles in Argos about + 1400. + +6. The mythology of the Hellenes proves beyond a doubt, that they were +at first savages, like the Pelasgi since they had to learn even the use +of fire from Prometheus; yet it is equally clear that they must, even in +the earliest period, particularly from 1300-1200, when they had ceased +to migrate, have made the first important steps towards the attainment +of a certain degree of civilization. About the time of the Trojan war +they appear to have been still barbarians, though no longer savages. + +7. The origin and progress of this national organization, and the +influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are +difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first +who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the +cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it +unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for +the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the +families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the +most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be +a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks +borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar +character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the +nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance +which it assumes at the first glance. + +8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual +civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious +rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and +generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not +therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian +gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can +hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the +highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate +order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste +laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces, +nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient +sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests, +who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And +notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies, +many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this +manner, the common property of the nation. + +9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became +in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek: +aoidoi],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious +principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it +the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the +country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure +to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages +resulting from a civilized life. + + SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mysteres du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765. + Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ; + Gotha, 1790. + +10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially +those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with +that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of +priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of +consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as +the common property of the nation, to which every one should have +access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the +direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on +those oracles. + + A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6. + Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on + the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated + of in + + J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quae in Herodoti libris + continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786. + +11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant +of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the +festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there +various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met +in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose +spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections +which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the +Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest: +it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later +period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle, +that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by +the others. + + # FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A + dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at + Berlin. + +12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent +intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and +prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the +navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete +cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must +have been felt long before. + +13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually +aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the +heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited; +and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in +confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These +undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages +were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by +means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such +as contributed to the further development of the national genius. + + Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250; + war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the + town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons + of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215. + +14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of +all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the +war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the +kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of +dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must +almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so +distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and +which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan +war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one +people. + + General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the + Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful + of which were Argos and Mycenae.--All those states were governed by + hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings, + [Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and + judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in + proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to + their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation + dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and + tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced + in the art of navigation. + + A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A + review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the + topography of Troy: + + LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and + accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE, + _Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of + Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE, + _Travels in Asia Minor_. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C. +1200-500._ + + Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information + so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said + to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most + important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is + but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards + the end of it that the use of writing became common among the + Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great + national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials + for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which + may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all + from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not + be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an + abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate + histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to + this period are lost. + + # FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of + Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the + information we possess respecting this subject. + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4 + vols. An excellent work. + + +1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._ + +1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence +of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in +that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the +attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians +combined with the Aetolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants +of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of +Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and +as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the +consequences were lasting and important. + + First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about + 1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidae + are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and + Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their + brother Aristodemus, 1100. + +2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The +territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the +Achaeans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the +Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Aetolians, who had accompanied +the former. The Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and +settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are +received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the +consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned +likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an +occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the +nation. This colonization was commenced by the Aeolian Hellenes, whose +example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians. + + For the history of these colonies, see the following section. + +3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder +tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only +to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to +annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid +of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The +tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled, +remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some +for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however, +immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican +constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian +countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to +exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of +political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people, +constituted from this time the principal feature in the national +character. + +4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so +important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy +was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly +come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time +towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of +things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate +state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free +states as cities. + + The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as + countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that + the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to + authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries, + such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a + separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city. + The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each + form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were + free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory, + formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the + natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke + of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were + entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities + of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed + one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still + preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in + consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of + dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the + Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and + depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be + observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent + many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,) + who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also + contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their + families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the + fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too + clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is + self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things + thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the + attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the + more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts + facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more + frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this + intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results + of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and + others. + +5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states, +united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of +the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part +by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among +which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation +at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others, +were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the +extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last +institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have +been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes +place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states +become too powerful. + + The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in + which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was + to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it + must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the + Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which + the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political + influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was + enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The + Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but + Hellenes were admitted. + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens federatifs, et de la + legislation de Crete_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable + inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but + also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them. + +6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this +period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also +for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not +perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is +connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the +highest claim to our attention. + +7. History of Sparta. The Achaeans at first were governed by princes of +the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in +virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter +had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of +Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal +power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one +from each family. + + Families of the Proclidae and Aegidae; the latter so called from Agis, + the son and successor of Eurysthenes. + + # J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of + Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon + this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon + various points of Grecian history connected with it. + + CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedaemoniorum_, 1642. + + MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both + laborious compilations. + +8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in +many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at +least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achaeans that +remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the +city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it +ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable, +becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant. + + Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling + body, and the Lacedaemonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of + the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even + in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection + was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as + a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the + sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal + liberty, however confined it might be. + +9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus, +exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their +neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too +unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of +the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of +the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that +constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent +splendour. + + _Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._ + Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation + of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not + written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhetrai],) which + were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin + have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly + attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian + institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished + by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus + must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the + Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told, + was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the + laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating + and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those + laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical + education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the + legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations. + + In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had + hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the + Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from + the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war + and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus + is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) + consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than + sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and + were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether + the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally + instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question + impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great + power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as + the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the + time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the + popular assemblies, convened according to the division into + [Greek: phylas] and [Greek: obas], at which none but Spartans could + assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or + reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate. + + In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the + Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with + respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply + impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his + country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience. + Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans, + and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians; permission being given to dispose + of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The + removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly + by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the + citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were + settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in + relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was + so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand + political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens. + 4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under + the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded + nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had + the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it + is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan + constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult + and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which + present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject. + Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,) + without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the + constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon + after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be + expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the + centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth, + whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man, + impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of + agriculture were left to the care of slaves. + + Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119. + + HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat. + Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of + DE PAUW. + +10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans +with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly +the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an +old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal +division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless +evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by +the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious +multitude by oracular responses and interpretations. + + Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene, + 783-745. + + First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the + frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the + Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to + the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues + of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution, + according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as + vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the + quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The + power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular + assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to + them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a + vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and + Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to + which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of + maintaining domestic tranquillity. + + Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the + command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of + Tyrtaeus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was + terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian + territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered + inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves. + +11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by +these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before +it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps +to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at +the expense of the Argives and Arcadians. + + Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for + the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession + of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation, + about 550. + +12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give +rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a +long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But +no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of +his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, +than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The +Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part, +although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of +Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in +Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political +relations before unknown. + +13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important +rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the +state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation +and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other +parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured +the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of +which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most +profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so +perspicuously as the historian might wish. + + The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the + works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which: + + W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically + considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history. + + CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful + chronological essay. + + 1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens + as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father + Aegeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as + that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles, + ([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: georgoi],) and + mechanics: ([Greek: demiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our + memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an + earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus + was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since, + instead of the four districts, ([Greek: demoi],) hitherto + independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as + the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of + the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the + last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued + Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068. + + 2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus, + thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last, + Alcmaeon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance, + but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek: + hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the + migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See + below. + + 3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between + 752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This + period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences. + + 4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly + chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings, + and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of + the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes + above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them, + or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an + oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome, + immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and + the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble + families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears + only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by + its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of + the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to + the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon + themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the + purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for + commotion. The political factions of the Pediaei, of the Diacrii, + and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the + neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a + conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by + Solon. + +14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to +whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He +was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the +constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed +this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country. + + _Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main + object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however + introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the + statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for + the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novae tabulae,) not so + much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a + rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal + liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to + the constitution and in reference to private life and private + rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the + people by means of divisions: according to property into four + classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of + 500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the + Zeugitae, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly + revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according + to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four, + and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a + hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but + citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of + state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a + right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons + annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not + permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at + the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek: + eponumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek: + polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai]. + Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boule],) + which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken + from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each + ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a + rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon + office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on + every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons + until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the + people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the + right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklesiai]) of confirming the + laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs + referred to them by the council, and likewise the public + distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to + Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that + tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the + aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not + only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was + charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship + upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the + prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been + approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might + easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might + at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown + the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles. + This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a + deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon + is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm + of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent + citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private + life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded + polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as + subordinate to polity. + + SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation + and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law. + + CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isaeo caeterisque + oratoribus Graecis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a + principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it + requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as + it was connected with government by clans or families. + + An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found + in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth. + +15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not +followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that +the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the +aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter, +Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the +state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of +Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the +frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an +usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a +worse tyrant than Pisistratus! + + First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a + body guard; flight of the Alcmaeonidae under Megacles. Pisistratus + expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his + matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His + second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation; + obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of + his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmaeonidae into Macedonia, where + they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is + succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly + until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton. + The exiled Alcmaeonidae, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over + the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they + take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies + over to the Persians. + +16. This return of the Alcmaeonidae was followed by a change in the +constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of +quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased +the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to +five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of +their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians +and Chalcidians, and aided by Aegina, sought to reestablish monarchy in +Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and +afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of +the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an +additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, +Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom +carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity +which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the +Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever +have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained. + +17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few +data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end +of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves +above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, +the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more +than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens +had to contend with Megara and Aegina. Sparta and Athens had, +nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more +extended territory than any other of the great cities. + + +_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._ + +I. _Within the Peloponnesus._ + + _a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or + hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia; + the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors + kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in + the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of + Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not + suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably + indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its + king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between + the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the + second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II. + having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by + his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia + now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities + with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea + were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of + control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their + independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the + constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of + the people, ([Greek: demiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boule].) + The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no + general confederation united them. + + # See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791. + + _b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of + Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as + those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian + state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who + exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his + successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose + sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the + Dorians.--In Mycenae, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne + was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the + Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then + belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by + Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia + Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since + it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops, + as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably + to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos + fell to the share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the + country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son + of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of + that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984 + the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a + republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of + which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in + the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boule],) of a college of eighty + citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoekonta],) and of magistrates, who bore + the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a + body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among + themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek: + artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there + were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north + Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The + two last preserved their independence; but Mycenae was destroyed by + the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly + transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised + the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the + southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein. + + _c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian + migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at + that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The + Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging + to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of + that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After + the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the + Bacchiadae, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took + possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing + annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus + got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander; + both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and + cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew + Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted + their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the + republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth + assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the + government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state; + for even the Bacchiadae, at least some of them, were merchants.--The + Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic + and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for + such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages, + particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times; + but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens, + and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be + considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west + were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east + Potidaea: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of + independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so + doing. + + From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of + protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval + power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave + battle to the Corcyraeans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by + land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign + subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to + pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in + the domestic wars of Greece. + + _d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos, + as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and + princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it + probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were + made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the + Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan + war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian + irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon, + which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the + kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the + constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as + usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual. + Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom + was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600. + After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered + from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was + during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the + Achaean league. + + _e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which + till then had borne the name of Aegialus, was taken possession of by + Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from + their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the + hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achaeans, + driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of + Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the + land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to + his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that + race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of + monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small + republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each + of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had + democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league, + founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the + policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this + dissolution gave rise to the _Achaean_ league, of such high + importance in subsequent times. The Achaeans lived in peace and + happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the + Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states: + their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by + several other Grecian cities. + + _f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of + Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their + ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes, + Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It + appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms, + since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which + however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually + reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration + the Aetolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their + chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient + inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of + Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as + the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which + Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her + from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although + she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for + precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power + supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the + charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicae). These + magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to + ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed + with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a + senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for + life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean + constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which + time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets. + +II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._ + + _a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state + generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at + least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous + to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their + last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of + magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian + irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by + Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently + reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the + Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a + circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara + supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many + subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both + by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the + Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after + the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once + more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of + democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war, + in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the + character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information + respecting its internal organization. + + _b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in + Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled + Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the + guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family, + and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants, + who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the + greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian + mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laius, Eteocles, and + Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the + Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in + Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the + land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Aeolians of those + quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was + abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states + as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent + were the towns of Plataeae, Thespiae, Tanagra, and Chaeronea, each + of which had its own separate district and peculiar form of + government; but all those constitutions appear to have been + commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such + had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a + legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this + individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as + the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious + democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were, + however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood + Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a + right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to + the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Plataeae in + particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were + decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the + four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in + conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of + the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The + great extent and population of their territory might have enabled + the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had + they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by + the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which + naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of + Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men + was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles. + + _c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said, + from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign + power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but + the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains + undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to + the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged + war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never + mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory + must have formed but one independent state. To that state, + however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did + not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the + harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became + opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this + state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the + Crissaeans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against + them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of + Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred + glebe of Delphi. + + _d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the + Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of + Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in + subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the + date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought + about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained + politically distinct. The Locri Ozolae, west of Phocis, possessed + the most extensive territory; each city of which stood + independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The + country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district + appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization, + as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we + know nothing. + + _e._ Aetolia. The Aetolians remained the most rude and uncivilized + of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of + freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea + and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes, + Aetolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the + history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire + any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various + insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered + themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose + of carrying on a war with the Achaeans. The earlier period of + their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of + such an union; their political constitution in those times is + wholly unknown. + + _f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of + Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the + Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of + this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca. + When and how a republican government was introduced among the + Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we + know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time + is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of + which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those + cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out + of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period, + grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos + Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long + time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from + Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven + out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought + assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of + Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which + thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and + Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with + Ambracia. + +III. _Northern Greece._ + + _a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece, + may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the + history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was + that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here + likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age + Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary + princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were + among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period + subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly + must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of + the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner + in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that + can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the + Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they + were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities, + Pherae and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is + closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of + arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it + almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the + Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadae; a family + who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated + by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power + until the Macedonian period.--In Pherae there arose about the year + 380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not + only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring + barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and + successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus, + Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa + by the Aleuadae, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards + worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of + his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and + Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but + were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadae, deposed by + Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at + intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as + _Pharsalus_, etc. + + _b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly + Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of + the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the + Aeacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek + family was the only one that held the kingly power for a + permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the + Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the + whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the + Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover + the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state, + generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to + the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed + with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia + itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and + some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be + mighty conquerors. See below. + +IV. _Grecian Islands._ + + Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the + Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as + occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not + take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants, + such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and + the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more + extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally + arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those + little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The + smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small + independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole + island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to + exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had + by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate + Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea, + these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated + little better than subjects, except that their political + constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian + coast, the most remarkable in history are the following: + + _a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power + and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry + which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the + principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the + time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her + power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120 + galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been + aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a + democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal + commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra. + + _b._ Aegina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration, + occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off + the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and + navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Aegina was for a + long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled + her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war. + Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer + support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens; + and although subsequently she made another stand for independence, + 458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither + must it be forgotten, that Aegina suffered much, even before the + Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of + party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic + factions. + + C. O. MUELLER, _Aegineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains + not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and + arts. + + _c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and + Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic + constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution + was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the + opulent, (Hippobatae;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis. + After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which + drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions. + The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the + Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever + ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity + presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the + island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in + the Peloponnesian war. + + _d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign + of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these + islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders, + belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most + important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under + the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an + extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for + the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and + for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it + afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under + the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution + of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of + the same name as the island which constituted its territory. + + _e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but + of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with + whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Aeolian stock. In the earlier + periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were + Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island; + his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed + Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne: + the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican + form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was + powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his + fleets purged the Aegaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and + ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the + Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta + by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not + belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of + Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing + more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which + in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the + proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed + to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the + kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal + commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed, + even under a republican form of government. Those commotions + originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina + and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war, + shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to + one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted + by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities + of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the + country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it + senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten + censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these + cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with + the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans + against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with + one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily + contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise + their national character. + + MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious + compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject + by the inscriptions published in + + CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticae_; 1728, folio. A work which has been + made use of by + + ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.) + The principal work upon Crete. + + # C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history, + etc. of this island, 1823. + + _f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of + mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their + descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out + of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the + city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There + can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a + long period the dominant race in the island; since in the + flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their + oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition + against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present + day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that + time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close + connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the + Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms + afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of + which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis, + about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses, + 525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection, + the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian + dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections + against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now + become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus + joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which + afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was + frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by + Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who + died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out, + but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449. + Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,) + who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in + the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was + obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every + thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in + the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the + Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger + Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and + under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but + matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of + the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom + they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and + thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian + monarchy. + + +2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._ + + To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events + connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be + here carried on through the subsequent period. + + RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'etablissement des Colonies + Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on + the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later + Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is + much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is + not paid to the value of the authorities made use of. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to + the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of + the subject. + + ST. CROIX, _De l'etat et du sort des Colonies des anciens + peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important + enquiries. + +1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks: +these colonies became so important in various respects, that an +acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding +the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the +civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately +connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as +to have the greatest influence on political history. + +2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are +those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the +Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that +before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some +Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies +however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that +they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the +Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes, +to which we now allude. + +3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece, +their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the +Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal +colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the +coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular +settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of +most other countries. + +4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives, +being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of +an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was +always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former +was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the +mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of +such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In +fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, +even when that was not the sole object of their foundation. + +5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities +was generally determined by the same causes that led to their +foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent +or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was +naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for +the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the +mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very +independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in +countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate, +and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, +must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic +race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and +wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the +ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed +among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had +each its own peculiar form of government. + +6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the +most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor, +extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever +since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known, +Hellenes of the three great families, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had +planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here +likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian +civilization, of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, +expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother +country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated +taste. + + 1. The Aeolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124: + they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration, + having been established during that great movement in Greece. The + Pelopidae, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son + Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais, + successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land, + divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some + Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the + coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence + derived the appellation of Aeolis. They moreover possessed the + islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land, + in the quarter named from them Aeolis, they erected twelve cities, + the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter, + however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their + chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited + five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other + colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as + mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and + possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information, + however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to + enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders, + which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of + unlimited power, under the title of Aesymnetae. These were elected + sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most + celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished + about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaeus. The + Aeolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with + the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and + destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years + afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its + flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to + acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the + islands. The Aeolian cities were not leagued together by any + permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in + common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was + the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and + formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to + Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian + war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the + Athenians. + + 2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later + period than those of the Aeolians; like them, however, they were a + consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of + Peloponnesus by the Achaeans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence, + sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded + by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus. + They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean + Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the + southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which, + together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the + name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land; + namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomene, + Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the + islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary, + the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale. + Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate + upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still + be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This + independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of + the Mermnadae, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were + compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian + rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of + government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay + tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering + themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history + in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece. + The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period + republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by + continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns + situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus, + Ephesus, and Phocaea. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It + had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians; + but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most + flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the + latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras + against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in + 496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour. + Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to + Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade + was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose + shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting, + according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of + these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade + in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on + by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into + the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her + naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once, + to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred + sail.--Phocaea. The flourishing period of this establishment was + contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the + Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocaeans, rather than submit to the + Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and + migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented + of their resolution and returned. Phocaea had the most extensive + trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what + the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far + as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and + Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for + instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all, + Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city + was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently + occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the + time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560. + The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the + hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the + magistrates, ([Greek: epikletoi]): and the family which had once + possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was + not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocaea and + Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in + 355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more + sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to + have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocaea + had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus + was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on + the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for + its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of + the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea + and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant, + having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession + of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos + became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a + democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her + troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely + inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the + Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so + powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras, + ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After + the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league, + from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412. + The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those + islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to + inflate them with overweening ambition. + + F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to. + + 3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the + southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but + were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and, + no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians + appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the + islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they + erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city + of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and + Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one + common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they + celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies. + Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the + confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period, + although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to + violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted + into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to + the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names + familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have + grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the + irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its + flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no + period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the + Aeolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians. + +7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Maeotis, +were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were +colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all +of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each +cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth +and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only +sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the +whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian +sea; that is, to great Bukharia. + + On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and + Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of + bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful + and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the + Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of + the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was + Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the + Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was + Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient + proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the + establishment of colonies. + + HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duae_, 1809. The first + of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of + Byzantium. + + The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of + Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place + preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and + revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic + factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained + the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant, + and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boule?]) the family of the + tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he + himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In + Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian + settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the + sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to + about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus, + and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from + which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish + ([Greek: pelamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Maeotis, spread + along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In + Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared + the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of + Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal + mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the + staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the + Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapaeum, capital + city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among + whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350, + are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates + the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the + northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of + the same name at the bottom of the Palus Maeotis. Olbia was situated + at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in + particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade, + which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was + extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western + coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less + notoriety. + +8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Aegaean sea, was +likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and +especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the +Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their +dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter +were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang +up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip. + + On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of + Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos, + Cardia, and Aegospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and + Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance, + however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis, + Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidaea. The first of these towns, founded about + B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it + in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the + same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432, + the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook + their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus + derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in + the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of + Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share + in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a + flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon, + and destroyed.--Potidaea was a colony of Corinth, from which it + received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidemiourgoi],) having + become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in + 431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were + expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now + became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by + Philip in 358. + +9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost +without exception, made at a later period than those in the Aegean and +Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour; +and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: +these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in +wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by +the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The +foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; +consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had +already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack +of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for +emigration. + + 1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and + important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they + extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples. + These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achaean, and + Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political + characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being + generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must + be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions + which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible + to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the + earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies + Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin were Sybaris and Croton, + together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum, + Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and + Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where + Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch + settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri + Ozolae, may be regarded as an Aeolian city. The most remarkable of + these cities in respect of general history are: + + _a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It + waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the + Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and + most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of + Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of + wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the + national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence + until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the + Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate + aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a + democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions. + Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boule],) without whose consent + war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot, + half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons. + Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoraean + Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head + of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme + magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form + until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly + corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility. + + _b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achaeans, under the guidance of + Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to + very great power during the very first century of its existence; + since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with + probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on + foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they + there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any + length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces, + they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original + constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are + unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was + the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton, + but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher + arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the + league or secret association named after him; the object of which + was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities, + but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This + reform and influence of the Pythagoraeans lasted about thirty years, + when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a + secret association founded with a political view. Probably about + 510 the Pythagoraeean league was broken asunder by the democratic + faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not + only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the + supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders, + however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achaeans; and the + Achaean colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities, + but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of + Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already + recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this + league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400. + After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna + Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by + Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles. + Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on + Rome. + + _c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the + Achaeans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed + till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its + foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and + luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites + became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of + her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable + territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and + twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the + soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of + citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that + Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into + the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by + Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably + derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa + and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with + certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a + moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession + of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates, + who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the + Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled + between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the + Sybarites and the destruction of their city. + + _d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by + Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a + circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the + citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433, + the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The + constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon + converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands + having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had + joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled, + and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new + colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the + adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies + of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390. + The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the + assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines + an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman + dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars, + was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony. + + _e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to + dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most + other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various + times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of + several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683, + by the Locri Ozolae. After suffering much from violent internal + commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose + institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The + constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the + hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called + cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably + elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or + partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was, + as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri + was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities + above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good + manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with + their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till + the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse, + fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his + mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was + brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347, + the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward + maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus, + who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put + the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the + city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time + Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered + much in the second Punic war. + + _f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the + government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands + of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian + families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an + oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole + dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having + been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were + quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a + period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was + captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in + some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a + Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the + place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with + death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of + dependence upon Rome. + + _g._ Cumae, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This + city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and + prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy + respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its + colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this + constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus; + but restored after his assassination. Cumae was subject to repeated + annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was + invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474 + she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the + Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in + 345. Cumae, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli, + preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion. + + HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Graecarum per magnam Graeciam et + Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol. + vii. + + 2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and + southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period + as those of Magna Graecia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly + to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris, + from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acrae, Casmenae, and + Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from + Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded + Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that + name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of + Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its + occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by + Cumae, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylae. The most + remarkable of these towns in ancient history are: + + _a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and + consequently that concerning which our information is the most + copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a + long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends + nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From + the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred + and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic, + but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of + power: yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 665, Casmenae, 645, and + Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and + Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates, + sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina, + 497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic + troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent, + ([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the + democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to + Casmenae, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored + to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From + Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers, + Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse. + Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of + Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by + increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other + Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the + Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early + period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to + justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece, + when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent + reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his + life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the + hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by + his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign + of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a + fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's + power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in + Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose + original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged + against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidaeus, tyrants of Agrigentum: + after the expulsion of Thrasidaeus, that town forms an alliance with + Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumae, wins + a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by + his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months, + was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate + cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of + Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405. + Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and + the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many + commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new + citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their + property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now + at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and + soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new + democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident + to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a + remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the + mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in + closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the + Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the + arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the + subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval + victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the + Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding + with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs + the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the + disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the + total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the + power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes + place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently + adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates + were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had + reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee + over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to + Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after + his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences + between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with + Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this + war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid + strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of + Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even + Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within + Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded + first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after + supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405. + 4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius + I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela + and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian + army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is + agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall + retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela + and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of + Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon + Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and + the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against + Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before + had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague + once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his + predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till + 392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of + Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate + Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief + seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions, + is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383, + against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed + by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption + of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then + had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and + a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the + Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it + ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these + wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most + powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by + poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one + of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his + step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache. + Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to + Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind + had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He + returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of + Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to + stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments + dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he + himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is + compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops + garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch + back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore + the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit, + being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government + till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of + Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence, + Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the + city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas + of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who + leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable + attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother + city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a + small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he + beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to + deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to + Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the + republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of + Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian + cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the + Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans + Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that + history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of + Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus, + disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of + the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect + that liberty could again be established among them, without the + personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that + befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles + assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal + of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and + subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in + which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a + bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his + fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war + until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily + recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are + consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what + they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are + confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the + Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In + the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Maenon, + seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies + over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when, + in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets + with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the + mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of + Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of + Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy; + that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as + Lilybaeum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and + disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The + Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal + family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he + is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war + between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with + Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a + long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under + this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and + prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect. + After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant; + Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's + intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by + contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates + and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the + city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of + Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a + practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent + so many and such various revolutions? + + The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by + partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from + Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan. + + # A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the + overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816. + + MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the + history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would + seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an + impartial spirit. + + _b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of + Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its + first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say, + Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its + foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom + noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534. + He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by + Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of + Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned + than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of + Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he + routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son + and successor, Thrasydaeus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470; + whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a + democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which + Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest + degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and + luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public + monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was + indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with + Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions + hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by + envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with + Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of + Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she + recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was, + in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able + to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the + death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took + possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas + of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum + was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot; but was taken by + the Romans as early as 262. + + _c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less + dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had + originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian + colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas, + (probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of + being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own + citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the + old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to + their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing + history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars + between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their + respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after + 664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of + uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana, + 730; Gela, 690; Acrae, B. C. 665; Casmenae, 645; Himera, 639; + Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be + ascertained with any degree of accuracy. + + 3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet + with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities + Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in + Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans founded, 561; + hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in + 541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the + Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to + Massilia, 536. + + 4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocaeans, + who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval + engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old + settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth + and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea + against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her + territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was + limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies + along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicaea, + and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on + partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul. + The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in + the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council + were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged + to be married men with families, and descended at least to the + third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood + fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218 + Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering + protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her + until the war between Pompey and Caesar; having sided with the + former, she was stormed, 49, by Caesar's army. She soon retrieved + herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of + literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there + given as at Athens. + + AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicae Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826. + A prize essay. + + 5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a + colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is + undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening + of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as + being an ally of Rome. + + 6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of + the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution + was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591. + In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under + the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._ + 554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece. + The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands + of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenaeans, 570, and in + consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of + his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by + its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put + to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is + poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III. + surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The + royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of + Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and + priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord + tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother, + Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is + expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In + consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516. + Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt, + Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants + are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after + Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and + Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth + and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is + veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican + constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted + with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was + invited by the Cyrenaeans to give them laws, and though they had for + their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have + been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is + mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the + uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut + off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the + external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general + facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to + Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early + as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his + general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive + various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until + the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the + bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to + the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade, + consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more + especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse + with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa. + The former splendour and importance of this city and the + neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble + ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of + antiquity must desire. + + HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrene_, in _Mem. de l'Academie des + Inscriptions_, t. iii. + + J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs + est, usque ad aetatem, qua in provinciae formam a Romanis redacta + est: particula prior, de initiis coloniae Cyrenen deductae, et + Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniae, 1819. The best + work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint + our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period + of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The + learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether + ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in + his researches.] + + A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the + remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di + Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest + travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820. + + W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa + from Tripoli eastward_, 1827. + + F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage a Marmarique et Cyrenaique_, + 1828. A most accurate description. + + T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years + 1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin, + 1828. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander +the Great, B. C. 500-336._ + + + Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of + the Persian wars to the battle of Plataeae, 479, Herodotus. For the + period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, + we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus + Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th + book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, + and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the + chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be + rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of + the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the + capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the + middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year + 410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the + Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus; + together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end + of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no + contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book + must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the + times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the + speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines. The Lives of Plutarch and + Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as + authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged + documents given by Justin and some others. + + The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of + course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To + whom must here be added: + + POTTER, _Archaeologia Graeca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols. + 8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols. + 1775. + + BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_. (Between the + years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with + charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This + work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition; + unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a + correct appreciation of antiquity. + + # _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece + and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a + delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend + beyond the age of Philip. + + The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are: + + LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grece_. Paris, + 1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far + surpassed by: + + J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3 + vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and + accuracy of execution superior to all. + + R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol. + The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt. + + R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol. + A worthy companion to Stuart. + + CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece_, vol. i, + 1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia + Minor. + +1. From a multitude of small states, never united but continually +distracted by civil broils--and such at the beginning of this period +were the states of Greece--any thing important could hardly be expected +without the occurrence of some external event, which, by rallying the +divided forces round one point, and directing them toward one object, +should hinder them from mutually exhausting one another. It was the +hostile attempt of Persia that first laid the foundation of the future +splendour of Greece; certain states then grew so rapidly in power, that +upon their particular history hinges the general history of all the +rest. + + Causes which led to the Persian war. Share taken by Athens in the + Ionian insurrection and firing of Sardes, B. C. 500. (see above, + p. 98.) Intrigues of Hippias, first with the satraps, and afterwards + at the Persian court itself.--First expedition, that of Mardonius, + thwarted by a storm, 493. + +2. Not even the summons to acknowledge the Persian authority was +sufficient to rouse the national energy of the Greeks. All the islands, +and most of the states on the main land, submitted to the yoke; Sparta +and Athens alone boldly rejected it. The Athenians, unassisted, under +their leader Miltiades, acquainted from his youth with the Persians and +their mode of warfare, and with the superiority of the arms of his +countrymen, became the saviours of Greece. + + Quarrel of Athens and Sparta with Aegina, which sides with the + Persians, 491; and consequent deposition of Demaratus, king of + Sparta, by his colleague Cleomenes. + + Persian expedition of Datis and Artaphernes under the guidance of + Hippias: frustrated by the battle of Marathon, B. C. Sept. 29, + 490, and the failure of an attempt upon Athens. + +3. The immediate consequence of this victory was a naval expedition +against the islands, more particularly Paros, to which Miltiades, out of +a private grudge, persuaded the Athenians. It was undertaken for the +purpose of levying contributions; and seems to have given the Athenians +the first idea of their subsequent dominion of the sea. The Athenians +punished Miltiades for the failure of this expedition, although the +effect of their own folly; yet was this act of injustice a source of +happiness to Athens; as the fall of Miltiades made room for the men who +laid the solid foundation of her glory and greatness. + +4. As usual in every democratic state rising to power, the history of +Athens now becomes that of eminent individuals, standing at the head of +affairs, as generals or demagogues. Themistocles, who united to an +astonishing degree in his own person the most splendid talents of +statesman and general, with a spirit of intrigue, and even of egotism; +and Aristides, whose disinterestedness, even in those days, was singular +at Athens, were the real founders of the power of this commonwealth. +Athens, however, was more indebted to the first than to the latter. + + Rivalry of these two men, 490-486. While Themistocles at the head + of the Athenian fleet prosecutes the design of Miltiades against + the islands, the management of state affairs is confided to + Aristides. On the return, however, of Themistocles as conqueror, + Aristides is by ostracism banished Athens, 486. Themistocles + alone, at the head of affairs, pursues his plan for making Athens + a maritime power. In consequence of a war against the object of + popular hatred, Aegina, B. C. 484, he prevails on the Athenians to + devote the income from the mines to the formation of a navy. While + Athens is thus rising to power, Sparta suffers from the insanity + of one of her kings, Cleomenes, (succeeded in 482 by his half + brother Leonidas,) and the arrogance of the other, Leotychides. + +5. The glory of frustrating the second mighty Persian invasion of Greece +under Xerxes I. belongs to Themistocles alone. Not only his great naval +victory off Salamis, but still more the manner in which he contrived to +work upon his countrymen, proves him to have been the greatest man of +the age, and the deliverer of Greece, now united by one common bond of +interest.--All national leagues are weak in themselves: yet how strong +may even the weakest be made when held together by one great man, who +knows how to animate it with his own spirit! + + Themistocles' plan for the conduct of the war; first, a common + union of all the Hellenic states; a measure which succeeds to a + certain degree, the honour of the command being left to the + Spartans; secondly, the sea made the theatre of war.--Gallant + death of Leonidas with his three hundred Spartans and seven + hundred Thespians, July 6, 480. An example of heroism which + contributes as much to the greatness of Greece as the victory of + Salamis. About the same time naval engagements off Artemisium in + Euboea, with two hundred and seventy-one sail. The leaders of the + Greeks are kept to their posts merely by bribery; the means of + purchasing their services being for the most part furnished by + Themistocles himself.--Athens, deserted by its inhabitants, is + taken and burnt by Xerxes, July 20. Retreat of the Grecian fleet + into the bay of Salamis: revocation of all exiles, Aristides among + the rest.--Politic measures adopted by Themistocles to hinder the + dispirited Greeks from taking flight, and at the same time to + secure to himself, in case of need, an asylum with the Persian + monarch.--Naval engagement and victory off Salamis, Sept. 23, 480, + with three hundred and eighty sail, (one hundred and eighty of + which were Athenian,) against the Persian fleet, already much + weakened: retreat of Xerxes.--Poets and historians have disfigured + these events by fanciful exaggerations: still, however, they may + show us how commonly human weakness is attended with human + greatness! + +6. The victory of Salamis did not conclude the war; but the negotiations +entered into during the winter months with the Persian general, +Mardonius, left in Thessaly, and with the Asiatic Greeks, to excite them +to throw off the yoke, show how far the confidence of the nation in its +own strength had increased. But by the battle fought on land at Plataeae, +under the command of the Spartan, Pausanias, (guardian to Plistarchus, +son of Leonidas,) and the Athenian, Aristides; together with the naval +battle at Mycale on the same day, and the destruction of the Persian +fleet, the Persians are for ever driven from the territory of Greece, +though the war continues for some time longer. + +7. The expulsion of the Persians wrought an entire change in the +internal and external relations of Greece. From being the aggressed the +Greeks became the aggressors; to free their Asiatic countrymen is now +the chief object or pretext for the continuation of a war so profitable; +the chief command of which abides with Sparta until B. C. 470. + + Athens rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles despite of Spartan + jealousy, 478: formation of the Piraeus, an event of still greater + importance, 477.--Naval expedition under Pausanias, accompanied by + Aristides and Cimon, undertaken against Cyprus and Byzantium, for + the purpose of expelling the Persians, 470. Treachery and fall of + Pausanias, 469. In consequence of the Spartans' haughtiness, the + supreme command devolves upon the Athenians. + +8. This transfer of the command to Athens had a decided effect on all +the subsequent relations of Greece, not only because it augmented the +jealousy between Sparta and Athens, but because Athens exercised her +predominance for a purpose entirely different from that of +Sparta.--Establishment of a permanent confederacy, comprising most of +the Grecian states without Peloponnesus, especially the islands, and an +adjustment of the contributions to be annually furnished by each, with +the view of prosecuting the Persian war, and liberating the Asiatic +Greeks from the Persian yoke. Although the common treasury was first +established at Delos, the superintendence of it was confided to Athens; +and such a manager as Aristides was not always to be found.--Natural +consequence of this new establishment: 1. What had hitherto been mere +military precedence, becomes in the hands of Athens a right of +political prescription, and that, as usual, is soon converted +into a sovereignty. Hence her idea of the supremacy of Greece, +([Greek: arche tes Hellados],) as connected with that of the sea, +([Greek: thalassokratia].) 2. The oppression of the Athenians, +sometimes real, at other times presumed, after a short time, rouses the +spirit of discontent and contumacy among several of the confederates: +hence, 3. The gradual formation of a counter league, headed by Sparta, +who maintains her supremacy over the greatest part of the Peloponnesus. + +9. The changes introduced into the internal organization are not to be +determined solely by the palpable alterations made in any of Lycurgus's +or Solon's institutions. In Sparta, the general frame-work of Lycurgus's +constitution subsisted; nevertheless the power was virtually in the +hands of the ephori, whose dictatorial sway placed Sparta in the +formidable posture she now assumed.--At Athens, in proportion as the +importance of foreign relations increased, and amid the protracted +struggles between the heads of the democratic and aristocratic parties, +the real power, under the outward appearance of a democracy, gradually +centered in the hands of the ten annually elected generals, ([Greek: +strategoi],) who with more or less effect played the parts of +demagogues. + + Abrogation of the law that excluded the poorer citizens from + official situations, B. C. 478. + + Expulsion of Themistocles, implicated in the fall of Pausanias, + principally through the intrigues of Sparta: he is first banished + by ostracism, 469, but in consequence of further persecution he + flies over to the Persians, 466. + +10. The following forty years, from 470-430, constitute the flourishing +period of Athens. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances happening +among a people of the highest abilities and promoted by great men, +produced here phenomena, such as have never since been witnessed. +Political greatness was the fundamental principle of the commonwealth; +Athens had been the guardian, and the champion of Greece, and she wished +to appear worthy of herself. Hence in Athens alone were men acquainted +with public splendour, exhibited in buildings, in spectacles, and +festivals, the acquisition of which was facilitated by private +frugality. This public spirit animating every citizen, expanded the +blossoms of genius; no broad line of distinction was anxiously drawn +between private and public life; whatever great, whatever noble was +produced by Athens, sprung up verdant and robust out of this harmony, +this buxom vigour of the state. Far different was the case with Sparta; +there rude customs and laws arrested the development of genius: there +men were taught to die for the land of their forefathers: while at +Athens they learnt to live for it. + +11. Agriculture continued the principal occupation of the citizens of +Attica; other employments were left to the care of slaves. Commerce and +navigation were mainly directed towards the Thracian coast and the Black +sea; the spirit of trade, however, was never the prevailing one. As +affairs of state became more attractive, and men desired to participate +in them, the want of intellectual education began to be felt, and +sophists and rhetoricians soon offered their instruction. Mental +expertness was more coveted than mental knowledge; men wished to learn +how to think and to speak. A poetical education had long preceded the +rise of this national desire; poesy now lost nothing of its value: as +heretofore Homer remained the cornerstone of intellectual improvement. +Could it be that such blossoms would produce other fruits than those +which ripened in the school of Socrates, in the masterpieces of the +tragedians and orators, and in the immortal works of Plato? + +12. These flowers of national genius burst forth in spite of many evils, +inseparable from such a constitution established among such a people. +Great men were pushed aside; others took their places. The loss of +Themistocles was supplied by Miltiades's son Cimon; who to purer +politics united equal talents. He protracted the war against the +Persians in order to maintain the union of the Greeks; and favoured the +aristocratic party at the same time that he affected popularity. Even +his enemies learnt by experience, that the state could not dispense with +a leader who seemed to have entered into a compact for life with +victory. + + Another expedition under Cimon; and victory by sea and land near + the Eurymedon, B. C. 469. He takes possession of the Hellespontine + Chersonesus, 468. Some of the Athenian confederates already + endeavour to secede. Hence, 467, the conquest of Caristus in + Euboea; subjection of Naxos, 466, and from 465-463, siege and + capture of Thasos, under Cimon. The Athenians endeavour to obtain + a firmer footing on the shore of Macedonia; and for that purpose + send out a colony to Amphipolis, 465. + + Great earthquake at Sparta; gives rise to a ten years' war, viz. + the third Messenian war or revolt of the Helots, who fortify + themselves in Ithome, 465-455: in this war the Athenians, at the + instigation of Cimon, send assistance to the Spartans, 461, who + refuse the proffered aid. The democratic party seize the + opportunity of casting on Cimon the suspicion of being in the + interest of Sparta; he is banished by ostracism, 461. + +13. The death of Aristides, and the banishment of Cimon, concur in +elevating Pericles to the head of affairs; a statesman whose influence +had begun to operate as early as 469. Less a general than a demagogue, +he supported himself in authority during forty years, until the day of +his death, and swayed Athens without being either archon or member of +the areopagus. That under him the constitution must have assumed a more +democratic character, is demonstrated by the fact of his exaltation as +leader of the democratic party. The aristocrats, however, contrive until +444 to set up rivals against him in the persons of the military leaders, +Myronides, Tolmidas, and more particularly the elder Thucydides. + + Change in the spirit of administration under Pericles, both in + reference to internal and external relations. A brilliant + management succeeds to the parsimonious economy of Aristides; and + yet, after the lapse of thirty years, the state treasury was + full.--Limitation of the power of the areopagus by Ephialtes, B. + C. 461. The withdrawal of various causes which formerly came under + the jurisdiction of that tribunal must have diminished its right + of moral censorship.--Introduction of the practice of paying + persons who attended the courts of justice. + + With regard to external relations, the precedence of the Athenians + gradually advanced toward supremacy; although their relations with + all the confederates were not precisely the same. Some were mere + confederates; others were subjects.--Augmentation in the imposts + on the confederates, and transfer of the treasury from Delos to + Athens, 461. The jealousy of Sparta and the discontent of the + confederates keep pace with the greatness of Athens. + + Unsuccessful attempt to support by the help of an Athenian fleet + and troops, Inarus of Egypt in his insurrection against the + Persians, 462-458. + + Wars in Greece: the Spartans instigate Corinth and Epidaurus + against Athens. The Athenians, at first defeated near Haliae, in + their turn rout the enemy, 458, and then carry the war against + Aegina, which is subdued, 457. In the new quarrel between Corinth + and Megara respecting their boundaries, the Athenians side with + Megara; Myronides conquers at Cimolia, 457. Expedition of the + Spartans to the support of the Dorians against Phocis; and hence + arises the first rupture between Athens, Sparta, and Boeotia. + First battle of Tanagra, in which the Spartans are victorious in + the same year, 457. The Boeotians, incited by the Spartans, are + in the second battle of Tanagra worsted by Myronides, 456. The + recall of Cimon, at the suggestion of Pericles himself, in + consequence of the first defeat. + +14. Cimon recalled from exile, endeavours to reestablish the domestic +tranquillity of Greece, and at the same time to renew the war against +the Persians. He succeeds in his attempt after the lapse of five years; +and the consequence is a victorious expedition against the Persians. He +defeats their fleet off Cyprus, and routs their army on the Asiatic +coast. The fruit of this victory is the celebrated peace with Artaxerxes +I. (see above, p. 104.) Ere that peace is concluded Cimon dies, too soon +for his country, while occupied with the siege of Citium. + + Termination of the third Messenian war in favour of Sparta, by the + cession of Ithome, B. C. 455. Meantime Athens continues the war + with Peloponnesus; Tolmidas and Pericles making an incursion by + sea on the enemy's territory, 455-454. At the same time Pericles, + by sending out colonies to the Hellespont, endeavours to secure + more firmly the Athenian power in that quarter: a colony is + likewise sent out to Naxos, 453.--Cimon negotiates a truce, which + is adopted first (451) tacitly, afterwards formally, (450,) for + five years. The result of this truce is his victorious expedition + against the Persians, and the consequent peace with that nation. + Although the conditions of the peace prescribed by Cimon were + sometimes infringed, they appear to have been ratified by all + parties. + +15. The conclusion of peace with Persia, glorious as it was, and the +death of the man whose grand political object was to preserve union +among the Greeks, again aroused the spirit of internal strife. For +notwithstanding nearly twenty years intervened before the tempest burst +with all its fury, this period was so turbulent during its course, that +Greece seldom enjoyed universal peace. While Athens by her naval +strength was maintaining her ascendancy over the confederates, and while +some of those confederates were raising the standard of rebellion and +passing over to Sparta, every thing was gradually combining towards the +formation of a counter league, the necessary consequence of which must +have been a war, such as the Peloponnesian. Up to this time Athens was +at the height of her power; she was governed by Pericles, who, in every +thing but the name, was sole ruler during this period, and for that +reason she experienced few of the evils resulting from a democratic +constitution. Who, indeed, could overthrow a demagogue whose presence of +mind, even in the greatest good fortune, never once deserted him; who +knew how to keep alive among his fellow-citizens the conviction that, +however exalted they might be, it was to him alone they were indebted +for it? + + During the five years' truce the sacred war for the possession of + the Delphian oracle took place, and it is given by the Spartans to + the city of Delphi; but after their return is given back again by + the Athenians to the Phocians, B. C. 448. The Athenians commanded + by Tolmidas, are defeated by the Boeotians, 447. This expedition, + undertaken in opposition to the advice of Pericles, contributes to + increase his influence; particularly as he reduces to obedience + the revolted Euboea and Megara, 446. End of the five years' truce + with Sparta; and renewal of hostilities, 445; further warlike + proceedings are repressed by a new thirty years' peace, which + lasts, however, only fourteen years.--Complete suppression of the + aristocratic party, by the banishment of the elder Thucydides, + 444; the whole administration of the state consequently centres in + the hands of Pericles.--Democracy in the confederate states + favoured; forcibly introduced in Samos, which, after a nine + months' siege, is obliged to submit to Pericles, 440.--Commencement + of the war between Corinth and Corcyra, on the subject of Epidamnus, + 436, which the Corcyraeans take possession of after winning a naval + victory, 435. The Athenians take part in the quarrel, and side with + the Corcyraeans, 432. The rupture with Corinth, and the policy of + Perdiccas II. king of Macedonia, lead to the secession of the + Corinthian colony of Potidaea, which previously belonged to the + Athenian confederacy: the war thereby is extended to the Macedonian + coast. Engagement near Potidaea, and siege of that town, 432. The + Corinthians direct their steps to Sparta, and excite the Spartans + to war; which is further accelerated by the attack of the Thebans + upon Plataeae, the confederate of Athens, 431. + +16. The history of the twenty-seven years' war, known by the name of the +Peloponnesian, or great Grecian war, which swept away the fairest +flowers of Greece, is the more deserving attention from its being not +merely a struggle between nations, but likewise against certain forms of +government. The policy of Athens, which to establish or preserve her +influence in foreign states, excited the multitude against the higher +orders, had on all sides given rise to two factions, the democrat or +Athenian, and the aristocrat or Spartan; and the mutual bitterness of +party spirit produced the most violent disorders. + +17. The respective relations of the two head states of Greece to their +confederates, were at this time of a very opposite nature. Athens, as a +naval power, was mistress of most of the islands and maritime cities, +which, as tributary confederates, rendered for the most part a forced +obedience. Sparta, as a land power, was allied with most of the states +on the continent, which had joined her side of their own accord, and +were not subject to tribute. Sparta therefore presented herself as the +deliverer of Greece from the Athenian yoke. + + Confederates of the Athenians: the islands Chios, Samos, Lesbos, all + those of the Archipelago, (Thera and Melos excepted, which stood + neutral,) Corcyra, Zacynthus; the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, and + on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia; in Greece itself, the cities + of Naupactus, Plataeae, and those of Acarnania.--Confederates of the + Spartans: all the Peloponnesians, (Argos and Achaia excepted, which + stood neutral,) Megara, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, the cities of + Ambracia and Anactorium, and the island of Leucas. + +18. Sketch of the internal state of Athens and Sparta at this period. +The power of Athens depended mainly on the state of her finances; +without which she could not support a fleet, and without a fleet her +ascendancy over the confederates would of course fall to ground. And +although Pericles, notwithstanding his lavish public expenditure, was +able to enter upon the war with 6,000 talents in the treasury, +experience could not fail to show that, in such a democratic state as +Athens was now become under Pericles, the squandering of the public +money was an unavoidable evil. This evil was produced, however, at +Athens much less by the peculations of individual state officers than by +the demands of the multitude, who for the most part lived at the expense +of the state treasury. On the other hand, Sparta as yet had no finance; +and only began to feel the want of it as she began to acquire a naval +power, and entered upon undertakings more vast than mere incursions. + + Financial system of the Athenians. Revenue: 1. The tribute paid by + the confederates ([Greek: phoroi]) increased by Pericles from four + hundred and sixty to six hundred talents. 2. Income from the + customs, (which were farmed,) and from the mines at Laurium. 3. + The caution money of the non-citizens: ([Greek: metoikoi].) 4. The + taxes on the citizens, ([Greek: eisphorai],) which fell almost + entirely on the rich, more particularly on the first class, the + members of which were not only to bear the burthen of fitting out + the fleet, ([Greek: trierarchiai],) but were likewise to furnish + means for the public festivals and spectacles, ([Greek: + choregiai].) The whole income of the republic at this time was + estimated at 2,000 talents. But the disbursements made to the + numerous assistants at the courts of justice (the principal means + of existence with the poorer citizens, and which, more than any + thing else, contributed to the licentiousness of the democracy and + the oppression of the confederates, whose causes were all brought + to Athens for adjudication,) together with the expenditure for + festivals and spectacles, even at this time, absorbed the greatest + part of the revenue. + + # F. BOEKH, _Public Economy of the Athenians_, 2 parts, Berlin, + 1816. The chief work on the subject. [Ably translated by J. C. + LEWIS, esq. of Christ Church in this university.] + + _Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of + the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian + war._ London, 1798, 2 vols. 4to. The production of several young + authors; first printed, but not published, in 1741. This sketch + comprises, not only Greece, but likewise Persia and Egypt. + +19. First period of the war until the fifty years' peace. Beginning of +the war unsuccessful to Athens during the first three years, under the +conduct of Pericles, in whose defensive plan we may perhaps discern the +infirmities of age. The Athenians, however, suffered less from the +annual inroads of the Spartans than from the plague, to which Pericles +himself at last fell a victim. The alliance of the Athenians with the +kings of Thrace and Macedonia extended the theatre of war; on the other +hand, Sparta had already conceived the idea of an alliance with Persia. + +20. The death of Pericles was, for the next seven years, during which +the place of that great man was supplied by Cleon a currier, followed by +all the evils of an uncurbed democracy. The atrocious decrees with +respect to Mitylene, which after seceding, had been recaptured, and the +insurrection of the Corcyraean populace against the rich, characterized +the party spirit then dominant in Greece better than the few +insignificant events of a war conducted without any plan. Sparta, +however, found in young Brasidas a general, such as are wont to arise in +revolutionary times. His prosecution of the war on the Macedonian coast +might have brought great danger to Athens, had he so early not fallen a +victim to his own gallantry. + + Capture of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and exile of Thucydides, 424. + Engagement near Amphipolis between Brasidas and Cleon; and death + of those two generals, 422. + +21. The peace now concluded for fifty years could not be of long +duration, as many of the confederates on either side were discontented +with its terms. All hope of tranquillity must have been at an end when +the management of Athenian affairs fell into the hands of a youth like +Alcibiades, in whom vanity and artifice held the place of patriotism and +talent, and who thought war the only field in which he could gain +credit. Against him what availed the prudence of Nicias?--Happy was it +for Athens that during the whole of this period Sparta never produced +one man who could match even with Alcibiades! + + Attempt of some states, Corinth especially, to set Argos at the + head of a new confederacy; this measure Athens likewise favours, + 421.--Violation of the peace, 419; the war indirect until 415, and + limited to assisting the confederates on either side.--Alcibiades's + plan of giving Athens the preponderance in Peloponnesus, by an + alliance with Argos, is defeated by the battle of Mantinea, + 417.--Exterminating war of the Athenians waged against the Melians, + who wish to preserve their neutrality, whereas neutrality in the + weaker party now becomes a crime, 416. + +22. Alcibiades's party brings forward at Athens the project of +conquering Sicily, under the pretence of succouring the Segestani +against the Syracusans. This rash expedition, in which the hopes both of +the Athenians and of its instigator Alcibiades were blighted, gave to +Athens the first great blow, from which she never after, even with the +utmost exertion of her strength, recovered; especially as Sparta also +was now become a naval power. + + Early interference of the Athenians with the concerns of the + Sicilian Greeks.--A fleet and army under the command of Nicias, + Lamachus, and Alcibiades, sent against Sicily, 415.--Accusation, + recall, and flight of Alcibiades to Sparta: formal rupture of the + peace by an inroad of the Spartans into Attica, where they fortify + Decelea, 414. Unsuccessful siege of Syracuse, 414; and total + annihilation of the Athenian fleet and army by the assistance of + the Spartans under Gylippus, 413. + +23. Fatal as in the present circumstances the blow struck in Sicily must +appear to have been to Athens, yet the calamity was surmounted by +Athenian enthusiasm, never greater than in times of misfortune. They +maintained their supremacy over the confederates; but the part which +Alcibiades, in consequence of the new posture his own personal interest +had assumed at Sparta, took in their affairs, brought about a twofold +domestic revolution, which checked the licentious democracy. + + Alliance of the Spartans with the Persians, and indecisive + engagement off Miletus--Flight of Alcibiades from Sparta to + Tissaphernes; his negotiations to gain the satrap over to the + interests of Athens, 411.--Equivocal policy of + Tissaphernes.--Negotiations of Alcibiades with the chiefs of the + Athenian army at Samos, and the consequent revolution at Athens, + and overthrow of the democracy by the appointment of the supreme + council of four hundred in place of the [Greek: boule], and of a + committee of five thousand citizens in place of the popular + assembly, 411.--The army assumes the right of debate; names + Alcibiades to be its leader; but declares again for + democracy.--Great commotions at Athens in consequence of the + discomfiture of the fleet at Eretria, and the secession of Euboea. + Deposition of the college of four hundred, after a despotic rule + of four months;--Reformation of the government;--Transfer of the + highest power to the hands of the five thousand;--Recall of + Alcibiades, and reconciliation with the army. + +24. Brilliant period of Alcibiades's command. The reiterated naval +victories won by the Athenians over the Spartans under Mindarus, who, +mistrusting Tissaphernes, now forms an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap +of the north of Asia Minor, oblige the Spartans to propose peace, which +haughty Athens, unluckily for herself, rejects. + + Two naval engagements on the Hellespont, 411.--Great victory by + sea and land won near Cyzicus, 410.--Confirmation of the Athenian + dominion over Ionia and Thrace by the capture of Byzantium, 480. + Alcibiades returns covered with glory; but in the same year is + deposed, and submits to a voluntary exile, 407. + +25. Arrival of the younger Cyrus in Asia Minor; the shrewdness of +Lysander wins him over to the Spartan interest. The republican +haughtiness of Lysander's successor, Callicratidas, shown to Cyrus, was +a serious error in policy; for, unassisted by Persian money, Sparta was +not in a condition to pay her mariners, nor consequently to support her +naval establishment. After the defeat and death of Callicratidas, the +command is restored to Lysander, who terminates the twenty seven years' +war triumphantly for Sparta. + + Naval victory of Lysander over the Athenians at Notium, 407; in + consequence of which Alcibiades is deprived of the + command.--Appointment of ten new leaders at Athens; Conon among + the number.--Naval victory of Callicratidas at Mitylene; Conon is + shut up in the harbour of that place, 406.--Great naval victory of + the Athenians; defeat and death of Callicratidas at the Aeginussae + islands, near Lesbos, 406.--Unjust condemnation of the Athenian + generals.--Second command of Lysander, and last _decisive_ victory + by sea over the Athenians at Aegospotamos on the Hellespont, Dec. + 406.--The loss of the sovereignty of the sea is accompanied by the + defection of the confederates, who are successively subjected by + Lysander, 406.--Athens is besieged by Lysander in the same year, + 405; the city surrenders in May, 404.--Athens is deprived of her + walls; her navy is reduced to twelve sail; and, in obedience to + Lysander's commands, the constitution is commuted into an + oligarchy, under thirty rulers, (tyrants.) + +26. Thus ended a war destructive in its moral, still more than in its +political, consequences. Party spirit had usurped the place of patriotic +feeling; as national prejudice had that of national energy. Athens being +subdued, Sparta stood at the head of confederate Greece; but Greece very +soon experienced the yoke of her deliverers to be infinitely more +galling than that of the people hitherto called her oppressors. What +evils must not have ensued from the revolutions Lysander now found it +necessary to effect in most of the Grecian states, in order to place the +helm of government in the hands of his own party under the +superintendence of a Spartan harmost?--How oppressive must not have been +the military rule of the numerous Spartan garrisons?--Nor could any +alleviation of tribute be hoped for, now that in Sparta it was +acknowledged that the "state must possess an exchequer."--The arrogance +and rapacity of the new masters were rendered more grievous by their +being more uncivilized and destitute. + + History of the reign of terror at Athens under the thirty tyrants, + 403.--What happened here must likewise have happened more or less + in the other Grecian cities, which Lysander found it necessary to + revolutionize. In all quarters his party consisted of men similar + to Critias and his colleagues, who appear to have been long before + united in clubs ([Greek: hetaireiai]) intimately connected with + each other; from which were now taken the most daring + revolutionists, in order to place them everywhere at the head of + affairs. + +27. Happy revolution in Athens, and expulsion of the thirty tyrants +by Thrasybulus, favoured by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, +and headed by king Pausanias. Restoration and reform of Solon's +constitution; general amnesty. It was easy to reestablish forms;--to +recall the departed spirit of the nation was impossible! + + ED. PH. HINRICHS, _De Theramenis, Critiae et Thrasybuli, virorum + tempore belli Peloponnesiaci inter Graecos illustrium, rebus et + ingenio, Commentatio_, Hamburgi, 1820. An inquiry which exhibits + much research and impartiality. + +28. The defeat of the younger Cyrus entangles the Spartans in a war with +the Persians, the same year that, after the death of king Agis, +Agesilaus takes possession of the regal dignity. We willingly forget his +usurpation as we follow him in his heroic career. None but a man of +genius could have instructed Sparta how to support for so long a time +the extravagant character which she had now undertaken to play. + + Opening of the war with Persia by Tissaphernes's attack on the + Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, 400.--Command of Thimbron, who, 398, + is succeeded by the more successful and fortunate + Dercyllidas.--Availing himself of the jealousy between + Tissaphernes and Artabazus, he persuades the latter to a separate + truce, 397.--Command of Agesilaus; his expedition into Asia, from + the spring of 396 until 394. The conviction which he obtained of + the domestic weakness of the Persian empire in the successful + invasion of Phrygia, 395, seems to have matured in the mind of + Agesilaus the idea of overturning the Persian throne: this design + he would have accomplished had not the Persians been politic + enough to kindle a war against Sparta in Greece itself. + +29. The Corinthian war, waged against Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and +Argos, to which Athens and the Thessalians unite, terminated by the +peace of Antalcidas. The tyranny of Sparta, and more particularly the +recent devastation of Elis, a sacred territory, were the alleged +pretexts; but the bribes of Timocrates, the Persian envoy, were the real +causes of this war. + + Irruption of the Spartans into Boeotia; they engage and are routed + at Haliartus, 394. Lysander falls on the field of battle; and + Agesilaus is recalled out of Asia.--His victory at Coronea ensures + to the Spartans the preponderance by land; but the discomfiture of + their navy near Cnidus at the same time, gives to their enemies + the sovereignty of the sea: Conon, who commanded the combined + Persian and Athenian fleets, avails himself, with consummate + skill, of this success to reestablish the independence of Athens, + 393.--Sparta endeavours by apparently great sacrifices to bring + over the Persians to her interests: the peace at last concluded by + the efforts of the skilful Antalcidas, (see above, book ii, parag. + 42), was readily agreed to by the Spartans, as they gave up only + what otherwise they could not have retained. The preponderance of + Sparta on the continent of Greece was established by the article + which invested them with the power of seeing the conditions of the + treaty fulfilled: the stipulated freedom of the Grecian cities was + but an apparent disadvantage; and now that the Asiatic colonies + were given up, the contest for power in Greece itself must be + decided by land, and not by sea. + +30. The quarrels which, after the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta began to +have with Mantinea and Phlius, and still more so her participation in +those between the Macedo-Greek cities and the over-powerful Olynthus, +prove too plainly the arrogance with which Sparta behaved to the weaker +states. But the arbitrary appropriation of the citadel of Thebes by +Phoebidas,--an act not indeed commanded, yet approved by Sparta,--was +attended with more serious consequences than were at first expected. +Would that all authors of similar breaches of good faith and the law of +nations were visited with the same vengeance! + +31. Period of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes, Thebes, from the year +378. The greatness of Thebes was the work of two men, who knew how to +inspire their fellow-citizens and confederates with their own heroic +spirit: with them Thebes rose, with them she fell. Rarely does history +exhibit such a _duumvirate_ as that of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. How +high must our estimation of Pythagoras be, even had his philosophy +formed but one such man as Epaminondas! + + Liberation of Thebes from Spartan rule by the successful attempt + of Pelopidas and his fellow-conspirators, 378. Vain attempts + against Thebes, by the Spartans under Cleombrotus, 378, and + Agesilaus, 377 and 376. The defensive war conducted by Pelopidas, + during which he established the Theban supremacy in Boeotia, and + brought over the Athenians, (whose fleet, 376, beat that of the + Spartans,) deserves our admiration more than the winning of a + battle.--The vast plans of Thebes were not unfolded, however, till + Epaminondas was at the head of affairs. + + SERAN DE LA TOUR, _Histoire d'Epaminondas_. Paris, 1752. + + # MEISSNER, _Life of Epaminondas_. Prague, 1801, 2 parts. In which + the authorities are duly considered. + + # J. G. SCHEIBEL, _Essays towards a better understanding of the + Ancient World_, 1809. The second part contains an essay upon the + history of Thebes, as the first does on that of Corinth. + +32. A general peace is concluded in Greece through the mediation of the +Persians, (who wish to obtain auxiliaries against the Egyptians,) under +the condition that all the Grecian cities shall be free: it is acceded +to by Sparta and Athens, but rejected by Thebes, because she cannot +admit the condition without again falling under the Spartan yoke. In +fact, the lofty language used by Epaminondas, as envoy to Sparta, shows +that it was problematic whether Sparta or Thebes should now be at the +head of Greece. Could the idea, therefore, of a perfect equality between +the states of Greece be other than chimerical? + +33. The long struggle maintained so gloriously by Epaminondas against +Sparta is remarkable both in a political and military point of view. The +power of Sparta was abased; Epaminondas invented a new system of +tactics, (out of which soon after sprang the Macedonian art of war;) and +as soon as he found confederates in Peloponnesus itself, he made his way +to the very gates of Sparta. + + Victory won by the Thebans at Leuctra, July 8, 371, and + annihilation of what hitherto had been called the supremacy of + Sparta.--First irruption into Peloponnesus preceded by alliances + with Arcadia, Elis, and Argos.--The attack upon Sparta itself is + unsuccessful; but the freedom of Messene is restored, 369. + +34. Sparta in distress forms an alliance with Athens, under the +stipulation that the command shall alternately be in the hands of the +two confederates; conditions, no doubt, humiliating to Spartan pride! It +however affords them the means of frustrating Epaminondas's new attempt +on Corinth and the Peloponnesus. Even Dionysius I. of Syracuse, thinks +himself bound to assist the Spartans as being Dorians. + +35. Thebes played a no less brilliant part in the north than she did in +the south. And had the attempts to liberate Thessaly from the rule of +the tyrant, Alexander of Pherae, been attended with success, Thebes would +have received a vast increase of power. Even in Macedonia she acted as +arbitress. + + First and successful expedition of Pelopidas into Thessaly, + 368.--After the decision of the disputed succession to the + Macedonian throne, young Philip is brought as hostage to Thebes, + and educated in the house of Epaminondas.--Pelopidas is sent as + ambassador, and taken prisoner by Alexander; hence the second + expedition of the Thebans, in which Epaminondas rescues the army + and delivers his friend, 367. + +36. Alliance of Thebes with Persia successfully brought about by +Pelopidas. In the intrigues of the opponents at the Persian court, the +object of each was to bring that court over to his own interest. Yet the +domineering tone in which the Persians wished to dictate peace, had not +the consequences that might have been expected; and although Sparta +consented to her confederates remaining neutral, she would not forego +her claims on Messene. The establishment of a navy would have been of +more important consequences to Thebes than this alliance, had not all +these plans, together with the greatness of Thebes, been swept away by +the premature death of her two leading men. + + Last expedition of Pelopidas against Alexander of Pherae, in which + he himself falls, 364.--New irruption into Peloponnesus caused by + the commotions in Arcadia.--Battle of Mantinea, and death of + Epaminondas, June 27, 362.--General peace in Greece mediated by + the Persians; Sparta does not assent to it on account of Messene, + but sends Agesilaus to Egypt, there to support the insurrection of + Tachos. + +37. The result of this bloody struggle for the supremacy of Greece was, +that neither Sparta nor Thebes obtained it; the former of these states +being weakened by the loss of Messene, the latter by the loss of its +leaders, and both strained by their violent exertions. The situation of +Greece after this war seems to have been thus far changed, that no state +had the predominance; an independence proceeding from enervation. Even +Athens, who by means of her naval power still preserved her influence +over the cities on the coast and in the islands, lost the greater part +in the war of the allies, together with three of her most celebrated +leaders, Chabrias, Timotheus, and Iphicrates, whose places were ill +supplied by Chares. + + Confederacy of the islands Cos, Rhodes, and Chios, and the city of + Byzantium; their secession from Athens, 358.--Unsuccessful siege + of Chios, before which Chabrias falls, 358; of Byzantium, 357. + Athens suffers a still greater injury from the cabals of Chares + against his colleagues Timotheus and Iphicrates, and from her + imprudent participation in the insurrection of Artabazus, 356. The + threats of Artaxerxes III. force Athens to make a peace, in which + she is obliged to acknowledge the freedom of her confederates. + +38. At the very time when the growing power of Macedonia under Philip +ought to have united all the Grecian states, had such an union been +within the range of possibility, Greece plunged into another civil war +of ten years' duration, which is known by the name of the sacred or +Phocian war. The Amphictyonic assembly, whose duty it was to maintain +peace, and whose influence had been in the present circumstances +reinstated, abused its authority by kindling discord. The hatred of the +Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of quarrel with Sparta, and +the ambition of the Phocian Philomelus, were the real causes which led +to the war, which the policy of Philip knew how to prolong till the +precise moment favourable to his own particular views arrived. The +treasures of Delphi circulating in Greece, were as injurious to the +country as the ravages which it underwent. A war springing out of +private passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and +terminated by the interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was +requisite for annihilating the scanty remains of morality and patriotism +still existing in Greece. + + Sentence of the Amphictyons against Sparta on account of the + former surprise of the citadel of Thebes by Phoebidas; and against + Phocis on account of the tillage of the sacred lands of Delphi, + 357.--Philomelus is elected general of the Phocians; the rifling + of the treasury of Delphi enables him to take into his pay + Athenian and other auxiliaries, and to carry war against the + Thebans and their confederates, the Locrians, etc. under pretence + of their being the executors of the Amphictyonic decrees. + Philomelus having fallen, 353, is succeeded by his brother + Onomarchus, more skilful than himself in intrigue and war: but + Onomarchus having fallen, 352, in the battle with Philip in + Thessaly, is followed by Phayllus. Philip even thus early + endeavours to push through Thermopylae into Greece, but is repelled + by the Athenians. He executes this plan after his peace with + Athens, 347, and having procured the expulsion of the Phocians + from the Amphictyonic council, gets their place and right of vote + to be transferred to himself. + +39. From the very first advance of Philip, the fate of Greece could +scarcely afford matter for doubt; although the eloquence of Demosthenes +warded it off until the second invasion, caused by the Amphictyonic +sentence passed on the Locrians. (See below, book iv. parag. 15.) The +battle of Chaeronea laid the foundation of Macedonia's complete +ascendancy over the Grecian republics: by the appointment of Philip to +be generalissimo of Greece in the Persian war, that ascendancy was, as +it were, formally acknowledged; nor did it end with the assassination of +that prince. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FOURTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From its origin to the death of Alexander the Great. B. C. 800-323._ + + + Sources. We have no historian who wrote, particularly, on + Macedonia, before the time of Alexander. The facts relative to the + earlier history previous to Philip are collected from Diodorus, + Justin, Thucydides, and Arrian; from Diodorus more especially. In + consequence of the loss of the other historians, Diodorus is the + chief authority for the history of Philip; the speeches of + Demosthenes and Aeschines must likewise be consulted, but not made + use of without caution and judicious historical criticism. With + respect to Alexander the Great, as so many writers on his reign + have been destroyed by time, Arrian must now be considered as the + chief authority, on account of the care he has shown in the + selection of his authorities, conjointly with the seventeenth book + of Diodorus. Plutarch's biography contains several valuable + additional facts; and even the superficial Curtius might furnish us + with abundance of information, did his accounts offer higher claims + to our credit. + +1. An Hellenic colony from Argos, headed by the Temenidae, a branch of +the Heraclidae, settled in Emathia, and laid the feeble foundation of the +Macedonian empire, which was in time to rise to such power. Not only did +the settlers keep their footing in the country, in spite of the +aboriginal inhabitants; but their princes gradually extended their +territory, by subjecting or expelling several of the neighbouring +tribes. Their earlier history, not excepting even the names of their +kings, is buried in obscurity till the time of the Persian invasions. + + The three first Macedonian kings, Caranus said to have ruled + twenty-eight years, Coenus twenty-three, Tyrmas forty-five, were + unknown to Herodotus, who names as founder of the Macedonian + monarchy, Perdiccas, 729-678. Of this prince and his successors + Argaeus, _d._ 640, Philip I. _d._ 602, Aeropus, _d._ 576, and + Alcetas, _d._ 547, nothing more is known than that they waged war, + with various success against the neighbouring Pierians and + Illyrians, who had their own kings. + +2. When the Persians commenced their incursions into Europe, Macedonia, +by its situation, must have been one of the first countries they +ravaged. Accordingly, as early as the reign of Darius Hystaspis, the +Macedonian kings were tributary to the Persians; and were indebted for +their deliverance from that yoke, not to their own valour, but to the +victories of the Greeks. The battle of Plataeae restored independence to +the Macedonian kingdom, although that independence was not formally +acknowledged by the Persians. + + Immediately after the Scythian campaign, 513, Amyntas (_d._ 498,) + became tributary to the Persians; his son and successor, Alexander, + (_d._ 454,) was in the same state of subjection, and was even + compelled to join the expedition of Xerxes. + +3. But the expulsion of the Persians still left Macedonia exposed to the +attacks of other formidable neighbours; on one side there was the +Thracians, among whom, under Sitalces, and his successor, Seuthes, arose +the powerful kingdom of the Odrysae; on the other, the Athenians, who, +availing themselves of their extensive navy, reduced to subjection the +Grecian settlements on the Macedonian shores. Harassing as these +neighbours were to the Macedonian kings, they proved to be the very +instruments by which Macedonia became so early and so deeply involved in +the affairs of Greece. + + Commencement of the differences with Athens, under the reign of + Perdiccas II, 454-413; Athens having supported his brother Philip + against him.--Defection of Potidaea, and fortification of Olynthus, + into which the Greeks from Chalcis and other cities are + transplanted, 432. Potidaea being forced to surrender to Athens, + 431, Perdiccas contrives to play so skilful a part in the + Peloponnesian war just now commencing, that he outwits the + Athenians, parrying the attack of Sitalces by a marriage of his + sister with Seuthes, the heir to that prince, 429. His alliance + with Sparta, 424, is very detrimental to the Athenians, Brasidas + wresting Amphipolis from their hands; nevertheless Perdiccas + chooses rather to conclude a peace with Athens, 423, than to throw + himself entirely into the arms of his new allies. + +4. Archelaus, the successor of Perdiccas, introduced agriculture and +civilization among the Macedonians, who were never, however, recognized +by the Hellenes as their legitimate brethren: highways and military +roads were constructed; forts were erected; and the court became the +seat of literature. In these days the Macedonian kingdom seems to have +comprised Emathia, Mygdonia, and Pelagonia, to which may be added some +of the neighbouring tribes, who, although governed by their own kings, +were tributary. The power of the kings was insignificant when unaided by +the nobles, among whom, as was the case with all the hereditary princes +of Greece, they merely held the right of precedence. How difficult was +it, even in Alexander's time, to erase from the minds of the Macedonian +nobility the recollection of their former importance! + +5. The murder of Archelaus was followed by a stormy period, wrapped in +obscurity: the unsettled state of the succession raised up many +pretenders to the throne, each of whom easily found the means of +supporting his claims, either in some of the neighbouring tribes, or in +one of the Grecian republics. + + Aeropus, as guardian to the young king Orestes, usurps the supreme + power, B. C. 400-394. After his death, and the murder of his son + Pausanias, 393, the throne was seized by Amyntas II. son of + Philip, and brother to Perdiccas II. who was nevertheless unable + to maintain his power until he had gained a victory over Argaeus, + the brother of Pausanias, who was backed by the Illyrians, + 390-369. The war with Olynthus, 383-380, could not be brought to a + successful conclusion until he had formed an alliance with Sparta. + +6. The three sons of Amyntas II, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip, +successively ascended the throne after the death of their father; but so +violent were the commotions during the reigns of the two former, that +the future existence of Macedonia as a kingdom might have been regarded +as problematical: it is certain that they were obliged to submit to the +payment of tribute to the Illyrians. + + Alexander, in opposition to his rival, Ptolemy of Alorus, placed + on the throne by Pelopidas, sends his youngest brother Philip as + hostage to Thebes: in the same year he is deposed by Ptolemy, 368. + Reign of Ptolemy, 388-365, with the stipulation imposed, 367, by + Pelopidas, that he shall only hold the sceptre in reserve for the + two younger brothers. Murder of Ptolemy, 365, by Perdiccas III. + who is nearly overwhelmed by Pausanias, another and earlier + pretender to the crown; he is at last firmly seated on the throne + by the Athenians, under Iphicrates, 364. But as early as 360 he + falls in the war against the Illyrians, leaving behind him a son, + Amyntas, still a minor, and a younger brother Philip, who escapes + from Thebes in order to gain possession of the throne. + +7. The reign of Philip, which lasted twenty-four years, is one of the +most instructive and interesting in the whole range of history, as well +on account of the prudence he displayed, as for the manner in which his +plans were arranged and executed. Though it may be difficult to trace in +his morals the pupil of Epaminondas, yet it is impossible to view +without feelings of astonishment the brilliant career of a man, who, +under the almost hopeless circumstances in which he commenced his +course, never lost his firmness of mind, and who in the highest +prosperity preserved his coolness of reflection. + + The history of Philip, even in his own days, was distorted to his + disadvantage by orators and historians. Demosthenes could not, + Theopompus would not, be impartial; and the information contained + in Diodorus and Justin is mostly derived from the work of the + latter. + + OLIVIER, _Histoire de Philippe, roi de Macedoine_. Paris, 1740, 2 + vols. 8vo. A defence of Philip. + + DE BURY, _Histoire de Philippe, et d'Alexandre le grand_. Paris, + 1760, 4to. A very mean performance. + + TH. LELAND, _The History of the Life and Reign of Philip king of + Macedon_. London, 1761, 4to. Dry, but exhibiting much reading and + strict impartiality. + + In MITFORD, _History of Greece_, vol. iv, Philip has found his + most zealous panegyrist and defender. It would seem that, even in + the present day, it is impossible to write an impartial history of + this monarch. + +8. Melancholy posture of the Macedonian affairs at the beginning of +Philip's reign. Besides victorious foes abroad, there were at home two +pretenders to the throne, Argaeus, backed by Athens, Pausanias, supported +by Thrace; and Philip himself, at first, was merely regent, and not +king. In the two first years, however, every thing was changed, and +Macedonia recovered her independence. The newly-created phalanx ensured +victory over the barbarians; recourse was had to other means than force +for success against the suspiciousness of Athens and the neighbouring +Greek settlements, particularly against the powerful Olynthus. It is in +the conduct of these affairs that the peculiar sagacity of Philip is +displayed. + + After the defeat of Argaeus, peace is purchased from Athens by a + momentary recognition of the freedom of Amphipolis, 360.--Removal + of Pausanias by means of an accommodation with Thrace.--By the + conquest of the Paeonians and Illyrians, 359, the boundaries of + Macedonia are extended to Thrace, and westward to the lake + Lychnitis.--As early as 360 Philip was proclaimed king. + +9. Development of Philip's further plans of aggrandizement.--By the +gradual subjection of the Macedo-Greek cities, he proposed, not only to +make himself sole master in Macedonia, but also to remove the Athenians +from his domain.--The first object of his policy against Greece was to +get himself acknowledged as a Hellen, and Macedonia as a member of the +Hellenic league. Hence the subsequent tutelage in which Macedonia held +Greece was not converted into a formal subjection, a proceeding which +would have savoured too much of barbarian origin.--The execution of all +these plans was facilitated by the possession of the Thracian gold +mines, which enabled Philip to create finances as well as the phalanx. + + Capture of Amphipolis, 358; in the mean while Athens is amused + with promises, and Olynthus with the momentary cession of Potidaea, + which had likewise been captured: this event is followed by the + conquest of the mountainous districts, abounding in gold, which + extend from the Nestus to the Strymon, and furnished an annual + income of nearly 1,000 talents. + +10. The interference of Philip in the affairs of Thessaly dates from the +year 357; the possession of that country was an object equally important +for the furtherance of his views upon Greece, as for the improvement of +his finances. He first stepped forth as the deliverer of Thessaly, and +ended in making it a province of Macedonia. + + Expulsion of the tyrants from Pherae, at the request of the + Aleuadae, 356; the tyrants, however, receive support in the sacred + war from the Phocians under Onomarchus. The final defeat of + Onomarchus, 352, makes Philip master of Thessaly; he places + Macedonian garrisons in the three chief places, and thus supports + his authority in the country until he is pleased to make it + entirely a Macedonian province, 344. + +11. The protraction of the sacred war in Greece furnished Philip with an +excellent opportunity of promoting his views upon that country; although +his first attempt at an irruption, too precipitately undertaken, was +frustrated by the Athenians. The capture of Olynthus, notwithstanding +the assistance afforded it by the Athenians, after a season of apparent +inaction, insured the safety of the frontiers in his rear; and by a +master stroke of policy, almost at the very moment in which he was +driving the Athenians out of Euboea, he found means to enter with them +into negotiations, which, after repeated embassies, were closed by a +peace, opening to him the way through Thermopylae, and enabling him to +raise a party favourable to himself within the very walls of Athens. + +12. First descent of Philip into Greece, and termination of the sacred +war by reducing the Phocians. The place which he now obtained in the +Amphictyonic council, had been the height of his wishes; and the +humility of Sparta proved how firmly his ascendancy over Greece was +already established. + +13. Brief view of the state of Greece, and more particularly of Athens, +after the sacred war; description of the means by which Philip succeeded +in creating and supporting parties favourable to his own interests in +the Grecian states. Bribery was not his only instrument; what he gave he +borrowed from others; the main feature of his policy was, that he seldom +or ever recurred to the same means. Scheming and consistent even in his +drunken revels, he hardly ever appears under the same form. + + Dreadful consequences to the morals of the Greeks, resulting from + the spirit of party, the decline of religion, and the vast + increase in the circulating medium, produced by the treasures of + Delphi and Macedonia.--Estimate of the power of Athens during the + period of Demosthenes and Phocion. It seems that, unfortunately, + the eloquence and political acuteness of the former was not + accompanied with sufficient talents for negotiation; the latter, + perhaps, did not place confidence enough in his country, while + Demosthenes placed too much. In spite of public indolence and + effeminacy, Athens was still enabled to support her rank as a + maritime power, the navy of Philip not being equal to hers. + + # A. G. BECKER, _Demosthenes as a Statesman and an Orator_. An + historico-critical introduction to his works: 1815. A very useful + work, both as a history and as an introduction to the political + orations of Demosthenes. + +14. New conquests of Philip in Illyria and Thrace. The Adriatic sea and +the Danube appear to have been the boundaries of his empire on this +side. But the views of the Macedonian king were directed less against +the Thracians, than against the Grecian settlements on the Hellespont; +and the attack of the Athenian Diopithes furnished him a pretext for +making war against them. The siege, however, of Perinthus and Byzantium, +was frustrated by Phocion, to the great vexation of Philip; an event +which aroused the Athenians, and even the Persians, from their lethargy. + +15. Policy of Philip after this check.--At the very time that, engaged +in a war against the barbarians on the Danube, he appears to have wholly +lost sight of the affairs of Greece, his agents redouble their activity. +Aeschines, richly paid for his services, proposes in the Amphictyonic +council, that, to punish the sacrilegious insults of the Locrians to the +Delphian oracle, he should be elected leader of the Greeks in this new +sacred war. Following his usual maxim, Philip suffers himself to be +entreated. + +16. Second expedition of Philip into Greece. His appropriation of the +important frontier town of Elatea soon showed that, for this time at +least, he was not contending merely for the honour of Apollo.--Alliance +between Athens and Thebes brought about by Demosthenes.--But the defeat +of Chaeronea in the same year decided the dependence of Greece. Philip +now found it easy to play the magnanimous character towards Athens. + +17. Preparations for the execution of his plan against Persia, not as +his own undertaking, but as a national war of the Hellenes against the +barbarians. Thus, while Philip, by obtaining from the Amphictyons the +appointment of generalissimo of Greece against the Persians, secured in +an _honourable_ manner the dependence of the country, the splendour of +the expedition flattered the nation at whose expense it was to be +conducted. It is a question, indeed, whether Philip's own private views +extended much further! + +18. The internal government of Macedonia, under so skilful and +successful a conqueror, must necessarily have been absolute. No +pretender would dare to rise up against such a ruler, and the body guard +([Greek: doryphoroi]) established by him at the beginning of his reign, +and taken from the Macedonian nobility, contributed much to keep up a +proper understanding between the prince and the nobles. The court became +a military staff, while the people, from a nation of herdsmen, was +converted into a nation of warriors.--Philip was unfortunate only in his +own family; but the blame is not to be attributed to him if he could not +agree with Olympias. + +19. Philip murdered by Pausanias at Aegae, probably at the instigation of +the Persians, while celebrating the marriage of his daughter. + +20. The reign of ALEXANDER the GREAT, in the eyes of the historical +inquirer, derives its great interest, not only from the extent, but from +the permanence, of the revolution which he effected in the world. To +appreciate properly the character of this prince, who died just as he +was about to carry his mighty projects into execution, is no easy task; +but it is totally repugnant to common sense to suppose that the pupil of +Aristotle was nothing more than a wild and reckless conqueror, unguided +by any plan. + + ST. CROIX, _Examen critique des anciens historiens + d'Alexandre-le-grand_, 2nd. edition, _considerablement augmentee_. + Paris, 1804, 4to. The new edition of this, which is the principal + work on the history of Alexander, and important in more respects + than one, contains more than the title implies, though by no means + a strictly impartial estimate of that prince's character. + +21. Violent commotions at court, in the conquered countries, and in +Greece, after the death of Philip. Great as his power appeared to be, +the preservation of it depended entirely on the first display of +character in his successor. Alexander showed himself worthy to inherit +the sceptre by his victorious expedition against the Thracians; (to +whom, and more especially to his alliance with the Agrians, he was +afterwards indebted for his light horse;) and by the example which he +exhibited to Greece in his treatment of Thebes. + +22. Appointment of Alexander in the assembly at Corinth to be +generalissimo of the Greeks. Yet what his father would probably have +turned to a very different account, he allowed to remain a mere nominal +office.--Development of his plan of attack upon Persia.--The want of a +navy, soon experienced by Alexander, would probably have frustrated his +whole project, had not Memnon's counterplan of an inroad into Macedonia +been thwarted by the celerity of the Macedonian king. + +23. Passage over the Hellespont, and commencement of the war. The +tranquillity of his kingdom and of Greece appeared to be secured, +Antipater being left at the head of affairs.--The victory on the +Granicus opens to Alexander a path into Asia Minor; but the death of +Memnon, which soon after followed, was perhaps a greater advantage than +a victory. + +24. The victory of Issus, gained over Darius in person, appears to have +given Alexander the first idea of completely overturning the Persian +throne, as was proved by the rejection of Darius's offers of peace. When +indeed have not the plans of conquerors been dependent on the course of +events? Yet Alexander must have been pretty certain of his future +victory, since he permitted Darius to escape, while he sat down seven +months before Tyre, in order to make himself master of the sea; and, +after the conquest of Egypt without a battle, to which the possession of +Tyre opened the way, to build Alexandria, and erect to himself a +monument more lasting than all his victories. + + Although Alexandria perhaps in the end may have surpassed the + expectations of the founder, yet the selection of the site, + favourable only for navigation and commerce, shows that an eye was + originally had to those objects. + +25. Invasion of Inner Asia, facilitated by the tacit submission of the +ruling tribes, and by the state of cultivation in which the country was +found. On the plains of Arbela the Macedonian tactics were completely +triumphant. It might now be said that the throne of Persia was +overturned; and the unexpectedly easy capture of Babylon, Susa, and +Persepolis, was surely of more importance for the moment than the +pursuit of a flying king. + + Insurrection of the Greeks quelled by Antipater; Alexander himself + falls in with the malcontent envoys to Darius in the interior of + Asia. + +26. The subjection of the north-eastern provinces of the Persian empire +would perhaps have been attended with the greatest difficulties, had +not the astonishing activity of the conqueror crushed in their birth +the schemes of the treacherous Bessus, who, after the assassination of +Darius, wished to erect a separate kingdom in Bactria. The Jaxartes was +now the northern boundary of the Macedonian monarchy, as it had hitherto +been that of the Persian. Besides, the possession of the rich trading +countries, Bactria and Sogdiana, was in itself an object of vast +importance. + + During this expedition, the execution of Philotas and his father + Parmenio took place, though both were, probably, guiltless of the + conspiracy laid to their charge, 330. After the death of Darius, + Alexander met with almost constant opposition in his own army: the + majority of the troops fancying that that event precluded the + necessity of any further exertions. Cautious as Alexander was in + his treatment of the Macedonian nobles, we may discern, not + however by the mere example of Clitus, how difficult they found it + to banish from their memory the relations in which they had + formerly stood to their kings. + +27. Alexander's expedition against India had, no doubt, its origin in +that propensity to romantic enterprise which constituted a main feature +in his character. Yet what could be more natural than that a close view +of Persian splendour, the conquest of such wealthy countries, and the +desire of prosecuting his vast commercial designs, should gradually +mature in the mind of the Macedonian king the plan of subjecting a +country which was represented as the golden land of Asia. To this +likewise the scantiness of geographic information must have greatly +contributed; if he pressed forward to the eastern seas, the circle of +his dominion would, it was supposed, be complete.--It appears very +certain that Alexander was destitute of a sufficient knowledge of the +country when he entered upon this expedition. + + Alexander's invasion was directed against Northern India, or the + Panjab; in those days a populous and highly cultivated country; + now the seat of the Seiks and Mahrattas; and then, as now, + inhabited by warlike races. He crossed the Indus at Taxila + (Attock,) passed the Hydaspes (Behut or Chelum,) and, availing + himself of the quarrels between the Indian princes, defeated the + king, Porus. He then proceeded across the Acesines (Jenaub) and + Hydraotes (Rauvee). The eastern verge reached in this expedition + was the river Hyphasis (Beyah;) here, having already proceeded + half way to the Ganges, the conqueror was, by a mutiny in his + army, compelled to retreat. His return was through the country of + the Malli (Multan) as far as the Hydaspes, when the majority of + his troops took ship, and were floated along that stream into the + Acesines, and from thence into the Indus, which they followed down + to its mouth. + + RENNEL, _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_. London, 1793, (3d. edit.) + and + + ST. CROIX, _Examen_, etc. (see p. 216.) furnish all the necessary + historical and geographical explanations relative to the Persian + and Indian campaigns of Alexander. + +28. Although Alexander was obliged to give up the project of conquering +India, yet the connection between Europe and the east, which has +continued from that time, was the work of his hands. While the +communication on land was secured by the establishment of various +settlements, the communication by sea was opened by the voyage of his +admiral, Nearchus, from the Indus to the Euphrates. In the mean time +Alexander himself proceeded to Persis and Babylon, across the desert, +and the unexplored provinces of Gedrosia and Carmania. + + Nearchus's voyage (our knowledge of which is derived from his own + journal, preserved in Arrian's _Indica_) lasted from the + beginning of October, 326, to the end of February, 325: nearly + the same time was occupied in the almost incredible land march of + the king. + + VINCENT, _The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates_. + London, 1797, 4to. Exhibiting the most learned researches, and + illustrated with excellent charts. + +29. After the abandonment of India, the whole circuit of Alexander's +conquests was precisely that of the former Persian empire; his later +projects were probably directed against Arabia alone. However easy it +had been to make these conquests, it was a more difficult task to retain +them; for Macedonia, exhausted by continual levies of men, could not +furnish efficient garrisons. Alexander removed this difficulty, by +protecting the conquered from oppression; by showing proper respect to +their religion; by leaving the civil government in the hands of the +native rulers who had hitherto possessed it; and by confiding to +Macedonians the command only of the garrisons left in the chief places, +and in the newly established colonies. To alter as little as possible in +the internal organization of countries was his fundamental principle. + +30. Simple as Alexander's plans were in the outset, their simplicity was +more than compensated by the magnitude and importance of their results. +Babylon was to be the capital of his empire, and consequently of the +world. The union of the east and the west was to be brought about by the +amalgamation of the dominant races by intermarriage, by education, and, +more than all, by the ties of commerce, the importance of which much +ruder conquerors, in Asia itself, soon learnt to appreciate. In nothing +probably is the superiority of his genius more brilliantly displayed, +than in his exemption from all national prejudice, particularly when we +consider that none of his countrymen were in this respect to be compared +with him. To refuse him this merit is impossible, whatever judgment we +may form of his general character. + +31. Sudden death of Alexander at Babylon by fever; under the peculiar +circumstances of the time, the greatest loss mankind could experience. +From the Indus to the Nile the world lay in ruins; and where was now the +architect to be found, that could gather up the scattered fragments and +restore the edifice? + + Alexander's disorder may be easily accounted for by the hardships + he had undergone, and the impure air to which he exposed himself + in cleaning out the canals about Babylon. He certainly was not + poisoned; and in the charge of immoderate drunkenness brought + against him, we must take into account the manners of the + Macedonian and Persian courts. Was it not the same with Peter the + Great? In estimating his moral character we must bear in mind the + natural vehemence of his passions, ever inclined to the most rapid + transitions; nor should we forget the unavoidable influence of + constant success upon mankind. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death of Alexander +the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301._ + + + To enable the reader to take a general view, the history of the + European events is resumed below, under the head of the history + of Macedonia Proper. + + SOURCES. Diodorus, lib. xviii-xx. is the great authority for this + portion of history. He compiled mostly, for this period, from a + contemporary historian, Hieronymus of Cardia. He is followed by + Plutarch in the Lives of Eumenes, Demetrius, and Phocion; and by + Justin, lib. xiii, etc. Of Arrian's history of Alexander's + successors, nothing unfortunately remains but a few fragments in + Photius. + + # MANNERT, _History of Alexander's successors_. Nuremberg, 1787. + Composed with the usual judgment and learning of that author. + +1. The very first measure adopted after the death of Alexander contained +within itself the seeds of all the dire revolutions that afterwards +ensued. Not only were the jealousy and ambition of the nobles aroused, +but even the interference of the army was exhibited in the most terrific +manner. Although the idea of the supremacy of the royal family was cast +off only by degrees, yet the dreadfully disturbed state in which that +family stood, rendered its fall unavoidable. + + State of the royal family at the death of Alexander. He left his + wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into + the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left + likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother, + Arrhidaeus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a + sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to + Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king, + Arrhidaeus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united + to Cassander of Macedonia. + +2. The weak Arrhidaeus, under the name of Philip, and the infant +Alexander were at last proclaimed kings, the _regency_ being placed in +the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was +quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas. Meanwhile Antipater, +with whom Craterus had been joined as civil ruler, had the management of +affairs in Europe. + +3. The sequel of the history becomes naturally that of satraps, who fell +out among themselves, all being ambitious to rule, and none willing to +obey. Twenty-two years elapsed ere any massy edifice arose out of the +ruins of the Macedonian monarchy. In few periods of history are the +revolutions of affairs so violent, in few periods, therefore, is it so +difficult to unravel the maze of events. For this purpose the most +convenient division of the history is into _three_ periods: the first +extending to the death of Perdiccas, 321: the second to the death of +Eumenes, 315: the third to the defeat and death of Antigonus at the +battle of Ipsus, 301. + +4. First grant of the provinces made by Perdiccas. The vanity of this +man seems to have induced him to select the office of regent, in order +that no separate province might fall to his share; he placed his whole +reliance on having the command of the royal army, although it had +already given so many proofs of its determination to command rather than +to obey. + + In this division Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt; Leonnatus, + Mysia; Antigonus, Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, + Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession + of Macedonia.--The foreigner, Eumenes, would hardly have received + Cappadocia, although yet to be conquered, had Perdiccas been able + to dispense with his services. The remaining provinces either did + not come under the new division, or else their governors are + unworthy of notice. + +5. The first acts of Perdiccas's government showed how little dependence +he could place on the obedience of men who hitherto had been his +colleagues. The general insurrection among the mercenaries who had been +settled by Alexander in Upper Asia, and now wished to return to their +homes, was, no doubt, quelled by Python's destruction of the rebels; but +it was not Python's fault that he did not make himself independent +master of the scene of mutiny. + +6. Still more refractory was the behaviour of Leonnatus and Antigonus, +when they received orders to put Eumenes in possession of his province. +Antigonus was too haughty to obey; and Leonnatus preferred going over +into Europe to marry Cleopatra; there, however, he almost immediately +met with his death in the Lamian war. (See below, book iv. period iii. +parag. 2.) Perdiccas, therefore, was himself obliged to undertake the +expedition with the royal army; he succeeded by the defeat of +Ariarathes. + +7. Ambitious views of Perdiccas, who, in order to ascend the throne by a +marriage with Cleopatra, repudiates Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater. +Cleopatra actually came over to Asia; but Perdiccas, being obliged, at +the request of the army, to marry Eurydice, Philip's niece, after the +murder of her mother Cyane, to the king Arrhidaeus, found her a +troublesome rival and opponent in the government. + +8. Attempts of Perdiccas to overthrow Antigonus and Ptolemy, by accusing +them before the army. Antigonus passes over to Antipater in Macedonia; +and gives rise to the league between Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, +against Perdiccas and Eumenes. + +9. Commencement and termination of the first war. Perdiccas himself +marches against Egypt, leaving his friend Eumenes to command in Asia +Minor: meanwhile Antipater and Craterus fall upon Asia; the former +advances towards Syria against Perdiccas; the latter is defeated and +slain by Eumenes. Before the arrival, however, of Antipater, Perdiccas, +after repeated and vain attempts to cross the Nile, falls a victim to +the insurrection of his own troops.--Thus three of the principal +personages, Perdiccas, Craterus, Leonnatus, were already removed from +the theatre of action; and the victorious Eumenes, now master of Asia +Minor, had to maintain, unaided, the struggle against the confederates. + +10. Second period, from the death of Perdiccas to that of +Eumenes.--Python and Arrhidaeus quickly resigning the regency, it is +assumed by Antipater.--New division of the provinces at Trisparadisus in +Syria. Seleucus receives Babylon; Antigonus is promised, besides his +former possessions, all those of the outlawed Eumenes. + +11. War of Antigonus with Eumenes. The latter, defeated by treachery, +shuts himself up in the mountain fastness of Nora, there to await more +favourable times; and Antigonus remains master of all Asia Minor: in the +mean time Ptolemy ventures to take possession of Syria and Phoenicia. + +12. Death of the regent Antipater, in the same year, (320;) he bequeaths +the regency to his friend, the aged Polysperchon, to the exclusion of +his own son Cassander. Antigonus now begins to unfold his ambitious +plans; he endeavours vainly to win over Eumenes, who deceives him in the +negotiations, and seizes the opportunity of leaving his mountain +fastness. + +13. Eumenes's plan to strengthen himself in Upper Asia; as he is on the +way he receives tidings of his being appointed generalissimo of the +royal troops. What better man could Polysperchon have selected for the +office than he who in his conduct towards Antigonus exhibited so +striking an example of attachment to the royal house? + +14. Exertions of Eumenes to maintain himself in Lower Asia, ineffectual, +the naval victory won by Antigonus over the royal fleet, commanded by +Clitus, depriving him of the empire of the sea. He bursts into Upper +Asia; where, in the spring, he unites with the satraps, who had taken +arms against the powerful Seleucus of Babylon. + +15. Antigonus following up the royal general, Upper Asia becomes the +theatre of war. Victorious as was at first the stand made by Eumenes, +neither valour nor talent were of any avail against the insubordination +of the royal troops, and the jealousy of the other commanders. Attacked +in winter quarters by Antigonus, he was, after the battle, delivered +into the hands of his enemy by the mutinous Argyraspidae, who had lost +their baggage: he was put to death, and in him the king's family lost +its only loyal supporter. + +16. Great changes had also taken place in the royal family. Her enemy +Antipater having deceased, Olympias, invited by Polysperchon, who wished +to strengthen himself against Cassander, had returned from Epirus, and +put to death Arrhidaeus together with his wife, Eurydice: in the year +following she was besieged in Pydna by Cassander, and being obliged to +surrender, was in her turn executed; meanwhile Cassander held Roxana and +the young king in his own power. + +17. Third period, from the death of Eumenes to that of Antigonus.--The +rout of Eumenes seemed to have established for ever the power of +Antigonus in Asia; still animated with the fire of youth, though full of +years, he saw himself revived in his son Demetrius, fond of boisterous +revelry, but gallant and talented.--Even Seleucus thought it time to +consult his safety by flying from Babylon into Egypt. + +18. Changes introduced by Antigonus into the upper provinces; return to +Asia Minor, where his presence seemed indispensable, by reason of the +aggrandizement of Ptolemy in Syria and Phoenicia, of the Macedonian +Cassander in Europe, of Lysimachus in Mysia, and the Carian Cassander in +Asia Minor.--He repossesses himself of Phoenicia, a country of the first +importance for the construction of a fleet. + + Siege of Tyre, 314-313: it lasts fourteen months; a proof that the + city was certainly not razed by Alexander. + +19. The fugitive Seleucus forms a league against Antigonus and +Demetrius, between Ptolemy, the two Cassanders, and Lysimachus. But +Antigonus frustrates their combination, himself driving out the Carian +Cassander, and his son marching against Ptolemy. + + Victory won by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312; after which + Seleucus marches back to Babylon, and, although subsequently + followed up by Demetrius, permanently maintains his footing in + Upper Asia.--On the other hand, Ptolemy, at the first approach of + Antigonus with the main body, surrenders back Syria and Phoenicia, + 312. + +20. A general peace concluded between Antigonus and his enemies, +Seleucus only excepted, from whom Upper Asia is to be again wrested. The +first article, that each should retain what he had, demonstrates pretty +evidently that the treaty was dictated solely by Antigonus; the second, +that the Greek cities should be free, was pregnant with the seeds of a +new war, ready to burst forth at every favourable opportunity; the +third, that the young Alexander should be raised to the throne upon +attaining his majority, was probably the death warrant of the hapless +prince, who, that same year, together with his mother, was murdered by +Cassander.--Shortly after, at the instigation of Antigonus, Cleopatra +was put to death, in order that Ptolemy might be thwarted in his object, +which depended on a matrimonial connection with that princess. + +21. Even the execution of the articles must have given rise to +hostilities; Ptolemy wishing to force Antigonus, and he, on his side, to +compel Cassander, to withdraw the garrisons from the Grecian towns; a +condition which neither party felt inclined to fulfil. Grecian freedom +was now but a name; this, however, is not the only example history +furnishes of political ideas making the greatest stir long after they +have survived their own existence; for then they become excellent tools +in the hands of artful designers. + + Expedition of Demetrius to liberate Athens, 308. The day when he + announced freedom to the Athenians, must have been the happiest of + his life! Few portions of history present such a scope for the + contemplation of human nature as the twofold sojourn of Demetrius + at Athens. + +22. The growing power of Ptolemy on the sea, and the capture of Cyprus, +determines Antigonus to an open rupture: he commands his son to drive +Ptolemy out of the island. + + Naval victory of Demetrius off Cyprus, 307, perhaps the greatest + and most bloody in history; nevertheless, as little decisive to + the general question as are most naval battles. The assumption of + the royal title, first by the conqueror, afterwards by the + conquered, and ultimately by all the rest, was but a mere form now + that the royal family was extirpated. + +23. The conquerors having failed in their project of subduing Egypt, +made the wealthy republic of the Rhodians, as an ally of that country, +the victim of their fury. But though in the renowned siege of their +capital, Demetrius earned his title of Poliorcetes, the noble defence of +the Rhodians afforded an illustrious example of the power of discipline +in conjunction with well-guided patriotism. The invitation of the +Athenians came seasonably to Demetrius; he raised the blockade and +proceeded to complete the liberation of Greece, the necessity of which +became every day more pressing. + +24. Second sojourn of Demetrius in Greece. The expulsion of Cassander's +garrisons from the Grecian cities, and more particularly from those in +Peloponnesus; the appointment of Demetrius as generalissimo of Greece, +for the conquest of Macedonia and Thrace; proved not only to Cassander, +but also to the other princes, that their common interest loudly called +upon them to resist the over-powerful Antigonus. + +25. Third grand league of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against +Antigonus and his son; brought about by Cassander. How easily, even +after the violent irruption of Lysimachus into Asia Minor, might +Antigonus have dispersed the gathering storms, had not his presumption +led him to place an overweening reliance on his own good fortune! + +26. Junction of Seleucus of Babylon and Lysimachus, in Phrygia. +Antigonus, to concentrate his forces, recalls his son, who had pushed on +to the borders of Macedonia. The cautious Ptolemy, on the other hand, is +afraid to invade Syria; and, in consequence of a false report, that +Lysimachus had been defeated, retires full of alarm, into Egypt. + +27. Great and decisive battle fought at Ipsus in Phrygia, in the spring +of 301, which costs Antigonus his life, and annihilates his empire, as +the two conquerors divide it between themselves, without taking any +account of the absent confederates. Asia Minor, as far as mount Taurus, +falls to the share of Lysimachus; and all the rest, with the exception +of Cilicia, which is given to Plisthenes, Cassander's brother, is left +to Seleucus.--Demetrius, by the help of his navy, escapes into Greece. + +28. The almost unbroken series of wars which had raged from the time of +Alexander, must have precluded the possibility of much being effected +with respect to domestic organization. It appears to have been nearly, +if not wholly, military. Yet were the numerous devastations in some +measure compensated by the erection of new cities, in which these +princes vied with one another, impelled partly by vanity to immortalize +their names, partly by policy to support their dominion, most of the new +settlements being military colonies. Nevertheless this was but a sorry +reparation for the manifold oppressions to which the natives were +exposed by the practice of quartering the army upon them. The spread of +the language and civilization of the Greeks deprived them of all +national distinction; their own languages sinking into mere provincial +dialects. Alexander's monarchy affords a striking example of the little +that can be expected from a forced amalgamation of races, when the price +of that amalgamation is the obliteration of national character in the +individuals. + + HEYNE, _Opum regni Macedonici auctarum, attritarum et eversarum, + causae probabiles; in Opusc._ t. iv. This collection contains + several other treatises on Grecian and Macedonian history, which + cannot be all separately enumerated. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_History of the kingdoms and states which arose upon the dismemberment +of the Macedonian Monarchy after the battle of Ipsus._ + + +I. HISTORY OF THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDAE, B. C. 312-64. + + SOURCES. Neither for the history of the Syrian, nor for that of + the Egyptian and Macedonian kingdoms, has any eminent writer been + preserved. The fragments of the lost books of Diodorus, and, from + the time that these kingdoms became allies of Rome, those of + Polybius, several narratives of Livy, the Syriaca of Appian, and a + few of Plutarch's Lives, are the principal authorities; too + frequently we are obliged to rely upon the extracts of Justin. For + the history of the Seleucidae, in consequence of the political + connection between these princes and the Jews, the Antiquities of + Josephus and the book of Maccabees become of importance. Besides + these authorities, the many coins that have been preserved of + these kings, afford much information respecting their genealogy + and chronology. + + Of modern publications on the subject, the principal work is + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Seleucidarum sive historia regum Syriae_, 1681, + 4to. The enquiry is principally grounded on coins, as is the case + with + + FROELICH, _Annales rerum et regum Syriae_. Viennae, 1754. + +1. The kingdom of the Seleucidae was founded in Upper Asia by Seleucus +Nicator. It was an extensive empire; but, being composed of various +countries united only by conquest, it could possess but little internal +stability except what it derived from the power of its rulers. That +power fell with the founder; and the transfer of the seat of empire +from the banks of the Tigris to Syria, entangled the Seleucidae in all +the political disputes of the western world, and facilitated the +insurrection of the upper provinces. The history of this kingdom divides +itself into the periods before and after the war with Rome; although at +the breaking out of this war the seeds of its decline and fall had +already been sown. + + Seleucus received, 321, Babylon as his province; but after the + defeat of Eumenes was obliged to take to flight, 315, in order to + avoid subjection to the conqueror Antigonus. But his moderate + government had rendered him so popular, that after the victory won + by Ptolemy over Demetrius at Gaza, 312, he could safely venture to + return with only a few adherents to Babylon. In this year + commences the kingdom of the Seleucidae. + +2. In the ten following years, and while Antigonus was busied in Asia +Minor, Seleucus laid the foundation of his power over all Upper Asia, +with a facility to which the detestation excited by the rigid government +of Antigonus mainly contributed. After his victory over Nicanor of +Media, all in that quarter declared spontaneously for him; and the +unsuccessful expedition of Demetrius taught Antigonus himself, that it +would no longer be prudent to assert his claims. As early as 307, +Seleucus was in possession of all the countries between the Euphrates, +Indus, and Oxus. + +3. Great campaign in India undertaken by Seleucus against king +Sandracottus. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and the close alliance +he formed with the Indian sovereign lasted a long time after, and was +kept up by embassies. The great number of elephants which he brought +back with him was not the only advantage accruing from this expedition; +the intercourse with the east seems to have been permanently +reestablished. + +4. By the battle of Ipsus Seleucus added to his dominions the greater +part of the territories of Antigonus;--Syria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, +and Armenia. Unfortunately Syria now became the head province, +notwithstanding Coele-Syria and Phoenicia were left in the hands of +Ptolemy. How widely different would have been the course of historic +events, had the seat of empire remained at Seleucia on the Tigris, and +the Euphrates continued to be the western boundary of the Seleucidae! + +5. Reciprocal relations between the several kings, who now combine in +forming a kind of political system, in which continued exertions to +maintain a balance of power by alliance and marriage are plainly +discernible. + + Connection between Seleucus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, by the + marriage of the former with the beautiful Stratonice, daughter of + the latter; made with the view of counterbalancing a similar + connection between Ptolemy and Lysimachus; Lysimachus and his son + Agathocles having united themselves with two daughters of Ptolemy. + +6. The eighteen years of tranquillity enjoyed by Asia after the battle +of Ipsus, prove that Seleucus was one of the few followers of Alexander +who had any genius for the arts of peace. He either founded or +embellished a vast number of cities, the most important of which were +the capital, Antiochia in Syria, and the two Seleucias, one on the +Tigris, the other on the Orontes: the flourishing prosperity of several +of these places was the result of the restoration of eastern trade; new +channels for which appear to have been opened at this period on the main +streams of Asia, and more particularly on the Oxus. + +7. The home department of his empire was organized into satrapies, of +which there were seventy-two. But Alexander's maxim, "to give the +satrapies to natives," was wholly forgotten by his followers; and the +Seleucidae were not long before they experienced the evil consequences of +swerving from that practice. Under such a prince as Seleucus scarce any +kingdom could of itself fall to pieces; but the king himself paved the +way for the dismemberment of his empire, by ceding Upper Asia, together +with his consort Stratonice, to his son Antiochus; not, however, without +the previous approbation of the army. + +8. War with Lysimachus, kindled by ancient jealousy, and now fomented by +family feuds. The battle of Curopedion cost Lysimachus his throne and +his life; and Asia Minor became a part of the Syrian realm. But as +Seleucus was crossing over to Europe, to add Macedonia to his dominions, +he fell by the hand of an assassin, Ptolemy Ceraunus, and with him the +splendour of his kingdom was extinguished. + +9. The reign of his son, Antiochus I. surnamed Soter, seemed not +unprosperous, inasmuch as the empire preserved its former extension; but +in any state founded upon conquest, the failure of new attempts at an +increase of territory is a sure token of approaching ruin; and this was +the case here.--In such a state, the more immediately all depends on +the person of the ruler, the more rapid and sensible are the effects of +degeneration in a family like that of the Seleucidae. + + The late conquests of his father in Asia Minor entangled Antiochus + in new wars; although, by the marriage of his stepdaughter Phila + with Antigonus Gonatas, he ceded his claims on Macedonia, + 277.--Fruitless attempt at subjecting Bithynia, 279; the king of + that country, Nicomedes, calls in the Gauls, who had invaded + Macedonia, and gives them a settlement in Galatia, 277, where they + keep their footing, even after the victory won over them by + Antiochus, 275, and by their participation in the wars, as + mercenaries, become of importance.--The newly risen state of + Pergamus likewise thrives, at the expense of the Syrian empire, in + spite of Antiochus's attack, 263; and the inroad into Egypt, for + the purpose of supporting the rebel Magas, is anticipated by + Ptolemy II. 264. + +10. Antiochus II. surnamed [Greek: Theos]. During his reign the sway was +in the hands of women; and the diseased state of the interior of the +empire became palpable by the secession of various eastern provinces, +out of which arose the Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms. The boundless +luxury of the court hurried on the decline of the ruling family; having +once begun to sink, it could not without difficulty have retrieved its +virtue independently of the matrimonial connections now constantly +formed from within itself. + + Ascendancy of his stepsister and wife Laodice, and of his sister + Apame, relict of Magas; the latter involves him in war with + Ptolemy II. to vindicate her claims upon Cyrene; it ends by + Antiochus's marriage with Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy, and his + repudiation of Laodice, 260-252. Having, after the death of + Ptolemy, 247, put away Berenice and taken back Laodice; the + latter, distrusting his motives, cuts him off by poison.--The + secession of Parthia happened in consequence of the expulsion of + the Macedonian governor by Arsaces, founder of the house of the + Arsacidae: that of Bactria, on the other hand, was brought about by + the Macedonian governor himself, Theodotus, who asserted his + independence. (Concerning these two kingdoms, see below, book iv. + period iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. 4, 5.) At first, the former + of these kingdoms comprised but a part of Parthia; the latter only + Bactria, and, perhaps, Sogdiana; both, however, were soon enlarged + at the expense of the Seleucidae. + +11. Seleucus II. surnamed Callinicus. His reign, twenty years in +duration, is one unbroken series of wars; in which the kingdom, already +enfeebled, was subverted, partly by the struggle with Egypt, caused by +the hatred between Laodice and Berenice; partly by the jealousy of his +brother Antiochus Hierax; and partly by vain attempts at recovering the +upper provinces. + + Assassination of Berenice, and most unfortunate war thereby + kindled with Ptolemy Evergetes of Egypt, 247-244. The assistance + which Seleucus obtains from his junior brother, Antiochus, + governor of Asia Minor, induces Ptolemy to a truce, 243; but + another war ensues between the two brothers, in which Antiochus, + at first conqueror, is himself soon afterwards conquered in his + turn, 243-240; and during this contest, Eumenes of Pergamus + greatly increases his territory at the expense of Syria, 242.--His + first campaign against Arsaces, who had formed an alliance with + the Bactrian king, ended in a defeat, 238, regarded by the + Parthians as the real epoch of the foundation of their kingdom. In + the second campaign, 236, he himself fell into the hands of the + Parthians, and remained a prisoner till the day of his death, 227. + +12. His elder son Seleucus III. surnamed Ceraunus, on the point of +taking the field against Attalus king of Pergamus, was removed by +poison. But the dominion of the Seleucidae was reestablished in Asia +Minor by his mother's fraternal nephew, Achaeus; and the crown ensured to +the younger brother Antiochus, governor of Babylon. + +13. The long reign of Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, is not only the +most eventful in Syrian history, but likewise marks an epoch, by the +relations now commencing between Syria and Rome.--To earn the title of +_great_ was a task of no extreme difficulty in such a line of princes. + +14. Great power of Hermias the Carian, who soon became so formidable to +the young monarch, that he was obliged to rid himself of him by murder. +The great stand made by the brothers, Molo and Alexander, satraps of +Media and Persia, who probably had an understanding with Hermias, +threatened the king with the loss of all the upper provinces: it ended +in the defeat of Molo, Hermias being at last no longer able to hinder +the king from marching against him in person. + +15. The intrigues of Hermias excited Achaeus to rebellion in Asia Minor: +but Antiochus held more important, first to execute the plan he had +previously traced, of ejecting the Ptolemies from their possessions in +Syria; great as the success which at first attended this expedition, it +was completely traversed by the battle of Raphia.--Combining with +Attalus of Pergamus, Antiochus then defeated Achaeus, who, being shut up +in the citadel of Sardes, was treacherously delivered into his hands. + +16. Great campaign of Antiochus in the upper provinces, in consequence +of the seizure of Media by Arsaces III.--Hostilities ended in a compact, +by which Antiochus agreed formerly to cede Parthia and Hyrcania; +Arsaces, on his side, pledging himself to furnish assistance against +Bactria.--But the war with Bactria was also followed by a peace, +leaving the king, Euthydemus, in possession of his crown and +dominions.--The expedition now undertaken by Antiochus, in company with +Demetrius of Bactriana, against India, extended, probably far up the +country, and was attended with important consequences to Bactriana. (See +below, history of Bactria, book iv. per. iii. Dist. Kingdoms iv. parag. +5.) + +The result of these great expeditions was the establishment of the +supremacy of the Seleucidae in Upper Asia; those countries excepted which +had been formally resigned. + + On his return through Arachotus and Carmania, where he wintered, + he likewise undertook a naval expedition on the Persian gulf: here + Gerrha, in possession of its freedom, appears a flourishing place + of trade. + +17. Resumption of the plan against Egypt, after the death of Ptolemy +Philopator; and alliance with Philip of Macedonia, then carrying on war +in Asia. Antiochus, it is true, attained his end in the expulsion of the +Ptolemies from their possessions in Syria, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia; +but then, his success brought him in contact with Rome, an event of +decisive importance to himself and his successors. + +18. Growth of the disputes between the king and Rome, proceeding from +the conquest of the major part of Asia Minor and the Thracian +Chersonesus; meanwhile Hannibal had taken refuge at the Syrian court, +and the probability daily increased of a great league being formed +against Rome, although that power, after conquering Carthage, 201, and +Macedonia, 197, had succeeded in winning over Greece even, by the magic +spell of _freedom_. But Antiochus ruined all: instead of following +Hannibal's advice, and attacking the Romans on their own ground, he +stood on the defensive, and suffered himself to be invaded by them in +Asia. His defeat at Magnesia near Mount Sipylus compelled him to accede +to such conditions as Rome chose to dictate, and the power of the Syrian +empire was for ever broken. + + For the history of this war, see below in the Roman history. Book + v. per. ii. parag. 10, 11. + +19. The conditions of the peace were: 1st. That Antiochus should +evacuate Asia Minor; (Asia cis Taurum.) 2nd. That he should pay down +15,000 talents; and to Eumenes of Pergamus four hundred. 3rd. That +Hannibal and some others should be delivered up, and the king's younger +son Antiochus, be given as an hostage.--The loss of the surrendered +countries was a consequence of this peace, less disadvantageous to the +Syrian kings, than the use made of it by the conquerors. By adding the +greatest part of the ceded territories to those of the kings of +Pergamus, the Romans raised up alongside of their enemy a rival, whom +they might at their own will use as a political engine against +him.--Rome took care likewise that the stipulated sum should be paid by +instalments in twelve years, to the end that Syria might be kept in a +permanent state of dependence. + +20. Murder of the king, 187. The reign of his elder son, Seleucus IV. +surnamed Philopator, was a period of tranquillity; peace arising from +weakness.--Though once he unsheathed his sword in defence of Pharnaces +king of Pontus, against Eumenes, his fear of Rome soon compelled him to +restore it to the scabbard. He exchanged his son for his brother at +Rome; but fell a victim to the ambition of his minister Heliodorus. + +21. Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphanes. Educated at Rome, he sought to +combine the popular manners of a Roman with the ostentatious luxury of a +Syrian; and thereby became an object of universal hatred and contempt. +Our information respecting his history is too meagre to allow of our +deciding whether most of the evil reported of him, in the Jewish +accounts especially, may not be exaggerated. At any rate, among all his +faults, we may still discern in him the germs of good qualities. + +22. War with Egypt, springing out of Ptolemy Philometor's claims upon +Coele-Syria and Palestine. Obscure as many parts are in the history of +this war yet it is evident that success attended the arms of Antiochus, +and that he would have become master of Egypt had not Rome interfered. + + The pretext for war, on the Egyptian side, was, that those + provinces had by Antiochus III. been promised as a dowry to + Cleopatra, sister of Antiochus and the mother of Philometor: + Antiochus Epiphanes, on his side, laid claim to the regency of + Egypt, as uncle to the young king, who, however, was soon declared + of age.--Opening of the war, and victory won by Antiochus at + Pelusium, 171; in consequence of which Cyprus is betrayed into his + hands.--Pelusium is fortified with a view of insuring the + possession of Coele-Syria, and of facilitating an irruption into + Egypt.--Another victory, 170, and Egypt subdued as far as + Alexandria. Philometor driven by a sedition out of Alexandria, + where his brother Physcon is seated on the throne, falls into the + hands of Antiochus, who concludes with him a most advantageous + peace, and takes his part against Physcon. Hence siege is laid to + Alexandria, 169; attended with no success. Upon the retreat of + Antiochus, Philometor, concluding a separate peace with his + brother, according to which both are to rule in conjunction, is + admitted into Alexandria. Antiochus, bitterly enraged, now + declares war against both brothers, who crave assistance from + Rome: he once more penetrates into Egypt, 168; where the Roman + ambassador, Popillius, assumes so lofty a tone, that the Syrian + king is glad to purchase peace by the surrender of Cyprus and + Pelusium. + +23. The religious intolerance of Epiphanes, exhibited in his wish to +introduce the Grecian worship everywhere among the subjects of his +empire, is the more remarkable, as such instances were less frequent in +those times. This intolerance seems to have taken its rise, not only in +the love of pomp, but in the cupidity of the king, who by that means was +enabled to appropriate to himself the treasures of the temples, no +longer inviolate, since the defeat of his father by Rome. The consequent +sedition of the Jews, under the Maccabees, laid the foundation of the +future independence of that people, and contributed not a little to +weaken the Syrian kingdom. + + See below; History of the Jews, book iv. per. iv; Small states + Jews, parag. 6. The deep decay of the finances of the Seleucidae, + palpable from the latter days of Antiochus the Great, may be + accounted for well enough, by the falling off of the revenue, + accompanied with increased luxury in the kings, (an instance of + which is furnished in the festivals celebrated by Antiochus + Epiphanes at Daphne, 166,) and in the vast presents constantly + sent to Rome, in addition to the tribute, for the purpose of + keeping up a party there. + +24. His expedition also into Upper Asia, Persis especially, where great +disorders were likewise excited by the introduction of the Grecian +religion, had for its object not only the recovery of Armenia, but the +rifling of the temples. He died, however, on his way to Babylon. + +25. The real heir to the throne, Demetrius, being detained at Rome as an +hostage, Epiphanes was first succeeded by his son Antiochus V. surnamed +Eupator, a child nine years old. During his short reign, the quarrels of +his guardians, the despotism of the Romans, the protracted war with the +Jews, and the commencing conquests of the Parthians, reduced the kingdom +of the Seleucidae to a powerless state. + + Contest between Lysias, regent in the absence of Epiphanes, and + Philip, appointed by the king, previously to his death, as + guardian of the young prince, terminated by the defeat of Philip, + 162.--Eupator's right acknowledged at Rome, in order that the + guardianship might fall into the hands of the senate, who + administer the government by means of a commission sent over into + Syria, and completely deprive the king of all power of resistance. + Octavius, head of the commission, put to death, probably at the + instigation of Lysias.--While the Parthian king, Mithridates I. is + prosecuting his conquests at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in + Upper Asia, Demetrius secretly escapes out of Rome, takes + possession of the throne, and causes Eupator and Lysias to be put + to death, 161. + +26. Demetrius I. surnamed Soter. He succeeded in getting himself +acknowledged at Rome, on which all now depended. The attempts to extend +his power, by supporting Orofernes, the pretender to the crown of +Cappadocia, against the king Ariarathes, had their origin partly in +family relations, but still more, as was the case with almost all +political transactions of those times, in bribery. By this act he only +drew upon himself the enmity of the kings of Egypt and Pergamus; as, +moreover, he was hated by his subjects on account of his intemperance, +the chances of success were greatly in favour of the shameful usurpation +of Alexander Balas, brought about by Heraclidas the expelled governor of +Babylon, and backed by the yet more shameful conduct of the Roman +senate, who acknowledged his title to the throne. The Syrian kingdom was +now fallen so low, that both king and usurper were obliged to court the +favour of the Jews under Jonathan, hitherto regarded as rebels. In the +second battle Demetrius lost his life. + +27. The usurper Alexander Balas endeavoured to confirm his power by a +marriage with Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometor: but he soon +evinced himself more unworthy even than his predecessor of wielding the +sceptre. While he abandoned the government to his favourite, the +detested Ammonius, the eldest remaining son of Demetrius succeeds not +only in raising a party against the usurper, but even in prevailing on +Philometor to side with himself, and give him in marriage Cleopatra, +whom he takes away from Balas. The consequence of this alliance with +Egypt was the defeat and downfal of Balas, although it cost Philometor +his life. + + The account, that Philometor wished to conquer Syria for himself, + must probably be understood as meaning that he had formed the + design of recovering the ancient Egyptian possessions, Coele-Syria + and Phoenicia. Otherwise, why should he have given his daughter to + a second pretender to the throne? + +28. Demetrius II. surnamed Nicator, 145-141, and for the second time, +130-126. The disbanding of his father's mercenaries having roused the +indignation of the army, the cruelty of his favourite Lasthenes kindled +a sedition in the capital, which could not be quenched without the +assistance of the Jews, under their high priest and military chieftain, +Jonathan.--While affairs were in this posture, Diodotus, subsequently +called Tryphon, a dependent of Balas, excited an insurrection, by +bringing forward Antiochus, the latter's son, and even, with the help of +Jonathan, seating him on the throne of Antioch: soon after, Tryphon, +having by treachery got Jonathan into his power, removed Antiochus by +murder, and assumed the diadem himself.--Notwithstanding Demetrius +kept his footing only in a part of Syria, he was enabled to obey +the call of the Grecian colonists in Upper Asia, and support them +against the Parthians, who had overrun the country as far as the +Euphrates.--Although victorious in the commencement of the contest, he +was soon after taken by the Parthians, and remained ten years a +prisoner, though treated meanwhile as a king. + +29. In order to maintain herself against Tryphon, Cleopatra marries the +younger, and better brother, Antiochus of Sida, (Sidetes); he being at +first in alliance with the Jews,--who, however, were soon after +subdued--defeats and overthrows Tryphon. Being now lord and master of +Syria, he undertakes a campaign against the Parthians; at the +commencement, befriended by the subjects of the Parthians, he is +successful, but soon afterwards is attacked in winter quarters by those +very friends, and cut to pieces, together with all his army. + + If the accounts of the wanton licentiousness of his army are not + exaggerations, they furnish the clearest proof of the military + despotism of those times. By continued pillage and extortion, the + wealth of the country had been collected in the hands of the + soldiers; and the condition of Syria must have been pretty nearly + the same as that of Egypt under the Mamluk sultans. + +30. Meanwhile Demetrius II. having escaped from prison, again seated +himself on the throne. But being now still more overbearing than before, +and meddling in the Egyptian affairs, Ptolemy Physcon set up against him +a rival in the person of Alexander Zebinas a pretended son of Alexander +Balas; by him he was defeated and slain. + + The Parthian king Phraates II. had, at first, liberated Demetrius, + to whom his sister Rhodogune was united by marriage, in order + that, by appearing in Syria, he might oblige Antiochus to retreat. + Antiochus having fallen, Phraates would fain have recaptured + Demetrius, but he escaped. + +31. The ensuing history of the Seleucidae is a picture of civil wars, +family feuds, and deeds of horror, such as are scarcely to be +paralleled. The utmost verge of the empire was now the Euphrates; all +Upper Asia acknowledging the dominion of the Parthians. The Jews, +moreover, having completely vindicated their independence, the kingdom +was consequently confined to Syria and Phoenicia. So thoroughly decayed +was the state, that even the Romans--whether because there was no longer +anything to plunder, or because they conceived it more prudent to suffer +the Seleucidae to wear themselves out in mutual quarrels--do not seem to +have taken any account of it, until, at the conclusion of the last war +with Mithridates, they thought proper formally to annex it to their +empire as a province. + + War between Alexander Zebinas and the ambitious relict of + Demetrius, Cleopatra, who with her own hand murders her eldest son + Seleucus, B.C. 125, for pretending to the crown, which she now + gives to her younger son, Antiochus Gryphus; the new king, + however, soon saw himself compelled to secure his own life by the + murder of his mother, 122; Alexander Zebinas having been the year + before, 123, defeated and put to death. After a peaceful rule of + eight years, 122-114, Antiochus Gryphus is involved in war with + his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, son of Cleopatra by + Antiochus Sidetes: it ends, 111, in a partition of territory. But + the war between the brothers soon burst out anew, and just as this + hapless kingdom seemed about to crumble into pieces, Gryphus was + murdered, 97.--Seleucus, the eldest of his five sons, having + beaten and slain Cyzicenus, 96; the eldest son of the latter, + Antiochus Eusebes, prosecuted the war against the sons of Gryphus; + Eusebes being at last defeated, 90, the surviving sons of Gryphus + fell to war among themselves, and the struggle continued until the + Syrians, weary of bloodshed, did what they ought to have done long + before, viz. made over the sovereign power to Tigranes the king of + Armenia, 85. Yet Eusebes's widow, Selene, retained Ptolemais till + 70; and her elder son Antiochus Asiaticus, at the time that + Tigranes was beaten by Lucullus, in the Mithridatic war, took + possession of some provinces in Syria, 68; these were wrested from + him after the total defeat of Mithridates by Pompey, when Tigranes + was obliged to give up his claim, and Syria became a province of + the Roman empire, 64. Antiochus Asiaticus died 58; his brother + Seleucus Cybiosactes, having married Berenice, was raised to the + Egyptian throne, but murdered at her command, 57; and thus the + family of the Seleucidae was completely swept away. + + +II. _History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies, 323-30._ + + The sources of this history are for the most part the same as in + the foregoing section; see above, p. 232; but unfortunately still + more scanty; for in the first place, less information can here be + derived from the Jewish writers; secondly, as on the coins struck + under the Ptolemies no continuous series of time is marked, but + only the year of the king's reign, they are by no means such + safeguards to the chronology as those of the Seleucidae. With + respect to some few events, important illustrations are supplied by + inscriptions. + + By modern writers, the history of the Ptolemies has been composed + under a form almost entirely chronological, and by no means treated + of in the spirit which it deserves. + + VAILLANT, _Historia Ptolemaeorum_, fol. Amstelodam. 1701. + Illustration by the aid of coins. + + CHAMPOLION FIGEAC, _Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois + d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand_. Paris, 1819, 2 vols. + This treatise, which was honoured with a prize by the Academie des + Inscriptions, has by no means exhausted the whole of the subject. + See + + J. SAINT-MARTIN, _Examen Critique de l'ouvrage de_ M. CH. F. + _intitule Annales des Lagides_. Paris, 1820. + + LETRONNE, _Recherches pour servir a l'histoire de l'Egypte pendant + la domination des Grecs et des Romains, tirees des inscriptions + Grecques et Latines, relatives a la chronologie, a l'etat des arts + aux usages civils et religieux de ce pays_. Paris, 1828. It cannot + be denied that the author has thrown a much clearer light on the + subjects mentioned in his title. + +1. Egypt, under the Ptolemies, fulfilled, and perhaps more than +fulfilled, the designs projected by Alexander; it became not only a +mighty kingdom, but likewise the centre of trade, and of science. The +history of Egypt, however, confines itself, almost solely, to that of +the new capital, Alexandria; the foundation of that city produced, +imperceptibly, a change in the national character, which never could +have been wrought by main force. In the enjoyment of civil welfare and +religious freedom, the nation sunk into a state of political drowsiness, +such as could scarce have been expected in a people who so often rose up +against the Persians. + + Alexandria, originally, was no doubt a military colony; it was not + long, however, before it became a general place of resort for all + nations, such as was scarcely to be met with in any other town of + that day. The inhabitants were divided into three classes; + _Alexandrines_, (that is to say, foreigners of all nations, who had + settled in the place; next to the Greeks, the Jews were, it + appears, the most numerous,) _Egyptians_, and _Mercenaries_ in the + king's service. The Greeks and Macedonians divided into wards + ([Greek: phylas]), constituted the citizens; they were under + municipal government; the others, such as the Jews, formed bodies + corporate according to their respective nations. The more + important, in so many respects, that Alexandria is for history, the + more it is to be regretted that the accounts respecting it, which + have reached us, are so far from satisfactory!--Concerning the + topography of ancient Alexandria: + + BONAMY, _Description de la ville d'Alexandrie_ in the _Mem. de + l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. ix. Compare: + + # J. L. F. MANSO, _Letters upon ancient Alexandria_, in his + _Vermischte Schriften_, vol. i. + +2. Ptolemy I. surnamed Soter, the son of Lagus, received Egypt for his +share, at the first division after the death of Alexander. Aware of the +value of his lot, he was the only one of Alexander's successors that had +the moderation not to aim at grasping all. No doubt he was, by the +ambition of the other princes, entangled in their quarrels, but his +conduct was so cautious, that Egypt itself was never endangered. Twice +attacked in that country, first by Perdiccas, afterwards by Antigonus +and Demetrius, he availed himself successfully of his advantageous +position, and moreover, in this period, added to his dominion several +countries without Africa, such as Phoenicia, Judaea, Coele-Syria, and +Cyprus. + + The possession of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, by reason of their + forests, was of indispensable necessity to Egypt as a naval power. + They frequently changed masters. The first occupation of those + provinces by the Egyptian government, occurred in 320, soon after + the rout of Perdiccas by Ptolemy's general Nicanor, who took the + Syrian satrap Laomedon prisoner, established his footing in the + whole of Syria, and placed garrisons in the Phoenician cities. In + 314 it was again lost to Antigonus, after his return out of Upper + Asia, and the siege of Tyre. Ptolemy having defeated Demetrius at + Gaza, 312, repossessed himself of those countries, but soon after + evacuated them on the appearance of Antigonus, to whom they were + ceded by the peace of 311. At the conclusion of the last grand + league against Antigonus, 303, Ptolemy once more occupied them: but + alarmed at a false report, that Antigonus had gained a victory, he + retreated into Egypt, leaving nevertheless troops in the cities. + After the battle of Ipsus, 301, those countries were made over to + him, and continued in the hands of the Ptolemies until they were + lost at the second invasion of Antiochus the Great, 203. + + Cyprus, (see p. 154) like most other islands, acknowledged + submission to those who possessed the sovereignty of the sea, and + therefore could not escape the dominion of the Ptolemies. It was + taken possession of by Ptolemy as early as 313. Still the separate + cities of the islands preserved their kings, among whom Nicocles of + Paphos, having entered into a secret league with Antigonus, was put + to death, 310. After the great seafight, 307, Cyprus fell into the + hands of Antigonus and Demetrius. Subsequently to the battle of + Ipsus, 301, it remained indeed at first in the power of Demetrius; + but that prince being gone over to Macedonia, Ptolemy, 294, seized + an opportunity of recovering it, and the island from that time + remained under the dominion of Egypt. Availing themselves of their + naval strength, the Egyptian kings frequently exerted sovereign + power over the coasts of Asia Minor, especially Cilicia, Caria, and + Pamphylia, which appear to have absolutely formed a part of their + territory under the second Ptolemy. It is, however, hardly possible + to define with accuracy what were their real possessions in those + quarters. + +3. Ptolemy likewise extends his territory within Africa, by the capture +of Cyrene; in consequence of which Libya, or the neighbouring countries +betwixt Cyrene and Egypt, fell under his dominion. It is probable, also, +that even in his reign the frontier of the Egyptian empire was advanced +into Aethiopia; but for this assertion we have no positive authority. + + The fall of Cyrene was brought about by domestic broils: at the + time the place was besieged by Thimbron, a portion of the exiled + nobles fled to Ptolemy; the Egyptian prince commanded that they + should be reinstated by his general Ophellas, who took possession + of the town itself, 321. An insurrection in 312 was quelled by + Agis, Ptolemy's general: nevertheless it would appear that + Ophellas had almost established his independence, when, by the + treachery of Agathocles, with whom he had entered into a league + against Carthage, he perished, about 308. Cyrene was now seized by + Ptolemy, and given to his son Magas, who ruled over it fifty + years. + +4. With respect to the internal government of Egypt, our information is +far from complete. The division into districts or nomes was continued; +subject perhaps, in some cases, to alterations. The power of the king +appears to have been unlimited; the extreme provinces were administered +by governors, appointed by the sovereign; similar officers were probably +placed at the head of the various districts of Egypt itself; but hardly +any document relative to the home department of that country has reached +our time. High public situations, at least in the capital, appear +exclusively reserved to Macedonians or Greeks; no Egyptian is ever +mentioned as holding office. + + There were four magistrates at Alexandria: the Exegetes, whose + office was to provide for the wants of the city; the Chief Judge; + the Hypomnematographus--(Registrar of the archives?)--and the + [Greek: Strategos nykterinos], no doubt, the supervisor of the + police, whose duty it was to watch over the peace of the city at + night. We have the express testimony of Strabo, that these + offices, which continued under the Romans, had already existed + under the kings; whether their establishment can be dated as far + back as the time of Ptolemy I. is a question that does not admit + of a solution.--The number of the districts or nomes appears to + have been augmented; probably with a political view, in order that + no governor or monarch should be invested with too great a share + of power. + +5. Be that as it may, it is an undoubted fact, that the ancient national +constitution and administration were not entirely obliterated. The caste +of priests, together with the national religion, continued to exist; and +though the influence of the former was considerably diminished, it did +not entirely cease. A certain sort of worship was, by appointed priests, +paid to the kings, both in their lifetime and after their death. +Memphis, though not the usual residence of the court, remained the +capital of the kingdom; there the ceremony of coronation was performed; +and its temple of Phtha was still the head sanctuary. What influence had +not the religion of the Egyptians upon that of the Greeks! It were +difficult to say which nation borrowed most from the other. + +6. The regeneration of Egypt from the state of general ruin into which +she had been plunged, and the permanent tranquillity she enjoyed during +nearly thirty years, the duration of the reign of Ptolemy I.--at a time +when the rest of the world was harassed by continual wars,--must have +heightened her prosperity under so mild and beneficent a ruler. But +Ptolemy was certainly the only prince who could have taken advantage of +these favourable circumstances. Though a soldier by profession he was +highly accomplished, was himself a writer, and had a genius for all the +arts of peace, which he fostered with the open-handed liberality of a +king: while amidst all the brilliant splendour of his court, he led +himself the life of a private individual. + + Increase of Alexandria by the importation of vast numbers of + colonists; especially Jews.--Erection of several superb buildings, + more particularly the Serapeum.--Measures taken for the extension + of trade and navigation.--The twofold harbour on the sea, and on + the lake Mareotis.--The Pharus built. + +7. But what more than any thing else distinguished Ptolemy from his +contemporaries was his regard for the interests of science. The idea of +founding the Museum sprung out of the necessities of the age, and was +suited to the monarchical form of government now prevalent. Where in +those days of destruction and revolution could the sciences have found a +shelter, if not under the protection of a prince? But under Ptolemy they +found more than a shelter, they found a rallying point. Here accordingly +the exact sciences were perfected: and although the critic's art which +now grew up could not form a Homer or a Sophocles, should _we_, had it +not been for the Alexandrines, be at present able to read either Homer +or Sophocles? + + Foundation of the Museum, (Society of the learned,) and of the + first library in Bruchium, (afterwards removed to the Serapeum;) + probably under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. A proper + estimation of the services rendered by the Museum is yet wanting: + what academy in modern Europe, however, has done so much? + + HEYNE, _De genio Saeculi Ptolemaeorum_. _In Opuscul._ t. i. + + MATTER, _Essai historique sur l'ecole d'Alexandrie_, 1820. + +8. Ptolemy II. surnamed Philadelphus, son of Berenice, the second wife +of his father, had ascended the throne in 286 as joint king. His reign, +which lasted thirty-eight years, was more peaceful even than that of his +predecessor, whose spirit seemed to inspire him in every thing, save +that he was not a warrior: but, by that very reason, the arts of peace, +trade, and science were promoted with the greater energy. In his reign +Egypt was the first power by sea, and one of the first by land, in the +world; and even though the account given by Theocritus of its +thirty-three thousand cities may be regarded as the exaggeration of a +poet, it is very certain that Egypt was in those days the most +flourishing country in existence. + + The commerce of Alexandria was divided into three main branches: + 1. The land-trade over Asia and Africa. 2. The sea-trade on the + Mediterranean. 3. The sea-trade on the Arabian gulf, and Indian + ocean.--With regard to the land-trade of Asia, especially that of + India carried on by caravans, Alexandria was obliged to share it + with various cities and countries: since one of its chief routes + traversed the Oxus, and Caspian, to the Black sea; while the + caravans, travelling through Syria and Mesopotamia, spread for the + most part among the seaports of Phoenicia and Asia Minor.--The + trade over Africa extended far west, and still farther south. + Westward it was secured by the close connection between Cyrene and + Alexandria; and no doubt followed the same roads as in earlier + times: of far greater importance was that carried on with the + southern countries, or Aethiopia, into the interior of which they + now penetrated, principally for the purpose of procuring + elephants. The navigation on the Arabian and Indian seas had + likewise for its immediate object the Aethiopian trade, rather than + the Indian.--The measures taken by Ptolemy with this view, + consisted partly in the building of harbours (Berenice, Myos + Hormos) on the Arabian gulf; partly in establishing a caravan from + Berenice to Coptos on the Nile, down which latter the goods were + further transmitted to their destination; for the canal connecting + the Red sea with the Nile, although, perhaps, completed at this + time, was nevertheless but little used. The grand deposit for + these wares was the lesser harbour of Alexandria, united by a + canal with the lake Mareotis, which in its turn communicated by + another canal with the Nile; so that the account we receive of the + lesser harbour being more thronged and full of bustle than the + larger one, need not excite our surprise. With regard to the trade + on the Mediterranean, it was shared between Alexandria, Rhodes, + Corinth, and Carthage. The chief manufactories appear to have been + those of cotton stuffs, established in or near the temples. + + The best inquiry into the trade of Alexandria will be found in J. + C. D. DE SCHMIDT, _Opuscula, res maxime Aegyptiorum illustrantia_, + 1765, 8vo. + +9. It would be important to know what, in a state like Egypt, was the +system of imposts, which under Philadelphus produced 14,800 silver +talents, (four millions sterling,) without taking into account the toll +paid in grain. In the extreme provinces, such as Palestine, the taxes +were annually farmed to the highest bidder, a mode of levy attended with +great oppression to the people. The case appears to have been very +different with regard to Egypt itself; the customs, however, constituted +the main branch of the revenue. + +10. The wars waged by Ptolemy II. were limited to those against +Antiochus II. of Syria, and Magas of Cyrene, half-brother to the +Egyptian king; the former sprung out of the latter. Luckily for Egypt, +Ptolemy II. was of a weak constitution, and by his state of health was +incapacitated from commanding his armies in person.--Under his reign the +first foundation was laid, by means of reciprocal embassies, of that +connection with Rome which afterwards decided the fate of Egypt. + + Magas had, after the defeat of Ophellas, received Cyrene, 308. He + had married Apame, daughter of Antiochus I., and in 266 had raised + the standard of rebellion with the intention of invading Egypt + itself, when an insurrection in Marmarica compelled him to + retreat; he contrived, notwithstanding, to prevail upon his + father-in-law to undertake an expedition against Egypt, which, + however, was frustrated by Philadelphus, 264. To terminate this + contest, Magas was about to unite his daughter Berenice with the + eldest son of Philadelphus; Apame, wishing to thwart the + negotiation, fled over to her brother, Antiochus II. whom, after + her husband's death, 258, she excited to a war against Egypt, + which closed in 252.--The embassy to Rome originated in the + victory won by the Romans over Pyrrhus, 273; it was answered by + another from the Romans, 272. + +11. The son inherited from his father all but the simplicity of domestic +life: under the reign of Philadelphus, the court was first thrown open +to that effeminate luxury, which soon wrought the destruction of the +Ptolemies as it had previously done that of the Seleucidae; at the same +time was introduced the pernicious practice of intermarriages in the +same family, by which the royal blood was more foully contaminated here +even than in Syria. Philadelphus set the first example, by repudiating +Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, and then marrying his own sister, +likewise named Arsinoe; this princess preserved her influence over the +king as long as she lived, although she did not bring him an heir, but +adopted the children of her predecessor. + +12. Ptolemy III. surnamed Evergetes. Under him, Egypt, from being merely +mercantile, assumed the character of a conquering state; notwithstanding +his warlike spirit, he was not uninspired with that genius for the arts +of peace peculiar to his family. His conquests were directed partly +against Asia in the war with Seleucus II. and extended as far as the +borders of Bactria; and partly, it is probable, against the interior of +Ethiopia, and the western coast of Arabia. Countries so wealthy, and +with which commerce had made men so well acquainted, could hardly escape +the arms of such a formidable power as Egypt; yet she seems to have made +scarcely any other use of this extension of territory, than to insure +the safety of her commercial routes. + + The main source of the history of Ptolemy Evergetes, is the + inscription on the monument erected by that prince at Adule in + Ethiopia: it contains a chronological list of his conquests, a + copy of which has been preserved to us by Cosmas Indicopleustes; + modern researches, however, have shown the probability of its + having consisted of two inscriptions, one referring to Evergetes, + the other to a later king of Abyssinia.--According to this + monument, Ptolemy inherited from his father, besides Egypt itself, + Libya, that is to say, western Africa as far as Cyrene, + Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, Cyprus, and the + Cyclades.--War with Seleucus Callinicus caused by the murder of + Berenice (see above, p. 237.); lasted until the ten years' truce, + 246-240. During this war, he conquered the whole of Syria as far + as the Euphrates, and most of the maritime countries in Asia + Minor, from Cilicia to the Hellespont: an easy prey to a naval + power. Whether the conquest of the countries beyond the Euphrates, + Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persis, Susiana, and Media as far as + Bactria, was effected in these four years, or not till between 240 + and 230, is a question which cannot be determined with certainty. + If we may judge by the booty brought back, this campaign was + rather a foray than a regular expedition for conquest, though + Ptolemy, indeed, appointed governors in Cilicia and Babylonia; yet + the peculiar situation of affairs in Asia at the time, Seleucus + being at war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, and the Parthian + and Bactrian kingdoms being also in a state of infant feebleness, + afforded unusual opportunities for an expedition of this sort. + + The southern conquests, so far as they may be referred to + Evergetes, were effected during the last period of his reign, in a + separate war. They comprised: 1st. The greatest part of modern + Abyssinia,--for as the catalogue of nations commences with that of + Abyssinia, it necessarily follows that Nubia had already been + subjected to Egypt.--The mountain range along the Arabian gulf, + the plain of Sennaar as far as modern Darfur, the lofty chain of + mountains to the south, beyond the fountains of the Nile. All + these conquests were made by the king in person; and from those + distant lands to Egypt, commercial roads were opened. 2nd. The + western coast of Arabia, from Leuke Kome to the southern point of + Arabia Felix, was conquered by his generals and admirals: here, + likewise, the security of the commercial roads was established. + + _Monumentum Adulitanum_, published in FABRICIUS, _B. Graec._ t. ii. + + MONTFAUCON, _Coll. Patr._ t. i. and in CHISHULL, _Antiquit. + Asiaticae_. + + The assertion that the monument bears two different inscriptions + is made by SALT, in the narrative of his travels contained in the + _Travels of Lord Valentia_. + +13. Egypt was singularly blessed in having three great kings, whose +reigns filled one whole century. A change now ensued; but that change +was brought about by the natural course of events; in fact, it could +scarcely be expected that the court should remain untainted by such +luxury as must have prevailed in a city, which was the main seat of +trade, and the deposit of the treasures of the richest countries. + +14. Ptolemy IV. surnamed Philopator. A debauchee and a tyrant, who, +during the greater portion of his reign, remained under the tutelage of +the crafty Sosibius, and, after the decease of that individual, fell +into the yet more infamous hands of Agathocles and his sister +Agathoclea. Philopator being contemporary with Antiochus the Great, the +dangers that threatened Egypt under such a reign seemed to be doubled; +they were, however, averted by the ill-deserved victory of Raphia (see +above, p. 238). + +15. Agathocles and his sister would fain have taken into their own hands +the guardianship of his son Ptolemy V. surnamed Epiphanes, a child only +five years old; but the people having risen up and made a terrible +example of them, the office of guardian was confided to the younger +Sosibius and to Tlepolemus. The reckless prodigality of the former soon +gave rise to a feud between him and his colleague, who was at least +cunning enough to keep up appearances. Meanwhile the critical posture in +which the kingdom was placed, by the attack of the enleagued kings of +Syria and Macedonia, compelled the nation to defer the regency to Rome +and the senate, who had hitherto carefully cherished an amicable +connection with Egypt. + + The regency confided to M. Lepidus, 201, who hands over the + administration to Aristomenes of Acarnania. The sequel will show + how decidedly important this step was for the ulterior destinies + of Egypt. By the war of the Romans against Philip, and their + differences with Antiochus, Egypt was, no doubt, for the present + extricated from her embarrassment; but nevertheless in 198 she + lost her Syrian possessions, notwithstanding Antiochus III. had + promised to give them as a dowry to Cleopatra, the affianced + bride, and subsequently the consort of the young king of Egypt. + + To this time, or about 197, belongs the celebrated inscription on + the Rosetta stone, erected by the caste of priests as a tribute of + gratitude for past benefits, after the consecration of the king at + Memphis upon his coming of age: a monument important alike for + palaeography, and for the knowledge of Egyptian administration. + + AMEILHON, _Eclaircissemens sur l'inscription Grecque du monument + trouve a Rosette_. Paris, 1803. + + HEYNE, _Commentatio de inscriptione Graeca ex Aegypto Londinum + apportata_, in the _Commentat. Societ. Gotting._ vol. xv. + +16. The hopes conceived of Epiphanes, were grievously disappointed as he +grew up to manhood. His guardian Aristomenes fell a victim to his +tyranny; nay, his cruelty drove even the patient Egyptians to rebel, +although the insurrections were stilled by his counsellor and general +Polycrates. His reign happened during the period in which Rome crushed +the power of Macedonia and Syria; and notwithstanding the close alliance +between Epiphanes and Antiochus III. the Romans succeeded in holding the +Egyptian king in dependence; he was, however, in the twenty-eighth year +of his age, brought to an early grave by intemperance and debauchery. + +17. Of his two sons, the elder, a child five years old, was his +immediate successor; this prince, by the title of Ptolemy VI. surnamed +Philometor, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother +Cleopatra, who fulfilled the duties of her office to the satisfaction of +all, until 173. But, after her death, the regency having fallen into the +hands of Eulaeus an eunuch, and Lenaeus, these individuals, asserting +their claims to Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, engaged with Antiochus +Epiphanes in a war exceedingly detrimental to Egypt, until Rome +commanded peace to be made. + + Antiochus, after the victory of Pelusium, B. C. 171, and the + treacherous surrender of Cyprus, having possessed himself of Egypt + as far as Alexandria, a faction arose in the city; Philometor was + expelled, and his younger brother Physcon seated on the throne, + 170.--The exile Philometor fell into the power of Antiochus, who + compelled the fugitive to sign a separate peace, highly injurious + to the interests of Egypt. The articles were not, however, + ratified; Philometor secretly entering into an agreement with his + brother that they should both rule in common, 169. Antiochus + having in consequence again made an inroad into Egypt, the two + kings addressed themselves for assistance to the Achaeans and to + the Romans: the latter forthwith despatched an embassy to + Antiochus, commanding him to evacuate the territory of their + allies, which happened accordingly, 168. + +18. In the contest, which soon afterwards ensued between the two +brothers, the younger was driven out and sought a refuge at Rome; when a +partition of the kingdom between the princes was determined upon: the +senate, however, after due consideration, refused to confirm the +decision, so that the disputes between the two kings were rekindled and +protracted, until the younger fell into the power of the elder. + + In the first division, 164, Philometor received Egypt and Cyprus; + and the infamous Physcon had for his share Cyrene and Libya. But, + during his stay at Rome, Physcon, contrary to all justice, + obtained the promise of Cyprus; Philometor refusing to give up + that portion of his share, and Cyrene having risen up against its + king, Physcon ran the risk of losing the whole of his dominions. + In the war which, supported by Rome, he waged against his brother, + Physcon fell, 159, into the hands of Philometor, who not only + forgave him, but, leaving him in possession of Cyrene and Libya, + added some cities in the place of Cyprus, and promised him his + daughter in marriage. + +19. During the last period of his reign, Philometor was almost +exclusively busied with Syrian affairs. He supported Alexander Balas +against Demetrius, and even gave him his daughter Cleopatra. +Nevertheless, he afterwards passed over to the side of Demetrius, seated +him on the throne, gave him in marriage this same Cleopatra, who had +been taken away from Balas. But in the battle in which Balas was +overthrown, the Egyptian king also received his death wound. He may be +regarded as one of the good princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty, especially +if compared with his brother. + +20. His younger brother Ptolemy VIII. surnamed Physcon, and likewise +Evergetes II. a monster both in a moral and a physical sense, who had +hitherto been king of Cyrene, now possessed himself of the throne of +Egypt by marrying his predecessor's widow and sister, Cleopatra, whom, +however, after having murdered her son, he repudiated for her daughter +of the same name. This prince accordingly, once more united the divided +kingdom; but at the same time that he was purchasing the sanction of +Rome by vile adulation, he maintained himself at Alexandria by means of +military law, which soon converted the city into a desert, and obliged +him to attract foreign colonists by large promises. Another bloody +massacre, however, produced an insurrection in the town, which compelled +the king to flee to Cyprus, the Alexandrines, meanwhile, raising to the +throne his repudiated wife Cleopatra. Physcon, nevertheless, with the +assistance of his mercenaries, recovered the sceptre, and wielded it to +the day of his death. + + That a prince of such a character should nevertheless be a friend + to science, and himself an author, must ever be regarded as a + singular phenomenon; yet his exaction of manuscripts, and his + treatment of the learned, whole crowds of whom he expelled, betray + the despot. + +21. His widow, the younger Cleopatra, to gratify the Alexandrines, was +obliged to place on the throne the elder of her two sons, Ptolemy IX. +surnamed Lathyrus, who was living in a sort of banishment at Cyprus: to +the younger, Ptolemy Alexander I. who was her favourite, she accordingly +gave the island of Cyprus. But Lathyrus not choosing to obey her in +everything, she compelled him to exchange Egypt for Cyprus, and gave the +former to her younger son. But neither was the new king able to brook +the tyranny of his mother: as she threatened even his life, he saw no +other means of escape than to anticipate her design; but failing in his +project, he was obliged to take to flight, and, after a vain attempt to +recover the throne, perished. The Alexandrines then reinstated in the +government his elder brother Lathyrus, who ruled till the year 81, +possessing both Egypt and Cyprus. + + Revolt and three years' siege of Thebes in Upper Egypt, still one + of the most wealthy cities even in those days, but after its + capture almost levelled to the earth; about 86.--Complete + separation of Cyrenaica from Egypt: this province had been + bequeathed by Physcon as a separate branch-state to his + illegitimate son, Apion, 117; that prince, after a tranquil reign, + bequeathed it, in his turn, to the Romans, 96, who at first + allowed it to retain its independence. + +22. Lathyrus left one daughter born in wedlock, Berenice, and two +illegitimate sons, Ptolemy of Cyprus and Ptolemy Auletes. Besides the +above, there was a lawful son of Alexander I. of the same name as his +father, and at that time residing at Rome with the dictator Sylla. The +following history is obscured by clouds, which, amid the contradiction +of accounts, cannot be entirely dispelled. Generally speaking, Egypt was +now a tool in the hands of powerful individuals at Rome, who regarded it +but as a financial speculation whether they actually supported a +pretender to the Egyptian crown, or fed him with vain hopes. All now saw +that Egypt presented a ripe harvest; but they could not yet agree by +whom that harvest should be reaped. + + The first successor of Lathyrus in Egypt was his legitimate + daughter Cleopatra Berenice, 81: at the end of six months, + however, Sylla, then dictator at Rome, sent his client Alexander + II. to Egypt, 80; that prince married Berenice, and with her + ascended the throne. Nineteen days after Alexander murdered his + consort, and, according to Appian, was himself about the same time + cut off by the Alexandrines, on account of his tyranny. We + afterwards hear, notwithstanding, of a king Alexander, who reigned + until 73, or, according to others, until 66; when, being driven + out of Egypt, he fled to Tyre, and called upon the Romans for that + aid, which probably through Caesar's intercession, would have been + granted, had not the supplicant soon after died at the place of + his refuge. He is said to have bequeathed by will his kingdom to + Rome; and although the senate did not accept the legacy, it does + not appear to have formally rejected the offer; in consequence of + which, frequent attempts were made at Rome for effecting the + occupation.--Either, therefore, Appian's account must be false, + and this person was the same Alexander II. or he was some other + person bearing that name, and belonging to the royal house.--Be + this as it may, after the death of Lathyrus the kingdom was + dismembered: and one of his illegitimate sons, Ptolemy, had + received Cyprus, but that island was taken from him, 57, and + converted into a Roman province: the other, Ptolemy Auletes, seems + to have kept his footing either in a part of Egypt, or in Cyrene, + and was probably the cause of Alexander's expulsion, at whose + decease he ascended the throne; although the Syrian queen Selene, + sister to Lathyrus, asserted her son's claims at Rome, as + legitimate heir to the throne of Egypt. With Caesar's assistance, + Auletes, however, succeeded in obtaining the formal acknowledgment + of his right at Rome, 59. But the measures taken by the Romans + with regard to Cyprus, gave rise to a sedition at Alexandria, 57, + in consequence of which Auletes, being compelled to flee, passed + over into Italy: or, perhaps, he was ordered to take this step by + the intrigues of some Roman grandees, anxious of an opportunity to + reinstate him. Pompey's attempts, with this view, are thwarted by + Cato, 56. Meanwhile the Alexandrines placed Berenice, the eldest + daughter of Auletes, on the throne; she married first Seleucus + Cybiosactes, as being the lawful heir; and after putting that + prince to death, united herself to Archelaus, 57.--Actual + restoration of Auletes by the purchased assistance of Gabinius, + the Roman governor of Syria; and execution of Berenice, whose + husband had fallen in the war, 54. Not long after, this miserable + prince, no less effeminate than tyrannical, died, 51. + + J. R. FORSTER, _Commentatio de successoribus Ptolemaei VII._ + Inserted in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ vol. iii. + +23. Auletes endeavoured by his last testament to insure the kingdom to +his posterity, nominating as his successor, under the superintendence of +the Roman nation, his two elder children. Ptolemy Dionysos, then +thirteen years old, and Cleopatra, seventeen, who were to be united in +wedlock: his two younger children, Ptolemy Neoteros and Arsinoe, he +recommended to the Roman senate. Notwithstanding these measures, Egypt +would not have escaped her fate upwards of twenty years longer, had not +the impending calamities been diverted by the internal posture of +affairs at Rome, and still more by the charms and policy of Cleopatra, +who through her alliance with Caesar and Antony not only preserved but +even aggrandized her kingdom. From this time, however, the history of +Egypt is most closely implicated with that of Rome. + + Feuds between Cleopatra and her brother, excited and fomented by + the eunuch Pothinus, in whose hands the administration was: they + lead to open war: Cleopatra, driven out, flees to Syria, where she + levies troops: Caesar in pursuit of the conquered Pompey arrives at + Alexandria, and in the name of Rome, assumes the part of + arbitrator between the king and queen, but suffers himself to be + guided by the artifices of Cleopatra, 48. Violent sedition in + Alexandria, and Caesar besieged in Bruchium, the malcontent + Pothinus having brought Achillas, the commander of the royal + troops into the city. The hard struggle in which Caesar was now + engaged, demonstrates not only the bitterness of the long + rankling grudge of the Alexandrines against Rome, but shows also + how decisive, to the whole of Egypt, were the revolutions of the + capital. Ptolemy Dionysos having fallen in the war, and Caesar + being victorious, the crown fell to Cleopatra, 47, upon condition + of marrying her brother, when he should be of age: but as soon as + the prince grew to manhood, and had been crowned at Memphis, she + removed him by poison, 44. + +24. During the life of Caesar, Cleopatra remained under his protection, +and consequently in a state of dependence. Not only was a Roman garrison +stationed in the capital city, but the queen herself, together with her +brother, were obliged to visit him at Rome. After the assassination of +Caesar, she took the side of the triumviri, not without endangering +Egypt, threatened by Cassius who commanded in Syria; and after the death +of her brother, succeeded in getting them to acknowledge as king, +Ptolemy Caesarion, a son whom she pretended to have had by Caesar.--But +the ardent passion conceived by Antony for her person, soon after the +discomfiture of the republican party, now attached her inseparably to +his fortunes; which, after vainly attempting to win over the victorious +Octavius, she at last shared. + + The chronology of the ten years in which Cleopatra lived, for the + most part, with Antony, is not without difficulty, but, according + to the most probable authorities, may be arranged in the following + manner. Summoned before his tribunal, on account of the pretended + support afforded by some of her generals to Cassius, she appears + in his presence at Tarsus, in the attire, and with the parade, of + Venus, 41; he follows her into Egypt. In the year 40, Antony, + called back to Italy by the breaking out of the Perusine war, is + there induced, by political motives, to espouse Octavia; meanwhile + Cleopatra abides in Egypt. In the autumn of 37, she goes to meet + him in Syria, where he was making ready for the war against the + Parthians, until then prosecuted by his lieutenants; here she + obtained at his hands Phoenicia--Tyre and Sidon + excepted,--together with Cyrene and Cyprus; and in 36 went back to + Alexandria, where she remained during the campaign. The expedition + ended, Antony returned into Egypt and resided at Alexandria. From + thence it was his intention to attack Armenia in 35; this design, + however, he did not effect until 34, when, after taking the king + prisoner, he returned in triumph to Alexandria, and presented to + Cleopatra, or to his three children by her, all the countries of + Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus, already conquered or to + be conquered. Preparing then to renew, in conjunction with the + king of Media, his attack on the Parthians, he is prevailed upon + by Cleopatra to break with Octavia, who was to bring over troops + to him, 38. A war between him and Octavius being now unavoidable, + the Parthian campaign already opened is suspended, and Cleopatra + accompanies Antony to Samos, 32, where he formally repudiated + Octavia. From hence she followed him in his expedition against + Octavius, which was decided by the battle of Actium, fought + September 2, 31.--Octavius having pursued his enemy into Egypt, + Alexandria was besieged, 30, and after Antony had laid violent + hands on himself, the place surrendered; and Cleopatra, not + brooking to be dragged a prisoner to Rome, followed the example of + her lover, and procured her own death. + +25. Even in this last period, Egypt appears to have been the seat of +unbounded wealth and effeminacy. The line of infamous princes who had +succeeded to the third Ptolemy were unable to destroy her prosperity. +Strange, however, as this seems, it may be easily accounted for when we +consider that the political revolutions scarcely ever overstepped the +walls of the capital, and that an almost perpetual peace ruled in the +country: that Egypt was the only great theatre of trade; and that that +trade must have increased in the same proportion as the spirit of luxury +increased in Rome, and in the Roman empire. The powerful effects +wrought on Egypt by the growth of Roman luxury, are most convincingly +demonstrated by the state of that country when it had become a Roman +province; so far from the trade of Alexandria decreasing in that +period,--though the city suffered in the first days after the +conquest--it subsequently attained an extraordinary and gigantic bulk. + + +III. _History of Macedonia and of Greece in general, from the death of +Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146._ + + The sources for this history are the same as have been quoted + above: see p. 232. Until the battle of Ipsus, 301, Diodorus is + still our grand authority. But in the period extending from 301 to + 224, we meet with some chasms: here almost our only sources are + the fragments of Diodorus, a few of Plutarch's lives, and the + inaccurate accounts of Justin. From the year 224, our main + historian is Polybius; and even in those parts where we do not + possess his work in its complete form, the fragments that have + been preserved must always be the first authorities consulted. + Livy, and other writers on Roman history, should accompany + Polybius. + + Among modern books, besides the general works mentioned above + p. 1. we may here in particular quote: + + JOHN GAST, D. D. _The History of Greece, from the accession of + Alexander of Macedon, till the final subjection to the Roman + power, in eight books._ London, 1782, 4to. Although not a + master-piece of composition, yet too important to be passed over + in silence. + +1. Of the three main kingdoms that arose out of Alexander's monarchy, +Macedonia was the most insignificant, not only in extent,--particularly +as till B. C. 286 Thrace remained a separate and independent +province,--but likewise in population and wealth. Yet, being, as it +were, the head country of the monarchy, it was considered to hold the +first rank; and here at first resided the power which, nominally at +least, extended over the whole. As early, however, as the year 311, upon +the total extermination of Alexander's family, it became a completely +separate kingdom. From that time its sphere of external operation was +for the most part confined to Greece, the history of which, +consequently, is closely interwoven with that of Macedonia. + + Posture of affairs in Greece at Alexander's decease: Thebes in + ruins: Corinth occupied by a Macedonian garrison: Sparta + humiliated by the defeat she had suffered at the hands of + Antipater in her attempt at a revolt against Macedonia, under Agis + II. 333-331: Athens on the other hand flourishing, and although + confined to her own boundaries, still by her fame, and her naval + power, the first state in Greece. + +2. Although at the first division of the provinces, Craterus, as civil +governor, was united with Antipater, the latter had the management of +affairs. And the termination, as arduous as it was successful, of the +Lamian war,--kindled immediately after the death of Alexander, by the +Greeks, enthusiastic in the cause of freedom,--enabled him to rivet the +chains of Greece more firmly than they had ever been before. + + The Lamian war--the sparks of which had been kindled by + Alexander's edict, granting leave to all the Grecian emigrants, + twenty thousand in number, nearly the whole of whom were in the + Macedonian interest, to return to their native countries,--was + fanned to a flame by the democratic party at Athens. Urged by + Demosthenes and Hyperides, almost all the states of central and + northern Greece, Boeotia excepted, took up arms in the cause; and + their example was quickly followed by most of those in + Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Argos, Corinth, and + the Achaeans. Not even the Persian war produced such general + unanimity! The gallant Leosthenes headed the league.--Defeat of + Antipater, who is shut up in Lamia; Leosthenes, however, falls in + the siege of that place, B. C. 323, and although Leonatus--who + with the view of ascending the throne by his marriage with + Cleopatra, had come to the assistance of the Macedonians--was + beaten and slain, 322, the Greeks were finally overwhelmed by the + reinforcements, brought to Antipater out of Asia, by Craterus. And + Antipater having fully succeeded in breaking the league, and + negotiating with each separate nation, was enabled to dictate the + terms. Most of the cities opened their gates to Macedonian troops; + besides this, Athens was obliged to purchase peace through the + mediation of Phocion and Demades, by an alteration in her + constitution,--the poorer citizens being excluded from all share + in the government, and for the most part translated into + Thrace--and by a pledge to deliver up Demosthenes and Hyperides; + whose place Phocion occupied at the head of the state.--The + Aetolians, the last against whom the Macedonian wars were directed, + obtained better terms than they had ventured to expect, Antipater + and Craterus being obliged to hurry over to Asia in order to + oppose Perdiccas. + +3. That hatred which, even in the lifetime of Alexander, had sprung up +between Antipater and Olympias, in consequence of his not permitting the +dowager queen to rule, induced her to withdraw to Epirus; her rankling +envy being still more embittered by the influence of the young queen +Eurydice. See above, p. 224. Antipater, dying shortly after his +expedition against Perdiccas, in which his colleague Craterus had +fallen, and he himself had been appointed regent, nominates his friend, +the aged Polysperchon, to succeed him as regent and head guardian, to +the exclusion of his own son Cassander. Hence arose a series of quarrels +between the two, in which, unfortunately for themselves, the royal +family were implicated and finally exterminated, Cassander obtaining the +sovereignty of Macedonia. + + Cassander having secured the interest of Antigonus and Ptolemy, + makes his escape to the former, 319: he had previously + endeavoured also to raise a party in Macedonia and Greece, + particularly by getting his friend Nicanor to be commander at + Athens.--Measures taken by Polysperchon to oppose him; in the + first place, he recalls Olympias out of Epirus, but the princess + dares not come without an army; in the next place, he nominates + Eumenes commander of the royal troops in Asia (see above, p. 225); + he likewise endeavours to gain the Grecian cities, by recalling + the Macedonian garrisons, and changing the governors set over them + by Antipater. These latter, however, were in most of the cities + too firmly established to suffer themselves thus to be deposed; + and even the expedition into Peloponnesus, undertaken by + Polysperchon to enforce his injunctions was attended but with + partial success.--In the same year occurs a twofold revolution in + Athens, whither Polysperchon had sent his son Alexander, nominally + for the purpose of driving out Nicanor, but virtually to get + possession of that important city. In the first place, Alexander + and Nicanor appearing to unite both for the attainment of one and + the same object, the democratic party rise up, and overthrow the + rulers, hitherto taken from Antipater's party, and headed by + Phocion, who is compelled to swallow poison: soon after, however, + Cassander occupies the city, excludes from the administration all + that possess less than ten mines, and places at the head of + affairs Demetrius Phalereus, who, from 318 to 307, ruled with + great prudence.--Not long after, Olympias returns with an army + from Epirus; the Macedonian troops of Philip and Eurydice having + passed over to her side, she wreaks her revenge on the royal + couple, and on the brother of Cassander, all of whom she puts to + death, 317. Cassander, nevertheless, having obtained + reinforcements in Peloponnesus, takes the field against her; she + is besieged in Pydna, where, disappointed in the hope of being + relieved either by Polysperchon or by Aeacidas of Epirus, both of + whom were forsaken by their men, she is obliged to surrender, 316. + Cassander, having caused her to be condemned by the Macedonian + people, has her put to death. + +4. Cassander being now master, and, from 302, king of Macedonia, +confirmed his dominion by a marriage with Thessalonice, half-sister to +Alexander, and at the same time endeavoured to corroborate as far as +possible his authority in Greece. Polysperchon and his son Alexander, +it is true, still made head in Peloponnesus; but the states without the +peninsula, Aetolia excepted, were all either allies of Cassander, or +occupied by Macedonian troops. After the defeat of the league against +Antigonus, in which Cassander had borne a part, general peace was +concluded, with the proviso, that the Grecian cities should be free, and +that the young Alexander, when of age, should be raised to the throne of +Macedonia: this induced Cassander to rid himself both of the young +prince and his mother Roxana by murder: but he thereby exposed himself +to an attack from Polysperchon, who, availing himself of the discontent +of the Macedonians, brought back Hercules, the only remaining +illegitimate son of Alexander. Cassander diverted the storm by a new +crime, instigating Polysperchon to murder the young Hercules, under +promise of sharing the government: Polysperchon, however, unable to +possess himself of the Peloponnesus which had been promised him, appears +to have preserved but little influence. Cassander met likewise with +formidable opponents in the persons of Antigonus and his son; and +although delivered by the breaking out of the war with Ptolemy from the +danger of the first invasion of Greece by Demetrius, his situation was +more embarrassing at the second irruption; from which, however, he was +extricated by the circumstance of Antigonus being obliged to recall his +son, on account of the newly formed league (see above, p. 230). + + Antigonus, on his return from Upper Asia, declares loudly against + Cassander, B. C. 314; despatches his general Aristodemus to + Peloponnesus, and frames a league with Polysperchon and his son + Alexander; the latter, however, Cassander succeeds in winning over + by a promise of the command in Peloponnesus. Alexander was soon + after murdered, but his wife Cratesipolis succeeded him, and + commanded with the spirit of a man. Meanwhile, Cassander carried + war against the Aetolians, who sided with Antigonus, 313; but + Antigonus, 312, having sent his general Ptolemy into Greece with a + fleet and army, Cassander lost his supremacy. In the peace of 311, + the freedom of all the Grecian cities was stipulated; but this + very condition became the pretext of various and permanent feuds; + and Cassander having murdered the young king, together with his + mother, drew upon himself the arms of Polysperchon, who wished to + place Hercules on the throne, 310; but the pretender was removed + in the manner above described, 309.--Cassander now endeavouring to + reestablish his power over Greece, Demetrius Poliorcetes was by + his father sent into that country in order to anticipate Ptolemy + of Egypt, in the enforcement of the decree for the freedom of the + Greeks, 308; the result at Athens was the restoration of + democracy, and the expulsion of Demetrius Phalereus.--From any + further attack of Demetrius, Cassander was delivered by the war + which broke out between Antigonus and Ptolemy, (see above, p. + 229.) and had the leisure, once more, to strengthen his power in + Greece, until 302, when Demetrius arrived a second time, and, as + generalissimo of liberated Greece, pressed forward to the borders + of Macedonia; Demetrius was, however, recalled by his father into + Asia, and at the battle of Ipsus, 301, lost all his dominions in + that quarter of the world. Yet although Athens closed her harbours + against him, he still maintained his possessions in Peloponnesus, + and even endeavoured to extend them; from thence, in 297, he + sallied forth, and once more took possession of his beloved + Athens, and after driving out the usurper Lachares, forgave her + ingratitude. + +5. Cassander survived the establishment of his throne by the battle of +Ipsus only three years: and bequeathed Macedonia as an inheritance to +his three sons, the eldest of whom, Philip, shortly after followed his +father to the grave. + +6. The two remaining sons, Antipater and Alexander, soon worked their +own destruction. Antipater having murdered his own mother Thessalonice, +on account of the favour she showed his brother, was obliged to flee; he +applied for help to his father-in-law Lysimachus of Thrace, where he +soon after died. Meanwhile Alexander, fancying that he likewise stood in +need of foreign assistance, addressed himself to Pyrrhus, king of +Macedonia, and to Demetrius Poliorcetes, both of whom obeyed the call +only with the expectation of being paid. After various snares +reciprocally laid for each other, the king of Macedonia was murdered by +Demetrius, and with him the race of Antipater became extinct. + +7. The army proclaimed Demetrius king; and in his person the house of +Antigonus ascended the throne of Macedonia, and, after many +vicissitudes, established their power. His seven years' reign, in which +one project succeeded the other, was a constant series of wars; and as +he never could learn how to bear with good fortune, his ambition was at +last his ruin. + + The kingdom of Demetrius comprised Macedonia, Thessaly, and the + greatest part of the Peloponnesus; he was also master of Megara + and Athens.--Twofold capture of Thebes, which had been rebuilt by + Cassander, 293, and 291; unsuccessful attempt upon Thrace, 292. + His war with Pyrrhus, 290, in whom men fancied they beheld another + Alexander, had already alienated the affections of the + Macedonians; but his grand project for the recovery of Asia + induced his enemies to get the start of him; and the hatred of his + subjects compelled him secretly to escape to Peloponnesus, to his + son Antigonus, 287. Athens, taking advantage of his misfortunes, + drove out the Macedonian garrison, and, by the election of + archons, reestablished her ancient constitution; although + Demetrius laid siege to the town, he allowed himself to be + pacified by Crates. Having once more attempted to prosecute his + plans against Asia, he was obliged, 286, to surrender to Seleucus + his father-in-law, who, out of charity, kept him till the day of + his death, 284. + +8. Two claimants to the vacant throne now arose, viz. Pyrrhus of Epirus +and Lysimachus of Thrace; but although Pyrrhus was first proclaimed +king, with the cession of half the dominions, he could not, being a +foreigner, support his power any longer than the year 286, when he was +deposed by Lysimachus. + + The sovereigns of Epirus, belonging to the family of the Aeacidae, + were properly kings of the Molossi. See above, p. 150. They did + not become lords of all Epirus, nor consequently of any historical + importance, until the time of the Peloponnesian war. After that + period Epirus was governed by Alcetas I. about 384, who pretended + to be the sixteenth descendant from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles; + Neoptolemus, father to Olympias, by whose marriage with Philip, + 358, the kings of Epirus became intimately connected with + Macedonia, _d._ 352; Arymbas, his brother, _d._ 342; Alexander I. + son of Neoptolemus, and brother-in-law to Alexander the Great; he + was ambitious to be as great a conqueror in the west as his + kinsman was in the east, but he fell in Lucania, 332. Aeacides, son + of Arymbas, _d._ 312. Pyrrhus II. his son, the Ajax of his time, + and, we might almost say, rather an adventurer than a king. After + uninterrupted wars waged in Macedonia, Greece, Italy, and Sicily, + he fell at last at the storming of Argos, 272. He was followed by + his son Alexander II. in the person of whose successor, Pyrrhus + III. 219, the male line became extinct. Although the daughter of + this last prince, Deidamia, succeeded to the throne, the Epirots + were not long before they established a democratic government, + which endured till such time as they were, together with Macedonia + and the rest of Greece, brought under the Roman yoke, 146. + +9. In consequence of the accession of Lysimachus, Thrace, and for a +short time even Asia Minor, were annexed to the Macedonian kingdom. But +rankling hatred and family relations soon afterwards involved Lysimachus +in a war with Seleucus Nicator, in which, at battle of Curopedion, he +lost both his throne and his life. + + Execution of the gallant Agathocles, eldest son of Lysimachus, at + the instigation of his step-mother Arsinoe: his widow Lysandra and + her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had already been driven out of + Egypt by his step-mother Berenice, go over, followed by a large + party, to Seleucus, whom they excite to war. + +10. The victorious Seleucus, already lord of Asia, now causing himself +to be proclaimed likewise king of Macedonia, it seemed as if that +country was again about to become the head seat of the whole monarchy. +But shortly after he had crossed over into Europe, Seleucus fell by the +murderous hand of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, availing himself of the +treasures of his victim, and of the yet remaining troops of Lysimachus, +took possession of the throne; by another act of treachery he avenged +himself of Arsinoe, his half-sister; but just as he conceived himself +securely established, he lost both his crown and his life by the +irruption of the Gauls into Macedonia. + + The irruption of the Gauls, threatening desolation not only to + Macedonia but to the whole of Greece, took place in three + successive expeditions. The first under Cambaules, (probably 280,) + advanced no further than Thrace, the invaders not being + sufficiently numerous. The second in three bodies; against Thrace + under Ceretrius; against Paeonia under Brennus and Acichorius; + against Macedonia and Illyria under Belgius, 279. By the + last-mentioned chieftain Ptolemy was defeated; he fell in the + contest. In consequence, Meleager first, and Antipater + subsequently, were appointed kings of Macedonia; but both, on + account of incapacity, being soon afterwards deposed, a Macedonian + noble, Sosthenes, assumed the command, and this time liberated his + country. But the year 278 brought with it the main storm, which + spent its fury principally on Greece: Sosthenes was defeated and + slain: and although the Greeks brought all their united forces + into the field, Brennus and Acichorius burst into Greece on two + different sides, and pushed on to Delphi, the object of their + expedition; from hence, however, they were compelled to retreat; + and most of them were cut off by hunger, cold, or the sword. + Nevertheless a portion of those barbarians stood their ground in + the interior of Thrace, which, consequently, was for the most part + lost to Macedonia: another portion, consisting of various hordes, + the Tectosagae, Tolistobii, and Trocmi, crossed over to Asia Minor, + where they established themselves in the country called after them + Galatia (see above, p. 236). Although there can be no doubt that + the Tectosagae must have come from the innermost parts of Gaul, the + mode of attack demonstrates that the main tide of invaders + consisted of the neighbouring races; and, in fact, in those days + the countries from the Danube to the Mediterranean and Adriatic + were mostly occupied by Gauls.--Greece, though she strained every + nerve, and with the exception of Peloponnesus, was united in one + league, could scarcely bring forward more than 20,000 men to stem + the torrent. + +11. Antigonus of Gonni, son to Demetrius, now seated himself on the +vacant throne of desolated Macedon; he bought off his competitor, +Antiochus I. named Soter, by treaty and marriage. Successfully as he +opposed the new irruption of the Gauls, he was dethroned by Pyrrhus, +who, on his return from Italy, was a second time proclaimed king of +Macedonia. That prince, however, having formed the design of conquering +the Peloponnesus, and, after an ineffectual attack on Sparta, which was +repelled with heroic gallantry, wishing to take possession of Argos, +fell at the storming of the latter place. + + Extraordinary as these frequent revolutions appear, they may be + easily accounted for by the mode of warfare in those days. Every + thing depended on the armies; and these were composed of + mercenaries, ever willing to fight against him they had defended + the day before, if they fancied his rival to be a more valiant or + fortunate leader. Since the death of Alexander, the Macedonian + phalanx was no longer dependent on its captains, but they on their + men. The impoverishment of the countries, in consequence of war, + was such, that the soldier's was almost the only profitable trade; + and none prosecuted that trade more ardently than the Gauls, whose + services were ever ready for any one who chose to pay for them. + +12. After the death of Pyrrhus, Antigonus Gonnatas recovered the +Macedonian throne, of which he and his descendants kept uninterrupted +possession, yet not till after a violent contest with Alexander, the son +and successor of Pyrrhus. But no sooner were they secure from foreign +rivals, than the Macedonian policy was again directed against Greece, +and the capture of Corinth seemed to insure the dependence of the whole +country, when the formation of the Aetolian, and the yet more important +Achaean, league, gave rise to relations entirely new, and of the highest +interest, even for the universal history of the world. After so many +storms, the sun of Greece was about to set in all his splendour! + + The ancient confederacy of the twelve Achaean cities (see above, p. + 145.) had subsisted until the death of Alexander, but was + dissolved in the subsequent commotions; particularly when, after + the battle of Ipsus, 301, Demetrius and his son made Peloponnesus + the principal seat of their power. Some of these cities were now + garrisoned by those princes, while in others arose tyrants, + generally favourable to their interests. In 281, four asserted + their freedom and renewed the ancient federation; which, five + years afterwards, was gradually joined by the rest, Antigonus + being busied elsewhere, in consequence of his occupation of the + Macedonian throne. But the league did not become formidable till + the accession of foreign states. This took place, in the first + instance, with Sicyon, through the exertions of the liberator of + that town, Aratus, who now became the animating spirit of the + federation; and in 243 brought over Corinth, after the expulsion + of the Macedonian garrison, and Megara. Afterwards the league + gradually acquired strength, by the junction of several Grecian + cities, Athens among others, 229; and thereby excited the jealousy + of the rest. And as Aratus, who was more of a statesman than a + general, and possessed but little independence, had in the very + outset joined the party of Ptolemy II. the league soon became + involved in the disputes of the great powers, and was too often + but a mere tool in their hands. The main principles on which it + was founded were the following: 1. Complete political equality of + all the federate cities; in this respect it essentially differed + from all the earlier federations in Greece. 2. Unconditional + preservation of the domestic government in every one of the + cities. 3. The meeting twice a year of deputies from all the + cities, at Aegium, and afterwards at Corinth; for transacting all + business of common interest, particularly foreign affairs, and + also for the purpose of electing the strategus, or military leader + and head of the union, and the ten demiurgi, or supreme + magistrates.--But what more than all contributed to exalt this + league, founded on pure liberty, was the virtue of Aratus, 213, + Philopoemen, 183, and Lycortas, 170; men who breathed into it the + spirit of union, until, enfeebled by Roman policy, it was + overthrown. + + # BREITENBAUCH, _History of the Achaeans and their league_, 1782. + + The Aetolian league was formed about 284, in consequence of the + oppressions of the Macedonian kings. The Aetolians had likewise a + yearly congress, panaetolium, at Thermus; where they chose a + strategus and the apocleti, who constituted the state council. + They had, besides, their secretary, [Greek: grammateus]; and + supervisors, [Greek: ephoroi], whose particular functions are, + however, matter of doubt. This federation did not increase like + the Achaean, none but Aetolians being admitted. The more unpolished + this piratical nation remained, the more frequently it was used as + the tool of foreign, and particularly of Roman, policy. + +13. Antigonus, in the latter part of his reign, had recourse to various +means, and more especially to an alliance with the Aetolians, for the +purpose of counterpoising the Achaeans. He died in his eightieth year, +and was succeeded by his son, Demetrius II. who waged war upon the +Aetolians, now, however, supported by the Achaeans; and endeavoured to +repress the growth of the latter, by favouring the tyrants of particular +cities. The remainder of the reign of this prince is little more than a +chasm in history. + + The vulgar assertion that this prince conquered Cyrene and Libya, + originates in a confusion of names; his uncle Demetrius, son of + Poliorcetes of Ptolemais, being mentioned by Plutarch as king of + Cyrene. The history of that town, from 258 to 142, is enveloped in + almost total darkness: cf. Prolog. Trogi, l. xxvi. ad calcem + Justini. + +14. Demetrius's son Philip was passed over; his brother's son, Antigonus +II. surnamed Doson, being raised to the throne. This king was occupied +the most of his time by the events in Greece, where a very remarkable +revolution at Sparta, as we learn from Plutarch, had raised up a +formidable enemy against the Achaeans; and so completely altered the +relative position of affairs, that the Macedonians, from having been +opponents, became allies of the Achaeans. + + Sketch of the situation of Spartan affairs at this period: the + ancient constitution still continued to exist in form; but the + plunder of foreign countries, and particularly the permission to + transfer landed estates, obtained by Epitadeus, had produced great + inequality of property. The restoration of Lycurgus's constitution + had, therefore, a twofold object; to favour the poor by a new + agrarian law and release from debts, and to increase the power of + the kings by repressing that of the ephori.--First attempt at + reform 244, by king Agis III; attended in the beginning with + partial success, but eventually frustrated by the other king, + Leonidas, and terminating in the extinction of Agis and his + family, 241. Leonidas, however, was succeeded, 236, by his son + Cleomenes, who victoriously defeated the plans of Aratus to force + Sparta to accede to the Achaean league, 227; this king, by a + forcible revolution, overthrew the ephori, and accomplished the + project of Agis, at the same time increasing the Spartans by the + admission of a number of periaeci; and enforcing the laws of + Lycurgus referring to private life; but as in a small republic a + revolution cannot be confirmed without some external war, he + attacked the Achaeans as early as 224; these being defeated, + implored, through Aratus, the help of Antigonus; Cleomenes in + consequence was, at the battle of Sellasia, 222, obliged to yield + to superior force, and with difficulty escaped over to Egypt; + while Sparta was compelled to acknowledge her independence as a + gift at the hands of Antigonus. Such was the miserable success of + this attempt made by a few great men on a nation already + degenerate. The quarrels between the ephori and king Lycurgus and + his successor Machanidas, placed Sparta in a state of anarchy, + which ended, 207, in the usurpation of the sovereign power by one + Nabis, who destroyed the ancient form of government. Let him who + would study great revolutions commence with that just described; + insignificant as it is, none perhaps furnishes more instructive + lessons. + + PLUTARCHI _Agis et Cleomenes_. The information in which is + principally drawn from the Commentaries of Aratus. + +15. Philip II. son of Demetrius. He ascended the throne at the early age +of sixteen, endowed with many qualities, such as might, under favourable +circumstances, have formed a great prince. Macedonia had recruited her +strength during a long peace; and her grand political aim, the supremacy +of Greece, secured by the connection of Antigonus with the Achaeans, and +by the victory of Sellasia, seemed to be already within her grasp. But +Philip lived in a time when Rome was pursuing her formidable plans of +aggrandizement: the more vigorous and prompt his efforts were to +withstand that power, the more deeply was he entangled in the new maze +of events, which embittered the rest of his life, and at last brought +him to the grave with a broken heart, converted by misfortune into a +despot. + +16. The first five years of Philip were occupied by his participation +in the war between the Achaeans and Aetolians, called the war of the two +leagues; notwithstanding the treachery of his minister Apellas and his +dependents, the prince was enabled to dictate the conditions of peace, +according to which both parties were to remain in possession of what +they then had. The conclusion of this peace was hastened by the news of +Hannibal's victory at Thrasymenus, Philip being then instigated to form +more extensive projects by Demetrius of Pharus, who had fled before the +Romans, and soon acquired unlimited influence with the Macedonian king. + + The war of the two leagues arose out of the piracies of the + Aetolians on the Messenians, the latter of whom the Achaeans + undertook to protect, 221. The errors committed by Aratus + compelled the Achaeans to have recourse to Philip, 220; whose + progress, however, was for a long time impeded by the artifices of + Apellas's faction, who wished to overthrow Aratus. The + Acarnanians, Epirots, Messenians, and Scerdilaidas of Illyria, + (who, however, soon after declared against Macedonia,) combined + with Philip and the Achaeans; the Aetolians, on the other hand, + commanded by their own general, Scopas, had for their allies the + Spartans and Eleans.--The most important consequence of this war + for Macedonia was, that she began again to be a naval + power.--About the same time a war broke out between the two + trading republics of Byzantium and Rhodes (the latter supported by + Prusias I. of Bithynia) insignificant in itself, but which, as a + commercial war, originating in the duties imposed by the + Byzantines, was the only one of its kind in this age, 222. The + Rhodians, so powerful in those days by sea, compelled their + adversaries to submit. + +17. The negotiations between Philip and Hannibal concluded with an +alliance, in which reciprocal help was promised towards annihilating +Rome. But Rome contrived to excite so many foes against Philip on the +borders of his own kingdom, and availed herself so skilfully of her +naval power, that the execution of this plan was prevented until it +became possible to attack the Macedonian king in Greece; where he had +made himself many enemies, by the domineering tone he had assumed +towards his allies at the time that, sensible of his power, he was about +to enter upon a wider sphere of action. + + Commencement of hostilities by Rome, against Philip: immediately + that the alliance of Philip and Hannibal was known, a squadron + with troops on board was stationed off the coast of Macedonia, by + which the king himself was defeated at Apollonia, 214.--Alliance + of Rome with the Aetolians, joined likewise by Sparta and Elis, + Attalus king of Pergamus, and Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus, kings of + Illyria, 211. On Philip's side were the Achaeans, with whom + Philopoemen more than supplied the loss of Aratus, occasioned, + 213, by the Macedonian king; to them were joined the Acarnanians + and Baeotians.--Attacked on every side, Philip successfully + extricated himself from his difficulties; in the first place, he + compelled the Aetolians, who had been abandoned by Attalus and + Rome, to accept separate terms, which, shortly after, Rome, + consulting her own convenience, converted into a general peace, + inclusive of the allies on either side, 204. + +18. New war of Philip against Attalus and the Rhodians, carried on for +the most part in Asia Minor; and his impolitic alliance with Antiochus +III. to attack Egypt. But can Philip be blamed for his endeavours to +disarm the military servants of the Romans? Rome, however, did not grant +him time to effect his designs; the Macedonian king was taught at Chios, +by woeful experience, that his navy had not increased proportionably +with that of the Rhodians. + +19. The war with Rome suddenly hurled the Macedonian power from its +lofty pitch; and by laying the foundation of Roman dominion in the +east, wrought a change in almost all the political relations of that +quarter. The first two years of the war showed pretty evidently, that +mere force could scarcely overturn the Macedonian throne. But T. +Quintius Flaminius stepped forward; with the magic spell of freedom he +intoxicated the Greeks; Philip was stripped of his allies; and the +battle of Cynoscephalae decided everything. The articles of the peace +were: 1. That all Grecian cities in Europe and Asia should be +independent, and Philip should withdraw his garrisons. 2. That he should +surrender the whole of his navy, and never afterwards keep more than 500 +armed men on foot. 3. That he should not, without previously informing +Rome, undertake any war out of Macedonia. 4. That he should pay 1,000 +talents by instalments, and deliver up his younger son Demetrius as an +hostage. + + The Roman allies in this war were: the Aetolians, Athenians, + Rhodians, the kings of the Athamanes, Dardanians, and + Pergamus.--The Achaeans at the beginning sided with Philip, but + were subsequently gained over by Flaminius. See below, in the + Roman History. + +20. Soon after, the freedom of Greece was solemnly proclaimed at the +Isthmian games by Flaminius: but loud as the Greeks were in their +exultations, this measure served merely to transfer the supremacy of +their country from Macedonia to Rome: and Grecian history, as well as +the Macedonian, is now interwoven with that of the Romans. To foster +quarrels between the Greek states, with the especial view of hindering +the Achaeans from growing too formidable, now became a fundamental +principle at Rome; and Roman and anti-Roman parties having quickly +arisen in every city, this political game was easily played. + + Flaminius even took care that the Achaeans should have an opponent + in the person of Nabis, although under the necessity of waging war + against him previous to his return into Italy, 194.--In 192, war + between Nabis and the Achaeans; followed after the murder of Nabis, + at the hands of the Aetolians, by the accession of Sparta to the + Achaean league.--But about the same time Greece once more became + the theatre of foreign war; Antiochus having firmly seated himself + in the country, and enleagued himself with several tribes, but + more particularly the Aetolians, inspired with bitter and + long-standing hatred against the Romans. These last, however, + after the expulsion of Antiochus from Greece, 191, paid dearly for + their secession; nor was peace granted them by Rome till after + long and unsuccessful supplications, 189. + +21. While war was pending between the Romans and Antiochus, Philip, in +the character of one of the numerous allies of Rome, ventured to +increase his territory at the expense of the Athamanes, Thracians, and +Thessalians. To keep him in good humour he was permitted to effect those +conquests; but after the termination of the war the oppression of Rome +became so galling, that it could not be otherwise than that all his +thoughts should centre in revenge, and all his exertions be directed +towards the recovery of power. Meanwhile the violent measures adopted +for repeopling his exhausted kingdom--such is the punishment of ambition +which usually awaits even the victorious!--the transplantation of the +inhabitants of whole cities and countries, and the consequent and +unavoidable oppression of several of his neighbours, excited universal +complaints; and where was the accuser of Philip to whom Rome would not +now lend a ready ear?--His younger son, Demetrius, the pupil of Rome, +and by her intended, it is probable, to succeed to the crown, alone +diverted the impending fate of Macedonia. But after the return of that +prince from his embassy, the envy of his elder and bastard brother, +Perseus, grew into an inveterate rancour, such as could not be quenched +but by the death of the younger. The lot of Philip was indeed hard, +compelled as a father to judge between his two sons; but the measure of +human woe was filled, when after the death of his favourite child he +discovered that he was innocent; are we to wonder that sorrow should +soon have hurried him to a premature grave! + +22. The same policy which was observed by the Romans towards Philip, +they pursued towards the Achaeans, with whom, since the termination of +the war with Antiochus, they had assumed a loftier tone; and this artful +game was facilitated by the continual quarrels among the Greeks +themselves. Yet the great Philopoemen, worthy of a better age, +maintained the dignity of the league at the very time that the Romans +presumed to speak as arbitrators. After his decease they found it easy +to raise a party among the Achaeans themselves, the venal Callicrates +offering his services for that purpose. + + The Achaeans was continually embroiled either with Sparta or with + Messene: the grounds of difference were, that in both of those + states there were factions headed by persons who, out of personal + motives, and for the most part hatred to Philopoemen, wished to + secede from the league; on the other hand, the prevailing idea + among the Achaeans was, that this league ought to comprise the + whole of the Peloponnesus. In the war against the Messenians, + 183, Philopoemen, at the age of seventy, was taken prisoner by the + enemy and put to death. + + PLUTARCHI, _Philopoemen_. Nearly the whole of which is compiled + from the lost biography of Polybius. + +23. The last Macedonian king, Perseus, had inherited his father's +perfect hatred of the Romans, together with talents, if not equal, at +least but little inferior. He entered into the speculations of his +predecessor, and the first seven years of his reign was occupied in +constant exertions to muster forces against Rome; with this view he +called the Bastarnae out of the north, in order to settle them in the +territories of his enemies the Dardanians; he endeavoured to form +alliances with the kings of Illyria, Thrace, Syria, and Bithynia; above +all, he strove by negotiations and promises to reestablish the ancient +influence of Macedonia in Greece. + + The settlement of the Bastarnae (probably a German race, resident + beyond the Danube) in Thrace and Dardania, in order with them to + carry war against the Romans, was one of the plans traced out by + Philip, and now partially executed by Perseus.--In Greece the + Macedonian party, which Perseus formed chiefly out of the great + number of impoverished citizens in the country, would probably + have gained the upper hand, had not the fear inspired by Rome, and + the active vigilance of that power, interposed an effectual bar. + Hence the Achaeans, apparently at least, remained on the Roman + side; the Aetolians, by domestic factions, had worked their own + destruction; the case was the same with the Acarnanians; and the + federation of the Boeotians had been completely dissolved by the + Romans, 171. On the other hand, in Epirus the Macedonian party was + superior; Thessaly was occupied by Perseus; several of the + Thracian tribes were friendly to him; and in king Gentius he found + an ally who might have been highly useful, had not the Macedonian + prince, by an ill-timed avarice, deprived himself of his + assistance. + +24. The commencement of open hostilities was hastened by the bitter +hatred existing between Perseus and Eumenes, and by the intrigues of the +latter at Rome. Neglect of the favourable moment for taking the field, +and the defensive system, skilfully in other respects as it was planned, +caused the ruin of Perseus, as it had done that of Antiochus. +Nevertheless he protracted the war to the fourth year, when the battle +of Pidna decided the fate both of himself and his kingdom. + + Miserable condition of Perseus until his capture at Samothrace; + and afterwards until his death at Rome, 166. + +25. According to the system at that period followed by Rome, the +conquered kingdom of Macedonia was not immediately converted into a +province; it was first deprived of all offensive power, by being +republicanized and divided into four districts, wholly distinct from one +another, and bound to pay Rome half the tribute they were before wont to +furnish to their kings. + +26. It was in the natural order of things that the independence of +Greece, and more especially that of the Achaean league, should fall with +Perseus. The political _inquisition_ of the Roman commissaries not only +visited with punishment the declared partizans of Macedonia; but even to +have stood neutral was a crime that incurred suspicion. Rome, however, +amid the rising hatred, did not deem herself secure until by one blow +she had rid herself of all opponents of any importance. Above a thousand +of the most eminent of the Achaeans were summoned to Rome to justify +themselves, and there detained seventeen years in prison without a +hearing. While at the head of the league, stood the man who had +delivered them up, Callicrates, (_d._ 150.) a wretch who could, unmoved, +hear "the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery."--A more +tranquil period, it is true, now ensued for Greece, but it was the +result of very obvious causes. + +27. The ultimate lot both of Macedon and was decided by the system now +adopted at Rome, that of converting the previous dependence of nations +into formal subjection. The insurrection of Andriscus in Macedonia, an +individual who pretended to be the son of Perseus, was quelled by +Metellus, the country being constituted a Roman province; two years +afterwards, at the sack of Corinth, vanished the last glimmer of Grecian +freedom. + + The last war of the Achaeans arose out of certain quarrels with + Sparta, 150, fomented by Diaeus, Critolaus, and Damocritus, who had + returned bitterly enraged from the Roman prison; in these disputes + Rome interfered, with the design of wholly dissolving the Achaean + league. The first pretext that offered for executing this scheme + was the ill-treatment of the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, 148; + war, however, still raging with Carthage and Andriscus, the Romans + preserved for the present a peaceful tone. But the party of Diaeus + and Critolaus would have war; the plenipotentiaries of Metellus + were again insulted, and the Achaeans declared war against Sparta + and Rome. In the very same year they were routed by Metellus, and + their leader Critolaus fell in the engagement; Metellus was + replaced in the command by Mummius, who defeated Diaeus the + successor of Critolaus, took Corinth and razed it to the ground, + 146. The consequence was, that Greece, under the name of Achaia, + became a Roman province, although to a few cities, such as Athens, + for instance, some shadow of freedom was still left. + + +IV. _History of some smaller or more distant Kingdoms and States erected +out of the Macedonian monarchy._ + + SOURCES. Besides the writers enumerated above, (see p. 232.) + Memnon, an historian of Heraclea in Pontus, deserves particular + mention in this place, (see p. 162): some extracts from his work + have been preserved to us by Photius, Cod. 224. In some individual + portions, as, for instance, in the Parthian history, Justin[a] is + our main authority; as are likewise Ammianus Marcellinus, and the + extracts from Arrian's _Parthica_, found in Photius. The coins of + the kings are also of great importance; but unfortunately + Vaillant's Essay shows, that even with their assistance the + chronology still remains in a very unsettled state. For the Jewish + history, Josephus (see p. 35.) is the grand writer: of the Books + of the Old Testament, those of Ezra and Nehemiah, together with + the Maccabees, although the last are not always to be depended + upon. + + The modern writers are enumerated below, under the heads of the + different kingdoms. Much information is likewise scattered about + in the works on ancient numismatics. + + [a] As Justin did no more than extract from Trogus Pompeius, a + question presents itself of great consequence to various + portions of ancient history; what authorities did Trogus + Pompeius follow? The answer will be found in two treatises + by A. L. L. HEEREN: _De fontibus et auctoritate Trogi Pompeii, + ejusque epitomatoris Justini_, inserted in _Comment. Soc. + Gott._ vol. 15. + +1. Besides the three main empires into which the monarchy of Alexander +was divided, there likewise arose in those extensive regions several +branch kingdoms, one of which even grew in time to be among the most +powerful in the world. To these belong the kingdoms of, 1. Pergamus. 2. +Bithynia. 3. Paphlagonia. 4. Pontus. 5. Cappadocia. 6. Great Armenia. 7. +Little Armenia. 8. Parthia. 9. Bactria. 10. Jewish state subsequent to +the Maccabees. + + We are acquainted with the history of these kingdoms, the Jewish + state alone excepted, only so far forth as they were implicated in + the concerns of the greater empires; of their internal history we + know little, often nothing. With respect to many of them, + therefore, little more can be produced than a series of + chronological data, indispensable, notwithstanding, to the general + historian. + +2. The kingdom of Pergamus, in Mysia, arose during the war between +Seleucus and Lysimachus. It owed its origin on the one hand to the +prudence of its rulers, the wisest of whom luckily reigned the longest; +and, on the other, to the weakness of the Seleucidae: for its progressive +increase it was indebted to the Romans, who in aggrandizing the power of +Pergamus acted with a view to their own interest. History exhibits +scarcely one subordinate kingdom whose princes took such skilful +advantage of the political circumstances of the times; and yet they +earned still greater renown by the anxiety they showed, in rivalling the +Ptolemies, to foster the arts of peace, industry, science, architecture, +sculpture, and painting. How dazzling the splendour with which the small +state of Pergamus outshines many a mighty empire! + + Philetaerus, lieutenant of Lysimachus, in Pergamus, asserts his + independence; and maintains possession of the citadel and town, + 283-263. His nephew, Eumenes I. 263-241, defeats Antiochus I. at + Sardes, 263, and becomes master of Aeolis and the circumjacent + country. His nephew, Attalus I. 241-197, after his victory over + the Galatians, 239, becomes king of Pergamus: a noble prince, and + one whose genius and activity embraced everything. His wars + against Achaeus brought him in alliance with Antiochus III. 216. + Commencement of an alliance with Rome, arising out of his + participation in the Aetolian league against Macedon, 211, in order + to thwart Philip's project of conquest. Hence, after Philip's + irruption into Asia, 203, participation on the side of Rome, in + the Macedonian war. His son Eumenes II. the inheritor of all his + father's great qualities succeeds him, 197-158. As a reward for + his assistance against Antiochus the Great, the Romans presented + him with almost all the territories possessed by the vanquished + king in Asia Minor, (Phrygia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Lydia, Ionia, and a + part of Caria,) which thereafter constituted the kingdom of + Pergamus; this prince extended his frontiers, but lost his + independence. In the war with Perseus he was scarce able to + preserve the good will of the senate, and therewith his kingdom. + His brother, Attalus II. 158-138, a more faithful dependent of + Rome, took part in nearly all the concerns of Asia Minor, more + especially Bithynia. His nephew, Attalus III. 138-133, a prince of + unsound mind, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, who, after + vanquishing the lawful heir, Aristonicus, 130, took possession of + it, annexing it to their empire, under the shape of a province + called Asia.--Great discoveries and vast establishments made at + Pergamus. Rich library; subsequently transferred by Antony to + Alexandria, as a present for Cleopatra. Museum. Discovery of + parchment, an invaluable auxiliary to the preservation of works of + literature. + + CHOISEUIL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque de la Grece_, vol. ii. + 1809. Containing excellent observations, both on the monuments and + history of Pergamus, as well as on those of all the neighbouring + coasts and islands. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Pergame_, inserted in the _Mem. + de l'Acad. des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + From the fall of Tyre and the unsuccessful attempt of Demetrius, + B. C. 307, to the establishment of Roman dominion in the east, + 300-200, was the brilliant period of Rhodes; alike important for + political wisdom, naval power, and extensive trade. At the head of + the senate ([Greek: boule]) were presidents, ([Greek: prytaneis,]) + who went out of office every half year, and were honoured with + precedence in the meetings of the commons. Friendship with all, + alliance with none, was the fundamental maxim of Rhodian policy, + until subverted by Rome. Thus was preserved the dignity of the + state, together with its independence and political + activity--where do we not meet with Rhodian embassies?--and + permanent splendour, resulting from the cultivation of arts and + sciences. What proofs of general commiseration did not Rhodes + enjoy after that dreadful earthquake, which threw down even the + famous colossus, 227! Long did her squadrons command the Aegaean; + over that sea, the Euxine, and the western parts of the + Mediterranean as far as Sicily, her commerce extended, consisting + in the rich exchange of commodities between three quarters of the + globe. Her revenue proceeded from the customs, and was abundant; + until, blinded by avarice, she sought to obtain at Peraea a + territory on the mainland; an ambition of which the Romans availed + themselves to her detriment, by presenting her with Lycia and + Caria, 190. And yet did this republic outlive that of Rome! Great, + indeed, is the chasm left in general history by the loss of the + internal history of this island! + + P. D. CH. PAULSEN, _Commentatio exhibens Rhodi descriptionem + Macedonica aetate, Gottingae_, 1818. A prize essay. + +3. The other small kingdoms of Asia Minor are fragments rather of the +Persian than of the Macedonian monarchy; for Alexander's march following +another direction, they were not formally subjugated by that conqueror. +The lines of their kings are generally traced back to an early period of +the Persian age; but, properly speaking, their rulers in those days were +nothing more than viceroys: selected indeed, for the most part, from the +royal family, they bore the title of princes, and, in the gradual +decline of the empire, not unfrequently threw up their allegiance. +Nevertheless these kingdoms do not appear as really independent until +after the time of Alexander. Connected with the Grecian republics +Heraclea, Sinope, Byzantium, etc. they formed, both in the Macedonian +and Roman ages, a system of small states, often distracted by internal +wars, and still oftener mere tools in the hands of the more powerful. + + 1. _Bithynia._ As early as the Persian period, mention is made of + two kings in Bithynia, Dydalsus and Botyras. The son of the + latter, Bias, B. C. 378-328, made head against Caranus, one of + Alexander's generals; as did also his son Zipoetas, _d._ 281, + against Lysimachus.--Lycomedes I. _d._ 248. He called the Gauls + over from Thrace, 278, and with their assistance deposed his + brother Zipoetas; the Gauls in consequence kept their footing in + Galatia, and were for a long time an object of terror to Asia + Minor. Zelas, _d._ about 232; established his dominion after a war + with his half-brothers. Prusias I. son-in-law and ally of Philip + II. of Macedon, _d._ 192. He sided with the Rhodians in the + commercial war against Byzantium, 222, (see above, p. 282.) and + directed his arms, 196, against Heraclea, a Grecian city in + Bithynia, with a respectable territory along shore. Prusias II. + waged war against Eumenes II. at the instigation of Hannibal, who + had fled to his court, 184; he was subsequently about to deliver + up the fugitive to the Romans; had not Hannibal put a period to + his existence, 183: this king likewise waged war against Attalus + II. 153; in both these contests Rome acted as mediator. Prusias, + who had the meanness to style himself a freedman of the Romans, + was dethroned by his own son, Nicomedes II. _d._ 92; a confederate + of Mithridates the Great, with whom, nevertheless, he afterwards + fell out concerning the appropriation of Paphlagonia and + Cappadocia. Nicomedes was murdered by his son Socrates, who was, + however, compelled to flee; in consequence of which Nicomedes III. + succeeded to the crown. Deposed by Mithridates, who supported his + half-brother Socrates, he was reinstated by Rome, 90. Having, + however, at the instigation of the Romans, 89, attacked + Mithridates, he was defeated and expelled in the first Mithridatic + war, now kindled; but in the peace of 85, he was again reinstated + by Sulla. At his death, 75, he bequeathed Bithynia to the Romans; + and this legacy gave rise to the third Mithridatic war. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum_, vol. ii. See below. + + SEVIN, _Recherches sur les rois de Bithynie_; inserted in the + _Mem. de l'Academie des Inscript._ vol. xii. + + 2. _Paphlagonia._ Even in the Persian age, the rulers of this + country were but nominally subject. After Alexander's death, B. C. + 323, it fell into the hands of the kings of Pontus; it was, + however, subsequently, again ruled by its own monarchs; among whom + we hear of Morzes, about 179; Pylaemenes I. about 131: who assisted + the Romans in the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus.--Pylaemenes + II. _d._ before 121; who is said to have bequeathed his kingdom to + Mithridates V. of Pontus. Hence Paphlagonia came to be implicated + in the fortunes of Pontus, (see just below,) until after the fall + of Mithridates the Great, 63, that kingdom was converted into a + province, with the exception of one of the southern districts, to + which the Romans left some shadow of freedom. + + 3. _Pontus._ The later kings of this country derived their origin + from the family of the Achaemenidae, or house of Persia. In the + Persian age they remained dependent or tributary princes: and as + such we must consider Artabazes, son of Hystaspes, _d._ 480, + Mithridates I. _d._ 368, and Ariobarzanes, _d._ 337, mentioned as + the earliest kings of Pontus. Mithridates II. surnamed Ctistes, + _d._ 302, was one of the first to acknowledge subjection to + Alexander; after the death of the conqueror he sided with + Antigonus, who treacherously caused him to be murdered. His son, + Mithridates III. _d._ 266, (the Ariobarzanes of Memnon,) not only + maintained himself after the battle of Ipsus against Lysimachus, + but likewise possessed himself of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + Mithridates IV. father-in-law to Antiochus the Great, waged an + unsuccessful war against Sinope. The year of his death is + undetermined, Pharnaces, _d._ about 156. He conquered Sinope 183; + and that town then became the royal residence. War with Eumenes + II. whom Rome had made so powerful, and with his allies; + terminated by a treaty, according to which Pharnaces ceded + Paphlagonia, B. C. 179. Mithridates V. _d._ about 121. He was an + ally of the Romans, from whom, after the defeat of Aristonicus of + Phrygia, he contrived to obtain Great Phrygia. Mithridates VI. + surnamed Eupator, about 121-64. He bore the title of Great, an + epithet to which he was as fully entitled as Peter I. in modern + history; indeed he resembled the Russian prince in almost + everything except in good fortune. His reign, although of the + highest importance to general history, is, particularly in the + portion previous to the wars with Rome, replete with chronological + difficulties.--At the age of twelve years he inherits from his + father not only Pontus, but likewise Phrygia, and a reversionary + title to the throne of Paphlagonia, vacated by the death of + Pylaemenes II.--During his nonage, 121-112, while by voluntarily + inuring himself to hardships, he contrived to elude the + treacherous hostility of his guardians, Rome deprived him of + Phrygia. His conquests in Colchis and on the eastern side of the + Black sea, 112-110.--Commencement of the Scythian wars. Called by + the Greeks of Crimea to their assistance, he expelled the + Scythians; subjected several insignificant Scythian princes on the + mainland; and entered into alliances with the Sarmatic and even + Germanic races as far as the Danube, 108-105, having already a + view to the invasion of Italy from the north.--This war ended, he + travels over Asia, (Asia Minor?) about 104-103.--At his return, + after punishing with death his faithless sister and wife, Laodice, + he makes good his pretensions to Paphlagonia, which he divides + with Nicomedes II. 102. The Roman senate demanding the restoration + of that province, Mithridates not only refuses to accede, but + likewise takes possession of Galatia; meanwhile Nicomedes places + on the throne of Paphlagonia one of his own sons, whom he gives + out to be a son of Pylaemenes II. and denominates Pylaemenes + III.--Rupture with Nicomedes II. 101; the subject of dispute, + Cappadocia, which, after removing the king, Ariarathes VII. his + brother-in-law, with the assistance of Gordius, Mithridates + himself now wished to possess; he is anticipated, however, by + Nicomedes II. who marries Laodice, Ariarathes's + widow.--Mithridates, notwithstanding, expels his rival, under + pretence of holding the kingdom for his sister's son, Ariarathes + VIII. whom at the end of a few months he puts to death at a + private conference, 94; he defeats the brother of the murdered + prince, Ariarathes IX. and then places on the throne, under the + name of Ariarathes X. his own son, who is given out to be a third + son of Ariarathes VII; in opposition to whom Nicomedes sets up + another pretended Ariarathes. The Roman senate, meanwhile, declare + both Paphlagonia and Cappadocia free, B. C. 92; attending, + however, to the desires of the Cappadocians, they sanction the + election of Ariobarzanes to the crown; and he is put in possession + of the kingdom by Sylla, as propraetor of Cilicia, likewise in + 92.--Mithridates, on the other hand, forms an alliance with the + king of Armenia, Tigranes, to whom he gives his daughter in + marriage; and employs him in expelling Ariobarzanes.--He himself, + after the death of Nicomedes II. 92, supports the claims of the + deceased king's exiled son, Socrates Chrestus, against the bastard + Nicomedes III. and in the mean time takes possession of + Paphlagonia. Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes are reinstated by a Roman + embassy, 90, Mithridates, in order to gain time against Rome, + causing Socrates to be put to death. The hostilities of Nicomedes, + instituted by Rome, gave rise to the first Roman war, 89-85, + carried on in Asia and Greece, and brought to a conclusion by + Sylla. By the peace of 85, Mithridates restores Bithynia, + Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia.--War with the revolted Colchians and + Bosporans, 84.--Second war with Rome brought about by the Roman + governor, Murena, 83-81. Mithridates hereupon appoints his son, + Machares, king of Bosporus, (Crimea,) whom he afterwards himself + causes to be put to death, 66; he was likewise, in all + probability, the instigator of the migration of the Sarmatae out of + Asia into Europe, in order to maintain his conquests in that + quarter, about 80. Fresh disputes with Rome about Cappadocia, of + which Tigranes takes possession, and third war with Rome, 75-64. + The contest ended in the downfal of Mithridates, caused by the + treachery of his son Pharnaces; Pontus became a Roman province; + although the Romans, in the sequel, appointed over a portion of + the country princes from the royal house, Darius, Polemo I. Polemo + II. until Nero reduced it again wholly to the state of a province. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Achaemenidarum_ in his _Imperium Arsacidarum_, + tom. ii. With the assistance of the coins. + + For the history of Mithridates the Great, previously treated + without sufficient chronological accuracy, see DE BROSSES, + _Histoire de la Rep. Romaine_, and more especially + + JOAN. ERNST. WOLTERSDORF, _Commentatio vitam Mithridatis Magni, + per annos digestam, sistens; praemio ornata ab A. Phil. Ord. + Gottingae:, A_. 1812. + + 4. _Cappadocia._ Until the time of Alexander this country remained + a province of the Persian empire, although the governors + occasionally made attempts at insurrection. The ruling family was + here likewise a branch of the royal house; Ariarathes I. was + particularly distinguished about B. C. 354. The prince + contemporary with Alexander was Ariarathes II. who, being attacked + by Perdiccas and Eumenes, fell in the contest, 322. Nevertheless, + his son, Ariarathes III. supported by the Armenians, recovered the + sceptre about 312. The son of this king, Ariaramnes, formed a + matrimonial connection with the Seleucidae, uniting his son + Ariarathes IV. with the daughter of Antiochus [Greek: Theos]. + Ariarathes IV. during his lifetime, associated in the government + his son Ariarathes V. _d._ 162. who married Antiochis, daughter to + Antiochus the Great: this princess, finding herself at first + barren, procured two supposititious sons, one of whom, Orophernes, + subsequently wrested the sceptre from the legitimate and later + born son, Ariarathes VI. but was afterwards expelled by the + rightful heir, 157. In the war against Aristonicus of Pergamus, + 131, he fell, as an ally of the Romans, leaving behind him six + sons; five of whom were cut off by his ambitious relict Laodice; + the sixth however, Ariarathes VII. ascended the throne, and was + married to Laodice, sister of Mithridates the Great, at whose + instigation he was murdered by Gordius, under pretence of placing + on the throne his sister's son, Ariarathes VIII; this last prince + was soon after treacherously put to death by Mithridates, 94, and + his brother Ariarathes IX. defeated 93, died of a broken heart; + Mithridates then placed on the throne his own son, Ariarathes X. a + lad eight years old. The independence of Cappadocia having + meanwhile been proclaimed at Rome, the inhabitants of the country, + in order to preclude domestic broils, themselves elect a king, + appointing to that dignity Ariobarzanes I. who was installed by + Sylla, 92, and, backed by the Romans, kept his footing in the + Mithridatic wars. In 63 he made the crown over to his son, + Ariobarzanes II. who was slain by the army of Brutus and Cassius, + 43, as was his brother, Ariobarzanes III. 34, by Mark Antony; + Antony then appointed Archelaus to be king, who enticed to Rome by + Tiberius, A. D. 17, was there assassinated; and Cappadocia then + became a Roman province. + + 5. _Armenia_ was a province of the Syrian empire until the defeat + of Antiochus the Great by Rome, 190. That defeat was followed by + the accession of Antiochus's lieutenants, Artaxias and Zariadras; + and now arose the two kingdoms of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor + (the latter on the west bank of the Upper Euphrates). In Armenia + Major the family of Artaxias kept possession of the throne, under + eight (according to others _ten_) consecutive kings, until B. C. + 5.--The only remarkable prince of this line was Tigranes I. 95-60, + son-in-law and ally of Mithridates the Great, and lord of Asia + Minor, Cappadocia, and Syria. He was, however, at the peace of 63, + obliged to give up all, so that Armenia was dependent on the + Romans, and remained so until B. C. 5, when it became the object + of contention between the Romans and Parthians, being ruled at + intervals by kings appointed by both parties, who endeavoured + thereby to protect their own provinces. Finally, in A. D. 412, + Armenia became a province of the new Persian empire.--In Asia + Minor the descendants of Zariadras ruled dependently on Rome; + after its defection under Mithridates the Great it usually formed + part of some one of the neighbouring kingdoms, until in the reign + of Vespasian it was converted into a province of the Roman empire. + + VAILLANT, _Elenchus regum Armeniae Majoris_, in his _Hist. Imp. + Arsacidarum_. + +4. Besides the above small kingdoms, two mighty empires arose in Inner +Asia, both out of Alexander's monarchy, and at the same time: these were +the Parthian and the Bactrian; each having previously constituted a part +of the empire of the Seleucidae, from which they seceded under Antiochus +II. The Parthian kingdom, or that of the Arsacidae, B. C. 256-A. D. 226, +at the maximum of its extension, comprised the countries between the +Euphrates and Indus. Its history, so far as we are acquainted with it, +is divided into four periods (see below); but unfortunately our +information is so imperfect respecting all that relates to the +Parthians, except their wars, that even the most important particulars +are beyond the reach of conjecture. + + Main facts in the history and constitution of the Parthian + kingdom. _a._ Like the ancient Persian empire, the Parthian arose + out of the conquests made by a rude mountain race of Central Asia, + whose Scythian (probably Tatarian) origin, betrayed itself even in + later times by their speech and mode of life: their conquests, + however, were not effected with the same rapidity as those of the + Persians. _b._ This empire increased at the expense of the Syrian + in the west, and of the Bactrian in the east; but its dominion was + never permanently established beyond the Euphrates, Indus, and + Oxus. _c._ The wars with Rome, commencing in B. C. 53, and + springing out of disputes for the possession of the Armenian + throne, were for a long time unfortunate for the Romans. Success + did not accompany the arms of Rome until she had discovered the + art of raising her own parties within the kingdom itself, by + lending her support to pretenders, an art rendered comparatively + easy, by the unfavourable situation of the Parthian capital + Seleucia and the neighbouring town of Ctesiphon, the real head + quarters of the court. _d._ The empire was indeed divided into + satrapies, eighteen of which are enumerated; nevertheless it + comprised likewise several small kingdoms, which preserved their + own rulers, only that they were tributary, such, for instance, as + Persis, etc. The Graeco-Macedonian settlements were also in + possession of great privileges, and of their own civic + governments; Seleucia more especially, where the coins of the + Parthian sovereigns were struck. _e._ The constitution was + monarchal-aristocratic, something like that of the Poles, in the + period of the Jagellons. At the king's side sat a supreme state + council, (_senatus_, in all probability what was called the + _megistanes_,) who had the power of deposing the king, and the + privilege, it is supposed, of confirming his accession previous to + the ceremony of coronation, performed by the field-marshals + (_surenas_). The right of succession was only so far determined as + belonging to the house of the Arsacidae; the many pretenders to + which this uncertainty gave rise, produced factions and domestic + wars, doubly injurious to the empire when fomented and shared by + foreigners. _f._ With regard to Asiatic commerce, the Parthian + supremacy was of importance, inasmuch as it interrupted the direct + intercourse between the western and eastern countries: it being a + maxim of the Parthians not to grant a passage through their + country to any stranger. This destruction of the trade occurs in + the third period of the empire, being a natural result of the many + wars with Rome, and the distrust thence ensuing. The East India + trade, in consequence, took another road through Palmyra and + Alexandria, which were indebted to it for their splendour and + prosperity. _g._ It is probable that this was the reason why + excessive luxury took a less hold on the Parthians than on the + other ruling nations of Asia, notwithstanding their predilection + for Grecian manners and literature, at that time generally + prevalent throughout the east. + + _Line of the kings._ I. Syrian period; that of reiterated wars + with the Seleucidae, until 130. Arsaces I. 256-253, founder of the + Parthian independence, by procuring the death of the Syrian + viceroy, Agathocles, to which he was instigated by the insult + offered to his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II. (Tiridates I.) + brother of the foregoing, _d._ 216. He possessed himself of + Hyrcania, about 244, confirmed the Parthian power by a victory on + Seleucus Callinicus, 238, whom he took prisoner, 236. Arsaces III. + (Artabanus I.) _d._ 196. In his reign occurred the unsuccessful + attempt of Antiochus III. who, in the treaty of 210, was obliged + to renounce all claims on Parthia and Hyrcania, in return for + which Arsaces lent his assistance to Antiochus in the war against + Bactria. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius,) _d._ about 181. Arsaces V. + (Phraates I.) _d._ about 144; he conquered the Mardians on the + Caspian. His brother, Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.) _d._ 136. He + raised the hitherto confined kingdom of Parthia to the rank of a + mighty empire, having, after the decease of Antiochus Epiphanes, + 164, by the capture of Media, Persis, Babylonia, and other + countries, extended the frontiers westward to the Euphrates, and + eastward to the Hydaspes, beyond the Indus. The invasion of + Demetrius II. of Syria, supported by an insurrection of the + conquered races, ended, 140, in the capture of the aggressor. + Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.) _d._ about 127. Invasion of Antiochus + Sidetes, 132, who was at first successful, but being soon + afterwards cut off together with his whole army, 131, the Parthian + empire was for ever freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings. + + II. Period of the eastern nomad wars; from 130-53. After the fall + of the Bactrian empire, which had hitherto formed the eastern + rampart of the Parthians, violent wars took place with the nomad + tribes of Central Asia (Scythae, Dahae, Tochari, etc.) in which + Arsaces VII. was slain. Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus II.) shared the + same fate about 124. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) _d._ 87. This + prince appears to have restored tranquillity to the east after + bloody wars; he met, however, with a powerful rival in Tigranes I. + of Armenia. In his reign occurred the first transactions between + the Parthians and Romans, 92, Sylla being propraetor of Cilicia. + Arsaces X. (Mnasciras,) _d._ about 76, waged a long war for the + succession with his follower on the throne, the septuagenarian, + Arsaces XI. (Sinatroces,) _d._ about 68. Unsuccessful war with + Tigranes I. In consequence of civil wars, and of that with + Tigranes, together with the formidable power of Mithridates the + Great, the Parthian empire was now greatly weakened. Arsaces XII. + (Phraates III.) _d._ 60, contemporary with the third Mithridatic + war. Although both parties eagerly courted his alliance, and he + himself was engaged in the contest with Tigranes, he, + notwithstanding, observed an armed neutrality, and made the + Parthian empire continue to be respected as far as the Euphrates. + Neither Lucullus nor Pompey durst attack him. The fall of + Mithridates and of his empire, 64, constitutes, however, an epoch + in the Parthian history, the Romans and Parthians having now + become immediate neighbours.--Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates II.) _d._ + 54, deposed after several wars, by his younger brother Orodes, + and at last put to death, after the capture of Babylonia, where he + had taken refuge. + + III. Roman period; from B. C. 53, to A. D. 226; comprising the + wars with Rome. Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) _d._ 36. In his reign the + first war with Rome, caused by the invasion of Crassus; it ends in + the annihilation of the invading army and general, 53. In + consequence of this victory the Parthians acquired such + preponderance, that during the civil wars they were frequently + masters on this side of the Euphrates, and in 52-51 proceeded to + attack Syria.--In the war between Pompey and Caesar they sided with + the former, and thus furnished the latter with a pretext for his + Parthian expedition, which, however, was prevented by his murder + in 44; again in the war between the triumviri and Brutus and + Cassius, 42, they took the republican side. After the defeat of + Brutus and Cassius, the Parthians, at the instigation of the Roman + general and ambassador Labienus, and commanded by him and Pacorus, + (eldest son to Arsaces,) spread over the whole of Syria and Asia + Minor, 40; but, after violent exertions, were driven back by + Ventidius, Antony's general, 39, 38; Pacorus lost his life, and + his father died of grief. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) _d._ A. D. 4, + contemporary of Augustus. He confirmed his power by murdering his + brothers and their dependents; his views were likewise furthered + by the failure of Antony's expedition, B. C. 36, which ended + pretty nearly in the same manner as that of Crassus. The remainder + of his reign was disturbed by a pretender to the throne, + Tiridates, who, after his defeat, 25, found an asylum at the court + of Augustus. The threatened attack of Augustus was diverted by + Phraates's restoration of the standards taken from Crassus, 20; a + dispute, however, subsequently arose respecting the possession of + the Armenian throne, A. D. 2, on which account Caius Caesar was + despatched into Asia, and accommodated matters by a treaty. The + ultimate fate both of the king and the empire was principally + decided by a female slave, Thermusa, sent as a present from + Augustus; this woman, wishing to ensure the succession to her own + son, prevailed upon the king to send his four sons to Rome as + hostages, under the pretext of anticipating domestic troubles, + 18.--A practice which from that time became frequent, the Parthian + kings thinking it a convenient mode of ridding themselves of + dangerous competitors, while the Romans knew how to make the + proper use of them.--Thermusa's son having grown up, she removed + the king, and seated Phraataces on the throne, under the name of + Arsaces XVI; he was, however, put to death by the Parthians, A. D. + 4; and the crown given to one of the Arsacidae, Orodes II, (Arsaces + XVII.) who was, however, immediately afterwards slain by reason of + his cruelty. In consequence, Vonones I. the eldest of the sons of + Phraates sent to Rome, was called back and placed on the throne + (Arsaces XVIII.); but that prince having brought with him Roman + customs and luxury, was expelled, A. D. 14, with the assistance of + the northern nomads, by Artabanes III. (Arsaces XIX.) _d._ 44, a + distant relation: the fugitive took possession of the vacant + throne of Armenia, but was soon after driven from thence likewise + by his rival. Tiberius took advantage of the consequent disorders + to send Germanicus into the east, A. D. 17, from whence he was + never to return. The remainder of the reign of Artabanus was very + stormy, Tiberius on the one hand taking advantage of the factions + between the nobles to support pretenders to the crown; the revolts + of the satraps, on the other hand, giving proof of the declension + of the Parthian power. After his death war raged between his sons; + the second, Vardanes, (Arsaces XX.) _d._ 47, made good his + pretensions to the crown, and took North Media, (Atropatene;) he + was succeeded by his elder brother Gotarzes, (Arsaces XXI.) _d._ + 50, to whom Claudius unsuccessfully opposed Meherdates, educated + as an hostage at Rome. Arsaces XXII. (Vonones II.) succeeded, + after a reign of a few months, by Arsaces XXIII. (Vologeses I.) + _d._ 90. The possession of the Armenian throne, given by this + prince to his brother Tiridates, by the Romans to Tigranes, + grandson of Herod the Great, excited a series of disputes, which + began so early as the reign of Claudius, A. D. 52, and under Nero + broke out into open war, waged with some success on the Roman side + by Corbulo, 56-64, and closed by Tiridates going, after the death + of Tigranes, to Rome, and there accepting the crown of Armenia as + a gift at the hands of Nero, 65. Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus,) _d._ + 107, contemporary with Domitian. All that we know of him is, that + he embellished the city of Ctesiphon. Arsaces XXV. (Cosroes,) _d._ + about 121. The claims to the throne of Armenia implicated him in a + war with Trajan, 114, during which Armenia, together with + Mesopotamia and Assyria, were converted into Roman provinces. + Trajan's consequent and successful inroad into the interior parts + of the Parthian dominions, 115-116, followed by the capture of + Ctesiphon, and the appointment of Parthamaspates as king, appears + to have been facilitated by the domestic commotions and civil wars + which had for a long time harassed the empire. Nevertheless, in + the following year, 117, Hadrian was compelled to give up all the + conquered country; the Euphrates was again acknowledged as the + boundary; Parthamaspates was appointed king of Armenia; and + Cosroes, who had taken refuge in the upper satrapies, was + reinstated on the throne, of which he seems ever after to have + kept quiet possession. Arsaces XXVI. (Vologeses II.) _d._ 149. + Parthia under his reign, and Rome under that of Antoninus Pius, + remained on good terms. Arsaces XXVII. (Vologeses III.) _d._ 191. + Under the reign of this king, the contemporary of Marcus Aurelius + and L. Verus, the war with Rome was again kindled, 161, by Verus, + and carried on in Armenia and Syria; Cassius, the legate of Verus, + at last got possession of Seleucia, and demolished that city, + 165.--Arsaces XXVIII. (Ardawan or Vologeses IV.) _d._ 207. This + king having taken the part of Pescenninus Niger, in the war + between him and Septimius Severus, was, after the defeat of his + friend, 194, routed in a war with Septimius Severus, 197, and the + chief towns of Parthia were sacked by the invaders. He is, without + authority, represented as succeeded by a Pacorus, who took the + name of Arsaces XXIX.: his real successor, however, appears to + have been Arsaces XXIX. (Vologeses V.) _d._ 216. Domestic wars + among his sons, fomented by Caracalla. Arsaces XXX. (Artabanus + IV.) At the beginning of his reign, this prince likewise was + contemporary with Caracalla, who, in order to pick a quarrel, + demanded his daughter in marriage; according to some, Arsaces + refused her, in consequence of which the Roman emperor undertook a + campaign into Armenia; according to others, Arsaces having + assented, and escorted his daughter to Caracalla, was, by an + abominable stroke of treachery, cut off, together with all his + train, A. D. 216. Caracalla having been murdered, 217, his + successor, Macrinus, signed a peace with the Parthians. But + Arsaces subsequently raised his brother Tiridates to the throne of + Armenia; this act spurred the Persian Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, + to rebellion; the Parthian king, defeated in three battles, fell + in the last, thus putting a period to the family and dominion of + the Arsacidae, 226, and Artaxerxes became the founder of the New + Persian kingdom, or that of the Sassanidae. The revolution was + accompanied not only with a change of dynasty, but with a total + subversion of the constitution. + + VAILLANT, _Imperium Arsacidarum et Achaemenidarum_, Paris, 1725, 2 + vols. 4to. The first part comprises the Arsacidae; the second the + kings of Bithynia, Pontus, and Bosporus. It is an attempt, not + altogether faultless, to arrange the series of kings, by the + assistance of coins. + + # C. F. RICHTER, _Historico-critical essay upon the dynasties of + the Arsacidae and Sassanidae, according to the Persian, Grecian, and + Roman authorities_. A prize essay. Leipzic, 1804. A comparative + research into the eastern and western sources. The chronology in + the above sketch has been corrected by this work, in conjunction + with + + TH. CHR. TYCHSEN, _Commentationes de Nummis Persarum et + Arsacidarum_; inserted in _Commentat. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. + i. iii. + +5. The Bactrian kingdom arose nearly at the same time as the Parthian, +254; its origin, however, was of a different nature,--the independence +of this state being asserted by the Grecian governor, who was +consequently succeeded by Greeks;--its duration likewise was much +shorter, extending only from B. C. 254 to B. C. 126. Scarce any +fragments have been preserved of the history of this empire, the borders +of which appear at one time to have extended to the banks of the Ganges, +and the frontiers of China. + + Founder of the empire, Diodatus or Theodotus I. B. C. 254; he + threw off his allegiance to the Syrian king, under Antiochus II. + He appears to have been master not only of Bactria, but also of + Sogdiana. He likewise threatened the Parthians; after his decease, + 243, his son and successor, Theodotus II. signed a treaty and + alliance with Arsaces II. but was nevertheless deprived of his + crown by Euthydemus of Magnesia, about 221. Antiochus the Great, + at the conclusion of the Parthian war, directed his arms against + Euthydemus, 209-206; the contest ended in a peace, by which + Euthydemus, after delivering up his elephants, was not only left + in possession of the crown, but was allied to the Syrian family by + the marriage of his son Demetrius with a daughter of Antiochus. + Demetrius, though a great conqueror, does not seem to have been + king of Bactria; his dominions comprised, it is probable, North + India and Malabar, whose history now becomes closely connected + with that of Bactria, although consisting only of mere fragments. + The throne of Bactria fell to Apollodotus, and after him to + Menander, who extended his conquests as far as Serica, while + Demetrius was establishing his dominion in India, [as sovereign of + which country he is represented in a medal lately discovered,] and + where, about this time, several Greek states appear to have + existed, perhaps ever since the expedition of Antiochus III. 205. + Menander was succeeded, about 181, by Eucratidas, under whose + reign the Bactrian empire attained its greatest extension; after + defeating the Indian king, Demetrius, who had been the aggressor, + he, with the assistance of the Parthian conqueror, Mithridates, + (Arsaces VI.) annexed India to his own empire, 148. On his return, + he was murdered by his son; the same, probably, that is mentioned + afterwards by the name of Eucratidas II. He was the ally of + Demetrius II. of Syria, and the main instigator of his expedition + against the Parthians, 142; Demetrius being defeated by Arsaces + VI. Eucratidas was, in consequence, deprived of a portion of his + territory; overpowered soon after by the nomad races of Central + Asia, the Bactrian empire fell to the ground, and Bactria itself, + together with the other countries on this side of the Oxus, became + a prey to the Parthians. + + TH. SIEG. BAYER, _Historia regni Graecorum Bactriani_. Petropol. + 1738, 4to. The few remaining fragments are in this work collected + with industry and arranged with skill. + + [TOD, _Account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu Medals_, in + _Transactions of the R. Asiatic Society_, vol. i. part ii, p. 316. + + TYCHSEN, _De Nummis Graecis et Barbaris in Bochara nuper retectis_, + in _Comment. Nov. Soc. Sc. Gotting._ vol. vi.] + +6. The restored kingdom of the Jews was likewise a fragment of the +Macedonian monarchy; and although it ranked only with the smaller +states, its history in various respects deserves our attention, few +nations having had so powerful an influence on the progress of human +civilization. The foundation of the independence of the Jews was not, it +is true, laid before the year 167; yet their domestic constitution had +previously assumed its main features, and their history, reckoning from +the return of the Babylonian captivity, accordingly divides itself into +four periods: 1. Under the Persian supremacy, 536-323. 2. Under the +Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. 3. Under the Maccabees, 167-39. 4. +Under the Herodians and Romans, B. C. 39. to A. D. 70. + + First period under the Persians. By permission from Cyrus, a + colony of Jews belonging to the tribes of Benjamin, Judah, and + Levi, returned to the land of their forefathers, 536: this colony, + headed by Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and the high + priest Joshua, consisted of about 42,000 souls; the far more + important and wealthy portion of the nation preferred to remain on + the other side of the Euphrates, where they had been settled for + seventy years, and continued to be a numerous people. The new + settlers found it difficult to keep their footing, principally in + consequence of differences, produced by the intolerance they + themselves evinced at the building of the temple, with their + neighbours and kinsmen the Samaritans, to whom the colony was only + a cause of expense. The Samaritans, subsequently, having erected a + separate temple at Garizim, near Sichem, about 336, not only + separated completely, but laid the foundation of an inveterate + hatred between the two nations. Hence the prohibition to rebuild + the city and temple, brought about by their means, under Cambyses, + 529, and Smerdis, 522, and not taken off until 520, in the reign + of Darius Hystaspes. The new colony did not receive a permanent + internal constitution till the time of Ezra and Nehemiah; both + brought in fresh colonists, the former in 478, the latter in 445. + The country was under the dominion of the satraps of Syria; but in + the increasing domestic declension of the Persian empire, the high + priests gradually became the virtual rulers of the nation. + Nevertheless, even at the time of Alexander's conquest, 332, the + Jews seem to have manifested proofs of fidelity to the Persians. + + Second period under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae, 323-167. After + the death of Alexander, Palestine, in consequence of its + situation, generally shared the fate of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, + (see above, p. 249.) being annexed to Syria.--Capture of + Jerusalem, and transplantation of a vast colony of Jews to + Alexandria by Ptolemy I. 312; from thence they spread to Cyrene, + and gradually over the whole of North Africa, and even into + Aethiopia. From 311-301 the Jews remained, however, subject to + Antigonus. After the overthrow of his empire, they remained, + 301-203, under the dominion of the Ptolemies; the most conspicuous + of their high priests during this interval were Simon the Just, + _d._ 291, and afterwards his son, Onias I. _d._ 218, who, by + withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy III. exposed Judaea to + imminent danger.--In the second war of Antiochus the Great against + Egypt, 203, the Jews, of their own free will, acknowledged + themselves his subjects, and assisted in driving out the Egyptian + troops, who, under their general, Scopas, had again possessed + themselves of the country, and the citadel of Jerusalem, 198. + Antiochus confirmed the Jews in the possession of all their + privileges; and although he promised their country, together with + Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, to Ptolemy Epiphanes, as the future + dowry of his daughter, Judaea still remained under the Syrian + supremacy; except that the revenue was for a time divided between + the Syrian and Egyptian kings.--The high priests and self-chosen + ethnarchs or alabarchs were at the head of the people; and we now + find mention made for the first time of a senate, or the + sanhedrim. But the rout of Antiochus the Great by the Romans was + also the remote cause of the subsequent misfortunes of the Jews. + The consequent dearth of money in which the Syrian kings found + themselves, and the riches of the temple treasures, the + accumulation of the sacred income and gifts, made the office of + high priest an object of purchase under Antiochus Epiphanes: hence + arose quarrels between the pontifical families, and out of those + sprung factions, which Antiochus Epiphanes was desirous to turn to + his own account, by the introduction of Grecian institutions among + the Jews, in order thereby to promote the subjection of that + people, now raised by its privileges almost to the rank of a state + within that of Syria. Deposition of the high priest, Onias III. + 175; his brother Jason having obtained the mitre by purchase, and + the introduction of Grecian customs: Jason, however, was in his + turn supplanted by his brother Menelaus, 172. During the civil + war arising out of these events, Antiochus Epiphanes, at that time + conqueror in Egypt, (see above, p. 241.) takes possession of + Jerusalem, 170, being provoked by the behaviour of the Jews to + Menelaus, the high priest of his own appointment: the consequent + oppression of the Jews, who now were to be Hellenized by main + force, soon occasioned the rise under the Maccabees. + + Third period under the Maccabees, 167-39. Commencement of the + rebellion against Antiochus IV. brought about by the priest + Mattathias, 167, who was almost immediately succeeded, 166-161, by + his son Judas Maccabaeus. Supported by the fanaticism of his party, + Judas defeats in several battles the generals of Antiochus, who + was absent in Upper Asia, where he died, 164; the Jewish leader is + even said to have been favoured by Rome. The primary object of the + insurrection was not, however, political independence; they fought + only for religious freedom. Under Antiochus V. the sedition + continued successful, both against the Syrian king and the high + priest Alcimus, his creature, 163; Judas having died soon after + his defeat by Demetrius I. was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, + 161-143. The death of the high priest, Alcimus, 160, opened the + path of Jonathan to that office, which he received in the ensuing + war between Demetrius I. and Alexander Balas, 143, (see above, p. + 244, 245.) both rivals courting his alliance: Jonathan sided with + Balas, and consequently, from being merely the leader of a party, + came to be head of the nation, which still, nevertheless, + continued to pay tribute to the kings. Notwithstanding the favour + he had shown to Balas, after the overthrow of that pretender, he + was confirmed in his dignity by Demetrius I. 145; to whose + assistance he marched at the subsequent great revolt in Antioch. + Jonathan however, in 144, passed over to the side of the usurper, + Antiochus, the son of Balas, (see above, p. 245.) and was by + embassy presented with the friendship of the Romans in the same + year, but by the treachery of Tryphon was taken and put to death, + 143. His brother and successor, Simon, 143-135, having declared + against Tryphon, was by Demetrius II. not only confirmed in his + dignity, but excused from paying tribute; he likewise received the + title of prince, (ethnarch;) and appears to have struck coins. + After the capture of Demetrius, Antiochus Sidetes allowed Simon to + remain in possession of those privileges so long as he stood in + need of his assistance against Tryphon; but after the death of + that usurper, he caused him, 130, to be attacked by Cendebaeus, who + was defeated by the sons of Simon. Simon having been murdered by + his son-in-law, Ptolemaeus, who aspired to the government, 135, was + succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus, 135-107, who was compelled + again to acknowledge submission to Antiochus Sidetes; but after + the defeat and death of that prince by the Parthians, 130, he + asserted his entire independence. The deep decline of the Syrian + kingdom, the constant civil wars by which it was distracted, and + the renewed league with the Romans, not only enabled Hyrcanus + easily to maintain his independence, but likewise to increase his + territory, by the conquest of the Samaritans and Idumaeans. But + with him ended the heroic line. Scarcely was he delivered from + foreign oppression, when domestic broils arose; the Pharisees and + Sadducees had hitherto been mere religious sects, but were + converted into political factions by Hyrcanus, who, offended with + the Pharisees, probably in consequence of their wish to separate + the pontifical and princely offices, went over to the Sadducees; + the former sect, the orthodox, were as usual supported by the + many; the latter, the innovators, in consequence of the laxity of + their principles, were favoured by the wealthy. Hyrcanus's eldest + son, the cruel Aristobulus, 107, assumed the royal title, but soon + after dying, 106, was succeeded by his younger brother, Alexander + Jannaeus, 106-79. His reign was an almost unbroken series of + insignificant wars with his neighbours, this prince wishing to + play the conqueror; and having likewise had the imprudence to + irritate the powerful party of the Pharisees, these made him the + object of public insult, and excited a tumult, 92, which was + followed by a bloody civil war which lasted six years. Jannaeus, it + is true, maintained himself during the struggle; but the opposite + party was so far from being annihilated, that, at his death, when + passing over his sons, the feeble Hyrcanus (who possessed the + pontifical dignity) and the ambitious Aristobulus, he bequeathed + the crown to his widow Alexandra, it was with the understanding + that she should join the party of the Pharisees: during her reign, + therefore, 79-71, the Pharisees held the reins of government, and + left her only the name. Provoked at this, Aristobulus, shortly + before the death of the queen, endeavoured to obtain possession of + the throne, and ultimately obtained his ends, notwithstanding + Alexandra nominated Hyrcanus to be her successor. Hyrcanus, at the + instigation of his confidant, the Idumaean Antipater, who was the + progenitor of the Herodians, and assisted by the Arabian prince + Aretas, waged war against his brother, 65, and shut him up in + Jerusalem: but the Romans were arbitrators, and Pompey, then + all-powerful in Asia, decided for Hyrcanus, 64; the party of + Aristobulus, however, refusing to accede, the Roman general took + possession of Jerusalem; made Hyrcanus high priest and prince, + under condition that he should pay tribute; and took as prisoners + to Rome Aristobulus and his sons, who, however, subsequently + escaped and caused great disturbances. The Jewish state being now + dependent on Rome, remained so, and the yoke was confirmed by the + policy of Antipater and his sons, who followed the general maxim + of entire devotion to Rome, in order thereby to succeed in wholly + removing the reigning family. As early as 48, Antipater was + appointed procurator of Judea by Caesar, whom he had supported at + Alexandria, and his second son Herod, governor in Galilee, soon + became sufficiently powerful to threaten Hyrcanus and the + sanhedrim, 45. He gained the favour of Antony, and thus maintained + himself amid the tempests which, after the assassination of Caesar, + 44, shook the Roman world, powerful as the party opposed to him + were: that party, however, at last, in lieu of the ill-fated + Hyrcanus, the only surviving son of Aristobulus, placed Antigonus + at their head, and, assisted by the Parthians, then flourishing in + power, seated him on the throne, 39. Herod having fled to Rome, + not only met with a gracious reception at the hands of the + triumviri, but was by them appointed king. + + Fourth period under the Herodians, B. C. 39 to A. D. 70. Herod the + Great, B. C. 39 to A. D. 1. put himself in possession of Jerusalem + and all Judaea, B. C. 37, and confirmed his power by marrying + Mariamne of the house of the Maccabees. Notwithstanding his + severity shown to the party of Antigonus, and the house of the + Maccabees, the total extinction of which Herod deemed necessary + for his own safety; yet so greatly did the wasted country stand in + need of peace, that for that very reason his reign may be said to + have been a happy one. Availing himself of the liberality of + Augustus, whose favour he contrived to obtain after the defeat of + Anthony, B.C. 31, Herod gradually increased the extent of his + kingdom, which at last comprised Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and + beyond the Jordan, Peraea, Ituraea, and Trachonitis, (that is to + say, the whole of Palestine,) together with Idumaea; from these + countries he derived his income without being obliged to pay any + tribute. The deference consequently shown by Herod to Rome, was + but the effect of a natural policy, and his conduct in that + respect could be objected to him only by bigoted Jews. To his + whole family, rather than to himself individually, are to be + attributed the executions which took place among its members; + happy had it been if the sword had smitten none but the guilty and + spared the innocent. In the last year but one of his reign is + placed the birth of Christ (according to the usually adopted + computation, made in the sixth century by Dionysius Exiguus. But + the more accurate calculations of modern chronologists show that + the real date of the Saviour's birth was probably four years + earlier).--According to his will, with some few alterations made + by Augustus, his kingdom was divided among his three surviving + sons; Archelaus, as ethnarch, receiving the greater moiety, Judaea, + Samaria, and Idumaea; the two others, as tetrarchs, Philip a part + of Galilee and Trachonitis, Antipas the other part of Galilee, and + Peraea, together with Ituraea; subsequently to which division, the + various parts did not, in consequence, all share the same + fate.--Archelaus, by misgovernment, soon lost his portion, A. D. + 6; Judaea and Samaria were consequently annexed as a Roman province + to Syria, and placed under procurators subordinate to the Syrian + governors: among these procurators, the most famous is Pontius + Pilate, about A.D. 27-36, under whom the founder of our religion + appeared and suffered, not as a political--although accused of + being so--but as a moral reformer. On the other hand, Philip + retained his tetrarchy until the day of his death, A. D. 34, when + his country had the same lot with Judaea and Samaria. Soon after, + that is to say, in A. D. 37, it was, however, given by Caligula, + with the title of king, to Agrippa, (grandson of Herod by + Aristobulus,) as a recompense for his attachment to the family of + Germanicus; and when Antipas, who wished to procure a similar + favour for himself but instead of it, was deposed, 39, Agrippa + received his tetrarchy also, 40, and soon afterwards, by the + possession of the territory which had belonged to Archelaus, + became master of the whole of Palestine. Agrippa having died in A. + D. 44, the whole country being appended to Syria, became a Roman + province, and received procurators, although Chalcis, 49, and + subsequently also, 53, Philip's tetrarchy, were restored as a + kingdom to his son Agrippa II. _d._ 90. The oppression of the + procurators, and of Gessius Florus in particular, who obtained the + office, A. D. 64, excited the Jews to rebellion, which, 70, ended + in the capture and destruction of their city and temple by Titus. + The spread of the Jews over the whole civilized world of that + time, although previously commenced, was by this event still + further increased; and at the same time the extension of + Christianity was prepared and facilitated. Even after the + conquest, Jerusalem not only continued to exist as a city, but was + also still considered by the nation as a point of union; and the + attempt, under Adrian, to establish a Roman colony there, produced + a fearful sedition. + + BASNAGE, _Histoire des Juifs depuis J. C. jusqu' a present_. La + Haye, 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. The first two parts only, properly + speaking, belong to this period; but the others likewise contain + several very valuable historical researches. + + PRIDEAUX, _The Old and New Testament connected in the history of + the Jews and their neighbouring nations_. Lond. 1714, 2 vols. This + work, together with that above quoted, have always been esteemed + the grand books on the subject. The French translation of + Prideaux's Connection is, by its arrangement, more convenient for + use than the original: this translation was published at + Amsterdam, 1722, 5 vols. 8vo. under the title of PRIDEAUX, + _Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la decadence des + Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda, jusqu' a la mort de J. C._ + + # J. D. MICHAELIS, _Translation of the Books of Esdras, Nehemiah, + and Maccabees_, contains in the observations several historic + discussions of high importance. + + # J. REMOND, _Essay towards a history of the spread of Judaism, + from Cyrus to the total decline of the Jewish state_. Leipzig, + 1789. The industrious work of a young scholar. + + To the works enumerated p. 34, 35, must be added, for the more + ancient history of the Jews: + + J. L. BAUER, _Manual of the history of the Hebrew nation, from its + rise to the destruction of its state_. Nuremberg, 1800, 2 parts, + 8vo. As yet the best critical introduction, not only to the + history, but also to the antiquities of the nation. + + # In the works of J. J. HESS, belonging to this subject, namely, + _History of Moses_; _History of Joshua_; _History of the Rulers of + Judah_, 2 parts; _History of the Kings of Judah and Israel_: the + history is throughout considered in a theocratic point of view. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FIFTH BOOK. + +HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE. + + + + +_Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy._ + + +Italy constitutes a peninsula, bounded on the north by the Alps, on the +west and south by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the Adriatic +sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 600 geogr. miles; its +greatest breadth, taken at the foot of the Alps, is 320 geogr. miles; +but that of the peninsula, properly so called, is not more than 120 +geogr. miles. Superficial contents, 81,920 sq. geogr. miles. The +principal mountain range is that of the Apennines, which, diverging +occasionally to the west, or east, stretch from north to south through +Central and Lower Italy. In the earlier times of Rome, these mountains +were covered with thick forests. Main streams: the Padus (Po) and the +Athesis, (Adige,) both of which discharge their waters in the Adriatic; +and the Tiberis, (Tiber,) which falls into the Mediterranean. The soil, +particularly in the plains, is one of the most fertile in Europe; on the +other hand, many of the mountain tracts admit but of little cultivation. +In that period when the Mediterranean was the grand theatre of trade, +Italy, by her situation, seemed destined to become the principal mart of +Europe; but she never in ancient times availed herself sufficiently of +this advantage. + +It is divided into _Upper_ Italy, from the Alps to the small rivers of +Rubicon and Macra; (this part, however, of Italy, until presented with +the right of citizenship under Caesar, was, according to the Roman +political geography, considered as a province;) into _Central_ Italy, +from the Rubicon and the Macra down to the Silarus and Frento; and into +_Lower_ Italy from those rivers to the southern land's end. + + +I. _Upper Italy comprises the two countries, Gallia Cisalpina and +Liguria._ + +1. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata, in contradistinction to Gallia +Transalpina. It bears the name of Gallia, in consequence of being for +the most part occupied by Gallic races. This country is one continuous +plain, divided by the Padus into two parts, the northernmost of which is +therefore denominated Gallia Transpadana, (inhabited by the Taurini, +Insubres, and Cenomani,) while the southern part (inhabited by the Boii, +Senones, and Lingones) is known by the name of Gallia Cispadana. Various +streams contribute to swell the Padus; from the north the Duria, +(Durance,) the Ticinus, (Tessino,) the Addua, (Adda,) the Ollius, +(Oglio,) the Mintius, (Minzio,) and several less important rivers; from +the south, the Tanarus, (Tanaro,) the Trebia, etc. The Athesis, (Adige,) +the Plavis, (Piave,) and a number of smaller mountain streams, roll +their waters directly into the Adriatic. + +The cities in Gallia Cisalpina were, generally speaking, Roman colonies; +and most of them have preserved to this day their ancient names. Among +these are reckoned in Gallia Transpadana, principally, Tergeste, +Aquileia, Patavium, (Padua,) Vincentia, Verona, all east of the Athesis; +Mantua, Cremona, Brixia, (Brescia,) Mediolanum, (Milan,) Ticinum, +(Pavia,) and Augusta Taurinorum, (Turin,) all west of the Athesis. In +Gallia Cispadana we meet with Ravenna, Bononia, (Bologna,) Mutina, +(Modena,) Parma, Placentia, (Piacenza). Several of the above places +received municipal rights from the Romans. + +2. Liguria. This country deduced its name from the Ligures, one of the +old Italic tribes: it extended from the river Varus, by which it was +divided from Gallia Transalpina, down to the river Macra; northward it +extended to the Padus, and comprised the modern territory of +Genoa.--Cities: Genua, an extremely ancient place; Nicaea, (Nice,) a +colony of Massilia; and Asta, (Asti.) + + +II. _Central Italy comprises six countries; Etruria, Latium, and +Campania on the west; Umbria, Picenum, and Samnium on the east._ + +1. Etruria, Tuscia, or Tyrrhenia, was bounded north by the Macra, which +divided it from Liguria; south and east by the Tiberis, which separated +it from Latium and Umbria. Main river, the Arnus, (Arno). It is for the +most part a mountainous country; the seashore only is level. This +country derives its name from the Etrusci, a very ancient people, +composed, it is probable, of an amalgamation of several races, and even +some early Grecian colonies, to which latter they were indebted, not +indeed for all their arts, but for that of writing; to commerce and +navigation the Etrusci were indebted for their opulence and consequent +splendour. Cities: between the Macra and Arnus, Pisae, (Pisa,) Florentia, +Faesulae; between the Arnus and Tiberis, Volaterrae, (Volterra,) Volsinii, +(Bolsena,) on the Lacus Volsiniensis, (Lago di Bolsena,) Clusium, +(Chiusi,) Arretium, (Arrezzo,) Cortona, Perusia, (Perugia,) in the +neighbourhood of which is the Lacus Thrasimenus, (Lago di Perugia,) +Falerii, (Falari,) and the wealthy city of Veii. Each of the above +twelve cities had its own individual ruler, _lucumo_; although frequent +associations were formed among them, yet no firm and lasting bond seems +to have united the nation into one. + +2. Latium, properly the residence of the Latini, from the Tiberis north, +to the promontory of Circeii, south; hence that country was likewise +denominated Latium Vetus. Subsequently, under the name of Latium was +likewise reckoned the country from Circeii, down to the river Liris, +(Latium Novum;) so that the boundaries came to be, north, the Tiberis, +south, the Liris: the seat of the Latins, properly speaking, was in the +fruitful plain extending from the Tiber to Circeii; around them, +however, dwelt various small tribes, some eastward, in the Apennines, +such as the Hernici, Sabini, Aequi, and Marsi; others southward, such as +the Volsci, Rutuli, and Aurunci.--Rivers: the Anio (Teverone) and Allia, +which fall into the Tiber, and the Liris, (Garigliano,) which empties +itself into the Mediterranean. Cities in Latium Vetus: Rome, Tibur, +Tusculum, Alba Longa, Ostia, Lavinium, Antium, Gabii, Velitrae, the +capital of the Volsci, and several smaller places. In Latium Novum: +Fundi, Terracina, or Anxur, Arpinum, Minturnae, Formiae. + +3. Campania. The country lying between the Liris, north, and the +Silarus, south. One of the most fruitful plains in the world, but at the +same time greatly exposed to volcanic eruptions. Rivers: the Liris, the +Vulturnus, (Voltorno,) the Silarus, (Selo). Mountain: Vesuvius. Campania +derived its name from the race of the Campani. Cities: Capua the +principal one; and also Linternum, Cumae, Neapolis, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Stabiae, Nola, Surrentum, Salernum, etc. + +_The three eastern countries of Central Italy are as follows_: + +1. Umbria. It is bounded, north, by the river Rubico, south, by the +river Aesis, (Gesano,) dividing it from Picenum, and by the Nar, (Nera,) +dividing it from the Sabine territory. It is for the most part plain. +The Umbrian race had in early times spread over a much larger portion of +Italy. Cities: Ariminium, (Rimini,) Spoletium, (Spoleto,) Narnia, +(Narni,) and Ocriculum, (Otriculi.) + +2. Picenum. Bounded, north, by the Aesis, south, by the Atarnus, +(Pescara.) The people are called Picentes. This country consists in a +fertile plain. Cities: Ancona and Asculum Picenum, (Ascoli.) + +3. Samnium, the name of a mountain tract extending from the Atarnus, +north, to the Frento, south; although that country reckoned among its +inhabitants, not only the rude and powerful Samnites, but also several +less numerous races; for instance, the Marrucini and Peligni in the +north, the Frentani in the east, and the Hirpini in the south. Rivers: +the Sagrus and the Tifernus. Cities: Allifae, Beneventum, and Caudium. + + +III. _Lower Italy, or Magna Grecia, comprised four countries; Lucania +and Bruttium on the western side, Apulia and Calabria on the eastern._ + +1. Lucania. Boundaries: north, the Silarus, south, the Laus. For the +most part a mountain tract. It derived its name from the race of the +Lucani, a branch of the Ausones, or chief nation of Lower Italy. Cities: +Paestum, or Posidonia, still renowned for its ruins, and Helia, or Velia. + +2. Bruttium, (the modern Calabria,) or the western tongue of land from +the river Laus to the southern land's end at Rhegium. The river +Brandanus constitutes the eastern frontier. A mountainous country, +deriving its name from the Bruttii, (a half savage branch of the +Ausones,) who dwelt in the mountains, while the seashores were occupied +by Grecian settlements. Cities: Consentia, (Cosenza,) Pandosia, +Mamertum, and Petilia. (Concerning the Greek colonies see above p. 155.) + +3. Apulia. The country ranging along the eastern coast, from the river +Frento to the commencement of the eastern tongue of land; an extremely +fertile plain, and particularly adapted to grazing cattle. Rivers: the +Aufidus (Ofanto) and the Cerbalus. This country is divided into two +parts by the Aufidus, the northern called Apulia Daunia, the southern +called Apulia Peucetia. Cities: in Apulia Daunia; Sipontum and Luceria: +in Apulia Peucetia; Barium, Cannae, and Venusia. + +4. Calabria or Messapia, the smaller eastern tongue of land, which +terminates in the promontory of Iapygium. Cities: Brundusium (Brindisi) +and Callipolis (Gallipoli). Concerning Tarentum and other Grecian +colonies, see above, p. 155. + +Three large islands are likewise reckoned as appertaining to Italy: they +are Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. According to the political geography +of the Romans they were, however, considered as provinces. Although the +above islands were, along the coast, occupied by aliens, the +aboriginals, under their own kings, maintained a footing in the inland +parts; among these the Siculi, said to have migrated from Italy, were +the most celebrated; they remained in Sicily, and gave their name to the +whole island. Concerning the cities, the more important of which were, +some of Phoenician, but the most part of Grecian, origin, see above, p. +30, and p. 155, sqq. + + + + +FIRST PERIOD. + +_From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of Italy and the +commencement of the wars with Carthage, B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. +1-490._ + + + SOURCES. The most copious author, and, if we except his system of + deducing everything connected with Rome from Greece, the most + critical of all those who have written on the earlier history of + Rome and Italy, is Dionysius Halicarnassensis, in his + _Archaeologia_: of this work only the first eleven books, reaching + down to the year 443, have been preserved; to these, however, must + be added the fragments of the nine following books, xii-xx. + discovered in 1816, and published by the Abbate Mai of Milan. Next + to Dionysius is Livy, who as far as lib. iv, c. 18, is our main + authority, till B. C. 292. Of the Lives of Plutarch the following + belong to this period, Romulus, Numa, Coriolanus, Poplicola and + Camillus; which for the knowledge and criticism they display, are + perhaps more important even than Livy and Dionysius, see A. H. L. + HEEREN, _De fontibus et auctoritate vitarum Plutarchi_, inserted in + _Comment Recentiores Soc. Scient. Gott. Comment. I. II. Graeci, III. + IV. Romani_; reprinted also as an appendix to the editions of + Plutarch by Reiske and Hutten, _Gottingen_, 1821, _ap. Dieterich_. + The sources of the most ancient Roman history were extremely + various in kind. The traditions of the Fathers were preserved in + historical ballads; (no mention is ever made of any grand epic + poem;) and in this sense there existed a bardic history; by no + means, however, wholly poetic, for even the traditions of Numa's + Institutes are without the characteristics of poetry. The art of + writing was in Italy of earlier origin than the city of Rome; how + far, consequently, the public annals, such as the _Libri + Pontificum_, extended back in early time remains undetermined. + Several of the memorials are, beyond a doubt, mere family records, + whether preserved by vocal tradition or in written documents. To + the above must be added monuments, not only buildings and works of + arts, but also treaties engraved on tables; of which, nevertheless, + too little use seems to have been made. The Romans having learnt + the art of writing from the Greeks, their history was as + frequently written in Greek as in Latin; and that not only by + Greeks, such as, in the first place, Diocles of Peparethus, but + likewise by Romans, such as Fabius Pictor, at an early period. From + these last sources Dionysius and Livy compiled. The more ancient + Roman history given by these authorities rests, therefore, in part, + but by no means entirely, on tradition and poetry; still further + amplified by the rhetoric style, that of the Greeks more + especially. At what epoch the Roman history lays aside the poetic + character can hardly be determined with certainty; it may be traced + even in some parts of the period extending from the expulsion of + the kings to the conquest by the Gauls.--For the purposes of + chronology, great importance attaches to the _fasti Romani_, + contained partly in inscriptions, (_fasti Capitolini_,) partly in + manuscripts. They have been collected and restored by Pighius, + Noris Sigonius, etc. in GRAEVII, _Thes. A. R._ vol. xi.; likewise in + ALMELOVEEN, _Fast. Rom._ I. II. Amstel. 1705, etc. + + PIGHII _Annales Romanorum_. Antwerp, 1615, fol. 2 vols. An essay + towards a chronological arrangement; it reaches down to Vitellius. + + The Roman history has been copiously treated of by the moderns in + many works besides those on universal ancient history before + enumerated, (p. 2.). We shall mention only the more important. + + ROLLIN, _Histoire Romaine, Depuis la foundation de Rome jusqu' a la + bataille d'Actium_. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1823, edit. revue par + Letronne. This history, which extends to B. C. 89, has been + continued and terminated by CREVIER. Although the critical + historian might suggest much that is wanting in this work, it + nevertheless contributed to advance the study. + + ED. FERGUSON, _The History of the Progress and Termination of the + Roman Republic_. London, 1783, 4to. On the whole, the best work on + the history of the Roman republic; it has superceded the earlier + work of GOLDSMITH. + + P. CH. LEVESQUE, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine_, 3 vols. + Paris, 1807. He who would still wish to admire with blind + enthusiasm the glory of ancient Rome, had better not read this + work. + + B. G. NIEBUHR, _Roman History_. + + Rather criticism than history; the author seems to be perpetually + endeavouring to overthrow all that has hitherto been admitted. The + spirit of acuteness is not always that of truth; and men do not so + lightly assent to the existence of a constitution which not only + is contrary to the broad view of antiquity--inferences drawn from + some insulated passages not being sufficient to overturn what is + corroborated by all the others--but likewise, according to the + author's own avowal, stands opposed to all analogy in history. But + truth gains even where criticism is wrong; and the value of some + deep researches will not for that reason be overlooked.--Consult + on this subject: + + # W. WACHSMUTH, _Researches into the more Ancient History of + Rome_. Halle, 1819. + + C. F. TH. LACHMANN, _Commentatio de fontibus T. Livii in prima + Historiarum Decade_. Gottingae, 1821. A prize essay. + + For the works upon the Roman constitution see below, at the end of + this and at the beginning of the third period. + + Abundance of most important writings upon Roman antiquities will + be found in the great collections: + + GRAEVII _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Lugd. Batav. 1694, sq. + 12 vols. fol. and likewise in + + SALENGRE, _Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum_. Venet. 1732, 3 vols. + fol. + + Many excellent papers, particularly in + + _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions_. + + With the exception of NARDINI, _Roma Vetus_, inserted in GRAEVII + THES. A. R. t. iv. the best work on the topography of ancient Rome + is + + VENUTI, _Descrizione Topografica delle Antichita di Roma_. P. I. + II. Roma, 1763; and especially the new edition of that work by + VISCONTI, 1803. There is also: + + # S. H. L. ADLER, _Description of the city of Rome_. Altona, 1781, + 4to. + + The best representation of the monuments of ancient Rome will be + found in + + PIRANESI, _Antichita di Roma_, 3 vols. fol. + +1. In certain respects, the history of Rome is always that of one town, +inasmuch as until the period of the Caesars, the city continued mistress +of her extensive territory. The main parts of the internal constitution +of Rome were formed during this first period; which, considered in an +historical point of view, can hardly be said to be void of interest. +Whether every fundamental institution had its origin precisely at the +epoch to which it is attributed, is a question of little importance; it +is sufficient to observe, that they certainly arose in this period; and +that the steps by which the constitution was developed are, upon the +whole, determined beyond the possibility of a doubt. + +2. Exaggerated and embellished as the most ancient traditions of the +Romans respecting their origin may be, they all agree in this, that the +Romans belonged to the race of the Latini, and that their city was a +colony of the neighbouring Alba Longa. Long before this the custom seems +to have obtained with the Latini, of extending the cultivation of their +country by colonies. + + The primitive history of Rome is as difficult to reduce to pure + historic truth as that of Athens, or any other city of antiquity; this + proceeds from its being principally founded on traditions, handled by + poets and rhetoricians, and likewise differing from one another; as + may be seen in Plutarch's Romulus. As the knowledge of those + traditions, such as they are found in Dionysius and Livy, attaches to + so many other subjects, it would be improper to pass them over in + silence; and that they contained truths as well as poetic fictions is + proved most evidently by the political institutions of which they + narrate the origin, and which certainly reached back to those times. + To attempt to draw a line of demarcation between mythical and historic + times would be to mistake the real nature of mythology. + + L. DE BEAUFORT, _Sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers siecles de + l'histoire Romaine_, nouv. ed. a la Haye, 1750, 2 vols. 8vo. Every + thing that can be said against the credibility of the primitive Roman + history has been developed by Beaufort with abundant, and often with + laboured, acuteness. + +3. During the first two hundred and forty-five years subsequent to its +foundation this city was under the rule of governors, denominated kings; +these, however, were not hereditary, still less were they invested with +unlimited power, although they exerted themselves to become both +perpetual and absolute. On the contrary, in this period was framed a +municipal constitution, demonstrative of the existence, even at this +early date, of a considerable degree of political civilization; in its +principal parts this constitution was, no doubt,--as in every +colony,--copied from that of the mother city. Its principal features +were: _a._ Establishment and internal organization of the senate. _b._ +Establishment and progress of the patrician or hereditary nobility, +which, supported by the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, +and by the introduction of family names, quickly formed, in opposition +to the plebeians, a political party ever growing in power, although not, +therefore, a mere sacerdotal caste. _c._ Organization of the people +(_populus_), and modes of popular assembly (_comitia_), founded +thereupon; besides the original division according to heads into +_tribus_ and _curiae_, another was subsequently introduced according to +property into _classes_ and _centuriae_, out of which, besides the more +ancient _comitia curiata_, arose the very artificially constructed +_comitia centuriata_. _d._ Religious institutions, (_religiones_,) which +being most closely connected with the political constitution, formed a +state religion, by means of which everything in the state was attached +to determined forms, and received a higher sanction. Nor must we omit +_e._ the relations in private life established by law, the clientship, +marriage, and especially paternal authority. In consequence of those +domestic relations, a spirit of subordination and discipline, from the +earliest times, pervaded the people; and to that spirit the Romans were +indebted for the glory to which they attained. + +4. Notwithstanding many little wars with their immediate neighbours the +Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci, together with various cities of the Etrusci, +and even with the Latins themselves, Rome added but little to her +territory: nevertheless she took the first step towards her +aggrandizement; from the time of the destruction of Alba Longa, she +aimed at being the head of the collected cities of the Latins, and +finally attained the object of her ambition. + + Line of kings. Romulus, 754-717. First establishment of the colony; + augmentation in the number of the citizens, produced by the + establishment of an asylum, and an union with part of the Sabines. + Numa Pompilius, _d._ 679. By representing this prince as the founder + of the religion of the Roman state, that religion received the high + sanction of antiquity. Tullus Hostilius, _d._ 640. The conquest and + destruction of Alba lays the foundation of Roman supremacy in Latium. + Ancus Martius, _d._ 618. He extends the territory of Rome to the sea; + the foundation of the port of Ostia proves that Rome already applied + to navigation, the object of which was perhaps as yet rather piracy + than trade. Tarquinius Priscus, _d._ 578. A Grecian by descent. Under + his conduct Rome was already able to enter the field against the + confederate Etrusci. Servius Tullius, _d._ 534. The most remarkable in + the line of Roman kings. He placed Rome at the head of the confederacy + of the Latins, which he confirmed by _communia sacra_. On his new + division of the people according to property were raised the highly + important institutions of the _census_ and _comitia centuriata_. The + necessity of this measure is demonstrative of the great and increasing + prosperity of the Roman citizens; there can be no doubt, however, + that by its adoption the frame of the republic was already completed. + Tarquinius Superbus, (the tyrant,)--509. This individual, having taken + forcible possession of the throne as nephew to Priscus, endeavoured to + confirm his power by a close connection with the Latins and Volsci; by + this, as well as by his tyranny, he offended both the patrician and + plebeian parties. His deposition, and the consequent reformation of + the government, were however, properly speaking, brought about by the + ambition of the patricians. + + ALGAROTTI, _Saggio sopra la durata de' regni de' re di Roma_. (Op. t. + iii.) Chronological doubts. Can the raising of difficulties deserve + the name of criticism? + +5. The only direct consequence to the internal constitution of Rome, +proceeding from the abolition of royalty was, that that power, +undetermined as it had been while in the hands of the kings, was +transferred to two consuls, annually elected. Meanwhile the struggle for +liberty, in which the new republic was engaged with the Etrusci and +Latins, contributed much to arouse the republican spirit which +henceforward was the main feature of the Roman character--the evils of +popular rule being in times of need remedied by the establishment of the +dictatorship. The party, however, which had deposed the ruling family, +took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression +of these aristocrats, shown principally towards their debtors, who had +become their slaves, (_nexi_,)--notwithstanding the _lex de +provocatione_ established by Valerius Poplicola, ensuring to the people +the highest judicial power--was so galling, that after the lapse of a +few years it gave rise to a sedition of the commons, (_plebis_,) the +consequence of which was the establishment of annually elected +presidents of the people (_tribuni plebis_). + + First commercial treaty with Carthage, 508, in which Rome appears + certainly as a free state, but not yet as sovereign of all Latium; the + most important monument of the authenticity of the earlier Roman + history. + + HEYNE, _Foedera Carthaginiensium cum Romanis super navigatione et + mercatura facta_: contained in his Opusc. t. iii. Cf. # A. H. L. + HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. Appendix to the second vol. + +6. The further development of the Roman constitution in this period, +hinges almost wholly on the struggle between the new presidents of the +commons and the hereditary nobility; the tribunes, instead of confining +themselves to defend the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon +began to act as aggressors, and in a short time so widely overstepped +their power, that there remained no chance of putting an end to the +struggle but by a complete equalization of rights. A long time elapsed +ere this took place; the aristocracy finding a very powerful support +both in the clientship and in the religion of the state, operating under +the shape of auspices. + + Main facts of the contest: 1. In the trial of Coriolanus the tribunes + usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of + the people.--Hence arise the _comitia tributa_; that is to say, either + mere assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized that the + commons had the preponderance. This institution gave the tribunes a + share in the legislation, subsequently of such high importance, those + officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons. 2. More + equitable distribution among the poorer classes of the lands conquered + from the neighbouring nations, (the most ancient _leges agrariae_,) + suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius, 486. 3. Extension of + the prerogatives of the _comitia tributa_, more especially in the + election of the tribunes, brought about by Volero, 472. 4. Attempts at + a legal limitation of the consular power by Terentillus, (_lex + Terentilla_,) 460, which, after a long struggle, at last leads to the + idea of one common written code, 452, which is likewise realized in + spite of the opposition at first made by the patricians. + + # CHR. F. SCHULZE, _Struggle between the Democracy and Aristocracy + of Rome, or History of the Romans from the Expulsion of Tarquin to + the Election of the first Plebeian Consul_. Altenburgh, 1802, 8vo. + A most satisfactory development of this portion of Roman history. + +7. The code of the twelve tables confirmed the ancient institutions, and +was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek +republics, among which Athens in particular is mentioned, whose counsels +were requested by a special deputation. In this, however, two faults +were committed; not only were the commissioners charged with drawing up +the laws elected from the patricians _alone_, but they were likewise +constituted sole magistrates, with _dictatorial_ power, (_sine +provocatione_;) whereby a path was opened to them for an usurpation, +which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people. + + Duration of the power of the Decemviri, 451-447. The doubts raised as + to the deputation sent to Athens are not sufficient to invalidate the + authenticity of an event so circumstantially detailed. Athens, under + Pericles, was then at the head of Greece; and, admitting the proposed + design of consulting the Greek laws, it was impossible that Athens + should have been passed over. And indeed, why should it be supposed, + that a state which fifty years before had signed a commercial treaty + with Carthage, and could not be unacquainted with the Grecian colonies + in Lower Italy, might not have sent an embassy into Greece? + + The yet remaining fragments of the code of the twelve tables are + collected and illustrated in BACHII _Hist. Jurisprudentiae Romanae_; and + in several other works. + +8. By the laws of the twelve tables the legal relations of the citizens +were the same for all; but as that code seems to have contained very +little in reference to any peculiar constitution of the state, the +government not only remained in the hands of the aristocrats, who were +in possession of all offices, but the prohibition, according to the new +laws of marriage between patricians and plebeians, appeared to have +raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes. No wonder, +then, that the tribunes of the people should have immediately renewed +their attacks on the patricians; particularly as the power of those +popular leaders was not only renewed, but even augmented, as the only +limit to their authority was the necessity of their being unanimous in +their acts, while each had the right of a negative. + + Besides the other laws made in favour of the people at the renewal of + the _tribunicia potestas_, 446, that which imported _ut quod tributim + plebes jussisset, populum teneret_, frequently renewed in subsequent + times, and meaning, in modern language, that the citizens constituted + themselves, must, it would appear, have thrown the supreme power into + the hands of the people; did not the Roman history, like that of other + free states, afford examples enough of the little authority there is + to infer from the enactment of a law that it will be practically + enforced. + +9. The main subjects of the new dissensions between patricians and +plebeians, excited by the tribune Canuleius, were now the _connubia +patrum cum plebe_, and the exclusive participation of the patricians in +the consulship, of which the tribunes demanded the abolition. The repeal +of the former law was obtained as early as 445, (_lex Canuleia_;) the +right of admission to the consulship was not extended to the Plebeians, +till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years; during which, +when, as usually was the case, the tribunes forbade the military +enrolment, recourse was had to a transfer of the consular power +to the yearly elected commanders of the legions; a place to which +plebeians were entitled to aspire, (_tribuni militum consulari +potestate._)--Establishment of the office of CENSORS, designed at first +for nothing more than to regulate the taking of the census, and invested +with no higher authority than what that required, but who soon after, by +assuming to themselves the _censura morum_, took rank among the most +important dignitaries of the state. + +10. Meanwhile Rome was engaged in wars, insignificant but almost +uninterrupted, arising out of the oppression, either real or imaginary, +which she exercised as head of the neighbouring federate cities, +(_socii_,) comprising not only those of the Latins, but likewise, after +the victory of lake Regillus, those of the other nations: the cities +embraced every opportunity of asserting their independence, and the +consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been +diverted by the maxim of increasing the complement of citizens by +admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the +enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly +considered, deserve our attention, they become of high interest, +inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained +to war, but also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose +important consequences will be exhibited hereafter. + + Among these wars attention must be directed to the last, that against + Veii, the richest city in Etruria; the siege of that place, which + lasted very nearly ten years, 404-395, gave rise to the introduction + among the Roman military of winter campaigning, and of pay; thus, on + the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted + became possible, while on the other the consequences must have been + the levy of higher taxes, (_tributa_). + +11. Not long after, however, a tempest from the north had nearly +destroyed Rome. The Sennonian Gauls, pressed out of northern Italy +through Etruria, possessed themselves of the city, the capitol excepted, +and reduced it to ashes; an event which made so deep an impression on +the minds of the Romans, that few other occurrences in their history +have been more frequently the object of traditional detail. Camillus, +then the deliverer of Rome, and in every respect one of the chief heroes +of that period, laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city, +by overruling, after his victory, the proposal of a general migration to +Veii. + +12. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt ere the ancient feuds revived, springing +out of the poverty of the citizens, produced by an increase of taxation +consequent on the establishment of military pay, and by the introduction +of gross usury. The tribunes, Sextius and Licinius, by prolonging their +term of office to five years, had established their power; while +Licinius, by an agrarian law, decreeing that no individual should hold +more than five hundred _jugera_ of the national lands, had ensured the +popular favour; so that at last they succeeded in obtaining, that one of +the consuls should be chosen from the commons; and although the +nobility, by the nomination of a praetor from their own body, and of +_aediles curules_, endeavoured to compensate for the sacrifice they were +obliged to make, yet the plebeians having once made good a claim to the +consulship, their participation in the other magisterial offices, (the +dictatorship, 353, the censorship, 348, the praetorship, 334,) and even +the priesthood, (300,) quickly followed as a matter of course. Thus at +Rome the object of political equality between commons and nobles was +attained; and although the difference between the patrician and plebeian +families still subsisted, they soon ceased to form political parties. + + A second commercial treaty entered into with Carthage, 345, + demonstrates that even at this time the navy of the Romans was + anything but contemptible; although its principal object as yet was + mere piracy. Roman squadrons of war however appear more than once + within the next forty years. + +13. Far more important than any wars in which Rome had hitherto been +engaged, were those soon about to commence with the Samnites. In former +contests the object of Rome had been to establish her supremacy over her +immediate neighbours; but in these, during a protracted contest of fifty +years, she opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the +foundation of her future greatness. + + Commencement of the wars against the Samnites, the Campanians having + called the Romans to their assistance against that nation, 343. These + wars, carried on with vigorous exertion and various success, lasted, + with but short intermissions, till 290. This is the true heroic age of + Rome, ennobled by the patriotic valour of Decius Mus, (father and son, + both voluntary victims,) Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus, etc. The + consequences of this struggle were: _a._ The Romans learnt the art of + mountain warfare, and thereby for the first time acquired a peculiar + system of military tactics; not, however, till they had been, 321, + obliged to pass under the _furcas Caudinas_. _b._ Their relations + were more firmly established with their neighbours the Latins and + Etrurians, by the complete conquest of the former, 340, and by + repeated victories over the latter, more especially in 308. _c._ Great + national federations having arisen in Italy, particularly during the + last period of the Samnite wars, the Romans entered into connection + with the more distant nations of the country; with the Lucanians and + Apulians, by the first league, 323, with the Umbri, from the year 308; + and although the nature of this connection frequently varied, the + different nations were perpetually struggling for independence, and + were consequently at enmity with Rome. In this period, moreover, + commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon + the political relations in which she placed the conquered with regard + to herself. + +14. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her +dominion in Lower Italy, was thereby, for the first time, entangled in +war with a foreign prince; the Tarentines, too feeble to maintain alone +their footing against the Romans, called Pyrrhus of Epirus to their +assistance. He came, indeed, but not so much to further the views of the +Tarentines as to advance his own; but even in victory, he learnt by +experience that the Macedonian tactics gave him but a slight +preponderance, which the Romans soon transferred to their own side, +exhibiting the truth of the principle, that a good civic militia, sooner +or later, will always get the upper hand of mercenary troops. + + The idea of calling upon Pyrrhus for assistance was the more natural, + as the predecessor of that prince, Alexander I. (see above p. 275.) + had endeavoured, but without success, to effect conquests in Lower + Italy. In the first war with Pyrrhus, 280-278, two battles were + fought, the first at Pandosia, 280, the other at Asculum, 279; in both + of which Rome was unsuccessful. But Pyrrhus, after crossing over into + Sicily, 278, (see above, p. 173, 174.) once more returned into Italy, + 275, when he was defeated by the Romans at Beneventum, and compelled + to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city, however, + soon afterwards, 272, fell into the hands of the Romans, whose + dominion was consequently extended to the extremity of Lower Italy. + +15. The chief means to which, even from the earliest times, the Romans +had recourse for the foundation of their dominion over the conquered, +and at the same time for the prevention of the too great increase of the +needy classes at Rome, was the establishment of colonies of their own +citizens, which, being settled in the captured cities, served likewise +as garrisons. Each colony had its own distinct internal constitution, +modelled, for the most part, upon that of the mother city itself; hence +to keep the colonies in perfect dependence naturally became an object of +Roman policy. This colonial system of the Romans, necessarily and +spontaneously arising out of the rude custom of bereaving the conquered +of their lands and liberty, assumed its main features in the Samnite +war, and gradually embraced the whole of Italy. Closely connected with +this system was the construction of military highways, (_viae +militares_,) one of which, the Appian Way, was constructed so early as +312, and to this day remains a lasting monument of the greatness of Rome +at that period. + + Even at the time of Hannibal's invasion, the number of Roman colonies + amounted to 53: but several which had been settled returned to the + mother city. + + HEYNE, _De Romanorum prudentia in coloniis regendis_: inserted in + _Opusc._ vol. iii. Cf. _Prolusiones de veterum coloniarum jure ejusque + causis_, in his _Opusc._ vol. i. + +16. But the relations existing between Rome and the Italian nations +were extremely various in kind. 1. A few cities and nations enjoyed the +full privileges of Roman citizenship; in some instances, however, +without the right of voting in the _comitia_ (_municipia_). 2. The +privileges of the colonies (_jus coloniarum_) were of a more restricted +nature; the colonists were indeed in possession of their own civic +government, but had no further share whatever either in the _comitia_ or +magistracies of Rome. The other inhabitants of Italy were either +federates (_socii, foedere juncti_) or subjects (_dedititii_). The first +(_a_) preserved their internal form of government; but on the other hand +(_b_) were obliged to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops (_tributis et +armis juvare rempublicam_). Their further relation with Rome depended +upon the terms of the league. The most advantageous of these terms were +3. in favour of the Latins, although each of their cities had its own +separate league (_jus Latii_;) as 4. the rest of the Italian nations had +their _jus Italicum_. On the other hand, 5. the subjects, _dedititii_, +were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were governed by +Roman magistrates, (_praefecti_,) annually renewed. + + C. SIGONIUS, _De antiquo jure civium Romanorum_; and his treatise _De + antiquo jure Italiae_, inserted both in his _Opera_ and in GRAEVII + _Thes. Ant. Rom._ t. ii. contain the most learned researches on the + details of these relations. + +17. The internal constitution of Rome itself, now completed, bore the +character of a democracy, inasmuch as equality of rights existed both +for nobles and commons. Yet this democracy was modified by expedients so +various and wonderful--the rights of the people, of the senate, of the +magistrates, fitted so nicely into each other, and were so firmly +supported by the national religion, connecting every thing with +determinate forms--that there was no reason, at that time, to fear the +evils either of anarchy, or, what is much more astonishing when we +consider the warlike character of the people, those of military +despotism. + + The rights of the people consisted in the legislative power, so far as + fundamental national principles were concerned, and in the election of + the magistrates. The distinction between the _comitia tributa_ (as + independent of the senate) and the _comitia centuriata_ (as dependent + on the senate) still existed as to form, but had lost all its + importance, the difference between patricians and plebeians being now + merely nominal, and the establishment of the _tribus urbanae_, 303, + excluding the too great influence of the people (_forensis factio_) + upon the _comitia tributa_. The rights of the senate consisted in + administering and debating all transitory national affairs, whether + foreign relations, (war and peace only excepted, in which the consent + of the people was requisite,) financial concerns, or matters regarding + domestic peace and security. But the manner in which the senate was + supplied must have made it the first political body at that time in + the world. The rights and rank of magistrates were founded on their + greater or lesser _auspicia_, no public affair being entered upon + except _auspicato_. Consequently he only who was in possession of the + former could hold the highest civic and military power; (_imperium + civile et militare; suis auspiciis rem gerere_;) as dictator, consul, + praetor; such was not the case with those who had only the lesser + _auspicia_. The union of civil and military power in the person of the + same individual was not without its inconveniences, but military + despotism was in some measure guarded against by the prohibition of + any magistrate possessing military command within Rome itself. We must + not dismiss this subject without observing, that as the Roman + constitution arose merely out of practice, there never having been any + completely written charter, we cannot expect that all the details + should be clearly ascertained; to attempt, therefore, in default of + such authority, to describe all the minutiae would be the surest way to + fall into error. + + Of the numerous works on the Roman constitution and on Roman + antiquities, we shall mention: + + DE BEAUFORT, _La Republique Romaine, ou plan general de l'ancien + gouvernement de Rome_. La Haye, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. A most copious + work, and one of the most solid in regard to the matters discussed; + although it does not embrace the whole of the subject. + + _Histoire critique du gouvernement Romain_; Paris, 1765. Containing + some acute observations. + + _Du Gouvernement de la republique Romaine_, _par_ A. AD. DE TEXIER, 3 + vols. 8vo. Hamburg, 1796. This contains many enquiries peculiar to the + writer. + + Some learned researches respecting the principal points of the Roman + constitution, as SIGONIUS and GRUCHIUS _de comitiis Romanorum_, + ZAMOCIUS _de Senatu Romano_, etc. will be found collected in the first + two vols, of GRAEVIUS, _Antiq. Roman._ + + For the popular assemblies of the Romans, an antiquarian essay by Chr. + Ferd. Schulze, Gotha, 1815, chiefly according to Niebuhr, may be + consulted. + + Among the numerous manuals of Roman antiquities, NIEUPORT, _explicatio + rituum Romanorum, ed. Gesner_. Berol. 1743, promises at least as much + as it performs. Of those which profess to treat of Roman antiquities + in general, none have yet risen above mediocrity. Jurisprudence, + however, has been much more successfully handled. We cite the two + following excellent compendiums: + + BACHII, _Historia Jurisprudentiae Romanae_. Lips. 1754. 1796. + + # C. HUGO, _Elements of the Roman Law_; 7th edit. Berlin, 1820. + + + + +SECOND PERIOD. + +_From the commencement of the war with Carthage to the rise of the +civil broils under the Gracchi, B. C. 264-134. Year of Rome, 490-620._ + + + SOURCES. The principal writer for this highly interesting period, + in which was laid the foundation of the universal dominion of Rome, + is Polybius as far as the year 146, not only in the complete books + preserved to us, which come down to 216, but also in the fragments. + He is frequently followed by Livy, lib. xxi-xlv. 218-166. Appian, + who comes next, does not confine himself merely to the history of + the war; Florus gives us only an abridgement. The lives of Plutarch + which relate to this portion of history, are FABIUS MAXIMUS, P. + AEMILIUS, MARCELLUS, M. CATO, and FLAMINIUS. + + Of modern writers we dare only mention one:--and who is worthy to + be ranked beside him? + + MONTESQUIEU, _Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la + decadence des Romains_. + +1. The political division of Italy laid the foundation for the dominion +of Rome in that country; the want of union and political relations in +the world paved the way to her universal empire. The first step cost her +much, the succeeding followed easily and rapidly; and the history of the +struggle between Rome and Carthage only shows on a larger scale what the +history of Greece exhibits on a smaller. The whole of the following +history confirms the fact, that two republics cannot exist near each +other, without one being destroyed or subjected: but the vast extent of +this struggle, the important consequences which followed, together with +the wonderful exertions made, and the great men engaged on both sides, +gave it an interest which cannot be found in that of any other nations. +Though the power and resources of both states were nearly equal in +appearance, they were widely different in quality and circumstances. +Carthage, besides her dominion over the seas, had also a better +furnished treasury, by which she was enabled to enlist into her service +as many _mercenaries_ as she pleased: Rome, on the contrary, _strong in +herself_, had all the advantages possessed by a nation of warriors over +one partly commercial, partly military. + +2. The first war of twenty-three years between the two republics, arose +from very slight causes: it soon, however, became a struggle for the +possession of Sicily, which in the end naturally extended itself to the +dominion of the sea. Rome, by the aid of her newly-built fleet, having +obtained for some time this power, was enabled to attack Africa, and +succeeded in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. + + The occupation of Messina by the Romans, 264, gave rise to this + war. The defection of Hiero king of Syracuse from the side of + Carthage, and his joining the Romans, first gave the latter the + idea of expelling the Carthaginians from the island. The victory + near Agrigentum, and capture of that city in 262, seemed to + facilitate the execution of this project: it also convinced the + Romans of the necessity of their having a naval power. We shall the + less wonder at their forming a fleet in Italy, where wood was then + plentiful, if we remember their previous experience in naval + affairs; these were not the first vessels of war which they + constructed, but only the first large ones which they built upon a + Carthaginian model. The first naval victory of the Romans under + Duilius, by the aid of grappling machines, 260. The project then + conceived of carrying the war into Africa was one of the great + ideas of the Romans, and from that time it became a ruling maxim of + the state, to attack the enemy in his own territory. The second and + very remarkable naval victory of the Romans, 257, opened the way + for them to Africa, and shows their naval tactics in a very + brilliant light: but the unfortunate issue of their expedition to + Africa, restored the equilibrium; and the struggle for the dominion + of the sea became the more obstinate, as success did not altogether + favour one party. The result of the contest appears to have turned + upon the possession of the eastern promontories of Sicily, + Drepanum, and Lilybaeum, which were in a manner the bulwarks of the + Carthaginians, and seemed impregnable since Hamilcar Barca had + taken the command of them, 247. The last naval victory of the + Romans, however, under the consul Lutatius, 241, having cut off the + communication between Sicily and Carthage, and the finances of both + parties being completely exhausted, a peace was concluded upon the + conditions: 1. That the Carthaginians should evacuate Sicily and + the small islands adjacent. 2. That they should pay to Rome, by + instalments in ten years, for the expenses she had been at in + carrying on the war, the sum of 2,200 talents. 3. That they should + not make war against Hiero king of Syracuse. + +3. The issue of this war placed the political connections of Rome in a +new situation, and necessarily extended her influence abroad. The length +of the war and the manner of its conclusion had, moreover, inspired a +national hatred, such as is only found in republics; the conviction also +that they could not remain independent of one another, must have become +much more striking, as the points of contact had greatly increased since +the beginning of the war. Who does not know the arrogance of a republic +after the first essay of her power has been crowned with success! Rome +gave a striking example of this by her invasion of Sardinia in the midst +of peace. These successes had also a sensible effect on the Roman +constitution. For although in appearance its form was not in the least +changed, yet the power of the senate now acquired that preponderance +which the ruling authority of a republic never fails to do after long +and successful wars. + + Origin and nature of the governments of the first Roman provinces, + in part of Sicily and in Sardinia. + +4. An opportunity was soon afforded the Romans, in the Adriatic sea, of +making use of their superior naval power, in chastising the pirates of +Illyria under their queen Teuta. By effecting this, they not only +secured their authority over that sea, but at the same time formed their +first political relations with the Grecian states; relations which soon +afterwards became of great importance. + + Commencement of the first Illyrian war, 230, which ended with the + subjugation of Teuta, 226. The war, however, again broke out, 222, + against Demetrius of Pharus, who conceived himself inadequately + rewarded by Rome for the services he had rendered her in the + preceding war. The Romans found him a much more dangerous + adversary than had been expected, even after his expulsion and + flight to Philip, 220, (see above, p. 282.) Throughout this war, + Rome appeared as the deliverer of the Grecian states, which had + suffered extremely from the plunder of these freebooters; Corcyra, + Apollonia, and other cities placed themselves formally under her + protection, while the Achaeans, Aetolians, and Athenians vied with + each other in showing their gratitude. + +5. In the mean time, while Carthage endeavoured to make up for the loss +of Sicily and Sardinia by extending her Spanish dominions, which the +jealousy of Rome restrained her from carrying beyond the Ebro (p. 84.), +Rome herself had a new war to maintain against her northern neighbours +the Gauls, which ended after a violent contest with the establishment of +her authority over the north of Italy. + + From the first Gallic war to the burning of Rome, 390, the Gauls + had repeated their attacks in 360 and 348, even to the conclusion + of the peace in 336. But in the latter part of the Samnite war, a + formidable confederacy having taken place among the Italian + tribes, some of the Gauls enlisted as mercenaries in the service + of the Etruscans, while others allied themselves to the Samnites. + This led them to take part in these wars in 306, 302, and 292, + until they were obliged, together with the Etruscans, to sue for + peace in 284, before which time the Romans had sent a colony into + their country, near Sena. This peace lasted till 238, when it was + disturbed by the incursion of the transalpine Gauls; without, + however, their coming to any war with Rome. But in 232, the + proposition of Flaminius the tribune, (_lex Flaminia_), to divide + the lands conquered from the Senones, became the cause of new + disturbances. Upon this occasion, the Gauls entered into an + alliance with their transalpine countrymen, the Gaesates on the + Rhone, who had been accustomed to engage as mercenaries. These + having crossed the Alps, the dreadful war of six years (226-220) + began, in which, after defeating the Gauls near Clusium, 225, the + Romans pursued them into their own territory, and encamped upon + the Po, 223. The Gauls having been again completely overthrown by + Marcellus, were obliged to sue for peace; when the Roman colonies + of Placentia and Cremona were established. The number of men + capable of bearing arms in all Italy subject to the Romans during + this war amounted to 800,000. + +6. Before this storm was totally appeased, in which it is probable that +Carthaginian policy was not altogether inactive, Hannibal had obtained +the chief command in Spain. From the reproach of having first begun the +war, he and his party cannot be cleared; Rome, in the situation she then +was, could hardly desire it; he however who strikes the first blow is +not always the real aggressor. The plan of Hannibal was the destruction +of Rome; and by making Italy the principal seat of the war, he +necessarily turned the scale in his favour; because Rome, obliged to +defend herself, left to him all the advantages of attack. The +preparations she made for defence, show that it was not believed +possible he could execute his enterprise by the route which he took. + + The history of this war, 218-201, of which no later transaction + has been able to destroy the interest, is divided into three + parts: the history of the war in Italy; the contemporary war in + Spain; and from 203, the war in Africa. Hannibal's invasion of + Italy in the autumn, 218--engagement near the river Ticinus and + the battle of Trebia, in the same year. Battle near the lake + Thrasymenus in the spring, 217. Seat of the war transferred to + Lower Italy, and the defensive system of the dictator Fabius until + the end of the year. Battle of Cannae, 216, followed by the + conquest of Capua and the subjection of the greater part of Lower + Italy. The defensive mode of warfare afterwards adopted by the + Carthaginian, arose partly from his desire to form a junction with + his brother Asdrubal and the Spanish army, and partly from his + expectation of foreign support by means of alliances, with + Syracuse, after the death of Hiero, 215, and with Philip of + Macedon, 216. These hopes, however, were frustrated by the + Romans.--Syracuse was besieged and taken, 214-212, (see above, p. + 174.) and Philip kept employed in Greece, (see above, p. 282.) In + addition to this, the Romans retook Capua, notwithstanding the + audacious march of Hannibal towards Rome, 211, and he had now no + succour left except the reinforcement which Asdrubal was bringing + from Spain. The latter, however, was attacked immediately upon his + arrival in Italy, near Sena, by the consuls Nero and Livius, and + left dead on the field, 207. From this time the war in Italy + became only of secondary importance, as Hannibal was obliged to + act on the defensive in Bruttium. + + _The Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained_, by J. + WHITTAKER. London, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. The author endeavours to + prove that the passage of Hannibal was over the great St. Bernard, + and criticises the opinions of other writers. + + [We may likewise mention the learned treatise:-- + + _A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps._ By H. + L. WICKHAM, M. A. and the Rev. J. A. CRAMER, M. A. second edition, + Oxon.] + + The war in Spain began nearly about the same time between Asdrubal + and the two brothers, Cn. and P. Cornelius Scipio, and was + continued, with various success, till the year 216, the issue + depending much upon the disposition of the Spaniards themselves. + The plan of Carthage after the year 216, was to send Asdrubal with + the Spanish army into Italy, and to supply its place by an army + from Africa; two victories, however, gained by the Scipios near + the Ebro, 216, and the Illiberis, 215, prevented this from being + effected, till at last both fell under the superior power and + cunning of the Carthaginians, 212. But the arrival of the youthful + P. Cornelius Scipio, who did not appear merely to his own nation + as an extraordinary genius, entirely changed the face of affairs, + and the fortunes of Rome soon became attached to his name, which + alone seemed to promise victory. During his command in Spain, + 210-206, he won over the inhabitants while he defeated the + Carthaginians, and for the furtherance of his great design, + contracted an alliance with Syphax in Africa, 206. He was unable, + however, to prevent the march of Asdrubal into Italy, 208, which + nevertheless rendered it an easy task for him to subdue all + Carthaginian Spain as far as Gades, 206, and thus procured him the + consular dignity at his return, 205. + + The carrying of the war into Africa by Scipio, notwithstanding the + opposition of the old Roman generals, and the desertion of Syphax, + who at the persuasion of Sophonisba again went over to the + Carthaginians (whose loss however was well repaid by Masinissa, + whom Scipio had won over to his side in Spain), was followed by an + important consequence; for after he had gained two victories over + Asdrubal and Syphax, 203, and taken the latter prisoner, the + Carthaginians found it necessary to recall Hannibal from Italy, + 202; and the battle of Zama terminated the war, 201. The following + were the conditions of peace: 1. That the Carthaginians should + only retain the territory in Africa annexed to their government. + 2. That they should give up all their ships of war, except ten + triremes, and all their elephants. 3. That they should pay, at + times specified, 10,000 talents. 4. That they should commence no + war without the consent of Rome. 5. That they should restore to + Masinissa all the houses, cities, and lands that had ever been + possessed by himself or his ancestors.--The reproach usually cast + upon the Carthaginians, of having left Hannibal unsupported in + Italy, in a great measure vanishes, if we remember the plan formed + in 216, to send the Spanish army into Italy, and to replace it by + an African one: a plan formed with much ability, and followed with + as much constancy. We may add to this, that the Barcine faction + maintained its influence in the government even to the end of the + war. But why they, who by the treaty of peace gave up five hundred + vessels of war, suffered Scipio to cross over from Sicily, without + sending one to oppose him, is difficult to explain. + +7. Notwithstanding her great loss of men, and the devastation of Italy, +Rome felt herself much more powerful at the end of this war than at the +beginning. Her dominion was not only established over Italy, but +extensive foreign countries had been brought under it; her authority +over the seas was rendered secure by the destruction of the naval power +of the Carthaginians. The Roman _form_ of government, it is true, +underwent no change, but its _spirit_ much, as the power of the senate +became almost unlimited; and although the dawn of civilization had +broken over Rome, since her intercourse with more civilized foreigners, +the state still remained altogether a nation of warriors. And now, for +the first time, appears in the page of history the fearful phenomenon of +a great military republic; and the history of the next ten years, in +which Rome overthrew so many thrones and free states, gives a striking +proof, that such a power is the natural enemy to the independence of all +the states within the reach of her arms. The causes which led Rome from +this time to aspire after the dominion of the world are to be found +neither in her geographical situation, which for a conquering power by +land seemed rather unfavourable; nor in the inclination of the people, +who were opposed to the first war against Philip; but singly and +entirely in the spirit of her government. The means, however, whereby +she obtained her end, must not be sought for merely in the excellence of +her armies and generals, but rather in that uniform, sharp-sighted, and +dexterous policy, by which she was enabled to frustrate the powerful +alliances formed against her, notwithstanding the many adversaries who +at that time sought to form new ones. But where could be found such +another council of state, embodying such a mass of practical political +wisdom, as the Roman senate must have been from the very nature of its +organization? All this, however, would not have been sufficient to have +subjugated the world, if the want of good government, the degeneracy of +the military art, and an extremely corrupt state of morals among both +rulers and people, in foreign states, had not seconded the efforts of +Rome. + + View of the political state of the world at this period. In the + west, Sicily (the whole island after 212), Sardinia, and Corsica, + from the year 237, and Spain, divided into citerior and ulterior + (the latter rather in name than in fact), had become Roman + provinces 206; the independence of Carthage had been destroyed by + the last peace, and her subordination secured by the alliance of + Rome with Masinissa; Cisalpine Gaul, formed into a province, + served as a barrier against the inroads of the more northern + barbarians. On the other side, in the east, the kingdom of + Macedonia, and the free states of Greece, forming together a very + complicated system, had opened a connection with Rome since the + Illyrian war, 230, and Philip's alliance with Hannibal, 214. Of + the three powers of the first rank, Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, + the two former were allied against the latter, who, on her part, + maintained a good understanding with Rome. The states of secondary + rank were, those of the Aetolian league, the kings of Pergamus, and + the republic of Rhodes, with some smaller, such as Athens: these + had allied themselves to Rome since the confederacy against + Philip, 211. The Achaean league, on the contrary, was in the + interests of Macedonia, which Rome always endeavoured to attach to + herself, in order to make head against those of the first rank. + +8. A declaration of war against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition +of the tribunes of the people, and an attack upon Macedonia itself, +according to the constant maxim of carrying the war into the enemy's +country, immediately followed. They could not, however, drive Philip so +soon from the fastnesses of Epirus and Thessaly, which were his +bulwarks. But Rome possessed in T. Quintius Flaminius, who marched +against Philip as the deliverer of Greece, a statesman and general +exactly fitted for a period of great revolutions. By the permanency of +his political influence he became indeed the true founder of the Roman +power in the east. Who could better cajole men and nations, while they +were erecting altars to him, than T. Quintius? So artfully indeed did he +assume the character of a great genius, such as had been given by nature +to Scipio, that he has almost deceived history itself. The struggle +between him and Philip consisted rather in a display of talents in +political stratagem and finesse than in feats of arms: even before the +battle of Cynoscephalae had given the finishing stroke, the Romans had +already turned the balance in their favour, by gaining over the Achaean +league. + + The negotiations between Rome and Macedonia, from the year 214, + give the first striking examples of the ability and address of the + Romans in foreign policy; and they are the more remarkable, as the + treaty with the Aetolians and others, 211 (see above, p. 283), was + the remote cause of the transactions which afterwards took place + in the east. The peculiar system adopted by the Romans, of taking + the lesser states under their protection as allies, must always + have given them an opportunity of making war on the more powerful + whenever they chose. This in fact happened in the present case, + notwithstanding the peace concluded with Philip, 204. The chief + object of the Romans in this war, both by sea and land, was to + drive Philip completely out of Greece. The allies on both sides, + and the conditions of peace, were similar to those concluded with + Carthage (see above, p. 284). The destruction of the naval power + of her conquered enemies became now a maxim of Roman policy in + making peace; and she thus maintained the dominion of the seas + without any great fleet, and without losing the essential + character of a dominant power by land. + +9. The expulsion of Philip from Greece brought that country into a state +of dependence upon Rome; an event which could not have been better +secured than by the present of liberty which T. Quintius conferred upon +its inhabitants at the Isthmian games. The system of surveillance, which +the Romans had already established in the west over Carthage and +Numidia, was now adopted in the east over Greece and Macedonia. Roman +commissioners, under the name of ambassadors, were sent into the country +of the nations in alliance, and were the principal means by which this +system of espionage was carried on. These however did not fail to give +umbrage to the Greeks, particularly to the turbulent Aetolians; more +especially as the Romans seemed in no hurry to withdraw their troops +from a country which they had declared to be free. + + Liberty was expressly granted to the state which had taken the + part of Philip, namely, to the Achaeans; to the others it was + naturally understood to belong. It was nevertheless three years, + 194, before the Roman army evacuated Greece and withdrew from the + fortified places. The conduct of T. Quintius during this period + fully shows what he was. The Greeks indeed had much want of such a + guardian if they wished to remain quiet: his conduct, however, in + the war against Nabis, 195, shows that he had not really at heart + the tranquillity of Greece. + +10. The treaty of peace with Philip contained the seeds of a new and +greater war with Syria; but though this seemed inevitable at that time, +it did not break out till six years afterwards; and in but few periods +of the history of the world is so great a political crisis to be found, +as in this short interval. The fall of Carthage and Macedonia had shown +the rest of the world what it had to expect from Rome; and there was no +lack of great men sufficiently endowed with courage and talents to +resist her. The danger of a formidable league between Carthage, Syria, +and perhaps Macedonia, was never so much to be feared, as when Hannibal, +now at the head of affairs, laboured to effect it with all the zeal +which his hatred of Rome could inspire; and they might calculate with +certainty beforehand on the accession of many smaller states. Rome, +however, by her equally decided and artful policy procured Hannibal's +banishment from Carthage, amused Philip by granting him some trifling +advantages, and gained over the smaller states by her ambassadors. By +these means, and by taking advantage of the intrigues in the court of +Syria, she prevented this coalition from being formed. Antiochus was +therefore left without assistance in Greece, except from the Aetolians, +and a few other unimportant allies; while Rome drew from hers, +especially the Rhodians and Eumenes, advantages of the greatest +consequence. + + The first cause of contention between Rome and Antiochus was the + liberty of Greece, which the former wished to extend to the + Grecian cities of Asia, and to those in particular which had + belonged to Philip, and afterwards to Antiochus; while the latter + contended, that Rome had no right to intermeddle with the affairs + of Asia. The second cause of dispute was the occupation of the + Thracian Chersonesus by Antiochus, 196, in right of some ancient + pretensions; and Rome, on her part, would not tolerate him in + Europe. This quarrel therefore commenced as early as 196, but did + not become serious till the year 105, when in consequence of + Hannibal's flight to Antiochus, together with the turbulence and + excitement of the Aetolians, whose object it was to embroil the + rival powers, the political horizon was completely overcast. What + a fortunate thing it was for Rome that such men as Hannibal and + Antiochus could not understand each other! + + HEYNE, _de foederum ad Romanorum opes imminuendas initorum eventis + eorumque causis; in Opusc._ vol. iii. + +11. This war was much sooner brought to a termination than the +Macedonian, owing to the half-measures adopted by Antiochus. After +having been driven from Greece by Glabrio, and after two naval victories +had opened to the Romans the way to Asia, he felt inclined to act on the +defensive; but in the battle near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, +L. Scipio gathered the laurels which more properly belonged to Glabrio. +The total expulsion of Antiochus from Asia Minor, even before this +victory, had been the chief object of the war. The conditions of peace +(see above, p. 284.) were such, as not only weakened Antiochus, but +reduced him to a state of dependence. + + During this contest in the east, a sanguinary war was going on in + the west; from the year 201 in Spain, where the elder Cato + commanded; and from 193 in Italy itself, against the Ligurians. + Whatever may be said upon the means made use of by Rome to + increase the number of her citizens, it will always be difficult + to comprehend, not only how she could support all these wars + without being thereby weakened, but how at the same time she could + found so many colonies! + +12. Even after the termination of this war, Rome refrained with +astonishing moderation from appearing in the light of a conqueror: it +was only for the liberty of Greece, and for her allies, that she had +contended! Without keeping a foot of land for herself, she divided, with +the exception of the free Grecian cities, the conquered Asia Minor +between Eumenes and the Rhodians; the manner, however, in which she +dealt with the Aetolians, who after a long supplication for peace were +obliged to buy it dearly, shows that she also knew how to treat +unfaithful allies. The war against the Gauls in Asia Minor was not less +necessary for the preservation of tranquillity in that country, than it +was injurious to the morals and military discipline of the Roman army. +They here learned to levy contributions. + +13. Thus, within the short space of ten years, was laid the foundation +of the Roman authority in the east, and the general state of affairs +entirely changed. If Rome was not yet the ruler, she was at least the +arbitress of the world from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. The power of +the three principal states was so completely humbled, that they durst +not, without the permission of Rome, begin any new war; the fourth, +Egypt, had already, in the year 201, placed herself under the +guardianship of Rome; and the lesser powers followed of themselves: +esteeming it an honour to be called the _allies of Rome_. With this name +the nations were lulled into security, and brought under the Roman yoke; +the new political system of Rome was founded and strengthened, partly by +exciting and supporting the weaker states against the stronger, however +unjust the cause of the former might be, and partly by factions which +she found means to raise in every state, even the smallest. + + Although the policy of Rome extended itself everywhere by means of + her commissioners, or ambassadors, yet she kept a more particular + guard against Carthage by favouring Masinissa at her expense, + against the Achaean league by favouring the Spartans, and against + Philip of Macedon by favouring every one who brought any complaint + against him (see above, p. 285). + +14. Although these new connections and this intercourse with foreign +nations greatly aided the diffusion of knowledge and science, and was +followed by a gradual improvement in her civilization, yet was it +nevertheless, in many respects, detrimental to the internal state of +Rome. The introduction of the scandalous Bacchanalia, which were +immediately discovered and forbidden, shows how easily great vices may +creep in among a people who are only indebted for their morality to +their ignorance. Among the higher classes also the spirit of intrigue +manifested itself to an astonishing degree; particularly by the attacks +directed against the Scipios by the elder Cato, whose restless activity +became the instrument of his malignant passions. The severity of his +censorship did not repair the evils caused by his immorality and +pernicious politics. + + Voluntary exile of Scipio Africanus to Linternum, 187. He dies + there, 183, the same year in which Hannibal falls under the + continued persecution of Rome. His brother Scipio Asiaticus is + also unable to escape a trial and condemnation, 185. One would + have expected a sensible effect from the exile of these two great + men; but, in a state where the ruling power is in the hands of a + body like what the Roman senate was, the change of individuals is + but of little consequence. + +15. Fresh disputes arose, as early as 185, with Philip of Macedon, who +soon found that they had spared him no longer than it suited their own +convenience. Although the intervention of Philip's youngest son, upon +whom the Romans had formed some design, prevented the powers from coming +to an immediate rupture, and war was still further delayed by Philip's +death, yet the national hatred descended to his successor, and continued +to increase, notwithstanding an alliance concluded with him, until the +war openly broke out (see above, p. 287). + + The first circumstance which gave umbrage to Philip was the small + portion they permitted him to conquer in Athamania and Thessaly + during the war against Antiochus. But what sharpened his + animosity, much more than the object in dispute, was the conduct + of the Roman commissioners, before whom he, the king, was called + upon to defend himself as an accused party, 184. The exclamation + of Philip, that "the sun of every day had not yet set," showed his + indignation, and at the same time betrayed his intention. The + interval previous to the breaking out of the war was anything + rather than a time of peace for Rome; for besides that the Spanish + and Ligurian wars continued almost without intermission, the + revolts which broke out in Istria, 178, and in Sardinia and + Corsica, 176, produced much bloodshed. + +16. In the second Macedonian war, which ended with the destruction of +Perseus and his kingdom (see above, p. 288), it required the active +efforts of Roman policy to prevent a powerful confederacy from being +formed against her; as Perseus used all his endeavours to stimulate, not +only the Grecian states, and Thrace and Illyria, but also Carthage and +Asia, to enter into alliance with him. Where was it that Rome did not at +this crisis send her ambassadors? She did not, indeed, succeed so far as +to leave her enemy quite alone, but prepared new triumphs for herself +over the few allies she left him. The devastated Epirus, and Gentius +king of Illyria, suffered dearly for the assistance they had lent him; +the states also which had remained neuter, the Rhodians and Eumenes, +were made to feel severely that they were the mere creatures of Rome. + + Beginning of the Macedonian war, 171, before Rome was prepared; a + deceitful truce, which raised the indignation even of the elder + senators, was the means resorted to for gaining time. + Notwithstanding this, the war at first, 170 and 169, was + favourable to Perseus; but he wanted resolution and judgment to + enable him to turn his advantages to account. In 168, Paulus + Aemilius, an old general, against the usual custom of the Romans, + took the command. Bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, June 22, + 168. So completely may one day overturn a kingdom which has only + an army for its support! Contemporary with this war, and highly + fortunate for Rome, was the war of Antiochus Epiphanes with Egypt. + No wonder that Rome did not, till 168, through Popilius, command + peace between them! (See above, p. 261.) + +17. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was attended with +consequences equally disastrous to the conquerors and the conquered. To +the first it soon gave the notion of becoming the masters of the world, +instead of its arbiters; and it exposed the latter, for the next twenty +years, to all the evils inseparable from such a catastrophe. The system +of politics hitherto pursued by Rome could not last much longer; for if +nations suffered themselves to be brought under the yoke by force, it +was not to be expected that they would long be held in dependence under +the specious name of liberty. But the state of things after this war was +such as contributed to hasten a change in the form of the relations +which existed between Rome and her allies. + + The republican constitution given to the already ruined and + devastated Macedonians (see above, p. 288.) and Illyrians, and + which, according to the decree of the senate, "showed to all + people that Rome was ready to bestow liberty upon them," was + granted upon such hard conditions, that the enfranchised nation + soon used every endeavour to procure themselves a king. Greece + however suffered still more than Macedonia. Here, during the war, + the spirit of faction had risen to the highest pitch; and the + arrogant insolence of the Roman party, composed for the most part + of venal wretches, was so great, that they persecuted not only + those who had espoused an opposite faction, but even those who had + joined no faction at all. Rome nevertheless could not believe + herself secure, until she had destroyed, by a cruel artifice, all + her adversaries (see above, p. 288). + +18. Entirely in the same spirit did Rome proceed against the other +states from whom she had anything to fear. These must be rendered +defenceless; and every means of effecting that purpose was considered +justifiable by the senate. The quarrels between the successors to the +throne of Egypt were taken advantage of to cause dissensions in that +kingdom (see above, p. 260); while Syria was retained in a state of +tutelage, by keeping the rightful heir to the throne at Rome; and its +military power neutralized by means of their ambassadors (see above, p. +243). + +19. From these facts we may also conclude, that the injuries now +meditated against Carthage were not separate projects, but rather formed +part of the general system of Roman policy at this period, although +particular events at one time retarded their execution, and at another +hastened it. History, in recounting the incredibly bad treatment which +Carthage had to endure before her fall, seems to have given a warning to +those nations who can take it, of what they may expect from the +domination of a powerful republic. + + Cato was chief of the party which sought the destruction of + Carthage, both from a spirit of envy against Scipio Nasica, whom + he hated for his great influence in the senate; and because, when + ambassador to Carthage, he thought they did not treat him with + sufficient respect. But Masinissa's victory, 152 (see above, p. + 88), and the defection of Utica, brought this project into + immediate play. Beginning of the war, 150, the Carthaginians + having been previously inveigled out of their arms. The city, + however, was not captured and destroyed till 146, by P. Scipio + Aemilianus. The Carthaginian territory, under the name of Africa, + was then made a Roman province. + +20. During this third war with Carthage, hostilities again broke out in +Macedonia, which brought on a new war with Greece, and entirely changed +the state of both these countries. In Macedonia, an impostor named +Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, placed himself at the +head of that highly disaffected people, assumed the name of Philip, and +became, particularly by an alliance with the Thracians, very formidable +to the Romans, until overcome by Metellus. Rome wishing to take +advantage of this crisis to dissolve the Achaean league, the Achaean war +broke out (see above, p. 289). This war was begun by Metellus, and +terminated by Mummius with the destruction of Corinth. By reducing both +Macedonia and Greece to the form of provinces, Rome now gave evident +proof that no existing relations, nor any form of government, can +prevent nations from being subjugated by a warlike republic, whenever +circumstances render it possible. + + It might have been expected, that the destruction of the two first + commercial cities in the world, in the same year, would have been + followed by important consequences to the course of trade; but the + trade of Carthage and Corinth had already been drawn to Alexandria + and Rhodes, otherwise Utica might, in some respects, have supplied + the place of Carthage. + +21. While Rome was thus destroying thrones and republics, she met in +Spain with an antagonist--a simple Spanish countryman named +Viriathus--whom, after six years' war, she could only rid herself of by +assassination. The war, nevertheless, continued after his death against +the Numantines, who would not be subjected, but were at last destroyed +by Scipio Aemilianus. + + The war against the Spaniards, who of all the nations subdued by + the Romans defended their liberty with the greatest obstinacy, + began in the year 200, six years after the total expulsion of the + Carthaginians from their country, 206. It was exceedingly + obstinate, partly from the natural state of the country, which was + thickly populated, and where every place became a fortress; partly + from the courage of the inhabitants; but above all, owing to the + peculiar policy of the Romans, who were wont to employ their + allies to subdue other nations. This war continued, almost without + interruption, from the year 200 to 133, and was for the most part + carried on at the same time in Hispania Citerior, where the + Celtiberi were the most formidable adversaries, and in Hispania + Ulterior, where the Lusitani were equally powerful. Hostilities + were at the highest pitch in 195, under Cato, who reduced + Hispania Citerior to a state of tranquillity 185-179, when the + Celtiberi were attacked in their native territory; and 155-150, + when the Romans in both provinces were so often beaten, that + nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than to be sent + there. The extortions and perfidy of Servius Galba placed + Viriathus, in the year 146, at the head of his nation, the + Lusitani: the war, however, soon extended itself to Hispania + Citerior, where many nations, particularly the Numantines, took up + arms against Rome, 143. Viriathus, sometimes victorious and + sometimes defeated, was never more formidable than in the moment + of defeat; because he knew how to take advantage of his knowledge + of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. After + his murder, caused by the treachery of Caepio, 140, Lusitania was + subdued; but the Numantine war became still more violent, and the + Numantines compelled the consul Mancinus to a disadvantageous + treaty, 137. When Scipio, in the year 133, put an end to this war, + Spain was certainly tranquil; the northern parts, however, were + still unsubdued, though the Romans penetrated as far as Galatia. + +22. Towards the end of this period, the Romans obtained at a much +cheaper rate the possession of one of their most important provinces; +for the profligate Attalus III. king of Pergamus, bequeathing them the +whole of his kingdom (on what account is uncertain, see above, p. 292.), +they immediately took possession of it, and kept in spite of the +resistance of the legitimate heir Aristonicus, merely ceding, as a +recompense, Phrygia to Mithridates V. king of Pontus. Thus, by a stroke +of the pen, the largest and finest part of Asia Minor became the +property of Rome. If this extraordinary legacy was the work of Roman +policy, she paid dearly enough, in the long run, for this accession to +her power and riches, by the destruction of her morals, and the dreadful +wars to which this legacy gave rise under Mithridates. + +23. The foreign possessions of Rome, besides Italy, comprised at this +time under the name of provinces, a name of much higher signification in +the Latin language than in any other, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, +Africa (the territory of Carthage), Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, +Liguria, and Cisalpine Gaul, in the west; and in the east, Macedonia, +Achaia, and Asia (territory of Pergamus). The inhabitants of these +countries were entirely subject to Rome. The administration of them was +carried on by those who had enjoyed the office of consul, and by +praetors, subordinate to whom were the quaestors, or collectors of the +revenue. The highest military and civil powers were united in these +governors; a principal cause of that horrible oppression which was soon +felt. Troops were always kept up in the provinces; and the Latin +language everywhere introduced (except only where Greek was spoken), +that the inhabitants might be made as much like Romans as possible. + + Till nearly the end of this period, praetors were expressly + appointed to each province. It was not till after the origin of + the _quaestiones perpetuae_, that it became the custom for the + praetors who had vacated office, to succeed to the provinces + (_propraetores_), a principal cause of the degeneracy of the Roman + constitution. + + C. SIGONIUS, _de Antiquo jure provinciarum in Graevii Thes. Antiq. + Rom._ vol. ii. + +24. The acquisition of these rich countries naturally had great +influence in augmenting the revenue of the Romans. Though Rome was not +indeed a state, like Carthage, altogether dependent upon finances, yet +she kept these adjusted in a wonderful manner; a spirit of nice order +being observed in this as well as in every other department of her +administration. If in extraordinary emergencies recourse were had to +native loans, to a change in the value of money, or a monopoly of salt, +order was soon restored; while the booty obtained from conquered +countries was also a great source of the public income so long indeed as +it was reserved for the state, and did not become the prey of the +generals. + + Sources of the Roman revenue (_vectigalia_) were: 1. Tribute _a._ + from the Roman citizens; that is to say, a property-tax imposed by + the senate according to the urgency of the case (which, however, + was remitted, for a long time, after the war with Perseus, 168, + being no longer necessary). _b._ Tribute of the allies (_socii_) + in Italy: which seems also to have been a property-tax; differing + in different places. _c._ Tribute of the provinces: in some a + heavy poll-tax, in others taxes on property; in all, however, they + were paid in natural productions, mostly ordinary, though + sometimes extraordinary, as well for the salary of the governor as + for the supply of the capital. 2. The revenue from the national + domains (_ager publicus_), both in Italy (especially Campania) and + in the provinces; the tythes (_decumae_) of which were paid by + means of leases for four years, granted by the censors. 3. The + revenue from the customs (_portoria_), collected in the seaports + and frontier towns. 4. The revenue arising from the mines + (_metalla_), particularly the Spanish silver mines; the + proprietors of which were obliged to pay a duty to the state. 5. + The duty upon enfranchised slaves (_aurum vicesimarium_). All + receipts flowed into the national treasury, the _aerarium_; all + outgoings were exclusively ordered by the senate; and the people + were consulted as little with regard to them as they were + respecting the imposts. The officers employed were the + _quaestores_, under whom were the _scribae_, divided into + _decurias_, who, though certainly subordinate, had nevertheless + great influence. Their services, as they were not yearly changed, + must have been indispensable to the _quaestores_ for the time + being; and the whole management of affairs, at least in detail, + must have fallen into their hands. + + Upon the finances of Rome, the best work at present is:-- + + P. BURMANNI, _Vectigalia Populi Romani_. Leyden, 1734, 4to. + + Two excellent treatises have since appeared in German upon this + subject:-- + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Essay upon Roman Finances_. Antona, 1804, and + + # R. BOSSE, _Sketch of the System of Finance in the Roman State_. + Brunswick, 1803, 2 parts. Both include the periods of the republic + and the monarchy. + + + + +THIRD PERIOD. + +_From the beginning of the civil broils under the Gracchi, to the fall +of the republic. B. C. 134-30. Year of Rome, 620-724._ + + + SOURCES. Concerning the first half of this important period of the + republic, down to the time of Cicero, we are sadly in want of precise + information. Not one of the contemporary writers has been preserved to + us, nor indeed any one of the later historians who have compiled a + history of the whole period. APPIAN, _de Bellis Civilibus_; PLUTARCH, + in his _Lives of the Gracchi_; and the spirited _Compendium_ of VEL. + PATERCULUS, are, for this portion, our principal authorities; and even + the imperfect summaries of the lost books of Livy, so masterly + supplied by Freinshemius here become of importance. For the times + which follow, the _Jugurtha_ and _Cataline_ of Sallust, are two + excellent historical cabinet pieces, and become the more valuable for + the insight they at the same time give us of the internal condition of + Rome. His great work, however, _The Histories_, is, with the exception + of a few precious fragments, unfortunately lost. For the times of + CAESAR and CICERO, we have the _Commentaries_ of the first, and the + _Orations_ and _Letters_ of the latter; both fertile sources of + information. What is left us of DIO CASSIUS'S _History_, begins with + the year 69 before Christ. Of PLUTARCH'S _Lives_, besides those of + the Gracchi, the following are connected with this period: C. MARIUS, + SYLLA, LUCULLUS, CRASSUS, SERTORIUS, CATO OF UTICA, CICERO, BRUTUS, + and ANTONIUS. Upon the sources for these lives, see my treatises cited + above, p. 321. + + Among the moderns, the greater part of this period is particularly + treated of by:-- + + DE BROSSES, _Histoire de la Republique Romaine dans le cours du VIIe + Siecle par Salluste_, a Dijou, 1777, 3 vols. 4to. + + In German by J. C. SCHLEUTER, 1790, etc. with remarks, 4 vols. The + editor of this capital work had an idea of translating Sallust, and + supplying what is lost. It contains, besides a translation of Jugurtha + and Cataline, the period between both, of which Sallust treats in his + _Histories_: that is, from Sylla's abdication, B. C. 79-67; and is + equally important for its own merits and for the period to which it + belongs. + + VERTOT, _Histoire des revolutions arrivees dans le gouvernement de la + Republique Romaine_. Paris, 1796, 6 vols. 12mo. Although this justly + esteemed work includes the foregoing period, it is particularly + valuable for the present. + + MABLY, _Observations sur les Romains_. Geneve, 1751, 2 vols. 8vo. A + survey of the internal history; ingenious, but as superficial as the + _Observations sur les Grecs_ by the same author. + +1. The foregoing period is composed of the history of foreign wars +alone; in this, on the contrary, Rome appears in a continual state of +internal commotion. And if foreign hostilities interrupt this state of +things for a short time, it is only that it may be renewed with more +violence, till at last it ends in a furious civil war. As the almost +boundless power of the senate had laid the foundation of an exceedingly +hateful family aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people +arrayed themselves, in the character of powerful demagogues, there arose +a new struggle between the aristocratic and democratic parties, which +almost immediately grew into two powerful factions. This contest, from +its extent and its consequences, soon became much more important than +the ancient one between the patricians and the plebeians. + + This family aristocracy gradually arose from the power of the + magistrates, who now not only enjoyed a very high political + importance, but, by the government of the provinces, acquired immense + wealth. The present aristocracy, then, consisted of the ruling + families (_nobiles_) concentrated in the senate. The struggle with the + opposite party, the people (_plebs_), became so much the more violent + in consequence of the great abuses which had crept into the + administration, particularly in the division of the lands of the + republic; the ruling families securing to themselves the fruits of all + the victories and conquests, while the power of the democracy, by the + vast accumulation of people (without the means of livelihood, although + voting in the _comitia_), especially of enfranchised slaves, who, + though strangers, mostly without power or property, formed, + nevertheless, the greater part of what was then called the Roman + people. + + G. AL. RUPERTI, _Stemmata gentium Romanarum_. Goett. 1795, 8vo. Almost + indispensable for obtaining a clear insight into the history of the + Roman families, and of course into that of the state. + +2. Commencement of the disturbances under the tribunate of Tib. +Sempronius Gracchus, whom former connections had long made the man of +the people. His desire was to relieve the distress of the lower orders; +and the means whereby he hoped to do this was a better division of the +lands of the republic, now almost exclusively in the hands of the +aristocracy. His reform, therefore, naturally led at once to a struggle +with that party. Tib. Gracchus however soon found, by experience, that a +demagogue cannot stop where he would, however pure his intentions may be +at first; and no sooner had he obtained a prolongation of his term of +office, in opposition to the usual custom, than he fell a sacrifice to +his undertaking. + + The first agrarian law of Gracchus was confirmed by the people, + notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his colleague Octavius, + who was deposed; it decreed, that no person should possess above five + hundred acres of land, nor any child above half that quantity. This + law was, in fact, only a renewal of the ancient _lex Licinia_; in the + condition, however, in which Rome now was, it bore much harder upon + the property usurped by the great families, than it did in former + times. Appointment of a committee for dividing the national lands, and + for enquiring also at the same time which were the property of the + state (_ager publicus_) and which were not. New popular propositions + of the elder Gracchus, especially that for the division of the + treasures left by king Attalus of Pergamus, with the view of securing + his continuance in office; great insurrection of the aristocratic + party under Scipio Nasica, and murder of Tiberius Gracchus, on the day + of electing the new tribunes of the people. + +3. The fall of the chief of the new party, however, occasioned any thing +rather than its destruction. Not only was there no mention of an +abrogation of the agrarian law, but the senate was obliged to allow the +place in the commission, which had become vacant by the death of +Gracchus, to be filled up; and Scipio Nasica himself was sent out of the +way, under the pretext of an embassy to Asia. The party of the senate +did, indeed, find a powerful support for a short time in the return of +Scipio Aemilianus (_d._ 129) from Spain; but its greatest support was +found in the difficulties of the law itself, which prevented its +execution. + + Great revolt of the slaves in Sicily under Eunus, 134-131. This + contributed not a little to keep alive the dissensions, as it showed + the necessity of a reform. + +4. Evident endeavours of the tribunes of the people to increase their +power, Gracchus having now awakened them to a sense of it. Not satisfied +with a seat and voice in the senate, Carbo wished that the renewing of +their dignity should be passed into a law. By the removal, however, of +the chiefs of the lower party, upon honourable pretexts, new troubles +were put off for some years. + + First establishment of the Roman power in Transalpine Gaul by M. + Fulvius Flaccus, on the occasion of his being sent to the assistance + of Massilia, 128. Southern Gaul became a Roman province as early as + 122, in consequence of the defeat of the Allobrogi and Averni by Q. + Fabius, who had been sent against them to support the Aedui, the allies + of Rome. Capture of the Balearian isles by Metellus, 123. Quaestorship + of C. Gracchus in Sicily, 128-125. + +5. These palliative remedies, however, availed nothing after the return +of C. Gracchus from Sicily with a full determination to tread in the +footsteps of his brother. Like him, it is true, he fell a victim to his +enterprise; but the storm that he raised during the two years of his +tribunate fell so much the more heavily, as the popular excitement was +more general, and from his possessing more of the shining talents +necessary to form a powerful demagogue than his brother. + + First tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123. Renewal of the agrarian law, and + rendering its provisions more strict. Nevertheless, as he increased + the fermentation by his popular measures and by acting the demagogue, + and obtained the renewal of the tribunate for the following year, 122, + he so far extended his plan, as to render it not only highly dangerous + to the aristocracy, but even to the state itself. Establishment of + distributions of corn to the poor people. Plan for the formation of + the knights (_ordo equestris_) into a political body, as a + counterbalance to the senate, by conferring on it the right of + administering justice, (_judicia_,) which was taken from the senate. + Still more important project of granting to the Italian allies the + privileges of Roman citizenship; and also the formation of colonies, + not only in Campania, but also out of Italy, in Carthage. The highly + refined policy of the senate, however, by lessening this man of the + people in the eyes of his admirers, through the assistance of the + tribune Livius Drusius, prevented his complete triumph; and, once + declining, Gracchus soon experienced the fate of every demagogue, + whose complete fall is then irretrievable. General insurrection, and + assassination of C. Gracchus, 121. + +6. The victory of the aristocratic faction was this time not only much +more certain and bloody, they turned the advantages it gave them to such +good account, that they eluded the agrarian law of Gracchus, and indeed, +at last, completely abrogated it. But the seeds of discord already +disseminated, especially among the Italian allies, could not be so soon +checked, when once the subjects of these states had conceived the idea +that they were entitled to a share in the government. How soon these +party struggles might be renewed, or indeed a civil war break out, +depended almost entirely upon foreign circumstances, and the chance of a +bolder leader being found. + + Agrarian law evaded: at first by repealing an act which prohibited the + transfer of the national lands already divided, whereby the patricians + were enabled to buy them again;--afterwards by the _lex Thoria:_ + complete stop put to all further divisions, a land-tax, to be + distributed among the people, being instituted in its stead; but even + this latter was very soon annulled. + + # D. H. HEGEWISCH, _History of the Civil Wars of the Gracchi_. + Altona, 1801. + + # _History of the Revolution of the Gracchi in my Miscellaneous + Historical Works._ Vol. iii. 1821. + +7. Visible effects of this party spirit upon public morals, which now +began to decline the more rapidly, in proportion to the increase of +foreign connections. Neither the severity of the censorship, nor the +laws against luxury (_leges sumtuariae_), nor those which now became +necessary against celibacy, could be of much service in this respect. +This degeneracy was not only to be found in the cupidity of the higher +ranks, but also in the licentiousness of the lower orders. + + Luxury in Rome was first displayed in the public administration (owing + to the excessive accumulation of wealth in the treasury, especially + during the Macedonian wars) before it infected private life; and the + avarice of the great long preceded the latter. The sources from whence + they satisfied this passion were found in the extortions of the + governors of provinces, their great power, and the distance from Rome + rendering the _leges repetundarum_ of but little effect. Probably the + endeavours of the allied princes and kings to gain a party in the + senate was a still more fruitful source, as they could obtain their + end only by purchase, and so gave a new impulse to the cupidity and + intriguing disposition of the members of that council. But private + luxury requires everywhere some time to ripen. It attained its height + immediately after the Mithridatic wars. + + # D. MEINER, _History of the Corruption of the Morals and Constitution + of the Romans_. Leips. 1782. + + # MEIEROTTO, _Morals and Manners of the Romans at different periods of + the Republic_. Berlin, 1776. Which considers the subject in several + points of view. + + # C. A. BOTTIGER, _Sabina, or, morning scenes at the toilette of a + rich Roman lady_. Leips. 1806, 2 vols. A true and lively description + of the luxury of the Roman ladies, but principally at its most + brilliant period. It has been translated into French. + +8. This corruption was manifested in a striking manner in the next +great war that Rome entered into, which was in Africa, against Jugurtha +of Numidia, the adopted grandson of Masinissa; and soon after against +his ally Bocchus of Mauritania. This war, kindled and maintained by the +avarice of the Roman nobles, which Jugurtha had already had an +opportunity of knowing at the siege of Numantia, paved the way to the +aggrandizement of C. Marius, a new demagogue, who, being also a +formidable general, did much more harm to the state than even the +Gracchi. + + Commencement of the quarrel of Jugurtha with the two sons of Micipsa, + and assassination of Hiempsal, one of them, 118.--When the other, + Adherbal, arrived at Rome, 117, the party of Jugurtha had already + succeeded, and obtained a partition of the kingdom. New attack upon + Adherbal, who is besieged in Cirta, and, notwithstanding the repeated + embassies of Rome to Jugurtha, is compelled to surrender, and is put + to death, 112. The tribune C. Memmius constrains the senate to declare + war against Jugurtha; but Jugurtha purchases a peace of the consul + Calpurnius Piso, 111.--Nevertheless Memmius hinders the ratification + of the peace, and Jugurtha is required to justify himself at Rome. He + would probably, however, have bought his acquittal, if the murder of + his kinsman Massiva, 110, by the help of Bomilcar, had not rendered it + impossible. The war is renewed under the consul Sp. Albinus and his + brother Aulus, 110, but with very little success, until the + incorruptible Q. Metellus took the command, 109, who would have put an + end to it, notwithstanding the great talents now displayed as a + general by Jugurtha, and his alliance with Bocchus, 108, had he not + been supplanted by Marius, who obtains the consulship by his + popularity, 107. Marius is obliged to have recourse to perfidy to get + Jugurtha into his hands, who is betrayed by Bocchus, 106. Numidia is + divided between Bocchus and two grandsons of Masinissa, Hiempsal and + Hiarbas. + +9. The elevation of Marius to the consulate not only humbled the power +of the aristocracy, but also showed, for the first time, that the way +was open to a man of low birth (_homo novus_) to the highest offices; +the method, however, which he had taken to form his army, entirely +against the Roman custom, that is, of composing it of the lower orders +(_capite censis_) must have rendered him doubly formidable. +Nevertheless, he would scarcely have effected so great a change in the +constitution, if a new and terrible war had not rendered his services +indispensable:--this was the threatened invasion of the Cimbri and +Teutones the most powerful nations of the north, during which a new and +violent rebellion of the slaves was raging in Sicily:--for after the +defeat of so many Roman armies, the people believed that no one but the +conqueror of Jugurtha could save Italy; and Marius knew so well how to +turn this to account, that he remained consul during four successive +years. + + The Cimbri, or Cimmerians, probably a nation of German origin, from + beyond the Black sea, originated a popular migration which extended + from thence as far as Spain. Their march was perhaps occasioned, or + accelerated, by the Scythian war of Mithridates; and their course, + like that of most nomad races, was from east to west along the Danube. + They had already, in 113, defeated the consul Papirius Carbo, near + Noreia in Styria. In their progress towards the west they were joined + by German, Celtic, and Helvetic tribes (the _Teutones_, _Ambrones_, + and _Tigurians_).--Attack Roman Gaul, 109, where they demand + settlements and defeat Junius Silanus the consul.--Defeat of L. + Cassius Longinus and M. Aurelius Scaurus, 107.--Great defeat of the + Romans in Gaul, 105, occasioned by the disagreement of their generals, + the consuls, Cn. Manlius and Q. Servius Caepio. Marius obtains the + command, and remains consul from 104-101. The migrations of the + Cimbri--a part of whom reach the Pyrenees, but are driven back by the + Celtiberians, 103--give Marius time to complete his army. In 102, + after dividing themselves, they first attempted to penetrate into + Italy: the Teutones through Provence, and the Cimbri by Tyrol.--Great + defeat and slaughter of the Teutones by Marius, near Aix, 102.--The + Cimbri, on the contrary, effect an invasion and make progress till + Marius comes to the help of Catulus. Great battle and defeat of the + Cimbri near the Po, July 30, 101. + + J. MULLER, _Bellum Cimbricum_. Tigur, 1772. A youthful essay of that + celebrated historian. Compare + + # MANNERT, _Geography,_ etc. part iii. + +10. Although during this war the power of the popular party had sensibly +increased, yet the storm did not break out until Marius _bought_ his +sixth consulate. Now, even in Rome itself, he wished to avenge himself +upon his enemies; and what could the senate do, when it had at its head +a demagogue in the consul himself?--His league with the tribune +Saturnius, and the praetor Glaucias, forming already a true triumvirate, +would have overthrown the republic after the expulsion of Metellus, if +the unbridled licentiousness of the rabble connected with his allies had +not obliged him to break with them, lest he should sacrifice the whole +of his popularity. + + The measures of this cabal, who wished to appear as if treading in the + steps of the Gracchi, were principally directed against Q. Metellus, + the chief of the party of the senate, and who, since the African war, + had been the mortal foe of Marius. After the exile of Metellus, + occasioned by his opposition to a new agrarian law, this faction + usurped the rights of the people, and lorded it in the committees; + until, at a new election of consuls, a general revolt, favoured by + Marius himself, took place of all the well-disposed citizens against + them; Saturnius and Glaucias were besieged in the capitol, forced to + surrender, and executed. The return of Metellus from his voluntary + exile soon followed, 92, much against the will of Marius, who was + obliged to retire into Asia. + +11. The few years of tranquillity which Rome now enjoyed, brought to +maturity many benefits and many evils, the seeds of which had been +already sown. On one hand the rising eloquence of Antonius, Crassus, and +others, was employed with effect against the oppressors of the provinces +in the state trials (_questiones_); and some generous spirits used all +their endeavours to heal the wounds of Sicily, Asia, and other +provinces, by a better administration; while, on the other hand, the +power of the _ordo equestris_ became a source of much abuse: for besides +their right to sit in the tribunals (_judiciis_), which C. Gracchus had +conferred upon them, they had also obtained the farming of the leases, +and thereby the collection of the revenue in the provinces; by which +means they were enabled not only to oppose every reform that was +attempted in the latter, but even at Rome to hold the senate in a state +of dependence. The struggle which now arose between them and the senate +respecting the _judicia_ (or right to preside in the tribunal), was one +of the most fatal to the republic, as this right was abused by them for +the purpose of satisfying their personal rancour, and oppressing the +greatest men. The tribune M. Livius Drusus the younger, it is true, +wrested from them half their power; but, alas! the manner in which he +did it kindled into a flame the fire which had been smouldering from the +time of the Gracchi. + + Acquisition of Cyrene by the testament of king Apion, 97; + notwithstanding which it maintained its independence, although + probably by paying a tribute. Adjustment of the differences between + the kings of Asia Minor by the praetor Sylla, 92 (see above, p. 294). + +12. Revolt of the Italian tribes, who desire to obtain the right of +Roman citizens; whereupon the bloody _war of the allies_ ensues. +Although the oppression of Rome had been preparing this war for a long +time, yet it was an immediate consequence of the intrigues of the Roman +demagogues, who since the law of the younger Gracchus, had, with the +view of making themselves popular, continually flattered the allies with +the hope of sharing the privileges of Roman citizenship. It was however +soon seen, that the allies were not at a loss among themselves for +leaders, capable of forming great plans and executing them with vigour. +Italy was about to become a republic, with Corfinium for its capital +instead of Rome. Neither could Rome have saved herself from such an +event, but by gradually permitting the allies to enjoy the complete +freedom of the city. + + After the civil wars of the Gracchi, large bands of the allies were + continually flocking to Rome. These were in the pay of the demagogues, + whom the _lex Licinia_, 95, had banished from Rome, and thereby laid + the foundation of the revolt. From that time the conspiracy among + these tribes began, and attained without interruption such a degree of + maturity, that the carelessness of Rome can only be accounted for from + the party fury which then existed, and which the _lex Varia_, 91, + enacted against the promoters of rebellion, served only to inflame the + more. The murder of the tribune Livius Drusus, 91, a very ambiguous + character, brought the affair to an open rupture. In this alliance + were the Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani, the Samnites, + who played a principal part, the Hirpini, Apuli, and the Lucani. In + this war, which was so much the more bloody, as it was mostly composed + of separate contests and sieges, especially of the Roman colonies, Cn. + Pompeius the elder, L. Cato, Marius, and, above all, Sylla, + particularly distinguished themselves on the side of the Romans; and + among the generals of the allies Pompadias, C. Papius, + etc.--Concession of the freedom of the city, first to such allies as + remained faithful, the Latins, Umbrians, etc. by the _lex Julia_, 91; + afterwards, by degrees, to the remainder by the _lex Plotia_. Some, + nevertheless, still continued in arms. + + HEYNE, _de Belli Socialis causis et eventu, in Opusc._ t. iii. + +13. The war now just ended, essentially changed the constitution of +Rome, as she no longer remained, as hitherto, the exclusive head of the +whole state; and although the new citizens were only formed into eight +tribes, yet their influence must soon have been felt in the committees, +on account of the readiness with which they promoted factions. Besides +this, the long-cherished private hatred between Marius and Sylla was +greatly strengthened by this war, as Sylla's fame was considerably +raised thereby, while that of Marius was proportionably diminished. An +opportunity was only wanted, like that which the first Pontine war soon +furnished, to stir up a new civil war, which threatened to destroy the +liberty of Rome. + +14. Alliance of Marius with the tribune Sulpicius, with the view of +wresting from Sylla the command of the forces against Mithridates, +already conferred upon him by the senate. The ease with which Sylla, at +the head of an army on which he could depend, expelled the chiefs of +this party, seems to have left him ignorant of the fact, that the party +itself was not thereby destroyed. However judicious may have been his +other measures, the elevation of Cinna to the consulship was an error in +policy of which Italy had still more reason to repent than himself. How +much blood might have been spared if Sylla had not unseasonably wished +to become popular! + + Proposition of Sulpicius for an indiscriminate distribution of the new + citizens and freemen among all the tribes of Italy, that he might + thereby gain a strong party in his favour, which, by a violent + assembly of the people, transfers the command from Sylla to Marius. + March of Sylla upon Rome, and expulsion of Marius, who, by a series of + adventures almost surpassing belief, escapes to Africa and is + proscribed with his son and ten of his partisans. Reestablishment of + the power of the senate, whose number is made up by three hundred + knights. Sylla, after having caused his friend C. Octavius and his + enemy L. Cinna to be elected consuls, hastens back to Greece. + +15. First war against Mithridates the Great. Sylla gains several +victories over that king's generals in Greece; wrests from him all his +conquests, and restricts him to his hereditary dominions. Rome since the +time of Hannibal had met with no such powerful opponent as the king of +Pontus, who in a few months had become master of all Asia Minor, +Macedonia, and Greece, and threatened even Italy itself; we must besides +consider, that the war on the side of Rome was carried on in a manner +altogether different from that of any previous one; as Sylla, after the +victory of the opposite party, being himself proscribed in Rome, was +obliged to continue it with his own army, and his own private resources. +The unfortunate countries which were the theatre of this war, felt as +many calamities during the struggle, as Italy was doomed to suffer after +its close. + + Commencement of the war by Mithridates before the termination of that + of the allies, 89, by taking possession of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. + He was not less formidable by his alliance with the tribes along the + Danube, and his navy, than by his land forces; and the irritation of + the people of Asia against Rome rendered his enterprise still more + easy. Double victory over Nicomedes king of Bithynia and the Roman + general M. Aquilius, followed by the conquest of all Asia Minor except + the isle of Rhodes. Massacre of all the Roman citizens in the states + of Asia Minor. Expedition of the king's army into Greece, under the + command of his general Archelaus, who makes Athens the theatre of the + war, 88. Siege and capture of that unfortunate town by Sylla, 1st + March, 87. Repeated great defeats of Mithridates's army under the + command of Archelaus, near Chalcis, and afterwards near Orchomenus, by + Sylla, 86, whose general plan was formed upon the entire destruction + of his enemies. Negotiations for peace commenced by Archelaus, and + finally settled at a personal conference between Sylla and + Mithridates. The adverse party in Rome, however, had in the mean time + sent a new army into Asia Minor, to act as well against Sylla as + against Mithridates, under the command of L. Valerius Flaccus, who, + however, is assassinated by his lieutenant Fimbria. The latter gains + some advantages over the king, but, being shut up by Sylla, kills + himself. Owing to the licentiousness of his army, which Sylla dared + not restrain; and the heavy contributions exacted by him in Asia Minor + after the peace, in order to carry on the war in Italy, 84; together + with the bodies of pirates formed out of the fleet disbanded by + Mithridates, these unfortunate countries were almost ruined; the + opulent cities more especially. + +16. But during this war a new revolution took place in Rome, which not +only overthrew the order reestablished by Sylla, but also, by the +victory of the democratic faction under Cinna and Marius, gave rise to a +wild anarchy of the people, and which the death of Marius, alas, too +late for Rome! only rendered more destructive; as the leaders themselves +could no longer restrain the savage hordes of their own party. However +dreadful the prospect of the return of Sylla might seem, it was +nevertheless the only hope that remained for all those who had not +joined the popular faction, or had not some connection with its leaders. + + Revolt of Cinna, brought on by the proscriptions, soon after the + departure of Sylla; Cinna, by distributing the new citizens into all + the tribes, hoped to raise himself a party; but C. Octavius, at the + head of the senate and ancient citizens, drove him from Rome, and + forced him to give up the consulship, 87. He however soon raised a + powerful army in Campania, and recalled Marius from exile. Capture and + pillage of Rome, already weakened by famine, and horrible massacre of + the inhabitants; after which Marius and Cinna name themselves consuls + and banish Sylla. Death of Marius, 13th Jan. 86. C. Papirius Carbo + succeeds him in the consulship. The mediation of the senate is + useless, as the chiefs of both parties can only hope for security by + the annihilation of their adversaries. The murder of Cinna by his own + soldiers, 84, entirely deprives the dominant faction of a competent + leader. Neither the cowardly Carbo, although he remained consul alone, + nor the stupid Norbanus, nor the youth C. Marius (the son), had + sufficient personal authority for that purpose; and Sertorius leaves + Italy in good time to kindle a new flame in Spain. + +17. Return of Sylla to Italy, and a terrible civil war, which ends only +with the extermination of the democratic faction, and his own elevation +to the perpetual dictatorship. Although his enemies had so much +advantage over him in point of numbers, yet their party was so little +consolidated, that he with his veterans could not fail to obtain an easy +victory. The slaughter during this war fell for the most part upon the +Italian tribes, who had joined the party of Marius, and this afforded +Sylla the means of giving settlements to his own soldiers; but most of +the horrors of this revolution which fell to the share of Rome, were +reserved till the day of victory was past. Sylla's proscription, which +should only have punished his personal enemies, was the signal for a +general massacre, as every one took that opportunity to rid himself of +his private foes; and avarice did as much as vengeance. Who in these +days, so terrible to Italy, was sure of his life or property? And yet, +when we consider the dreadful circumstances which attended the foregoing +dominion of the people, deduct all that was done without Sylla's +knowledge, and consider how much he was obliged to do in order to +satisfy his army, we shall find it difficult to say how far he deserves +the reproach of wanton cruelty. + + Sylla's arrival; victory over Norbanus immediately after, and + seduction of the army of the consul Scipio, 82. After this almost + every person of distinction declared in his favour, and the young + Pompey having brought to him an army which he had himself raised, his + party acquired more consideration, and himself more power. Victory + over the younger Marius, near Sacriportum, who throws himself into + Praeneste, where he is besieged. But the great and decisive battle + gained before the gates of Rome, over the Samnites under the command + of Telisinus, is followed by the fall of Praeneste and the capture of + Rome. After the proscription which immediately ensued, Sylla is + created perpetual dictator, and secures his power in Rome by the + emancipation of ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had proscribed; + and in Italy by colonies of his veterans, whom he establishes at the + expense of his enemies. + +18. Great reform in the constitution during the two years' dictatorship +of Sylla. The aristocracy of the senate, which he filled up with +knights, was not only reestablished, but he also stopped the sources +from which the great disorders of the democracy had hitherto proceeded. +It seems probable that his natural indolence, which led him to prefer a +life of luxurious ease to one of laborious activity, when he was no +longer spurred to the latter by his passions, was the chief cause of his +voluntary abdication. He had, however, the great advantage over Marius, +of not being the sport of his own feelings. The conduct of Sylla, +indeed, was so consistent throughout, that it satisfactorily shows he +knew very well what was his ultimate aim--which Marius never did. + + Internal regulations of Sylla by the _leges Corneliae_. 1. Law to + restrain the influence of the tribunes, by taking from them their + legislative power. 2. Law respecting the succession to the magistracy; + the number of praetors fixed to eight, and the quaestors to twenty. 3. + _Lex de majestate_, especially to limit the power of the governors of + provinces, and to abolish their exactions. 4. _Lex de judiciis_, + whereby the _judicia_ were again restored to the senate. 5. Several + police regulations, _de sicariis_, _de veneficiis_, etc. for the + preservation and tranquillity of Rome, upon which everything depended. + 6. The _lex de civitate_, taking from the Latins and several Italian + cities and tribes the privileges of Roman citizens, upon which they + set so much store, although we scarcely know in what they consisted. + _Foreign wars_: War in Africa against the leaders of the democratic + faction, Cn. Domitius and king Hiarbas, which is ended by a triumph to + Pompey, 80. Second war against Mithridates begun by Murena, in hopes + of obtaining a triumph, to whom Archelaus came over; but which, under + the command of Sylla, terminates in an accommodation. + +19. Nevertheless it was impossible that the enactments of Sylla should +be long observed; as the evil lay too deep to be eradicated by laws. +A free state like that of Rome, with no middle class, must, from its +nature, be exposed to continual convulsions, and these will be more or +less violent in proportion to its greatness. Besides, as in the last +revolution almost all property had changed hands, there was spread +over all Italy a powerful party, who desired nothing so much as a +counter-revolution. And to this we may add, that there were many young +men, such as Lucullus, Crassus, and above all Pompey, who had opened to +themselves a career during the late troubles, which they would scarcely +yet wish to bring to a close. It will not then appear strange, that +immediately after the death of Sylla (! 88), a consul, M. Aemilius +Lepidus, should form the design of becoming a second Marius; a design +which could only be frustrated by the courage and activity of such a +patriotic citizen as Q. Lutatius Catulus, his colleague. + + Attempt of Lepidus to rescind the acts of Sylla, 78. Defeated, first + before Rome and again in Etruria, by Catulus and Pompey, 77, after + which he dies in Sardinia. + +20. But much more dangerous for Rome might have been the civil war +kindled by Sertorius in Spain, if the plan of that exalted republican to +invade Italy had succeeded. Even Pompey himself, after a six years' +struggle, would hardly have prevented it, had it not been for the +worthlessness of the Roman vagabonds who surrounded him, and his +assassination by Perpenna. The rapid termination of the war after the +fall of its conductor, is a circumstance much more creditable to +Sertorius than to the conqueror Pompey. + + The forces of Sertorius in Spain, consisted not only of the party of + Marius which he had collected, but more essentially of the Spaniards, + particularly the Lusitanians, whom he had inspired with an unbounded + confidence in himself. Very variable success of the war against + Metellus and Pompey, who receive but very little support from Rome, + 77-75. Negotiation of Sertorius with Mithridates the Great, and + interchange of embassies without any important result, 75. Sertorius + assassinated by Perpenna, 72. + +21. Before, however, the flame of war was totally extinguished in the +west, Mithridates kindled a new and much fiercer one in the east; at the +same time a war of slaves and gladiators was raging with terrible fury +in Italy itself; and whole fleets of pirates not only ravaged the +Italian coasts, but threatened Rome herself with a famine, and obliged +her to have recourse to a mode of naval warfare altogether peculiar. All +these enemies were not without intelligence with one another; and +colossal as was the power of the republic at that time, and rich as Rome +was in distinguished men, it seems probable that the storm which beat on +every side between 75-71, would have razed her to the ground, if a +stricter alliance could have been formed between Sertorius, Spartacus, +and Mithridates. But the great difficulty of communication which at that +time existed, and without which probably a republic such as the Roman +never could have been formed, proved of more assistance at this crisis +than at any other. + + The third Mithridatic war, occasioned by the will of Nicomedes king of + Bithynia, who had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome (see above, p. 294), + was carried on in Asia Minor, first by Lucullus, 74-67, and afterwards + by Pompey, 66-64. Mithridates, being better prepared, had already + concluded an alliance with Sertorius in Spain, 75. But the deliverance + of Cyzicus by Lucullus, 73, and the defeat of the king's fleet, + intended to act against Italy, not only frustrated all his original + plans, but were followed by the occupation of his own dominions, 72 + and 71, by the enemy, notwithstanding a new army which Mithridates + collected, mostly from the nomad hordes of Northern Asia. Flight of + Mithridates to Tigranes, 71, who positively refused to deliver him up, + and formed an alliance with him, 70; while the Parthian, Arsaces XII. + held both parties in suspense by negotiations. Victory of Lucullus + over the allied sovereigns, near Tigranocerta, 69, and Artaxata, 68; + but the mutinies which now broke out among his troops not only + hindered him from following up these advantages, but turned the scale + so much in Mithridates's favour, that in 68 and 67 he quickly regained + almost all his dominions, even while the Roman commissioners were on + their route to take possession of them. Lucullus, by his reform in the + finances of Asia Minor, raises a powerful party against himself in + Rome, and thereby loses his command. + +22. The war of the slaves and gladiators, which happened nearly at the +same time, was, from the theatre of action being in its neighbourhood, +equally dangerous to Rome; it became still more terrible from the +violence with which these outraged beings sought to revenge their +wrongs, and more formidable from the talents of their leader, Spartacus; +and the conclusion of this struggle seemed, therefore, of so much +importance to Rome, that it gave M. Crassus a much higher influence in +the state than he could ever have obtained by his riches alone. + + Commencement of this war by a number of runaway gladiators, who, being + strengthened by an almost general revolt of the slaves in Campania, + 73, soon became very formidable. The defeat of four generals, one + after the other, throws open to Spartacus the road to the Alps, and + enables him to leave Italy; but the greediness of booty manifested by + his hordes, who wished to plunder Rome, obliged him to return. Crassus + takes the command and rescues Rome, 72; upon which Spartacus retires + into Lower Italy, hoping to form a junction with the pirates, and to + carry the war into Sicily, but is deceived by them, 71. His complete + overthrow near the Silarus, 71. Pompey, then returning from Spain, + finds means to seize a sprig of the laurel chaplet which by right + should have adorned only the brow of Crassus; hence arises a + misunderstanding between these two commanders, during their consulate, + 70, which threatened to be dangerous to the state. + +23. The war against the pirates of Sicily and Isauria was not only very +important in itself, but still more so in its consequences. It procured +for Pompey a legal power such as no Roman general had ever before +enjoyed; and the quick and glorious manner in which he brought it to a +close, opened for him the way to the great object of his ambition--the +conduct of the war in Asia against Mithridates. + + The extraordinary power acquired by these pirates was owing partly to + the great negligence of the Romans in sea affairs, (see page 340), + partly to the war against Mithridates, who had taken the pirates into + his pay, and partly also to the Roman oppressions in Asia Minor. War + had been undertaken against them as early as 75, by P. Servilius; but + his victories, though they procured him the title of _Isauricus_, did + them but little harm. They were to be dreaded, not only for their + piracies, but because they also offered an easy means of communication + between the other enemies of Rome from Spain to Asia. The new attack + of the praetor M. Antonius upon Crete, proved a complete failure; but + it was the cause of that hitherto independent island being again + attacked, 68, by Metellus, and reduced to a Roman province, 67. Pompey + takes the command against the pirates with extraordinary privileges, + obtained for him by Gabinius, and finishes the war in forty days, 67. + +24. After these triumphs over so many enemies, Mithridates was the only +one which now remained; and Pompey had here again the good fortune to +conclude a struggle already near its end; for notwithstanding his late +success, Mithridates had never been able completely to recover himself. +His fall undoubtedly raised the power of Rome in Asia Minor to its +highest pitch; but it brought her, at the same time, into contact with +the Parthians. + + Pompey obtains the conduct of the war against Mithridates with very + extensive privileges, procured for him by the tribune Manilius (_lex + Manilia_), notwithstanding the opposition of Catulus, 67. His victory + by night, near the Euphrates, 66. Subjection of Tigranes, while + Mithridates flies into the Crimea, 65, whence he endeavours to renew + the war. Campaign of Pompey in the countries about the Caucasus, 65; + he marches thence into Syria, 64. Mithridates kills himself in + consequence of the defection of his son Phraates, 63. Settlement of + Asiatic affairs by Pompey: besides the ancient province of Asia, the + maritime countries of Bithynia, nearly all Paphlagonia and Pontus, are + formed into a Roman province, under the name of Bithynia; while on the + southern coast Cilicia and Pamphylia form another under the name of + Cilicia; Phoenicia and Syria compose a third, under the name of Syria. + On the other hand, Great Armenia is left to Tigranes; Cappadocia to + Ariobarzanes; the Bosphorus to Pharnaces; Judaea to Hyrcanus (see page + 310); and some other small states are also given to petty princes, all + of whom remain dependent on Rome. The tribes inhabiting Thrace during + the Mithridatic war, were first defeated by Sylla, 85, and their power + was afterwards nearly destroyed by the proconsuls of Macedonia: as by + Appius, in 77; by Curio, who drove them to the Danube, 75-73; and + especially by M. Lucullus, while his brother was engaged in Asia. Not + only the security of Macedonia, but the daring plans of Mithridates + rendered this necessary. + +25. The fall of Mithridates raised the republic to the highest pitch of +her power: there was no longer any foreign foe of whom she could be +afraid. But her internal administration had undergone great changes +during these wars. Sylla's aristocratic constitution was shaken by +Pompey, in a most essential point, by the reestablishment of the power +of the tribunes, which was done because neither he nor any leading men +could obtain their ends without their assistance. It was by their means +that Pompey had procured such unlimited power in his two late +expeditions, that the existence of the republic was thereby endangered. +It was, however, a fortunate circumstance for Rome, that Pompey's vanity +was sufficiently gratified by his being at the head of affairs, where he +avoided the appearance of an oppressor. + + Reiterated attempts of the tribune Sicinius to annul the constitution + of Sylla defeated by the senate, 76. But as early as 75 Opimius + obtained that the tribunes should not be excluded from honourable + offices, and that the judgments (_judicia_) should be restored to the + knights (_equites_). The attempts of Licinius Macer, 72, to restore + the tribunes to all their former powers, encountered but a short + opposition; and their complete reestablishment was effected by Pompey + and Crassus during their consulate, in 70. + +26. This victory of the democratic faction, however, in consequence of +the use made of it by some leading men, necessarily led the way to an +oligarchy, which after the consulate of Pompey and Crassus became very +oppressive. Catiline's conspiracy, which was not matured till after +several attempts, would have broken up this confined aristocracy, and +placed the helm of state in the hands of another and still more +dangerous faction: a faction composed in part of needy profligates and +criminals dreading the punishment of their crimes, and partly of +ambitious nobles. It occasioned a short civil war; but procured Cicero a +place in the administration. With what pleasure do we forgive the little +weaknesses and failings of one so gifted with talents and great virtues! +of one who first taught Rome, in so many ways, what it was to be great +in the robe of peace! + + Catiline's first conspiracy, in which Caesar and Crassus seem to have + been implicated, 66, as well as in the second, 65: failure of the + former by chance--of the latter through Piso's death. The third broke + out in 64, as well in Rome, where the conspirators, having no armed + force, were soon suppressed by the vigilance and activity of Cicero, + 63, as in Etruria, where a victory of the proconsul Antonius over + Catiline, who was left dead on the field, concluded it, 62. + +27. The suppression of this conspiracy, however, did not stay the effect +which the recently concluded Asiatic war had upon Roman manners. The +luxury of the east, though united with Grecian taste, which had been +introduced among the great by Lucullus; the immense riches poured into +the treasury by Pompey; the tempting examples of unlimited power, which +single citizens had already exercised; the purchase of the magistracy by +individuals, in order, like Verres, after the squandering of millions, +to enrich themselves again in the provinces; the demands of the soldiers +upon their generals; and the ease with which an army might be raised by +him who had only money enough to pay it; all these circumstances must +have foreboded new and approaching convulsions, even if the preceding +storms in this colossal republic, in which we must now judge of virtues +and vices, as well as of riches and power, by a very magnified standard, +had not formed men of that gigantic character they did:--men like Cato, +who struggled alone to stem the impetuous torrent of the revolution, and +was sufficiently powerful to retard its progress for a time; or, like +Pompey, who by good fortune and the art of acquiring influence, arose +to a degree of authority and power never before attained by any citizen +of a free state; or, like Crassus, "who only considered him as rich that +could maintain an army by his own private means," founding their +pretensions on wealth; or, finally, like the aspiring and now powerful +Caesar, whose boundless ambition could only be surpassed by his talents, +and courage, "who would rather be the first in a village than the second +in Rome." The return of Pompey from Asia, threatening the senate with a +new dictator, appeared an eventful moment. + + Attempt of Pompey, through the tribune Metellus Nepos, to be allowed + to return to Rome at the head of his army, frustrated by the firmness + of Cato, 62. + +28. The arrival of Pompey in Rome renewed the struggle between the +senate and that powerful general, although he had disbanded his army on +landing in Italy. The ratification of his management of affairs in Asia, +which was the chief point of contention, was opposed by the leading men +of the senate, Cato, the two Metelli, and Lucullus, which induced Pompey +to attach himself entirely to the popular party, by whose means he hoped +to obtain his end; Caesar's return, however, from his province of +Lusitania, entirely changed the face of affairs. + +29. Close union between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus; that is, a secret +alliance, formed by the interposition of Caesar. That which formed the +height of the ambition of Pompey and Crassus was only regarded by Caesar +as the means by which he might be able to effect his. His consulate--a +kind of dictatorship under the mask of great popularity--necessarily +paved the way to his future career, as by giving him the government of +the two Gauls and Illyria for five years, it opened a wide field for +conquest, and gave him an opportunity of forming an army devoted to his +will. + + Caesar's abode and campaign in Gaul from the spring of 58 till the end + of the year 50. By arresting the emigration of the Helvetians, and by + the expulsion of the Germans, under Ariovistus, from Gaul, 58, Caesar + gained an opportunity of intermeddling in the internal affairs of that + country, and afterwards of subduing it, which was completed by his + victory over the Belgae, 57, and the Aquitani, 56; so that Caesar was at + liberty to undertake his several expeditions, as well in Britain, 55 + and 54, as in Germany, 54 and 53. But the repeated revolts of the + Gauls, 53-51, especially under Vercingetorix, 52, occasioned a war no + less obstinate than their first conquest. Roman policy continued the + same throughout. The Gauls were subdued, by the Romans appearing as + _their deliverers_; and in the country they found allies in the Aedui, + Allobroges, etc. + +30. The triumvirate, in order to establish their power upon a solid +foundation, took care, by the management of the tribune Clodius, to get +rid of the leaders of the senate, Cato and Cicero, before the departure +of Caesar; and this they did by giving the former a kingdom to govern, +and by procuring the banishment of the latter. They must however soon +have discovered, that so bold a demagogue as Clodius could not be used +as a mere machine. And, indeed, after Caesar's departure he raised +himself so much above the triumvirs, that Pompey was soon obliged, for +his own preservation, to permit Cicero to return from exile, which could +only be effected by the most violent efforts of the tribune Milo. The +power of Clodius, however, was but little injured thereby, although +Pompey, to put a stop to the source of these disorders, and revive his +own popularity, procured the nomination of himself as _praefectus +annonae_, or superintendent of provisions. + + Exile of Cicero, the greater part of which he spent in Macedonia, from + April, 58, till 4th Sept. 57. Ptolemy king of Cyprus deposed, and that + island reduced to a Roman province by Cato, on the proposition of + Clodius, 57 (see page 264). The personal dislike of Clodius and the + riches of the king were the causes that brought upon him this + misfortune. + + MIDDLETON'S _Life of Cicero_, 2 vols. 8vo. This work is almost a + complete history of Rome during the age of Cicero; for whom the writer + discovers an undue partiality. + + # M. TULLIUS CICERO, _all his Letters translated, in chronological + order, and illustrated with notes_, by C. M. WIELAND. Zurich, 1808. + With a preliminary view of the life of Cicero. Of all Germans the + writings of Wieland, whether original or translations (and to which + can we give the preference?) afford the most lively insight into + Greek and Roman antiquity at various periods. What writer has so + truly seized its spirit, and placed it so faithfully and elegantly + before his readers? His labours on the Letters of Cicero (whose + foibles he exposes with a rigorous and unflinching hand) serve to + make us much better acquainted with Rome, as it then was, than any + Roman history. + +31. A jealousy arises between the triumvirate, as Caesar, though absent, +still found means to keep up his party at Rome in such watchful +activity, that Pompey and Crassus considered it impossible to maintain +their own influence, except by procuring such concessions as had been +made to him. Harmony once more restored by an accommodation at Lucca, as +the parties found it necessary to preserve a good understanding with +each other. + + The terms of this accommodation were; that Caesar should have his + government prolonged for another five years; and that Pompey and + Crassus should enjoy the consulship for the ensuing year, the former + receiving the provinces of Spain and Africa; and the latter that of + Syria, for the purpose of carrying on a war against the Parthians. In + proportion as these conditions were kept secret, there remained less + secrecy respecting the alliance itself. + +32. Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus. It was only amidst violent +storms that they could effect their purposes; as it depended upon which +faction should first gain or keep possession of the forum. The +resistance they met with from the inflexible disposition of Cato, who in +his austere virtue alone found means to secure himself a powerful party, +shows how unfairly those judge who consider the power of the triumvirate +as unlimited, and the nation as entirely corrupted. + + Campaign of Crassus against the Parthians, undertaken at his own + expense, 54. Instead, however, of gathering laurels like Caesar, he and + his whole army were completely overthrown in Mesopotamia, 53; and the + Parthians from this time maintain a powerful preponderance in Asia + (see above, p. 302). + +33. As the triumvirate by this failure of Crassus was reduced to a +duumvirate, Pompey (who remained in Rome, and governed his provinces by +lieutenants), in the midst of continual domestic broils, which he +cunningly took care to foment, was evidently aiming to become the +acknowledged head of the senate and republic. The idea that a dictator +was necessary prevailed more and more during an anarchy of eight months, +in which no appointment of a consul could take place; and +notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, Pompey succeeded, after a +violent commotion, in which Clodius was murdered by Milo, in getting +himself nominated sole consul; a power equal to that of dictator. + + Consulate of Pompey, 52, in which, at the end of seven months, he took + as colleague his father-in-law Metellus Scipio. The government of his + provinces, which afterwards became the chief seat of the republicans, + is prolonged for five years. + +34. From this time civil war became inevitable; for not only the chiefs +of the parties, but also their adherents desired it. The approach of the +time when Caesar's command would expire, necessarily hastened the crisis. +Could it be supposed that the conqueror of Gaul would return to a +private life, and leave his rival at the head of the republic? The steps +taken on both sides towards an accommodation were only made to escape +the odium which would attach to him who struck the first blow. But +Pompey unfortunately could never understand his opponent, who did all +himself, all completely, and all alone. The brilliant light in which +Pompey now appeared, as _defender of the republic_, delighted him so +much, that it made him forget what belonged to its defence; while Caesar +avoided, with the greatest care, every appearance of usurpation. The +friend, the protector of the people against the usurpations of their +enemies, was the character which he now chose to assume. + + Commencement of the contest upon Caesar's demand to be allowed to hold + the consulship while absent, 52. Caesar, by the most lavish corruption, + had increased his adherents in Rome, gained the tribunes, and among + them especially the powerful speaker C. Curio (whom he did not think + too dearly purchased at the price of about half a million sterling); + by this man it was suggested to Caesar that he should give up his + command, and leave a successor to be appointed in his place, 51, if + Pompey would do the same: a proposition which created a prejudice much + in his favour. Repeated, but insincere offers of both parties for an + accommodation, 50, till at last a decree of the senate was passed, + Jan. 7, 49, by which Caesar was commanded "to disband his army under + the penalty of being declared an enemy to the republic," without + regard to the intercessions of the tribunes, whose flight to him gave + an appearance of popularity to his party. Caesar crosses the Rubicon, + the boundary of his province. + +35. The civil war now about to break out, seemed likely to spread over +nearly all the countries of the Roman empire; as Pompey, finding it +impossible to maintain himself in Italy, had chosen Greece for the +principal theatre of the war; while his lieutenants, with the armies +under their command, occupied Spain and Africa. Caesar, by the able +disposition of his legions, was everywhere present, without exciting +beforehand any suspicion of his movements. A combination of +circumstances, however, carried the war into Alexandria, and even as far +as Pontus; indeed it might be called rather a series of six successive +wars than merely one, all of which Caesar, by flying with his legions +from one quarter of the world to the other, ended, within five years, +victoriously and in person. + + Rapid occupation of Italy in sixty days (when the troops under + Domitius surrendered at Corfinus), which, as well as Sicily and + Sardinia, were subdued by Caesar almost without opposition; Pompey, + with his troops and adherents, having crossed over to Greece. Caesar's + first campaign in Spain against Pompey's generals, Afranius and + Petreius, whom he forces to surrender; this, however, is + counterbalanced by the loss of the legions under Curio in Africa. In + December, 49, however, Caesar is again in Italy, and named dictator, + which he exchanges for the consulate. Spirited expedition into Greece + with the ships he had been previously collecting together, Jan. 4, 49. + Unfortunate engagement at Dyrrachium. Removal of the war into + Thessaly, and decisive battle of Pharsalia, July 20, 48, after which + Pompey flies to Alexandria, where he is killed on his landing. Caesar + arrives three days after him at Alexandria. + +36. Caesar, after the victory of Pharsalia, again nominated dictator, +with great privileges. The death of Pompey, however, does not destroy +his party; and the six months' war of Alexandria, as well as the +expedition into Pontus against Pharnaces, gave them time to rally their +forces both in Africa under Cato, and in Spain under the sons of Pompey. + + During the Alexandrine war (see above, p. 266) and the expedition + against Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates,--who had obtained the + kingdom of his father, but was slain by Caesar immediately after his + arrival, 47,--great disorders had broken out in Rome, caused by the + tribune Dolabella's flattering the people with the abolition of debts + (_novae tabulae_), notwithstanding the military power of M. Antony, whom + Caesar had sent to Rome as master of the horse (_magister equitum_), as + this abandoned sensualist at first actually favoured the projects of + the tribune. Caesar's return to Rome, December, 47, put an end, it is + true, to these disorders; but the increase of the opposite party in + Africa, and an insurrection among his soldiers, obliged him to set out + for Africa immediately, January, 46. Victory near Thapsus over Scipio + and Juba; after which Cato kills himself at Utica. Numidia, the + kingdom of Juba, becomes a Roman province. Caesar after his return to + Rome in June, is only able to stay there four months, as, before the + end of the year, he is obliged to set out for Spain to crush the + dangerous efforts of Pompey's two sons. Bloody battle at Munda, March, + 45, after which Cneius is killed, but Sextus escapes to the + Celtiberians. + +37. Nothing seems more evident than that Caesar did not, like Sylla, +overthrow the republic for the purpose of reestablishing it; and it is +perhaps impossible to say what could be the final views of a childless +usurper, who throughout his whole career, seemed only to be guided by an +inordinate ambition, springing from a consciousness of superior powers, +and to satisfy which, no means seemed to him difficult or unlawful. The +period of his dictatorship was so short, and so much interrupted by +war, that his ultimate plans had not time for their development. He +endeavoured to establish his dominion by popular measures; and although +his army must still have been his main support, yet no proscription was +granted to satisfy it. The reestablishment of order in the distracted +country of Italy, and particularly in the capital, was his first care; +and he proposed to follow that by an expedition against the powerful +Parthian empire. His attempts, however, to obtain the diadem, seemed to +place it beyond a doubt that he wished to introduce a formal monarchy. +But the destruction of the form of the republic was shown to be more +dangerous than the overthrow of the republic itself. + + The following were the honours and privileges granted to Caesar by the + senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator + for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas + tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the + exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes, + and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to + him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _praefectura morum_, and was at + last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the title of _imperator_. + Although Caesar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears + to have been done without laying aside the republican forms. + +38. Conspiracy against Caesar, formed by Brutus and Cassius, and +terminating in the death of Caesar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of +this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance +with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their +deed. Caesar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon +showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his +life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which +now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable. + + We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern times has + been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured. + As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a + man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to + which Caesar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas + which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding + in Caesar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little + of preserving it. + + _Histoire de la Vie de Jules Caesar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2 + vols. 8vo. + + # _Life of C. Julius Caesar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_ + J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best. + + _Caius Julius Caesar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SOELTL. A + short biography, judiciously executed. + +39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies +of Caesar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by +his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his +party; and the arrival of Caesar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Caesar +Octavianus), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still +more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular +object being to raise himself into Caesar's place. However earnestly they +sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and +the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of +the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to +revenge the murder of Caesar, this became the chief cause of the +struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war. + + At the time of Caesar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and + Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the + horse); M. Brutus and Cassius, praetors (the first, _praetor urbanus_). + Caesar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the + latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate. + M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to + Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Caesar, Antony obtained, + by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his + colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; + instead of which the senate decreed to Cassius Cyrene, and to Brutus, + who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions, + Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change, + to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C. + Antony, both of which he procured from the people. + +40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul, +and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a +short, indeed, but very bloody civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.) +The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the +republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with +Caesar Octavianus, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled +him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls +being slain, Octavianus at the head of his legions was too importunate +to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, +how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless +decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which +soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no +more than the shadow of what it had formerly been. + + The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of + Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept. + 22. + +41. Octavianus, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret +negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a +meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new +triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five +years, under the title of _triumviri reipublicae constituendae_; and +dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure, +they make the destruction of the republican party their principal +object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war +against the murderers of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to +effect it. + + The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after + which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the + massacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in + which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was + not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the + one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had + undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent + demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror + as this, when even tears were forbidden? + +42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered +therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the +republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and +although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces, +that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite +party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of +Sextus Pompey, which seemed to assure them the dominion of the sea. + + M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early + as the autumn of 44; while Cassius, on the contrary, had to contend + for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul + Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this + offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by + Cassius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and + Cassius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense + they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S. + Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in + Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very + powerful; when the senate, after Caesar's assassination, having made + him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of + Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and + then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing + for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the + profit he might have done from his power and good fortune. + +43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with +the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by +land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and +Cassius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of +her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last +supporters of the republic. + + Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary + death of Cassius after the first, and of Brutus after the second + engagement. + + PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses. + +44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of +Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the +quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the +end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Caesar, +without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice +to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange +the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to +Alexandria, Octavianus returned to Rome. But the famine which then +reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the +misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from +the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable +covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it +had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged +consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her +brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the +year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of +Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already +much weakened by famine. + + The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April, + 40. + +45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M. +Antony, as the enemy of Octavianus, had come to Italy in order to assist +his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S. +Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was +harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great +famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey, +although it lasted but a very short time. + + The principal object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new + division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was + fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces; + Octavianus all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in + common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being + dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded + with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia. + +46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between +him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war +which he soon commenced, and which Octavianus could not bring to a close +but with the assistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance, +as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to +dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a +duumvirate. + + After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new + fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus + coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final + overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus + wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavianus gains over his + troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate. + +47. The foreign wars in which Octavianus as well as Antony were engaged +in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy +from coming to an open rupture. Octavianus, to tame his unruly legions, +employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and +Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful +Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in +these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal +separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held +together the two masters of the world. + + After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40, + and then, having made peace with Octavianus, he carried his new wife + Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37. + Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the + Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony + determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But + although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon + after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into + Parthia, by passing through Armenia and Media, a different route from + that taken by Crassus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate, + and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon + Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he + made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal + entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other + countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33, + he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance + with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, + ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as + Athens on her way to meet him, Octavianus and Antony reciprocally + accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, + though only against Cleopatra. + +48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of +Antony were most considerable, yet Octavianus had the advantage of +having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of +Actium decided for Octavianus, who could scarcely believe it, till he +found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which +surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see +above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the +death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavianus +absolute master of the republic. + + The history of the last days of Antony, principally after his decline, + having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received + with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished + abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of + Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of + which Plutarch made use. + + + + +FOURTH PERIOD. + + + HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE + WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476. + + + + +_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other +countries connected with it by war or commerce._ + + +The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it +sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and +Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa +likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of +the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea. + +EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the +Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Principal rivers: the +Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Baetis +(Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro), +which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the +Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three +provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the +Anas. Principal tribes: Lusitani, Turdetani. Principal town: Augusta +Emerita. 2. Baetica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the +east the mountains of Orospeda. Principal tribes: Turduli, Bastuli. +Principal towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), +Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Principal tribes: +Callaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, +Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the +Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova +(Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia +(Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and +Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain. + +II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east +the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus, +together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea. +Principal rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana +(Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean; +the Rhodanus (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls +into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse), +which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, +Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1. +Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees, +on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Principal +tribes: Allobroges, Volcae, Calyes. Principal towns: Narbo (Narbonne), +Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nimes), Massilia (Marseilles), Vienna. 2. +Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the +Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Principal +tribes: Aedui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin. +Principal towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia +(Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south, +the Liger on the north and east. Principal tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian +origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Principal towns: +Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the +north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the +Rhodanus as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries +bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were +afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and +Superior. Principal tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of +Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in +the interior, of Celtic origin. Principal towns: Vesentio (Besancon), +Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia +Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiacum (Mayence, or +Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg). + +III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as +from the time of Caesar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of +Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy. + +IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybaeum. + +V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320. + +VI. The Insulae Britannicae (British islands); but of these, only England +and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in +the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Principal rivers: +Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eboracum (York) in the +north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia +Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being +ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it +was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions. + +VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under +Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia. +Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the Aenus (Inn), on the +west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Principal tribes: Vindelici, +Brigantii, etc. Principal towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), +Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhaetia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on +the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from +Lacus Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia. +Principal tribe: Rhaeti. Principal towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena +(Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noricum. Boundaries: on the north the +Danube, on the west the Aenus, on the east the mountain Cetius +(Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). +Principal tribes: Boii. Cities: Jovavum (Salzburg), Boiodurum (Passau). +4. Pannonia Superior. Boundaries: on the north and east the Danube, on +the south the Arrabo (Raab), on the west the mountain Cetius. Cities: +Vindobona (Vienna), Caruntum. 5. Pannonia Inferior. Boundaries: on the +north the Arrabo, on the east the Danube, on the south the Savus. +Cities: Taurunum (Belgrade), Mursa (Esseg), and Sirmium. 6. Moesia +Superior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the south Mount +Scardus, or Scodrus, on the west Pannonia, on the east the river Cebrus +(Ischia). Cities: Singidunum (Semlin), and Naissus (Nissa). 7. Moesia +Inferior. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the Cebrus, +on the south mount Haemus (the Balkan), and on the east the Pontus +Euxinus. Cities: Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Tomisvar). + +VIII. Illyricum, in its most extensive signification, comprised all the +provinces south of the Danube, together with Rhaetia and Dalmatia: but +Illyricum Proper comprehends only the lands along the coast of the +Adriatic, from Rhaetia in Italy to the river Drinus, and easterly to the +Savus. Principal towns: Salona, Epidaurus (near the present Ragusa), +Scodra (Scutari). + +IX. Macedonia. Boundaries: on the north mount Scodrus, on the south the +Cambunian mountains, on the west the Adriatic, and on the east the Aegean +sea. Rivers: the Nestus, Strymon, and Halyacmon, which fall into the +Aegean sea, and the Apsus and Aoeus, which fall into the Adriatic. +Principal tribes: Paeones in the north, Pieres and Mygdones in the south. +Principal towns: Pydna, Pella, Thessalonica, Philippi, with other Greek +colonies (see above, p. 164). Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the western +coast. + +X. Thrace had for some time kings of her own, though dependent on Rome, +and was first reduced to a Roman province under Claudius. Boundaries: on +the north Mount Haemus, on the west the Nestus, on the south and east the +sea. River: Hebrus. Principal tribes: Triballi, Bessi, and Odrysae. +Cities: Byzantium, Apollonia, Beroea. + +XI. Achaia (Greece), see above, p. 131. + +XII. To the north of the Danube the province of Dacia was brought under +the Roman empire by Trajan. Boundaries: on the south the Danube, on the +west the Tibiscus (Theiss), in the east the Hierasus (Pruth), in the +north the Carpathian mountains. Principal tribe: Daci. Chief cities; +Ulpia Trajana and Tibiscum. + +ASIATIC PROVINCES: I. Asia Minor contained the provinces: 1. Asia (see +above, p. 293). 2. Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of +Pontus. 3. Cilicia, with Pisidia (see above, p. 18.) II. Syria and +Phoenicia. III. The isle of Cyprus. Several other states, likewise +dependent, still preserved their kings: as, Judaea (became a Roman +province, A. D. 44.), Commagene (province A. D. 70, and, together with +Judaea, added to Syria), Cappadocia (province A. D. 17), Pontus +(completely a province under Nero). Free states at this time: Rhodes, +Samos (provinces A. D. 70), and Lycia (province A. D. 43). Beyond the +Euphrates, Armenia and Mesopotamia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, +but, as early as the time of Adrian, were abandoned. + +AFRICAN PROVINCES. I. Egypt. II. Cyrenaica, with the isle of Crete. III. +Africa, Numidia (see above, p. 47). Mauritania still had its separate +king, but he was set aside, A. D. 41, and the country divided into two +provinces: 1. Mauritania Caesariensis. Boundaries: on the east the river +Ampsaga, on the west the Mulucha. Principal places: Igilgilis and +Caesaria. 2. Mauritania Tingitana, from the river Mulucha to the Atlantic +ocean. Capital: Tingis. + +Principal states on the borders of the empire: I. Germania. Boundaries: +on the south the Danube, on the north the sea, on the west the Rhine, on +the east undetermined, though the Vistula is generally regarded as such. +Principal rivers: the Danubius, Rhenus (Rhine), Albis (Elbe), Visurgis +(Weser), Viadrus (Oder), and the Vistula; the Lupias (Lippe) and Amisia +(Ems) are likewise frequently mentioned. Mountains and forests: the +Hercynian forest, a general name for the forest mountains, particularly +of eastern Germany. Melibocus (the Hartz), Sudetus (the Thuringian +forest); the forest of Teutoburg, to the south of Westphalia, etc. It +would be useless to seek for a general political division, or for the +cities, of ancient Germany; we can only point out the situation of the +principal tribes. It is necessary, however, to precede this by two +observations: 1. The same territory, in the tide of forcible emigration +and conquest, and particularly after the second century, often changed +its inhabitants. 2. The names of some of the principal tribes often +became that of a confederacy. The principal tribes in the period of +Augustus were, in northern Germany; the Batavi in Holland; the Frisii in +Friesland; the Bructeri in Westphalia; the lesser and larger Chauci in +Oldenburg and Bremen; the Cherusci, likewise the name of a +confederation, in Brunswick; the Catti in Hesse. In southern (central) +Germany: the Hermunduri in Franconia; the Marcomanni in Bohemia. The +Alemanni, not the name of a single tribe, but of a confederation, are +first mentioned in the third century: in the period of Augustus these +tribes, and the principal of those of eastern Germany, which gradually +became known, were included under the general name of Suevi. + +The northernmost countries of Europe were considered as isles of the +German ocean, and therefore regarded as belonging to Germany. They were +Scandinavia, or Scandia (southern Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and +Eningia, or probably Finningia (Finland). The northernmost island was +called Thule. + +The north of Europe, from the Vistula to the Tanais (Don), was comprised +under the general name of Sarmatia; but beyond the territory about the +Danube, and especially Dacia (see above, p. 407), they were only in a +slight degree acquainted with the coast of the Baltic, by the amber +trade. + +In Asia the Roman empire was bounded by Great Armenia (see above, p. 19, +and 299), the Parthian empire from the Euphrates to the Indus (see +above, p. 19-22), and the peninsula of Arabia (see above, p. 19). + +Eastern Asia, or India, became known to the Romans by a commercial +intercourse carried on between them, and which began soon after the +conquest of Egypt. It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, +that is: 1. The territory between the Indus and Ganges; 2. The peninsula +on this side, the western coast of which in particular (Malabar), was +very well known; and, 3. The island of Taprobana (Ceylon), and India +beyond the Ganges, to which also the distant Serica belonged: but of all +these countries they had but a very imperfect knowledge. + +The boundaries of Africa were Aethiopia above Egypt, and Gaetulia and the +great sandy desert of Libya, above the other provinces. + + + + +FIRST SECTION. + +_From Augustus Caesar to the death of Commodus, B. C. 30. A. C. 193._ + + + SOURCES. For the whole of this period DION CASSIUS, lib. li-lxxx, is + our historian; though of his last twenty books we have only the + abridgment of Xiphilinus. For the history of the emperors from + Tiberius to the beginning of Vespasian's reign, the principal writer + is TACITUS, in his _Annals_, A. C. 14-63; (of which, however, part of + the history of Tiberius, 32-34, all of Caligula and the first six + years of Claudius, 37-47, as well as the last year and a half of Nero, + are unfortunately lost); and in his _History_, of which scarcely the + first three years, 69-71, are come down to us. SUETONIUS'S _Lives of + the Caesars_, down to Domitian, are so much the more valuable, because + in a state like the Roman it becomes of importance to know the + character and domestic life of the ruling men. For the reigns of + Augustus and Tiberius the _History_ of VELLEIUS PATERCULUS is not of + less consequence, although written in a court-like tone. The sources + for the history of the separate Caesars will be given as we come to + them. + + The following are the labours of modern writers: + + _Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont regne dans les + six premiers siecles de l'Eglise_, _par_ M. LENAIN DE TILLEMONT. a + Bruxelle, 1707, 5 vols. 8vo. (An earlier edition in 4to. 1700, 4 + vols.) The work of Tillemont has some worth as a laborious + compilation, but is superseded in its execution by the following: + + _Histoire des Empereurs Romains, depuis Auguste jusqu' a Constantin_, + _par_ M. CREVIER. Paris, 1749, 12 vols. 8vo. [Translated into + English.] A continuation of Rollin's Roman History (see above, p. + 318), quite in the spirit of that writer, and by one of his school. + + DR. GOLDSMITH'S _Roman History, from the foundation of the city of + Rome to the destruction of the western empire_. London, 1774, 2 vols. + 8vo. Rather a sketch than a detailed history (see above, p. 321, + sqq.). + + # _History of Rome under the Emperors, and of the contemporary + nations_, _by_ M. D. G. H. HUBLER. Fryburg, 1803, 3 parts. + Continuation of the work cited p. 2: it reaches down to Constantine. + +1. Octavianus Caesar, on whom the senate conferred the honourable title +of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his +successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four +years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which +the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in +fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the +ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the +utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change; and the rest +of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be +reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to +circumstances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so +long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the +republican spirit which at the beginning existed only in a few +individuals, should evaporate of itself! + + The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme + power (dictatorship excepted) were;--the consulate, which, till B. C. + 21, was annually renewed; and the _potestas consularis_, which, in B. + C. 19, was settled on him for ever;--the _tribunicia potestas_, which + was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred + (_sacrosancta_), and prepared the way to the _judicia majestatis_ + (accusations of high treason). As _imperator_, 31, he continued + commander of all the forces, and obtained the _imperium proconsulare_ + (proconsular power) in all the provinces. He assumed the _magistratura + morum_ (censorship), 19; and became _pontifex maximus_ (high priest), + 13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first + accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it + renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later + period, gave rise to the _sacra decennalia_. + +2. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and +Augustus himself endeavoured to increase its authority by more than one +purification (_lectio_); but the connection between him and that +assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and +could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, +or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought +before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It +naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had +no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult +with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Maecenas, or an +Agrippa, etc. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state +(_consilium secretum principis_). Among the republican magistrates the +highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of +peace in the capital, the offices of praefect of the city (_praefectus +urbis_) and praefect of provisions (_praefectus annonae_) were not only +made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices +in the state. + + The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict + distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially + the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of + nominating under-consuls (_consules suffecti_,) which in time + became merely a formal assumption of the _ornamenta consularia et + triumphalia_ (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were + created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents. + +3. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally +followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to +guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the +establishment of the guards and militia of the city (_cohortes +praetorianae_ and _cohortes urbanae_) were measures equally necessary for +the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of _two_ +praetorian praefects, however, instead of _one_, diminished for the +present the great importance of that office. + + Distribution of the legions over the provinces in _castra stativa_ + (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the + Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates (_legiones Germanicae, Illyricae, + et Syriacae_). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna. + +4. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the +provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to +himself those on the frontiers (_provinciae principis_,) in which the +legions were quartered, and leaving to that assembly the others +(_provinciae senatus_). Hence his deputies (_legati_, lieutenants) +exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of +the senate, on the contrary (_proconsules_), only administered in civil +affairs. Both were, in general, attended by commissioners (_procuratores +et quaestores_). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new +arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked +after, but because they were paid by the state. + + The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon + the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an + essential difference between the provinces of the emperor and those + of the senate (_provinciae principis et senatus_): in the latter there + was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may + be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, etc. + +5. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained, +upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal +administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a +very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious +difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor +(_fiscus_), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest +(_aerarium_) which he disposed of indirectly through the senate, though +it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing +despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the +former. + + The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the + civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to + the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the + maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered + it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so + happily executed; and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to + place everything, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting + foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of + taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in + the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each + individual. 2. The customs, partly by reestablishing former ones, and + partly by imposing new ones as well as an excise (_centesima rerum + venalium_), were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt, + which was the depot of nearly all the commerce of the east, rendered + the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state + lands in the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of + the new taxes the most considerable were the _vigesima hereditatum_ + (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions; + and the fines upon celibacy by the _lex Julia Poppaea_.--The greater + part of these state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, + into the _fiscus_: that is, the whole revenues of the _provinciae + principis_, as well as of those parts of the _provinciae senatus_ which + were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops; the revenues + arising from the crown domains; the _vigesima_, etc. To the _aerarium_ + (now under three _praefecti aerarii_) remained a part of the revenues of + the _provinciae senatus_, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears + that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby + of the empire. + + See above, p. 362, the writings of HEGEWISCH and BOSSE. + +6. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very +considerable; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the +security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The +complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the +frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never-executed +expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken +against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this +quarter was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz. Rhaetia, +Vindelicia, and Noricum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moesia. To +counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely +failed; and that against Aethiopia was of no further consequence than to +strengthen the frontiers. + +7. All these conquests together, however, did not cost the Romans so +much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the +sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the +son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking +was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now +impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be +preserved without it. + + Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of + Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) + being in general the theatre of the war: while the Lower Rhine was + attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and + the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by + their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and + Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated + as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his + return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius, + Aenobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. + 2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9,) endeavoured + to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and + introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a + province the part of Germany they had already subdued; but the + craftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann,) a prince of + the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of + the Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the + Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany + from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught + the conquerors (what they never forgot) that the legions were not + invincible. Augustus immediately despatched Tiberius, who had just + quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus, + to the Rhine; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till + Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the + country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet, + notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his + fleet and part of his army by a tempest on his return, and the + jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his + command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter. + + # MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_, part iii. + +8. The long, and for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has +generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman +history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed, +it certainly was so. Security of person and property were reestablished; +the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and +his favourite Maecenas; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration +of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the +government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best +that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not +blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward +decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws +could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for +that purpose. + + Among his most important laws to this end are, the _lex Julia de + adulteriis_ and the _lex Papia Poppaea_ against celibacy. The latter + excited many murmurs. + +9. Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of +his domestic troubles; the most unhappy family being that of the +emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but +does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising +her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to the throne. The naturally unsettled +state of the succession, in a government such as that of Rome now was, +became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his +nephew and son-in-law Marcellus, whom he had adopted, his widow Julia, +the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to +Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caesar, were +adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so +much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who in the +mean time had married their mother, Julia,--afterwards banished by +Augustus for her licentious conduct--left the court in disgust. The +death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of +Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus upon the condition that he should +also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother Drusus; +after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally +associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal +partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, _lex +regia_. + + _Marmor Ancyranum_; or, inscriptions in the temple of Augustus at + Ancyra. A copy of the account given of his government, which Augustus + latterly caused to be set up at Rome as a public memorial: + unfortunately much mutilated. It is to be found in CHISHULL, _Antiq. + Asiatic_. + + _Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, by_ THOMAS BLACKWELL. London, 1760, + 3 vols. 4to. divided into fifteen books. The last vol. was published + after the death of the author, by MR. MILLS. The last two books of + this prolix work contain a description of the contemporary affairs of + Augustus; the others go back to earlier times. A just appreciation of + Augustus requires a previous critical examination of the sources from + which Suetonius has drawn the materials for his biography. + + _Histoire des triumvirats augmentee de l'histoire d'Auguste, par_ + LARRY. Trevoux, 1741, 4 parts, 8vo. The last part of this simple + narrative contains the history of Augustus from the death of Catiline. + +10. The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his +adoption, Augustus Tiberius Caesar, from his fifty-sixth to his +seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the +Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome, +although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in Germany, felt that +they could make emperors. Under him the _comitia_, or assemblies of the +people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to +the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes +of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much +accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that everything depended on +his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the _judicia +majestatis_, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of +terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and +servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the +moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state, +necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny. +Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of +Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his +fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior +circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he +had hitherto worn. + + The foundation of the _judicia majestatis_, which soon became so + terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign + of Augustus by the _lex Julia de majestate_, and the _cognitiones + extraordinariae_, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of + certain crimes; it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his + successors, which rendered them so dreadful. + +12. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his +hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people. +This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria +to quell the disorders of the east. After having successfully put an end +to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the +contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the +numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from +persecution and ruin. + + The expeditions of Germanicus in the east not only gave a king to + Armenia, but also reduced Cappadocia and Commagene to Roman provinces, + A. C. 17. + + _Histoire de Caesar Germanicus, par_ M. L. D. B. [EAUFORT]. a Leyden, + 1741. An unpretending chronological narrative. + +13. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendancy +which L. Aelius Sejanus, the praefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired +over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the +more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority +were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in +barracks near the city (_castra praetoriana_), but (having first +persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely +play the tyrant in the isle of Capreae) by his endeavouring to open a way +for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by +his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had +introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only +his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected +with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of +Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust +which he joined to it in his old age. + + Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His + early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is + properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of + Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than + his praise of Sejanus. + +14. At the age of twenty-five Caius Caesar Caligula, the only remaining +son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been +formed of this young prince were soon wofully disappointed. His previous +sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his +short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more +harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like +cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was +assassinated by Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of +his guard. + +15. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at the age of fifty, +succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards; +a favour which he rewarded by granting them a _donative_. Too weak to +rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and +cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives +and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now +hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus. +The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her +rapacious cupidity, to which everything gave way, than by her dissolute +life; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, +left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was +Agrippina, her neice, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of +her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief +aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former +marriage--who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter +Octavia--by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius; and this she +hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus, +by making him _sole_ praefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding the +contentions with the Germans and Parthians (see above, p. 303) were only +on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many +countries extended. + + Commencement of the Roman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius + himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the + same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judaea, 44 (see above, + p. 312), and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also + abolished the praefectures which had hitherto existed in Italy. + +16. Nero Claudius Caesar, supported by Agrippina and the praetorian guard, +succeeded Claudius at the age of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of +the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a +professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended +the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole +reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries +and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into +action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the +sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely +connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer +excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and as, among all tyrants, every +execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting +to death every one that excelled him. His connection, however, in the +early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during +which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him +within the bounds of decency. But Poppaea Sabina having driven him on to +the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made +his confident, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public +opinion. The executions of individuals, nearly all of which history has +recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the +plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and +effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual +state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. +The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity, +which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the +history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like +that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as virtue! + + Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 65, and the revolt of Julius + Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is + there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania. + Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany, by + the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled, + when the praetorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out + into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. + Foreign wars during his reign: in Britain (occasioned by the revolt + of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman + province, by Suetonius Paulinus; in Armenia, under the command of the + valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians (see above, p. 303); and in + Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives + rise to the first persecution against the Christians. + + The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was + so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the + fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the + monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary + _congiaria_ and _viscerationes_ (supplies of wine and meat). The + periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people. + +17. By the death of Nero the house of Caesar became extinct, and this +gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, +four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right +of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the +throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out +that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled into +an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of +age, having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and +acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a +blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius +Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given +offence both to the praetorian guard and the German legions, was +dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho, +at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting +the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho. + +18. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the +senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who, proclaiming +their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches +against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills +himself--whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain. + + The special sources for the history of Galba and Otho, are their + _Lives_ by PLUTARCH. + +19. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not +only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and +cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops, having +rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed +their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation +of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial +diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and +marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus defeated the +army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediately hurled from the +throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the +commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus, the +brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt. + +20. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and +became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to +Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive +revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy +condition. He endeavoured, as far as he could, to determine the +relations between himself and the senate; while, by a decree, he +restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred +upon it by his predecessors of the family of Caesar, and settled and +added some others (_lex regia_). He made a thorough reform in the +completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing +the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into +provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing +others, and by imposing new ones: without this it would have been +impossible for him to have reestablished the discipline of the army. His +liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in +other cities; and the care with which he promoted education, by granting +salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the +reproach of avarice; and although, on account of their dangerous +opinions, he banished the Stoics (who since the time of Nero had become +very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism), +the annulling of the _judicia majestatis_ and the restoration of the +authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot. + + Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were + brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars: + that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem, + A. C. 70; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their + allies under Civilis, who during the late civil wars, sought to shake + off the Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by + Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only + subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but + also attacked and sailed round Scotland. + + _D. Vespasianus, sive de vita et legislatione T. Flavii Vespasiani + Imp. commentarius, auctore_ A. G. CRAMER. Jenae, 1785. An excellent + enquiry, with illustrations of the fragments of the _lex regia_. The + second part, _de legislatione_, contains a learned commentary upon the + _senatus consulta_, during his reign. + +21. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been +created Caesar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his forty-second +year, gives us the rare example of a prince becoming better on the +throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for +its public calamities: an eruption of mount Vesuvius, overwhelming +several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful +plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if +not the happiest, at least the best of princes. + +22. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned +from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite +opposite to that of Titus: beginning with justice and severity, he soon +degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman +sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished +by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by +their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to +which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his +unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, +increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his +armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not +thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at first, he +multiplied the _judicia majestatis_, rendering it still more terrible by +the employment of secret informers (_delatores_), in order, by +confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (_fiscus_). +By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict +superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any +such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His +fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from +the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in +danger. + + The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark + by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with + success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave + the first proof of his boundless vanity; as did the recall of the + victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most + important war was that against the Daci, or Getae, who, under their + brave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers; this again + occasioned another with their neighbours, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and + Jazygi, 86-90, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian + was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual + tribute. + +23. M. Cocceius Nerva, aged about seventy years was raised to the throne +by the murderers of Domitian; and now, at last, seemed to break forth +the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of +terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavoured to impart fresh +vigour to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by +distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards +certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the +same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire +after his death, by the adoption of Trajan. + +24. M. Ulpius Trajan (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan), a Spaniard by +birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second +year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at +the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a +ruler, a general, and a man. After completely abolishing the _judicia +majestatis_, he made the restoration of the _free Roman constitution_, +so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care. +He restored the elective power to the _comitia_, complete liberty of +speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and +yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few +princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheless +splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the +provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public +monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars +he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, +in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman +province; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and +Parthians, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a +character disfigured by an ambition of conquest? + + The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was + withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103. + But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and + brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province, + and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the + Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne + of Armenia (see above, p. 304), 114-116: but although Rome was + victorious she gained no permanent advantage thereby. + + The especial source for the history of Trajan is the _Panegyricus_ of + PLINY THE YOUNGER; the correspondence, however, of the same writer, + while governor of Bithynia, with the emperor, affords us a much deeper + insight into the spirit of his government: PLINII _Epist._ lib. x. Who + can read it without admiring the royal statesman? + + RITTERSHUSII _Trajanus in lucem reproductus_. Ambegae, 1608. A mere + collection of passages occurring in ancient authors respecting Trajan. + + _Res Trajani Imperatoris ad Danubium Gestae, auctore_ CONRAD MANNERT. + Norimb. 1793: and + + JOH. CHRIST. ENGEL, _Commentatio de Expeditionibus Trajani ad + Danubium, et origine Valachorum_. Vindob. 1794.--Both learned + dissertations, written for the prize offered by the Royal Society of + Gottingen; the first of which obtained the prize, and the other the + _accessit_, i. e. was declared second best. + +25. By the contrivances of Plotina, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by +his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. Aelius +Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He +was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was, +and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed +from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of +peace; on which account he gave up (rare moderation!), directly after +his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, +and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war (see above, p. +304.) He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, +because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. He well +made up for his pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general +and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the +discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that +purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire; +first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations +and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman +jurisprudence by the introduction of the _edictum perpetuum_. +Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine +arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another +Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for +the empire; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be +accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having +first adopted L. Aurelius Verus (afterwards Aelius Verus), who fell a +sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus +(afterwards T. Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius), upon condition that he +should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus (afterwards M. Aurelius Antoninus), +and L. Cesonius Commodus (afterwards L. Verus), the son of Aelius Verus. + + During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judaea, under Barcochab, + 132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the + Roman colony of _Aelia Capitolina_ (the ancient Jerusalem). + + The especial source for the history of Adrian, is his _Life_ and that + of _Aelius Verus_ by AeLIUS SPARTIANUS _in Script. Hist. Aug. Minores_, + already quoted. + +26. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his +seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman +empire. He found everything already in excellent order; and those +ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His +quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history; and yet he was, +perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although +a prince, his life was that of the most blameless individual; while he +administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He +honoured the senate; and the provinces flourished under him, not only +because he kept a watchful eye over the conduct of the governors, but +because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places +all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid +order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of +service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his +erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with +salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried +on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice +of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out +in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the +Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants. + + The principal and almost the only source for the history of Antoninus + Pius, Dion Cassius's history of this period being lost, is his _Life_ + by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS in the _Script. Hist. August._ And even this + refers to his private character rather than his public history. + Compare the excellent _Reflections_ of MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 16. upon + this prince. + + _Vie des Empereurs Tite Antonin et Marc Aurele_, _par_ M. GAUTIER DE + SIBERT. Paris, 1769, 8vo. A valuable essay on the lives of the two + Antonines. + +27. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher (aged +40-59 years), who immediately associated with himself, under the title +of Augustus, L. Verus (aged 30-40 years, ! 169), to whom he gave his +daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their +character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole +of their common reign; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in +the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M. +Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence, +a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like +Aurelius, who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a +throne, could have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his +accession, the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians +in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with +the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations, +who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia, were of much +greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with +but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, +in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first +who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman +service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed +the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much +influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke +out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, +occasioned by a false report of his death; but it was quelled by the +destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known. + + The war against the Parthians (see above, p. 304) was indeed brought + to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians + falling into the hands of the Romans; Verus left them, however, to be + carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at + Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the + beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together, + was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the + Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and + penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a + glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of + Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced + hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. + Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection + with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnae, + Alani, etc. who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by + the advance of the Goths. _This was the first symptom of the great + migration of nations now beginning._ + + The especial sources for the history of M. Aurelius, are the + Biographies of him and L. Verus, written by JULIUS CAPITOLINUS, as + well as that of Avidius Cassius, by VULCATIUS GALLICANUS in _Script. + Hist. August._ The letters discovered in Milan, among and together + with the writings of FRONTO, are of no historical service.--His + principles are best learnt from his _Meditations on himself_. + + CH. MEINERS _de M. Aurel. Antonini ingenio, moribus, et scriptis, in + Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vi. + +28. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the +last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often +fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in J. Commodus the son of M. +Aurelius (probably the offspring of a gladiator), who reigned from his +nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster +of cruelty, insolence, and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he +bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being +himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state +was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, praefect of the +praetorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, +was succeeded by the freedman Cleander, who put up all for sale, till he +fell a sacrifice to his own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the +people, caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity +of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of +wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part, in +the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and +thereby of his cruelty; till at last he was killed at the instigation of +his concubine Marcia, Laetus the praefect of the praetorian guard, and +Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Dacia, and +especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants, +generals who belonged to the school of his father. + + The especial source for the history of Commodus is his private life + by AEL. LAMPRIDIUS, in the _Script. Hist. August._--The history of + Herodian begins with his reign. + +29. The disasters under M. Aurelius, and the extravagances of Commodus, +had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the +period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigour. If wise +regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of +political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the +happiness of a commonwealth, it must have been found in the Roman. What +a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its +situation! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population, +rich provinces, flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal +and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a +nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in +vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to +be brought under the yoke of Commodus by praetorian cohorts and the +legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still +retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years +longer, to the formidable attacks from without. + + D. H. HEGEWISCH _upon the Epochs in Roman History most favourable to + Humanity_. Hamburg, 1800-8. + + Foreign commerce, so flourishing in this period, could only be carried + on, to any extent, with the east--mostly with India--as the Roman + empire spread over all the west. This trade continued to be carried on + through Egypt, and also through Palmyra and Syria. Information + thereupon will be found in + + W. ROBERTSON'S _Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the + Ancients had of India_. London, 1791, 4to. Often reprinted. And + particularly upon Egypt, in + + W. VINCENT, _the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_. London, 1802, 4to. 2 + vols. A very instructive work. + + HEEREN, _Commentationes de Graecorum et Romanorum de India notitia, et + cum Indis commerciis_: _in Commentat. Soc. Gott._ vol. x. xi. + + + + +SECOND SECTION. + +_From the death of Commodus to Diocletian, A. C. 193-284._ + + + SOURCES. The Extracts of Xiphilinus from DION CASSIUS, lib. + lxxiii-lxxx. though often imperfect, reach down as low as the + consulate of Dion himself under Alexander Severus, 229.--HERODIANI + _Hist._ libri viii. comprise the period from Commodus to Gordian, + 180-238.--The _Scriptores Historiae Augustae Minores_ contain the + private lives of the emperors down to Diocletian, by JULIUS + CAPITOLINUS, FLAVIUS VOPISCUS, etc.--The _Breviaria Historiae Romanae_ + of EUTROPIUS, AURELIUS VICTOR, and S. RUFUS are particularly important + for this period.--Finally, the important information that may be + derived from the study of medals and coins, not only for this section, + but for the whole history of the emperors, may be best learnt by + consulting the writers upon those subjects: J. VAILLANT, _Numismata + Augustorum et Caesarum_, _cura_ J. F. BALDINO. Rome, 1743, 3 vols. _The + Medallic History of Imperial Rome_, by W. COOKE. London, 1781, 2 + vols.--But above all, the volumes belonging to this period in ECKHEL, + _Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. + + With the period of the Antonines begins the great work of the British + historian: + + _The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, by EDWARD + GIBBON. Oxford, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. In worth and extent this work is + superior to all others. It embraces the whole period of the middle + ages; but only the first part belongs to this period. + +1. The extinction of the race of the Antonines by the death of Commodus +was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the +house of Caesar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P. +Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, praefect of the city, was raised to +the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged, +first by the guards, and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which +he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, +rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of +the first, excited by Laetus, cost him his life before he had reigned +quite three months. This was the first commencement of that dreadful +military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period; and +to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the +main support of their absolute power. + + The insolence of the praetorian guard had risen very high during the + reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the + Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives + that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and + their good humour maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of + the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those + great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power, + did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Pertinax Imp. in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +2. When, upon the death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius +Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the +people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the +praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to +create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria +proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, +Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a +series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the +throne. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Didius Julianus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +3. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got +possession of Rome, and, after the execution of Didius Julianus, he was +acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old praetorian +guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more +numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus +emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of +the east, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and +slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of +Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus +had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat +near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by +hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius, +and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities (see +above, p. 304). Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but +the insatiable avarice of his minister Plautianus, the formidable +captain of the praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those +advantages which may be enjoyed under a military government, until he +was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions +employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after +extending the boundaries of the empire, he died at York (_Eboracum_), +leaving his son the maxim, "to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest +for nothing." + + Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between + the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by + Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus + again extended the frontiers, reestablished the fortresses of + Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea; his son, + however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again + became the boundary of the empire. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Septimius Severus et Pescennius Niger_. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Claudius Albinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +4. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M. +Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young +step-brother Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe; for +at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made +for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his +mother Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his +friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from +Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then +those of the east, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to +which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace +of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the +right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain +the duty of the _vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum_ (twentieth upon +inheritances and enfranchisements), which he very soon afterwards +changed into a tenth (_decima_).--With respect to his foreign wars, his +first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long +time, sometimes as a friend and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal +efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the +inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed +against the Parthians (see above, p. 304); and in his wars against them +he was assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praetorian guard. + + The praefect, or captain, of the praetorian guard became, from the time + of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the + command of the guards, the finances were also under his control, + together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction. A natural + consequence of the continually increasing despotism. + + AEL. SPARTIANI _Antoninus Caracalla et Ant. Geta, in Script. Hist. + Aug._ + +5. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized +as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. He +immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years, +Caesar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated +the war against the Parthians by purchasing a peace, and changed the +_decima_ (tenth) of Caracalla again into the _vicesima_ (twentieth). +However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, +grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at +Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed +emperor by the legions, and, after a combat with the guards, +subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised +him to the throne. + + Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows; + Soaemis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, Mammaea, the + youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Opelius Macrinus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +6. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M. +Aurelius Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and +voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god +Heliogabal in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous +debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his +dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality +of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened +into a monster!--The debasement of the senate, and of all important +offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts +and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit +even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as +he shortly after endeavoured to take away his life, but was himself for +that reason assassinated by the praetorian guards. + + # AEL. LAMPRIDII _Ant. Heliogabalus, in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +7. His young cousin and successor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged +14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother +Mammaea, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where +virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favour of his youth he +endeavoured to effect a reform, in which he was supported by the +cooperation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He +restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with +rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of +Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire, +out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance +to Rome, that it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against +Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in +haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon +the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline, +and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His +praefect of the praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, +fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked +even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself. + + The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed + (see above, p. 304.), became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome; + Artaxerxes I. and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be + descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the + possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire. + + AELII LAMPRIDII _Alexander Severus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + HEYNE _de Alexandro Severo Judicium_, Comment. i. ii. in _Opuscula + Academica_, vol. vi. + +8. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest +pitch, as it placed on the throne the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, +by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the +Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and +resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the +Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the +capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, +proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son +of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately +acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take +vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In +the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were +defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of +Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they +chose as co-emperors the praefect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and +Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people, +created the young Gordian III. Caesar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having +besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by +his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of +the throne; but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody +feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the +senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, +Gordian, already created Caesar. + + JUL. CAPITOLINI _Maximinus Gordiani tres, Pupienus et Balbinus_, _in + Script. Hist. August._ + +9. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth +to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost +his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a +degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, +praefect of the praetorian guard, as well as from the successful +expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had +invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the +Arabian, being made praefect of the guards in his stead, found means to +gain the troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the +throne, caused him to be assassinated. + +10. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several +insurrections, especially in Pannonia; until at length Decius, whom he +himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the +troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near +Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In +this reign the secular games, _ludi saeculares_, were celebrated, one +thousand years from the foundation of the city. + +11. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty, the +Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by +crossing the Danube; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them +with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his +son, Cl. Herennius Decius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army +proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, +Caesar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, +with the ostensible purpose of securing his cooperation, he nevertheless +soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths; +but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his +victorious lieutenant, Aemilius Aemilianus, in Moesia, and was slain, +together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however, +Aemilianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend +and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him with the legions stationed +in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under +Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals +defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the +misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of +the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P. +Licinius Gallienus, who knew everything except the art of governing, +reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one +hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other +it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in +most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom +they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius +in Gaul, for their own security.--There were nineteen of these; but as +many of them named their sons Caesars, this period has been very +improperly distinguished by the name of _the thirty tyrants_, although +their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression. +The Persians at the same time were victorious in the east, and the +Germans in the west. + + The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman + empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of + _Franks_, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower + Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. + The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon + the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black + sea, which soon extended from the Boristhenes to the Don; and who + became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their + naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim + Tartary (_Chersonesus Taurica_); and by means of their fleets they not + only kept the Grecian, but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a + continual state of alarm. + + TREBELLI POLLIONIS _Valerianus, Gallieni duo, triginta tyranni_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + + # _Concerning the thirty tyrants under the Roman emperor Gallienus_, + by J. C. F. MANSO; at the end of his _Life of Constantine_. + +12. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus +an usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurelius Claudius (aged +45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus reestablished in some degree +the tottering empire; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating +the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the +Goths, who had invaded Moesia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium, +of a pestilential disease, naming for his successor Aurelian, a hero +like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the +late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus, +but afterwards died by his own hand. + + TREBELLII POLLIONIS _divus Claudius_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +13. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five +years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the +empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the +Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition +against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time +possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again +brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia +and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and +Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate +rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tetricus, he reduced to their +former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as +he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the +latter henceforward bore the name of _Dacia Aureliani_. Hated for his +severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was +assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary +Mnestheus. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _divus Aurelianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + + Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of + the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the + time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much + celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even + named him Augustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his + cousin Maeonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for + her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, + being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she + added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near + Antioch and Emesa, soon afterwards took Palmyra, which, in consequence + of a revolt, he destroyed.--Even in its ruins Palmyra is still + magnificent. + + _The Ruins of Palmyra_, by R. WOOD. London, 1753; and the _Ruins of + Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis_, by the same author, London, 1757, give + us clear and certain ideas of the splendour and magnitude of these + cities. + + A. H. L. HEEREN, _de Commercio urbis Palmyrae vicinarumque urbium_, in + _Comment. recent. Soc. Gotting._ vol. vii. and the Appendix to + Heeren's Researches. + +14. An interregnum of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian, +till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, +ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, +however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was +unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign +of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the +army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus +the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was +put to death by his own people. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Tacitus; ejusd. Florianus_, _in Script. Hist. Aug._ + +15. The six years' reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the +Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the +frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to +the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the +number of towns which he reestablished and peopled with prisoners of +war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the +Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of +peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions! After he had +perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the +praefect of the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created +his two sons Caesars--men very unlike each other in disposition, M. +Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. +Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by +study. The new emperor, having defeated the Goths, marched against the +Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of +lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered +by his own father-in-law, Arrius Aper, the praetorian praefect. + + FLAV. VOPISCI _Probus imper. ejusd. Carus, Numirianus et Carinus_, _in + Script. Hist. Aug._ + +16. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete +military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the +entire separation of the military order from the rest of the people, by +the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national +spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were +unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft +luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with +the barbarians, that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still +preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a +natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession, +which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, +from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent +circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the +throne: what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had +who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite +impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them +could do but very little for the internal administration; as all their +energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves +against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being +acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well founded as their own. + +17. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in +proportion as in these days of terror luxury had increased not only in +the splendour and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more +particularly in public, to a pitch almost beyond belief. The latter was +especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus; by +which not only every new ruler, but even every new magistrate was +obliged to purchase the favour of the people. Thus these remnants of a +free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What +enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except +those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual +amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes), and even those of +rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute. + +18. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian +religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before +the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province, +and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in +every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the +predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its +value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its +way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we +merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of +the Roman world. In a political view it became of the greatest +importance on account of the hierarchy, the frame-work of which was now +in a great measure constructed among its professors. It was afterwards +adopted as a state religion; and although the ancient creed of Rome had +formerly been on the same footing, yet it was only calculated for the +republic, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of +paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its +loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne +afterwards found in the hierarchy. + + The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were + renewed from time to time, after the reign of Nero, (but which only + served to kindle enthusiasm,) strongly cooperated in spreading the + Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth + against the Christians on account of their forming themselves into a + separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect + at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other + system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, + only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as + yet professed the Christian faith, it nevertheless had followers in + every province. + + # _History of the Social Constitution of the Christian Church_, by + D. G. J. PLANCK, 4 parts, 1800. It is the first part of this excellent + work which relates to this period. + + + + +THIRD SECTION. + +_From Diocletian to the overthrow of the Roman empire in the west, +A. C. 284-476._ + + + SOURCES. It now becomes of importance to enquire whether the + historians were Christians or pagans. ZOSIMUS, the imitator of + Polybius, belonged to the last. He describes the fall of the Roman + state, as his model does the previous part. Of his _Histories_ only + five books and a half, to the time of Gratian, 410, have descended to + us. He was certainly a violent antagonist of the Christians, yet, + nevertheless, the best writer of this period. AMMIANI MARCELLINI + _Historiarum_, lib. xiv-xxxi. from the year 353-378 (the first + thirteen books are lost). Probably a Christian, but yet no flatterer; + and, notwithstanding his tiresome prolixity, highly instructive. + Together with the writers of general history already noticed at p. + 437, we must here especially add to the abbreviators, PAULI OROSII + _Hist._ lib. vii. and ZONARAE _Annales_. The _Panegyrici Veteres_, from + Diocletian to Theodosius, can only be used with circumspection.--The + writers of church history, such as EUSEBIUS, in his _Hist. Eccles._ + lib. x. and in his _Vita Constantini Magni_, lib. v. as well as his + continuators, SOCRATES, THEODORET, SOZOMENUS, and EVAGRIUS, are also + highly important for the political history of this period, though, + from their partiality towards the Christian emperors, they should + rather be classed with the panegyrists than the historians. To these + may be added another principal source, viz. the _Constitutions_ of the + emperors, which have been preserved in the _Codex Theodosianus_ and + _Justinianeus_, from the time of Constantine the Great. + + Besides the works quoted at pages 411, 437, the Byzantine historians + here become of importance. We shall mention also: + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin_, _par_ M. LE BEAU, + _continuee par_ M. AMEILHON. Paris, 1824, 20 vols. 8vo. The first + seven parts only belong to this period. + + # The German translation of GUTHRIE and GRAY'S _Universal History_, + 5 sections, 1 vol. Leipsic, 1768. Rendered very useful by the + labours of Ritter. + + _Histoire du Bas-Empire, depuis Constantin jusqu' a la prise de + Constantinople en 1453_, _par_ CARENTIN ROYOU. Paris, 1803, 4 vols. + 8vo. A useful abridgement, without much research. + +1. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor +after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chalcedon, begins a new +section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism succeeded +the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus the yet +remaining Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M. +Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior who had hitherto been his +comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with +the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian +himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti +soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were +pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped +and maintained the title of Caesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, +created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius, and Maximianus Flavius +Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as +generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire +was now divided between these four rulers; so that each had certain +provinces to govern and defend; without detriment, however, to the unity +of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar stood as the +subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus. + + In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; + Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum); + Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the + western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania. + +2. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit +of the government. It was now not only in fact, but also in form, +entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from +Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority +of the senate, and the name of the republic, not yet entirely laid +aside, had held before them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, +and, with the ornaments of the east, introduced its luxuries into his +court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine +the Great had to complete. + +3. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the +provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their +courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of +the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of +deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they +succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Allectus in Britain (who +had murdered Carausius in 293), Julian in Africa, and Achilleus in +Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the +victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the +Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that +among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between +the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance? + +4. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing +power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had +some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same. +The two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and +altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the +western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa +to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the +same year, created Flavius Severus, Caesar, and confided to him the +government of Italy and Africa; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to +whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two +emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved +for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his +harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York, +leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately +proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only +acknowledge him as Caesar. + +5. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began +to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul; +nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he +succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire. +The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started +up and rendered war inevitable. + + The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very + complicated; after that, he had only one rival to struggle with, + 314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of + all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Caesar + Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now + created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering + himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former + emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, + 306), and associated his father with himself in the government; so + that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, + Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father + Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius, + was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to + Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius + created his friend Licinius, Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same + dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after + having endeavoured to supplant his own son in Rome, fled to + Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the + Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantine, + who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put + to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the + grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin, + and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain, + 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became + master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the + same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near + Adrianople, and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a + war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, + which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which + Constantine obtained all the countries on the south bank of the + Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again, + however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in + Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to + death, 324. + +6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of +Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he +annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not +completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and +likewise the power of the hierarchy. He had already, during his +expedition against Maxentius, decided in favour of the Christian +religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all +the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his +co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken +to obtain sole dominion, the great object of his ambition. This change +must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of +the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a +powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it, +settled what was, and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced +a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown. + + At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have + become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the + importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine. + The quarrels of the Arians, which arose at this time, gave + Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished + for, of making good his authority in religious legislation. + +7. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was +connected with this change in the form of worship--as a Christian court +would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether +pagan--although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against +the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did, +indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the +court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of +the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the +Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that +remained. + + The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had + led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of + that system was, that the emperors and Caesars, when not with the army + as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The seat of + Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; + even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these + new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, + although the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantine, + its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian. + +8. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this +removal was so complete a change in the whole form of government, that +after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A +partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have +been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so +different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the +provinces, but completely altered their mode of government.--The court, +with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern +court.--A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the +complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the +praetorian praefects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely +civil governors. + + According to the new division the whole empire was divided into four + _praefectures_, each of which had its _dioceses_, and each diocese its + _provinces_. The praefectures were: I. The eastern (_praefectura + Orientis_); it contained five dioceses; 1. _Orientis_; 2. _Aegypti_; + 3. _Asiae_; 4. _Ponti_; 5. _Thraciae_; forming altogether forty-eight + provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt, + together with the frontier countries of Libya and Thrace. II. + _Praefectura Illyrici_, containing two dioceses; 1. _Macedoniae_; 2. + _Daciae_; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon, + Greece, and Crete. III. _Praefectura Italiae_, containing three + dioceses; 1. _Italiae_; 2. _Illyrici_; 3. _Africae_; forming twenty-nine + provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the + Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily, + Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. + _Praefectura Galliarum_, containing three dioceses; 1. _Galliae_; 2. + _Hispaniae_; 3. _Britanniae_; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, + and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and + Britain.--Each of these praefectures was under a _praefectus praetorio_ + (praetorian praefect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had + under him _vicarios_, in the dioceses, as well as the _rectores + provinciarum_, of various ranks and titles. They were named + _proconsules praesides_, etc. Besides these, Rome and Constantinople, + not being included in any of the four praefectures, had each its + praefect. + + As principal officers of state and the court (_s. cubiculi_), we now + for the first time meet with the _praepositus s. cubiculi_ + (grand-chamberlain), under whom were all the _comites palatii_ and + _cubicularii_, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were + frequently eunuchs of great influence; the _magister officiorum_ + (chancellor, minister of the interior); the _comes sacrarum + largitiorum_ (minister of the finances); the _quaestor_ (the organ of + the emperors in legislation; minister of justice and secretary of + state); the _comes rei principis_ (minister of the crown-treasury) + [privy-purse]; the two _comites domesticorum_ (commander of the + household guards), each of whom had his corps (_scholas_) under him. + The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually + increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks, + and titles, the Roman empire must at this time have been truly happy! + + At the head of the troops were the _magistri peditum_ (masters of the + infantry) and the _magistri equitum_ (masters of the horse), under the + _magister utriusque militae_ (general in chief of the whole army). + Their subordinate commanders were called _comites_ and _duces_. + Constantine considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the + troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of + slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting + into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians. + + _Notitia dignitatem utriusque Imperii cum not._ PANCIROLLI GRAEV. + _Thesaur. Antiquitat. Rom._ vol. vii. + +9. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead +to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, +were added to those already existing, and became, by the manner in which +they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, +_a._ The annual land-tax (_indictio_). _b._ The tax upon trade (_aurum +lustrale_). _c._ The free gift (_don. gratuit._), now grown into an +obligatory tax (_aurum coronarium_). To these we must add the municipal +expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the +civic officers (_decuriones_), places which must have been generally +held by the rich, as Constantine had in great measure appropriated the +wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of +the clergy. + + _a._ The land-tax, or _indiction_, which if not first introduced by + Constantine was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an + exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its + amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor (_indicebatur_), + and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary + standard (_caput_) being taken as the rate of assessment. + + As this register was probably reviewed every fifteen years, it gave + rise to the _cycle of indictions_ of fifteen years, which became the + common era, beginning from September 1, 312. In this manner the tax + included all those who were possessed of property. _b._ The tax on + commerce; which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was + collected every four years, whence the _aurum lustrale_. _c._ The + _aurum coronarium_ grew out of the custom which obtained of + presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular occasions; + the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable + city was obliged to pay it. + +10. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of +which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now +accelerated by the endeavours of the court. Constantine forbade +sacrifices, and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his +successors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins. + + _Histoire de Constantin-le-Grand_, _par le_ R. P. BERN. DE VARENNE. + Paris, 1778, 4to. + + _Vita di Constantino il Grande dell'_ ABB. FR. GUSTA. Fuligno, 1786. + Both these works, especially the first, are written in a tone of + panegyric; the latest, and by far the best, is + + # _Life of Constantine the Great_, by J. C. F. MANSO. Bresl. 1817. + With several very learned appendixes, which clear up some particular + points. + +11. The three Caesars and sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine, +337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully +educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they +did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death +of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of +them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the +next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the +whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to +himself. + + In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the _praefectura + Galliarum_, Constans the _praefectura Italiae et Illyrici_, and + Constantius the _praefectura Orientis_. But as Constantine desired to + add Italy and Africa to his portion, he attacked Constans, and + thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into thee possession of + the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretched + misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in + Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavouring to escape, 350. A war + with Constantius, who was then occupied in the east, became + inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa + in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353; + upon which he slew himself, together with his family. + +12. As Constantius, however--sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and +surrounded and governed by eunuchs--was unable to sustain the weight of +government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a +state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his +assistance, created him Caesar, and sent him into the east against the +Parthians. But his excessive arrogance, which was fomented by his wife +Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him, +and caused him, upon his return, to be put to death in Istria. His +younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius +believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created +Caesar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian +passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the +Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In +the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the +Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was +preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view +endeavoured gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence +of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the +diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the +Danube against Constantius, he received information of that prince's +death in Asia. + +13. Fl. Julian, (the apostate,) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his +thirty-second year, was the last and most highly gifted prince of the +house of Constantine. Instructed by misfortunes and study, he yet had +some faults, though certainly free from great vices. He began with +reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now +become dominant, and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an +error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign +been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the +Persians, he penetrated as far as the Tigris, where he lost his life in +an engagement, after a reign of three years. + + # _The Emperor Julian and his Times_, by AUGUST. NEANDER. Leipsic, + 1812. An historical sketch. + +14. Fl. Jovianus, now thirty-three years of age, was immediately raised +to the purple by the army. He concluded a peace with the Persians, by +which he restored them all the territory that had been conquered from +them since the year 297. After a short reign of eight months he was +carried off by a sudden disorder; and the army proclaimed Fl. +Valentinian at Nice in his stead, Valentinian almost immediately +associated his brother Valens with himself in the government, and +divided the empire by giving him the _praefectura Orientis_, and +retaining the rest for himself. + +15. The reign of Valentinian I. in the east, who, in the year 367, +created his son Gratian Augustus with himself, is distinguished by the +system of toleration which he followed with regard to the affairs of +religion, though in other respects a cruel prince. Nearly the whole of +his reign was taken up in almost continual struggles with the German +nations, who had recovered from the losses they had suffered under +Julian. His first efforts were directed against the Franks, the Saxons, +and the Alemanni on the Rhine; and afterwards against the Quadi and +other nations on the Danube; where he died of apoplexy at Guntz in +Hungary. + +16. In the mean time his brother Valens (aged 38-52 years) had to +contend with a powerful insurrection which had broken out in the east. A +certain Procopius had instigated the people to this, by taking advantage +of the discontent occasioned by the oppression of Valens, who, having +adopted the opinion of the Arians, was more disliked in the east than +his brother was in the west. His war against the Persians ended with a +truce. But the most important event that happened during his reign, was +the entrance of the Huns into Europe, which took place towards its +close. This in its turn gave rise to the great popular migration, by +which the Roman empire in the west may properly be said to have been +overthrown. The immediate consequence was the admission of the greater +part of the Visigoths into the Roman empire, and this occasioned a war +which cost Valens his life. + + The Huns, a nomad people of Asia, belonged to the great Mongolian + race. Having penetrated to the Don, 373, they subdued the Goths upon + that river as far as the Theiss. The Goths, divided into Ostrogoths + and Visigoths, were separated from one another by the Dnieper. The + former, driven from their country, fell upon the Visigoths, in + consequence of which the emperor Valens was requested by the latter to + grant them admission into the Roman empire, and with the exception of + the Vandals, who had been seated in Pannonia from the time of + Constantine, they were the first barbarian nation that had been + settled within the boundaries of the empire. The scandalous oppression + of the Roman governor, however, drove them into rebellion; and as + Valens marched against them, he was defeated near Adrianople and lost + his life, 378. + +17. During these events, Gratian (aged 16-24 years) succeeded his father +Valentinian I. in the west, and immediately associated his brother, +Valentinian II. (aged 5-21 years) with himself in the empire; giving +him, though under his own superintendence, the _praefectura Italiae et +Illyrici_. Gratian set forward to the assistance of his uncle Valens +against the Goths, but receiving on his march an account of his defeat +and death, and fearing the east might fall a prey to the Goths, he +raised Theodosius, a Spaniard, who had already distinguished himself as +a warrior, to the purple, and gave him the _praefectura Orientis et +Illyrici_. + +18. The indolent reign of Gratian led to the rebellion of Maximus, a +commander in Britain, who, crossing into Gaul, was so strongly supported +by the defection of the Gallic legions, that Gratian was obliged to seek +safety in flight. He was, however, overtaken and put to death at Lyons. +By this event Maximus found himself in possession of all the _praefectura +Galliarum_; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young +Valentinian II. in Italy, he prevailed upon him to acknowledge him +emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was +defeated and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after +executed. Upon this Valentinian II. a youth of whom great hopes were +entertained, became again master of all the west. But, unfortunately, he +was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his _magister militum_; who, +thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, _magister +officiorum_. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared +war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of +the whole empire, but died in the following year. + +19. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the east, from his thirty-fourth +to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to politics than to religion. +The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious +Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on +the Danube), procured him considerable influence, which the strength and +activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind +zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing +creed in the east, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as the +persecutions which he directed against the pagans and the destruction of +their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to +preserve the boundaries of the empire, not a province of which was lost +before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive +this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an +empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful +foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign +would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of +the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Roman pay, +as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and +tactics of the Roman armies. + + P. ERASM. MULLER, _de genio saeculi Theodosiani_. Havniae, 1798, 2 vols. + A very learned and in every respect excellent description of the + deeply-decayed Roman world as it now stood. + +20. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was divided. Both +parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire--an +opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle +ages had important consequences--yet never since this period have they +been reunited under one ruler. The eastern empire, comprising the +_praefectura Orientis et Illyrici_, was allotted to the eldest son, +Arcadius (aged 18-31) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. The +western, or the _praefectura Galliarum et Italiae_, to the younger, +Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico. + +21. The western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine +ourselves, suffered such violent shocks during the reign of Honorius, as +made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilico to +procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the +Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly +formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any +they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself +and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Rome, and mounted +the throne: it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow +it altogether. + + Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that + class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favourites and + ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination. + Stilico, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed, + in abilities for governing; and his endeavour to obtain the management + of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was + necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by + intrigue; for after the murder of Rufinus; 395, he found a still more + powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropius, his successor in the east. + Under the regency of Stilico, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being + withdrawn to oppose Alaric, 400, was inundated by German tribes--by + Vandals, Alani, and Suevi--who from thence penetrated even into Spain. + Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory + which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over + Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as + Florence. But Stilico, having entered into a secret alliance with + Alaric, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire + of the east, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favourite + Olympius, whose cabal knew how to take advantage of the weakness of + Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. + Stilico was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August + 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend + her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome + was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being + fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, + and created Attalus, the praefect of the city, emperor instead of + Honorius, who had shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the + diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to + be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the + capture of Sicily and Africa, he died in lower Italy. His + brother-in-law and successor, Adolphus, together with his Goths, left + Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence + proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he + carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, either as + prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events + an usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named Constantine, 407: he was + vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constantius, one of Honorius's + generals. This latter prince not only gave Constantius his sister + Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, + but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months + after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the + government. She went nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she + remained until the death of Honorius. + + # _Fl. Stilico, or the Wallenstein of Antiquity_, by CHR. FR. SCHULZE, + 1805. Not written by way of comparison. + +22. In this manner was a great part of Spain, and part of Gaul, cut off +from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the +secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the eastern +emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III. a minor +(aged 6-36), was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of +his mother Placidia (! 450). Under his miserable reign the western +empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of +Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own +incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous +tribes, which now convulsed all Europe. + + Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa, + the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the + intrigues of the Roman general Aetius, who possessed the ear of + Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of + Genseric, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained + possession of the country, 429-439; indeed, even as early as 435, + Valentinian was obliged to make a formal cession of it to them. + Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the + cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so + that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained + those which belonged to the praefecture of Italy: Rhaetia and + Vindelicia. On the south-east of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of + the Burgundians, which, besides the south-east part of France, + comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The south-west was under the + dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of + the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of + whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out + till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, + or Clovis, king of the Franks. + +23. But while the western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to +pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened +the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now +occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don +and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves, +since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union +and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most +powerful prince of his time. The eastern empire having bought a peace by +paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the western +provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under Aetius and the +Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (_in campis Catalaunicis_) to +retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where +he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's +sister. The cause of his second retreat, which was soon followed by his +death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the +Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put +Aetius to death. He himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the +punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by +Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonoured, and some friends of +Aetius, whom he had executed. + +24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of +Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the west, +was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than +nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, +were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to +the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman +empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean +and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his +pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German +Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series +of emperors to reign in his name. It would have been his lot to put an +end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident, which reserved +that glory for his son and successor, Odoacer, four years after his +father's death. + + After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as + he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she + called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged Rome, and + Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. He was succeeded + by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Arles; and he again was soon + deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of + the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus + Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he, having distinguished himself in the + wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put + in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His + death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which + Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the + patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople (where they never gave up + their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns + of the west), was, though not without the consent of the powerful + Ricimer, named emperor of the west, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. + But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter + retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and + pillaged Rome, and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon + after, ! Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of + Valentinian III. was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three + months, Oct. 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without, + however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in + preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having + expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own + general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus + Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired + the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of + the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution + of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now + remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, + under their king Theodoric, founded there a new empire. + +25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the east, +pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a +thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone +have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who +attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its +capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its +despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in +its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has +no equal in the history of the world. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS TO THE TIME OF CYRUS, EXTRACTED FROM THE + RESEARCHES OF M. VOLNEY. See Preface. + + +Although Herodotus did not write his work in chronological order, yet +we cannot doubt that he had some general plan of computing time. By +carefully selecting and comparing the separate data scattered through +his work, this plan to a certain extent may be traced out, and early +history, with regard to settled chronology, must necessarily gain a good +deal. The following essay is founded upon a procedure of this kind; it +is drawn entirely from Herodotus, and only from data which he has +precisely determined, the passages of his work being always referred to. + +The year B. C. 561, in which the fall of Astyages and the Median empire +took place, as may be proved from Herodotus himself, is a fixed point of +time from which we may ascend into higher antiquity. This point of time +may be determined by the chronological data respecting the battle of +Marathon, four years before the death of Darius (Herodotus VII. 1. 4.) +agreeing with the general data of the Greeks, who fix it in the third +year of the 72nd Olymp. B. C. 490. By adding to this the thirty-two +years of Darius's reign that had already elapsed (Herodotus, ibid.), the +eight months of Smerdis (Herodotus, III. 68.), the seven years and five +months of Cambyses (Herodotus III. 66.), and the twenty-nine years of +Cyrus (Herodotus, I. 214.), we obtain the year 560 as the first year of +Cyrus. + + +I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. + + B. C. + End of the Median empire 561. + Duration of the Median empire one hundred and + fifty-six years (Herodotus, I, 130.) + The beginning of it, therefore, after their separation + from the Assyrians, would be 717. + In this period, at first, six years of anarchy[a] 716-710. + Reign of Deioces fifty-three years (Herodotus, I. 102.) 710-657. + Reign of Phraortes, twenty-two years (ibid.) 657-635. + Cyaxares, forty years (I. 106.) 635-595. + Irruption and dominion of the Scythians, twenty-eight + years (I. 203. 106.) 625-598. + Conquest of Nineveh (I. 106.) 597. + Astyages reigned thirty-five years (I. 130.) 595-561. + +The succession of Median kings given by Ctesias, which entirely differs +from this, the author thinks might be explained by a duplication; +see # _Gott. Gel. Anz._ 1810, p. 4. + + [a] These are certainly not determined from Herodotus; but they + remain after subtracting the one hundred and fifty years' + reign of the four Median kings. + + +II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. + +The dominion of the Assyrians over Asia, or their empire, ended with the +revolt of the Medes (Herodotus, I. 95.); although the existence of their +state did not then end, but terminated with the capture of Nineveh by +Cyaxares, B. C. 597. + + B. C. + Revolt of the Medes, as above 717. + The dominion of the Assyrians had endured five + hundred and twenty years (Herodotus, I. 95.) + The Assyrian empire lasted therefore from 1237-717. + +As Herodotus intended to write the history of this empire in a separate +work (I. 184.), he only casually mentions (I. 7.) its founder Ninus, who +began to reign 1237; and afterwards Sennacherib and his expedition (II. +141.); and the last king, Sardanapalus (II. 150.). + +The mention of Sennacherib and his expedition furnishes a point of time +for comparing the chronology of Herodotus with that of the Bible, or the +Jews. According to the latter, Sennacherib's expedition took place B. C. +714. (see above, p. 26.); his death takes place immediately after, and +he has for his successor Esar-haddon, 2 Kings, xix. 37. Here then is +certainly a contradiction, since, according to Herodotus, the Assyrian +dominion had ceased three years before, namely, 717. M. Volney +endeavours to reconcile this difficulty by the restoration of an ancient +reading in the sacred text; according to which Amon, king of Judaea, +reigned twelve years instead of two (2 Kings, xxi. 10.); from which it +would follow, that the expedition of Sennacherib took place in 724. As +this would leave seven years after his death for his successor +Esar-haddon, who agrees both in time and name with the Sardanapalus of +the Greeks (the Greek name being formed from Esar-haddon-pal, i. e. +Esar, the lord, son of Pal), the two chronologies are thus made to agree +exactly. But even in following the ancient usual reading, the greatest +difference between the two statements is only ten years; quite as little +as can be reasonably expected under such circumstances. + +With regard to the Assyrian chronology of Ctesias, M. Volney has +satisfactorily shown that it is full of contradictions, and unworthy of +any credit. + + +III. CHRONOLOGY OF THE LYDIAN EMPIRE. + +The arrangement of the Lydian chronology rests upon the settlement of +two principal facts: first, the great eclipse of the sun under Alyattes, +foretold by Thales (Herodotus, I. 74.); and secondly, the conquest of +Sardes, and overthrow of the empire under Croesus, by Cyrus; both of +which Herodotus certainly mentions, but without assigning any precise +date. But by a careful comparison of all the data it has been proved, +that the great eclipse in Asia Minor (according to the Tables of Pingre) +happened in the year 625; and the conquest of Sardes, and the end of the +Lydian empire, B. C. 557, or in the fourth year of Cyrus. Therefore: + + B. C. + End of the Lydian empire 557. + +It subsisted under three houses; under that of the Atyadae (fabulous and +uncertain); under that of the Heraclidae, five hundred and five years +(Herodotus, I. 7.); and under the last, that of the Mermnadae, one +hundred and seventy years. + +The Heraclidae and Mermnadae, then, reigned altogether six hundred and +seventy-five years. Therefore: + + B. C. + Commencement of the reign of the Heraclidae, with Agron + the son of Ninus (I. 7.) 1232. + End of this house with the murder of Candaules, by Gyges 727. + +By fixings the time of Agron, son of Ninus, Herodotus verifies himself +(I. 7.); as, by the preceding data, Ninus began his reign in Assyria, +1237; consequently, it must have been in the fifth year of his reign +that he conquered Lydia, and placed his son Agron upon the throne. + + B. C. + Dominion of the Mermnadae, one hundred and seventy + years, under kings of that house 727-557. + Gyges, thirty-eight years (Herodotus, I. 14.) 727-689. + Ardys, forty-nine years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 689-640. + First irruption of the Cimmerians 670. + Sadyattes, twelve years (Herodotus, I. 16.) 640-628. + Alyattes, fifty-seven years (Herodotus, I. 25.) 628-571. + War with Cyaxares, ending with the great eclipse, + and second irruption of the Cimmerians 625. + Croesus, fourteen years and fourteen days (Herodotus, + I. 86.) 571-557. + + +IV. CHRONOLOGY OF THE BABYLONIANS. + +For this as well as for the Egyptians there is no evidence to guide +us, the data being very scanty, and taken from Herodotus alone. The +chronology of the Babylonians, according to the canon of Ptolemy, begins +with Nabonassar, 747, who was succeeded by twelve kings (mentioned in +the same canon), down to Nabopolassar; (see above, p. 28.) + + B. C. + Nabopolassar 627-604. + Nebuchadnezzar 604-561. + Evil-Merodach 561-559. + Neriglissar 559-555. + Labynetus 555-538. + Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus 538. + + +V. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EGYPTIANS. + +M. Volney very properly commences this with the dodecarchy--as of the +earlier periods only the time of Sesostris, 1365, is ascertained;--and +arranges it in the following manner. + + B. C. + Dodecarchy 671-656. + Psammetichus's sole dominion thirty-nine years 656-617. + Reign of Neco, sixteen years 617-601. + -------- Psammis, six years 601-595. + -------- Apries, twenty-five years 595-570. + -------- Amasis, forty-four years 570-526. + Psammenitus, six months 525. + Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses + + + * * * * * + + + + +I. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF MACEDON. + + +I. HOUSE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. + + PHILIP ! 336. married, 1. Olympias. 2. Cleopatra. (3. Concubines.) + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. Cleopatra. 3. 3. | + | | | + ALEXANDER THE GREAT ! 323. PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS ! 317. | + married, 1. Roxana. (2. Barsine.) married Eurydice. | + | | + +--------------------------------------+ Thessalonice. + | 1. 2. | married Cassander. + ALEXANDER ! 311. HERCULES ! 309. + + +II. HOUSE OF ANTIPATER. + + ANTIPATER ! 320. + | + CASSANDER ! 298, married Thessalonice. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PHILIP ! 297. ANTIPATER ! 294. ALEXANDER ! 294. | + + +III. HOUSE OF ANTIGONUS. + + ANTIGONUS ! 301. + | + DEMETRIUS I. POLIORCETES ! 284. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Stratonice. ANTIGONUS I. GONATAS ! 242. | + married, 1. Seleucus I. | + 2. Antiochus I. +-------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. ! 233. Alcyoneus. | + | | + +-------------------+ +---------------+ + | PHILIP II. ! 179. | | ANTIGONUS II. | + | DOSON ! 221 + +------------------------------------+ + | PERSEUS ! 166. Demetrius ! 180. | + + + + +II. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SELEUCIDAE. + + + SELEUCUS I. NICATOR ! 281. + married, 1. Apame. 2. Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER ! 262. married, Phila married + 1. Stratonice, his mother-in-law. 2. Anonymous. Antigonus Gonatas + | king of Macedon. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 2. | + ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS ! 247. Apame Laodice. + married, married Magas + 1. Laodice, his sister-in-law. of Cyrene. + 2. Berenice, daughter of Ptol. Philad. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. 1. 1. | + SELEUCUS II. CALLINICUS ! 227. Antiochus Stratonice married + married Laodice, Hierax. Ariarathes IV. of + daughter of Andromachus, Cappadocia. + father of Achaeus. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | SELEUCUS III. Stratonice married ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT ! 187.| + CERAUNUS ! 224. Mithridates IV. married Laodice, daughter of + of Pontus. Mithridates IV. of Pontus. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antiochus Laodice. | ANTIOCHUS IV. Cleopatra Antiochis | + ! 192. | EPIPHANES ! 164. married married + | | Ptolemy V. Ariarathes V. + | | of Cappad. + | +-----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR ! 161. | + | + SELEUCUS IV. PHILOPATOR ! 176. + married his sister Laodice. + | + +------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS I. Laodice | + ! 150. married Perseus king of Maced. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR ! 126. married, ANTIOCHUS SIDETES ! 131. | + 1. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptol. Philom. married his + 2. Rhodogyne. | daughter-in-law, Cleopatra. + | | + +-------------------------------------+ +---------------------------+ + |SELEUCUS V. ANTIOCHUS GRYPHUS ! 97. | | ANTIOCHUS CYZICENUS ! 96. | + ! 125. married Cleopatra Selene, married Cleopatra, + daughter of Ptol. Phys. daughter of Ptol. Phys. + | | + | +----------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS EUSEBES ! c. 90. | + | married Cleopatra Selene. + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | ANTIOCHUS SELEUCUS CYBIOSACTES | + | ASIATICUS ! 58. ! 57. married + | Berenice, daughter + | of Ptol. Auletes. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Seleucus Antioch. Philippus Demetr. Antioch. | + Epiph. ! 94. Epiph. ! 93. Epiph. ! 83. Eucar. Dionys. + ! c. 87. ! 89. + + + + +III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE PTOLEMIES. + + + PTOLEMY I. son of LAGUS ! 284. + married, 1. Eurydice, daughter of Antipater. + 2. Berenice. + (3. Concubines.) + | + +-----------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | + 1. | | | + Ptol. Ceraunus ! 279. | 2. | + king of Macedonia. | Arsinoe | + 2. | + PTOL. II. PHILADELPHUS ! 246. 3. + married, 1. Arsinoe, daughter Magas of Cyrene. + of Lysimachus. | + 2. His sister Arsinoe. +-------------+ + | Berenice + | + +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. III. EVERGETES ! 221. Berenice married | + Married Berenice, Antiochus Theos. + daughter of Magas. + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. IV. PHILOPATOR ! 204. Magas. Arsinoe. | + married, 1. His sister Arsinoe. + (2. Agathoclea.) + | + +----------------------------+ + | PTOL. V. EPHIPHANES ! 181. | + married Cleopatra, + daughter of Antiochus the Great. + | + +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PTOL. VI. PHILOMETOR ! 145. Cleopatra. PTOL. VII. PHYSCON ! 117.| + married his sister Cleopatra. married, + | 1. His sister Cleopatra. + | 2. Cleopatra the younger. + | (3. Irene.) + Cleopatra the younger. | + | + +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. | 2. | 3. | + PTOL. VIII. | PTOL. ALEXANDER | Ptol. Apion. + LATHYRUS ! 81. | I. ! 88. | king of Cyrene, + married, | married Cleopatra, | ! 97. + 1, 2. his two sisters. | daughter of | + (3. Concubines.) | Ptol. Lathyrus. | + | | | + | 2. 2. + | Cleop. Selene. Cleopatra. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | | | | + | 2. | 3. | | | + | Cl. Berenice. | Ptol. of Cyprus | PTOL. ALEXANDER | + | | ! 57. | II. ! 80. | + | | | married | + | | | Cleop. Berenice. | + 2. 3. 3. | + Cleopatra ! 88. PTOL. AULETES ! 51. Cleopatra. PTOL. ALEX. + married married, III. ! 66. + Alex. I. 1. His sister Cleop. + 2. Unknown. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | 2. | Arsinoe | + BERENICE ! 55. | PTOL. DIONYSIUS ! 47. | ! 43. + married, | married Cleopatra. | + 1. Seleucus Cybios. | | + 2. Archelaus. 1. 2. + CLEOPATRA ! 30. Ptol. the younger ! 44. + married, married Cleopatra. + 1. 2. her brothers. + (3. Jul. Caesar.) + 4. Antony + + + + +IV. THE REIGNING HOUSES OF THE JEWS. + + + HOUSE OF THE MACCABEES. + Mattathias ! B. C. 166. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Judas Maccabaeus, Jonathan, Simon, high priest | + general of the army high priest ! 143. and ethnarch, ! 135. + ! 161. | + +----------------------+ + | John Hyrcanus ! 107. | + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus I. ! 106, Alex. I. Jannaeus ! 79. | + king and high priest. married Alexandra. + | + +------------------------------------------------+ + | Hyrcanus II. ! 30. Aristobulus. | + high priest and ethnarch. ! 49. + | + +-----------------------------------------+ + | Alexander II. ! 49. Antigonus ! 37. | + | + +-----------------------------------------------+ + | Aristobulus ! 34. Mariamne ! 28. | + married Herod the Great. + + +II. HOUSE OF HEROD. + + Antipater ! 43. + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Salome. Herod the Great ! A. C. 3. | + married, 1. Doris. 2. Mariamne. 3. Many others. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Antipater Alexander Aristobulus Archelaus, | Philip, | + ! A. C. 3. ! B. C. 5. ! B. C. 5. ethnarch, | tetrarch, + | deposed | ! A. C. 34. + +-------------------+ A. C. 6. | + | Herod II. Agrippa | | + ! A. C. 44. Antipas, tetrarch, + | deposed A. C. 39. + +---------------+ married Herodias. + | Herod Agrippa | + ! A. C. 100. + + + + +V. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CAESARS. + + +I. + + C. Julius Caesar, praetor, ! 84. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | C. JULIUS CAESAR, dictator, Julia ! 52. | + ! 44. married Accius Balbus. + | | + +-----------------------------+ +-----------------------+ + | Julia ! 52. married Pompey. | | Accia ! 42, | + married C. Octavius. + | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Octavia the elder | C. OCTAVIUS (CAESAR AUGUSTUS) | + married M. Marcellus. | ! A. C. 14 (see No. II.) + | + Octavia the younger married, + 1. C. Marcellus. 2. Pompey. 3. M. Antony. + + +II. + + CAESAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS ! A. C. 14. + married, 1. Scribonia. 2. Livia, widow of Tiberius Claudius Nero. + | | + | +------------------------------------------------------+ + | | TIBERIUS NERO ! A.C. 37. Nero Claudius Drusus ! 9. | + | married, 1. Vipsania. married Antonia + | 2. Julia. the younger. + | | | + | +--------------------------+ | + | | DRUSUS CAESAR ! A. C. 25.| | + | | + | +---------------------------------------------------+ + | | Germanicus CLAUDIUS ! A. C. 54. | + | ! A. C. 19. married, 1. Messalina. + | married Agrippina. 2. Agrippina. + | | | + | | +------------------------------------+ + | | | 1. Britannicus 1. Octavia | + | | ! A. C. 34. ! A. C. 59. + | | married Nero. + | | + | +-------------------------------------------------------+ + | | Nero Drusus | Agrippina | + | ! A. C. 29. ! A. C. 35. | married, + | | 1. Cn. Domitius. + | CAIUS CALIGULA 2. Claudius. + | ! A. C. 41. | + | | + | +---------------------------------------+ + | | 1. | + | DOMITIUS NERO ! A. C. 68. + | married, 1. Octavia. 2. Poppaea Sabina + | + +----------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. | + Julia ! A. C. 17. + married, 1. ! M. Cl. Marcellus. 2. Agrippa. 3. Tiberius. + | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. | + C. Caesar L. Caesar Agrippina Julia Agrippa + ! A. C. 4. ! A. C. 2. ! A. C. 35. ! A. C. 30. Posthumus + married ! A. C. 14. + Germanicus. + + + + +VI. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE. + + + CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS ! 306. + married, 1. Helena. 2. Theodora. + | + +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ + CONSTANTINE the Great ! 337. | Jul. Constantius | + married, 1. Minervina. | ! 337. married, | + 2. Fausta. Constantia 1. Galla. | + | married 2. Basilina. | + | C. Valer LICINIUS, | | + | Caesar, ! 324 +----------+ | + +--------------------------+ | Fl. Valer. | + 1. | 2. | +--------------+ Licinius | + CRISPUS | CONSTANTIUS | 1. 2. ! 326. | + ! 326. | ! 361. | Gallus JULIAN | + 2. 2. ! 354. (the apostate) | + CONSTANTINE CONSTANS ! 363. | + ! 340. ! 350. Annibalianus. + | + +-----------------------------+ + | Dalmatius Annibalianus | + Caesar ! 339. ! 338. + + + + +PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE, OXFORD. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +The original text includes Greek characters. 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